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Eschatological points --------------------- ### Resurrection The church believes, based on the [Nicene Creed](/wiki/Nicene_Creed "Nicene Creed"), in the "resurrection of the dead". This resurrection the church understands as referring to "the whole person". ### Soul The church uses the term "soul", taken from Scripture and tradition, to designate a "spiritual element" of man, "endowed with consciousness and will", in which one's self subsists and which "survives and subsists after death." The church excludes, as [loci theologici](/wiki/Loci_theologici "Loci theologici"), "every way of thinking or speaking" that would render her prayers, rites, and acts "meaningless or unintelligible". ### Second Coming The church anticipates the "[glorious manifestation of our Lord](/wiki/Second_Coming "Second Coming")", which is distinct from the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife") and which is yet to happen. ### Assumption of Mary The church teaches, in the context of "man's destiny after death", that the [Assumption of Mary](/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary "Assumption of Mary") has a unique meaning: the "bodily glorification of the Virgin" anticipates the "glorification that is the destiny of all the other elect." ### Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory The church believes, via the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament") and tradition, in [heaven](/wiki/Heaven "Heaven"), [hell](/wiki/Hell "Hell"), and [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory "Purgatory"). Heaven will be the "happiness of the elect", who will "be with Christ", "shall see God", and will share in "God's glory" in proportion to their "charity on Earth", since "charity is the law of the Kingdom of God." In heaven, the "economy of faith will be replaced by the economy of fullness of life." Hell will be "eternal punishment for the sinner", which will consist in being "deprived of the sight of God" and which will have "a repercussion on the whole being of the sinner." Purgatory will be possible, as it is "purification for the elect before they see God," which will be "altogether different from the punishment of the damned." ### Limits of divine revelation and human intellect The church believes "\[n]either Scripture nor theology provides sufficient light for a proper picture of life after death." The images of life after death found in Scripture must not be "over\-attenuated", since they have specific meanings. Also, "arbitrary imaginative representations" must not be used for life after death, since the imagination is incapable of conceiving of heaven.	[ "Eschatological points\n---------------------", "### Resurrection", "The church believes, based on the [Nicene Creed](/wiki/Nicene_Creed \"Nicene Creed\"), in the \"resurrection of the dead\". This resurrection the church understands as referring to \"the whole person\".", "### Soul", "The church uses the term \"soul\", taken from Scripture and tradition, to designate a \"spiritual element\" of man, \"endowed with consciousness and will\", in which one's self subsists and which \"survives and subsists after death.\" The church excludes, as [loci theologici](/wiki/Loci_theologici \"Loci theologici\"), \"every way of thinking or speaking\" that would render her prayers, rites, and acts \"meaningless or unintelligible\".", "### Second Coming", "The church anticipates the \"[glorious manifestation of our Lord](/wiki/Second_Coming \"Second Coming\")\", which is distinct from the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife \"Afterlife\") and which is yet to happen.", "### Assumption of Mary", "The church teaches, in the context of \"man's destiny after death\", that the [Assumption of Mary](/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary \"Assumption of Mary\") has a unique meaning: the \"bodily glorification of the Virgin\" anticipates the \"glorification that is the destiny of all the other elect.\"", "### Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory", "The church believes, via the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\") and tradition, in [heaven](/wiki/Heaven \"Heaven\"), [hell](/wiki/Hell \"Hell\"), and [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory \"Purgatory\").", "Heaven will be the \"happiness of the elect\", who will \"be with Christ\", \"shall see God\", and will share in \"God's glory\" in proportion to their \"charity on Earth\", since \"charity is the law of the Kingdom of God.\" In heaven, the \"economy of faith will be replaced by the economy of fullness of life.\"", "Hell will be \"eternal punishment for the sinner\", which will consist in being \"deprived of the sight of God\" and which will have \"a repercussion on the whole being of the sinner.\"", "Purgatory will be possible, as it is \"purification for the elect before they see God,\" which will be \"altogether different from the punishment of the damned.\"", "### Limits of divine revelation and human intellect", "The church believes \"\\[n]either Scripture nor theology provides sufficient light for a proper picture of life after death.\" The images of life after death found in Scripture must not be \"over\\-attenuated\", since they have specific meanings. Also, \"arbitrary imaginative representations\" must not be used for life after death, since the imagination is incapable of conceiving of heaven.", "" ]
2007 World Solar Challenge -------------------------- The Philippine team finished 12th place from 40 participants. The team finished the {{cvt\\|3,021\\|km\\|adj\=on}} race from [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory "Darwin, Northern Territory") to [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide") at 4 p.m. on October 27, 2007 (Australian time). Sinag performed exceptionally well from the beginning of the race in Darwin on Sunday, October 21\. Needing only minor adjustments to its brake system, Sinag quickly zoomed to 11th place. The team maintained this position and made excellent time, passing the halfway mark at [Alice Springs](/wiki/Alice_Springs "Alice Springs") on Wednesday, October 24, and breaching the 2,000 km mark at Cadney Homestead the following day, October 25\. The SINAG solar car arrived at the finish line of the World Solar Challenge (WSC) with over a day to spare.{{cite web\\|url\=http://sinag.dlsu.edu.ph/updates/27102007\.asp\#day7\\|title\=SINAG Finishes World Solar Challenge with a Day to Spare\\|publisher\=Official De La Salle University Website\\|date\=October 28, 2007\\|access\-date\=September 14, 2016}} SINAG arrived in Adelaide at around 4pm, well before the 5pm cut\-off for the day. SINAG Technical Head Engr. Rene Fernandez proclaimed “The Philippine flag has reached Adelaide!” as the car crossed the finish line, greeted by a small crowd of Filipino well\-wishers carrying small flags of their own. The all\-Filipino Team SINAG was warmly welcomed by the Lord Mayor of Adelaide [Michael Harbison](/wiki/Michael_Harbison "Michael Harbison") and by [Hans Tholstrup](/wiki/Hans_Tholstrup "Hans Tholstrup") himself, the founder of the WSC and the first person to cross Australia in a solar car, The Quiet Achiever. Team SINAG also got to meet the members of the Nuon Solar Team from the [Delft University of Technology](/wiki/Delft_University_of_Technology "Delft University of Technology"), the multiple successive winners of the WSC. The Netherlands' Nuon Solar Team, with their car called Nuna4 won the overall championship finishing the race on Oct. 25\.	[ "2007 World Solar Challenge\n--------------------------", "The Philippine team finished 12th place from 40 participants. The team finished the {{cvt\\\|3,021\\\|km\\\|adj\\=on}} race from [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory \"Darwin, Northern Territory\") to [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\") at 4 p.m. on October 27, 2007 (Australian time).", "Sinag performed exceptionally well from the beginning of the race in Darwin on Sunday, October 21\\. Needing only minor adjustments to its brake system, Sinag quickly zoomed to 11th place. The team maintained this position and made excellent time, passing the halfway mark at [Alice Springs](/wiki/Alice_Springs \"Alice Springs\") on Wednesday, October 24, and breaching the 2,000 km mark at Cadney Homestead the following day, October 25\\.", "The SINAG solar car arrived at the finish line of the World Solar Challenge (WSC) with over a day to spare.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://sinag.dlsu.edu.ph/updates/27102007\\.asp\\#day7\\\|title\\=SINAG Finishes World Solar Challenge with a Day to Spare\\\|publisher\\=Official De La Salle University Website\\\|date\\=October 28, 2007\\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2016}} SINAG arrived in Adelaide at around 4pm, well before the 5pm cut\\-off for the day. SINAG Technical Head Engr. Rene Fernandez proclaimed “The Philippine flag has reached Adelaide!” as the car crossed the finish line, greeted by a small crowd of Filipino well\\-wishers carrying small flags of their own.", "The all\\-Filipino Team SINAG was warmly welcomed by the Lord Mayor of Adelaide [Michael Harbison](/wiki/Michael_Harbison \"Michael Harbison\") and by [Hans Tholstrup](/wiki/Hans_Tholstrup \"Hans Tholstrup\") himself, the founder of the WSC and the first person to cross Australia in a solar car, The Quiet Achiever. Team SINAG also got to meet the members of the Nuon Solar Team from the [Delft University of Technology](/wiki/Delft_University_of_Technology \"Delft University of Technology\"), the multiple successive winners of the WSC.", "The Netherlands' Nuon Solar Team, with their car called Nuna4 won the overall championship finishing the race on Oct. 25\\.", "" ]
{{Anchor\\|In culture}}Relationship with humans ---------------------------------------------- [thumb\\|Macaque on a "Please do not feed monkeys" sign in [Ko Chang](/wiki/Ko_Chang "Ko Chang"), Thailand.](/wiki/File:Please_do_not_feed_monkeys_Koh_Chang.jpg "Please do not feed monkeys Koh Chang.jpg") [thumb\\|Sign at a store in Swyambhunath, Bagmati, Nepal, which reads "Monkey's Food is Available here". Some places use their monkey population as a tourist attraction.](/wiki/File:%22Monkey%27s_food_is_Available_here%22_store_in_Swyambhunath%2C_Bagmati%2C_Nepal.jpg) The many species of monkey have varied relationships with humans. Some are [kept as pets](/wiki/Pet_monkey "Pet monkey"), others used as [model organisms](/wiki/Model_organism "Model organism") in laboratories or in space missions. They may be killed in [monkey drives](/wiki/Monkey_drive "Monkey drive") (when they threaten agriculture) or used as [service animals](/wiki/Service_animal "Service animal") for the disabled. In some areas, some species of monkey are considered agricultural [pests](/wiki/Pest_%28organism%29 "Pest (organism)"), and can cause extensive damage to commercial and subsistence crops.{{Cite journal \\| last1 \= Hill \\| first1 \= C. M. \\| s2cid \= 30760377 \\| journal \= International Journal of Primatology \\| volume \= 21 \\| issue \= 2 \\| pages \= 299–315 \\| doi \= 10\.1023/A:1005481605637 \\| year \= 2000 \\|title\=Conflict of Interest Between People and Baboons: Crop Raiding in Uganda\\| hdl \= 10919/65514 \\| hdl\-access \= free }}{{cite web\\|title\=Farmer in Karnataka paints pet dog as tiger (to scare off monkeys)\\|language\=en\\|date\=3 Dec 2019\\|author\=Shivamogga\\|website\=Hindustan Times\\|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/it\-s\-viral/farmer\-in\-karnataka\-paints\-pet\-dog\-as\-tiger\-here\-s\-why/story\-ezjJAleab3JZwayJbmyAtO.html}} This can have important implications for the conservation of endangered species, which may be subject to persecution. In some instances farmers' perceptions of the damage may exceed the actual damage.{{Cite journal \\| last1 \= Siex \\| first1 \= K. S. \\| last2 \= Struhsaker \\| first2 \= T. T. \\| s2cid \= 84472733 \\| doi \= 10\.1046/j.1365\-2664\.1999\.00455\.x \\| title \= Colobus monkeys and coconuts: A study of perceived human\-wildlife conflicts \\| journal \= Journal of Applied Ecology \\| volume \= 36 \\| issue \= 6 \\| pages \= 1009–1020 \\| year \= 1999 \\| doi\-access \= free \\| bibcode \= 1999JApEc..36\.1009S }} Monkeys that have become habituated to human presence in tourist locations may also be considered pests, attacking tourists.{{Cite journal \\| last1 \= Brennan \\| first1 \= E. J. \\| last2 \= Else \\| first2 \= J. G. \\| last3 \= Altmann \\| first3 \= J. \\| title \= Ecology and behaviour of a pest primate: Vervet monkeys in a tourist\-lodge habitat \\| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1365\-2028\.1985\.tb00710\.x \\| journal \= African Journal of Ecology \\| volume \= 23 \\| pages \= 35–44 \\| year \= 1985 \\| issue \= 1 \\| bibcode \= 1985AfJEc..23\...35B }} ### Public exhibition Many zoos have maintained a facility in which monkeys and other primates are kept within enclosures for public entertainment. Commonly known as a monkey house (primatarium), sometimes styled [Monkey House](/wiki/Monkey_house "Monkey house"), notable examples include London Zoo's [Monkey Valley](/wiki/Monkey_Valley "Monkey Valley");{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.zsl.org/info/about\-us/zoo\-architecture,103,AR.html \\|title\=ZSL Architecture \\|publisher\=\[\[Zoological Society of London\\|ZSL]] \\|access\-date\=6 March 2008 \\|url\-status\=dead \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228070202/http://www.zsl.org/info/about\-us/zoo\-architecture%2C103%2CAR.html \\|archive\-date\=28 February 2008 }}{{Cite web \\|title\=London Zoo History \\|url\=https://www.londonzoo.org/zoo\-stories/history\-of\-london\-zoo/snowdon\-aviary \\|access\-date\=28 February 2023 \\|website\=ZSL London Zoo}} [Zoo Basel's Monkey house/exhibit](/wiki/Zoo_Basel%27s_Monkey_house/exhibit "Zoo Basel's Monkey house/exhibit"); the [Monkey Tropic House](/wiki/Monkey_Tropic_House "Monkey Tropic House") at Krefeld Zoo; [Bronx Zoo's Monkey House](/wiki/Bronx_Zoo%27s_Monkey_House "Bronx Zoo's Monkey House"); [Monkey Jungle](/wiki/Monkey_Jungle "Monkey Jungle"), Florida; [Lahore Zoo's Monkey House](/wiki/Lahore_Zoo%27s_Monkey_House "Lahore Zoo's Monkey House"); [Monkey World](/wiki/Monkey_World "Monkey World"), Dorset, England; and [Edinburgh Zoo's Monkey House](/wiki/Edinburgh_Zoo%27s_Monkey_House "Edinburgh Zoo's Monkey House"). Former cinema, [The Scala, Kings Cross](/wiki/The_Scala%2C_Kings_Cross "The Scala, Kings Cross") spent a short time as a primatarium.{{Cite news\\|url\=https://londonist.com/london/history/king\-s\-cross\-was\-nearly\-home\-to\-a\-forest\-of\-monkeys\\|title\=King's Cross Was Nearly Home To A Forest Of Monkeys\\|date\=2017\-05\-13\\|work\=Londonist\\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-09\\|language\=en\-GB}} ### As service animals for disabled people {{See also\\|Service animal\#Helper monkey}} Some organizations train [capuchin monkeys](/wiki/Capuchin_monkey "Capuchin monkey") as [service animals](/wiki/Service_animal "Service animal") to assist [quadriplegics](/wiki/Quadriplegic "Quadriplegic") and other people with severe spinal cord injuries or [mobility impairments](/wiki/Mobility_impairment "Mobility impairment"). After being [socialized](/wiki/Socialization_of_animals "Socialization of animals") in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with disabled people. Around the house, the monkeys assist with [daily tasks](/wiki/Activities_of_daily_living "Activities of daily living") such as feeding, fetching, manipulating objects, and personal care.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Sheredos \\|first1\=S. J. \\|title\=An evaluation of capuchin monkeys trained to help severely disabled individuals \\|doi\=10\.1682/JRRD.1991\.04\.0091 \\|journal\=The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development \\|volume\=28 \\|issue\=2 \\|pages\=91–96 \\|year\=1991 \\|doi\-access\=free }} [Helper monkeys](/wiki/Helper_monkey "Helper monkey") are usually trained in schools by private organizations, taking seven years to train, and are able to serve 25–30 years (two to three times longer than a [guide dog](/wiki/Guide_dog "Guide dog")).{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.klas\-tv.com/Global/story.asp?S\=4361694 \\|title\=Monkey Helpers Lend a 'Helping Hand' \\|access\-date\=August 14, 2006 \\|url\-status\=dead \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927041542/http://www.klas\-tv.com/Global/story.asp?S\=4361694 \\|archive\-date\=September 27, 2006}} In 2010, the [U.S. federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States "Federal government of the United States") revised its definition of service animal under the [Americans with Disabilities Act](/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act "Americans with Disabilities Act") (ADA). Non\-human primates are no longer recognized as service animals under the ADA.{{cite web \\|title\=Highlights of the Final Rule to Amend the Department of Justice's Regulation Implementing Title II of the ADA \\|url\=http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/factsheets/title2\_factsheet.html \\|publisher\=\[\[United States Department of Justice]], \[\[Civil Rights Division]] \\|access\-date\=October 2, 2013 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721221807/https://www.ada.gov/regs2010/factsheets/title2\_factsheet.html \\|archive\-date\=July 21, 2018 \\|url\-status\=dead }} The [American Veterinary Medical Association](/wiki/American_Veterinary_Medical_Association "American Veterinary Medical Association") does not support the use of non\-human primates as assistance animals because of [animal welfare](/wiki/Animal_welfare "Animal welfare") concerns, the potential for serious injury to people, and risks that primates [may transfer dangerous diseases to humans](/wiki/Zoonosis "Zoonosis").{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.avma.org/resources\-tools/avma\-policies/nonhuman\-primates\-assistance\-animals\\|title\=Nonhuman primates as assistance animals\\|website\=\[\[American Veterinary Medical Association]]\\|access\-date\=August 14, 2021}} ### In experiments {{main\\|Animal testing on non\-human primates}} The most common monkey species found in animal research are the [grivet](/wiki/Grivet "Grivet"), the [rhesus macaque](/wiki/Rhesus_macaque "Rhesus macaque"), and the [crab\-eating macaque](/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque "Crab-eating macaque"), which are either wild\-caught or purpose\-bred.{{Cite web \\| url \= http://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin\-the\-supply\-and\-use\-of\-primates\-in\-the\-eu\_17\.htm \\| title \= The supply and use of primates in the EU \\| year \= 1996 \\| publisher \= European Biomedical Research Association \\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117061036/http://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin\-the\-supply\-and\-use\-of\-primates\-in\-the\-eu\_17\.htm \\| archive\-date \= 2012\-01\-17}}{{Cite journal \\| last1 \= Carlsson \\| first1 \= H. E. \\| last2 \= Schapiro \\| first2 \= S. J. \\| last3 \= Farah \\| first3 \= I. \\| last4 \= Hau \\| first4 \= J. \\| title \= Use of primates in research: A global overview \\| doi \= 10\.1002/ajp.20054 \\| journal \= American Journal of Primatology \\| volume \= 63 \\| issue \= 4 \\| pages \= 225–237 \\| year \= 2004 \\| pmid \= 15300710\\| s2cid \= 41368228 }} They are used primarily because of their relative ease of handling, their fast reproductive cycle (compared to apes) and their psychological and physical similarity to [humans](/wiki/Human "Human"). Worldwide, it is thought that between 100,000 and 200,000 non\-human primates are used in research each year, 64\.7% of which are Old World monkeys, and 5\.5% New World monkeys.{{Cite report \\| author \= Weatherall, D., et al., (The Weatherall Committee) \\| year \= 2006 \\| title \= The use of non\-human primates in research \\| location \= London, UK \\| publisher \= Academy of Medical Sciences \\| url \= http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/project/nhpdownl.pdf \\| access\-date \= 2013\-04\-10 \\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130323084639/http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/project/nhpdownl.pdf \\| archive\-date \= 2013\-03\-23 \\| url\-status \= dead }} This number makes a very small fraction of all animals used in research. Between 1994 and 2004 the United States has used an average of 54,000 non\-human primates, while around 10,000 non\-human primates were used in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") in 2002\. #### In space [thumb\\|upright\\|[Sam](/wiki/Little_Joe_2 "Little Joe 2"), a [rhesus macaque](/wiki/Rhesus_macaque "Rhesus macaque"), was flown to a height of {{convert\\|88500\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\=on}} by [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA") in 1959](/wiki/File:Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg "Monkey Sam Before The Flight On Little Joe 2.jpg") {{main\\|Monkeys and apes in space}} A number of countries have used monkeys as part of their space exploration programmes, including the United States and France. The first monkey in space was [Albert II](/wiki/Albert_II_%28monkey%29 "Albert II (monkey)"), who flew in the US\-launched [V\-2 rocket](/wiki/V-2 "V-2") on June 14, 1949\.{{cite web \\| url \= https://history.nasa.gov/afspbio/part1\.htm \\| title \= The beginnings of research in space biology at the Air Force Missile Development Center, 1946–1952 \\| year \= 1958 \\| access\-date \= 2013\-04\-10 \\| last \= Bushnell \\| first \= D. \\| website \= History of Research in Space Biology and Biodynamics \\| publisher \= \[\[NASA]] \\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130530163509/http://history.nasa.gov/afspbio/part1\.htm \\| archive\-date \= 2013\-05\-30 \\| url\-status \= live }} ### As food {{Main\\|Monkey meat}} [Monkey brains](/wiki/Monkey_brain_%28cuisine%29 "Monkey brain (cuisine)") are eaten as a delicacy in parts of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"), Africa and China.{{cite web \\|author\=Bonné, J. \\|url\=https://www.today.com/food/some\-bravery\-side\-dish\-wbna9687163 \\|title\=Some bravery as a side dish \\|publisher\=Today.com \\|access\-date\=2009\-08\-15 \\|date\=2005\-10\-28 }} Monkeys are sometimes eaten in parts of Africa, where they can be sold as "[bushmeat](/wiki/Bushmeat "Bushmeat")". In traditional [Islamic dietary laws](/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws "Islamic dietary laws"), the eating of monkeys is [forbidden](/wiki/Haraam "Haraam").{{cite web\\|author\=Institut De Recherche Pour Le Développement \\|year\=2002 \\|title\=Primate Bushmeat : Populations Exposed To Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses \\|publisher\=\[\[ScienceDaily]] \\|access\-date\=2009\-08\-15 \\|url\=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2002/04/020403025234\.htm}} ### Literature [upright\\|thumb\\|Illustration of Indian monkeys known as bandar from the illuminated manuscript [Baburnama](/wiki/Baburnama "Baburnama") (Memoirs of Babur)](/wiki/File:Animals_of_Hindustan_monkeys_called_bandar_that_can_be_taught_to_do_tricks%2C_from_Illuminated_manuscript_Baburnama_%28Memoirs_of_Babur%29.jpg "Animals of Hindustan monkeys called bandar that can be taught to do tricks, from Illuminated manuscript Baburnama (Memoirs of Babur).jpg") [Sun Wukong](/wiki/Sun_Wukong "Sun Wukong") (the "Monkey King"), a character who figures prominently in [Chinese mythology](/wiki/Chinese_mythology "Chinese mythology"), is the protagonist in the classic Chinese novel [Journey to the West](/wiki/Journey_to_the_West "Journey to the West"). Monkeys are prevalent in numerous books, television programs, and movies. The [television series](/wiki/Television_program "Television program") [Monkey](/wiki/Monkey_%28TV_series%29 "Monkey (TV series)") and the literary characters [Monsieur Eek](/wiki/Monsieur_Eek "Monsieur Eek") and [Curious George](/wiki/Curious_George "Curious George") are all examples. Informally, "monkey" may refer to apes, particularly chimpanzees, gibbons, and gorillas. Author [Terry Pratchett](/wiki/Terry_Pratchett "Terry Pratchett") alludes to this difference in usage in his [Discworld](/wiki/Discworld "Discworld") novels, in which the [Librarian](/wiki/Librarian_%28Discworld%29 "Librarian (Discworld)") of the [Unseen University](/wiki/Unseen_University "Unseen University") is an [orangutan](/wiki/Orangutan "Orangutan") who gets very violent if referred to as a monkey. Another example is the use of [Simians in Chinese poetry](/wiki/Simians_%28Chinese_poetry%29 "Simians (Chinese poetry)"). The [winged monkeys](/wiki/Winged_monkeys "Winged monkeys") are prominent characters in [L. Frank Baum](/wiki/L._Frank_Baum "L. Frank Baum")'s [Wizard of Oz](/wiki/List_of_Oz_books "List of Oz books") books and in the [1939 film](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_%281939_film%29 "The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)") based on Baum's 1900 novel [The Wonderful Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz"). ### Religion and worship [thumb\\|upright\\|[Abhinandananatha](/wiki/Abhinandananatha "Abhinandananatha") with his symbol of monkey below his idol](/wiki/File:Abhinandannath.jpg "Abhinandannath.jpg") Monkey is the symbol of fourth [Tirthankara](/wiki/Tirthankara "Tirthankara") in [Jainism](/wiki/Jainism "Jainism"), [Abhinandananatha](/wiki/Abhinandananatha "Abhinandananatha").{{Cite book \\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uPhBDwAAQBAJ\&q\=mahavira\+lion\&pg\=RA1\-PA102 \\| title\=THE MEGA YEARBOOK 2018 \- Current Affairs \& General Knowledge for Competitive Exams with 52 Monthly ebook Updates \& eTests \- 3rd Edition\\| isbn\=9789387421226\\| last1\=Experts\\| first1\=Disha\\| date\=2017\-12\-25\\| publisher\=Disha Publications}}{{Cite book \\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=CeEmpfmbxKEC\&q\=mahavira\+lion\&pg\=SL1\-PA155 \\| title\=Indian Hist (Opt)\\| isbn\=9780070635777\\| last1\=Reddy\\| date\=2006\-12\-01\\| publisher\=McGraw\-Hill Education (India) Pvt Limited}} [Hanuman](/wiki/Hanuman "Hanuman"), a prominent deity in [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), is a human\-like monkey god who is believed to bestow courage, strength and longevity to the person who thinks about him or [Rama](/wiki/Rama "Rama"). In [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"), the monkey is an early incarnation of Buddha but may also represent trickery and ugliness. The [Chinese Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism_in_China "Buddhism in China") "[mind monkey](/wiki/Mind_monkey "Mind monkey")" metaphor refers to the unsettled, restless state of human mind. Monkey is also one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolizing greed, with the tiger representing anger and the deer lovesickness. The Sanzaru, or [three wise monkeys](/wiki/Three_wise_monkeys "Three wise monkeys"), are revered in Japanese folklore; together they embody the proverbial principle to "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil".{{cite book \\|last\=Cooper \\|first\=J. C. \\|title\=Symbolic and Mythological Animals \\|pages\=161–63 \\|year\=1992 \\|publisher\= Aquarian Press \\|location\=London \\|isbn\=978\-1\-85538\-118\-6}} The [Moche](/wiki/Moche_%28culture%29 "Moche (culture)") people of ancient Peru worshipped nature.{{cite book\\|author\=Benson, E. \\|title\=The Mochica: A Culture of Peru \\|location\=New York \\|publisher\=Praeger Press \\|year\=1972 \\|isbn\=978\-0\-500\-72001\-1}} They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted monkeys in their art.{{cite book \\| author\=Berrin, K. \& \[\[Larco Museum\\|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]] \\|title\=The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera \\|location\=New York \\|publisher\=\[\[Thames \& Hudson]] \\|year\=1997 \\|isbn\=978\-0\-500\-01802\-6}} The [Tzeltal](/wiki/Tzeltal_people "Tzeltal people") people of Mexico worshipped monkeys as incarnations of their dead ancestors. ### Zodiac [thumb\\|left\\|Monkeys as Judges of Art, an ironical 1889 painting by [Gabriel von Max](/wiki/Gabriel_von_Max "Gabriel von Max").](/wiki/File:Gabriel_Cornelius_von_Max%2C_1840-1915%2C_Monkeys_as_Judges_of_Art%2C_1889.jpg "Gabriel Cornelius von Max, 1840-1915, Monkeys as Judges of Art, 1889.jpg") The [Monkey](/wiki/Monkey_%28zodiac%29 "Monkey (zodiac)") (猴) is the ninth in the twelve\-year cycle of animals which appear in the [Chinese zodiac](/wiki/Chinese_zodiac "Chinese zodiac") related to the [Chinese calendar](/wiki/Chinese_calendar "Chinese calendar"). {{\#switch:{{\#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}mod12}} \\|1\=Last year was the year of the monkey \\|0\=This year is the year of the monkey \\|11\=Next year will be the year of the monkey \\|The next time that the monkey will appear as the zodiac sign will be in the year {{\#expr:(({{CURRENTYEAR}}\+6\)/12round0\)\*12}}}}.{{Cite book \\| first \= T. \\| last \= Lau \\| title \= The Handbook of Chinese Horoscopes \\| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/handbookofchines00laut\_0/page/238 238–244] \\| publisher \= Souvenir Press \\| location \= New York \\| year \= 2005 \\| edition \= 5th \\| isbn \= 978\-0060777777 \\| url\-access \= registration \\| url \= https://archive.org/details/handbookofchines00laut\_0/page/238 }}{{clear}}	[ "{{Anchor\\\|In culture}}Relationship with humans\n----------------------------------------------", "[thumb\\\|Macaque on a \"Please do not feed monkeys\" sign in [Ko Chang](/wiki/Ko_Chang \"Ko Chang\"), Thailand.](/wiki/File:Please_do_not_feed_monkeys_Koh_Chang.jpg \"Please do not feed monkeys Koh Chang.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|Sign at a store in Swyambhunath, Bagmati, Nepal, which reads \"Monkey's Food is Available here\". Some places use their monkey population as a tourist attraction.](/wiki/File:%22Monkey%27s_food_is_Available_here%22_store_in_Swyambhunath%2C_Bagmati%2C_Nepal.jpg) \nThe many species of monkey have varied relationships with humans. Some are [kept as pets](/wiki/Pet_monkey \"Pet monkey\"), others used as [model organisms](/wiki/Model_organism \"Model organism\") in laboratories or in space missions. They may be killed in [monkey drives](/wiki/Monkey_drive \"Monkey drive\") (when they threaten agriculture) or used as [service animals](/wiki/Service_animal \"Service animal\") for the disabled.", "In some areas, some species of monkey are considered agricultural [pests](/wiki/Pest_%28organism%29 \"Pest (organism)\"), and can cause extensive damage to commercial and subsistence crops.{{Cite journal \\\| last1 \\= Hill \\\| first1 \\= C. M. \\\| s2cid \\= 30760377 \\\| journal \\= International Journal of Primatology \\\| volume \\= 21 \\\| issue \\= 2 \\\| pages \\= 299–315 \\\| doi \\= 10\\.1023/A:1005481605637 \\\| year \\= 2000 \\\|title\\=Conflict of Interest Between People and Baboons: Crop Raiding in Uganda\\\| hdl \\= 10919/65514 \\\| hdl\\-access \\= free }}{{cite web\\\|title\\=Farmer in Karnataka paints pet dog as tiger (to scare off monkeys)\\\|language\\=en\\\|date\\=3 Dec 2019\\\|author\\=Shivamogga\\\|website\\=Hindustan Times\\\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/it\\-s\\-viral/farmer\\-in\\-karnataka\\-paints\\-pet\\-dog\\-as\\-tiger\\-here\\-s\\-why/story\\-ezjJAleab3JZwayJbmyAtO.html}} This can have important implications for the conservation of endangered species, which may be subject to persecution. In some instances farmers' perceptions of the damage may exceed the actual damage.{{Cite journal \\\| last1 \\= Siex \\\| first1 \\= K. S. \\\| last2 \\= Struhsaker \\\| first2 \\= T. T. \\\| s2cid \\= 84472733 \\\| doi \\= 10\\.1046/j.1365\\-2664\\.1999\\.00455\\.x \\\| title \\= Colobus monkeys and coconuts: A study of perceived human\\-wildlife conflicts \\\| journal \\= Journal of Applied Ecology \\\| volume \\= 36 \\\| issue \\= 6 \\\| pages \\= 1009–1020 \\\| year \\= 1999 \\\| doi\\-access \\= free \\\| bibcode \\= 1999JApEc..36\\.1009S }} Monkeys that have become habituated to human presence in tourist locations may also be considered pests, attacking tourists.{{Cite journal \\\| last1 \\= Brennan \\\| first1 \\= E. J. \\\| last2 \\= Else \\\| first2 \\= J. G. \\\| last3 \\= Altmann \\\| first3 \\= J. \\\| title \\= Ecology and behaviour of a pest primate: Vervet monkeys in a tourist\\-lodge habitat \\\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2028\\.1985\\.tb00710\\.x \\\| journal \\= African Journal of Ecology \\\| volume \\= 23 \\\| pages \\= 35–44 \\\| year \\= 1985 \\\| issue \\= 1 \\\| bibcode \\= 1985AfJEc..23\\...35B }}\n### Public exhibition", "Many zoos have maintained a facility in which monkeys and other primates are kept within enclosures for public entertainment. Commonly known as a monkey house (primatarium), sometimes styled [Monkey House](/wiki/Monkey_house \"Monkey house\"), notable examples include London Zoo's [Monkey Valley](/wiki/Monkey_Valley \"Monkey Valley\");{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.zsl.org/info/about\\-us/zoo\\-architecture,103,AR.html \\\|title\\=ZSL Architecture \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Zoological Society of London\\\|ZSL]] \\\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2008 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228070202/http://www.zsl.org/info/about\\-us/zoo\\-architecture%2C103%2CAR.html \\\|archive\\-date\\=28 February 2008 }}{{Cite web \\\|title\\=London Zoo History \\\|url\\=https://www.londonzoo.org/zoo\\-stories/history\\-of\\-london\\-zoo/snowdon\\-aviary \\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2023 \\\|website\\=ZSL London Zoo}} [Zoo Basel's Monkey house/exhibit](/wiki/Zoo_Basel%27s_Monkey_house/exhibit \"Zoo Basel's Monkey house/exhibit\"); the [Monkey Tropic House](/wiki/Monkey_Tropic_House \"Monkey Tropic House\") at Krefeld Zoo; [Bronx Zoo's Monkey House](/wiki/Bronx_Zoo%27s_Monkey_House \"Bronx Zoo's Monkey House\"); [Monkey Jungle](/wiki/Monkey_Jungle \"Monkey Jungle\"), Florida; [Lahore Zoo's Monkey House](/wiki/Lahore_Zoo%27s_Monkey_House \"Lahore Zoo's Monkey House\"); [Monkey World](/wiki/Monkey_World \"Monkey World\"), Dorset, England; and [Edinburgh Zoo's Monkey House](/wiki/Edinburgh_Zoo%27s_Monkey_House \"Edinburgh Zoo's Monkey House\"). Former cinema, [The Scala, Kings Cross](/wiki/The_Scala%2C_Kings_Cross \"The Scala, Kings Cross\") spent a short time as a primatarium.{{Cite news\\\|url\\=https://londonist.com/london/history/king\\-s\\-cross\\-was\\-nearly\\-home\\-to\\-a\\-forest\\-of\\-monkeys\\\|title\\=King's Cross Was Nearly Home To A Forest Of Monkeys\\\|date\\=2017\\-05\\-13\\\|work\\=Londonist\\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-09\\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}", "### As service animals for disabled people", "{{See also\\\|Service animal\\#Helper monkey}}", "Some organizations train [capuchin monkeys](/wiki/Capuchin_monkey \"Capuchin monkey\") as [service animals](/wiki/Service_animal \"Service animal\") to assist [quadriplegics](/wiki/Quadriplegic \"Quadriplegic\") and other people with severe spinal cord injuries or [mobility impairments](/wiki/Mobility_impairment \"Mobility impairment\"). After being [socialized](/wiki/Socialization_of_animals \"Socialization of animals\") in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with disabled people. Around the house, the monkeys assist with [daily tasks](/wiki/Activities_of_daily_living \"Activities of daily living\") such as feeding, fetching, manipulating objects, and personal care.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Sheredos \\\|first1\\=S. J. \\\|title\\=An evaluation of capuchin monkeys trained to help severely disabled individuals \\\|doi\\=10\\.1682/JRRD.1991\\.04\\.0091 \\\|journal\\=The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development \\\|volume\\=28 \\\|issue\\=2 \\\|pages\\=91–96 \\\|year\\=1991 \\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "[Helper monkeys](/wiki/Helper_monkey \"Helper monkey\") are usually trained in schools by private organizations, taking seven years to train, and are able to serve 25–30 years (two to three times longer than a [guide dog](/wiki/Guide_dog \"Guide dog\")).{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.klas\\-tv.com/Global/story.asp?S\\=4361694 \\\|title\\=Monkey Helpers Lend a 'Helping Hand' \\\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2006 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927041542/http://www.klas\\-tv.com/Global/story.asp?S\\=4361694 \\\|archive\\-date\\=September 27, 2006}}", "In 2010, the [U.S. federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States \"Federal government of the United States\") revised its definition of service animal under the [Americans with Disabilities Act](/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act \"Americans with Disabilities Act\") (ADA). Non\\-human primates are no longer recognized as service animals under the ADA.{{cite web \\\|title\\=Highlights of the Final Rule to Amend the Department of Justice's Regulation Implementing Title II of the ADA \\\|url\\=http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/factsheets/title2\\_factsheet.html \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Department of Justice]], \\[\\[Civil Rights Division]] \\\|access\\-date\\=October 2, 2013 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721221807/https://www.ada.gov/regs2010/factsheets/title2\\_factsheet.html \\\|archive\\-date\\=July 21, 2018 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The [American Veterinary Medical Association](/wiki/American_Veterinary_Medical_Association \"American Veterinary Medical Association\") does not support the use of non\\-human primates as assistance animals because of [animal welfare](/wiki/Animal_welfare \"Animal welfare\") concerns, the potential for serious injury to people, and risks that primates [may transfer dangerous diseases to humans](/wiki/Zoonosis \"Zoonosis\").{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.avma.org/resources\\-tools/avma\\-policies/nonhuman\\-primates\\-assistance\\-animals\\\|title\\=Nonhuman primates as assistance animals\\\|website\\=\\[\\[American Veterinary Medical Association]]\\\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2021}}", "### In experiments", "{{main\\\|Animal testing on non\\-human primates}}\nThe most common monkey species found in animal research are the [grivet](/wiki/Grivet \"Grivet\"), the [rhesus macaque](/wiki/Rhesus_macaque \"Rhesus macaque\"), and the [crab\\-eating macaque](/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque \"Crab-eating macaque\"), which are either wild\\-caught or purpose\\-bred.{{Cite web \\\| url \\= http://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin\\-the\\-supply\\-and\\-use\\-of\\-primates\\-in\\-the\\-eu\\_17\\.htm \\\| title \\= The supply and use of primates in the EU \\\| year \\= 1996 \\\| publisher \\= European Biomedical Research Association \\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117061036/http://www.ebra.org/ebrabulletin\\-the\\-supply\\-and\\-use\\-of\\-primates\\-in\\-the\\-eu\\_17\\.htm \\\| archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-01\\-17}}{{Cite journal \\\| last1 \\= Carlsson \\\| first1 \\= H. E. \\\| last2 \\= Schapiro \\\| first2 \\= S. J. \\\| last3 \\= Farah \\\| first3 \\= I. \\\| last4 \\= Hau \\\| first4 \\= J. \\\| title \\= Use of primates in research: A global overview \\\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/ajp.20054 \\\| journal \\= American Journal of Primatology \\\| volume \\= 63 \\\| issue \\= 4 \\\| pages \\= 225–237 \\\| year \\= 2004 \\\| pmid \\= 15300710\\\| s2cid \\= 41368228 }} They are used primarily because of their relative ease of handling, their fast reproductive cycle (compared to apes) and their psychological and physical similarity to [humans](/wiki/Human \"Human\"). Worldwide, it is thought that between 100,000 and 200,000 non\\-human primates are used in research each year, 64\\.7% of which are Old World monkeys,\nand 5\\.5% New World monkeys.{{Cite report \\\| author \\= Weatherall, D., et al., (The Weatherall Committee) \\\| year \\= 2006 \\\| title \\= The use of non\\-human primates in research \\\| location \\= London, UK \\\| publisher \\= Academy of Medical Sciences \\\| url \\= http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/project/nhpdownl.pdf \\\| access\\-date \\= 2013\\-04\\-10 \\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130323084639/http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/project/nhpdownl.pdf \\\| archive\\-date \\= 2013\\-03\\-23 \\\| url\\-status \\= dead }} This number makes a very small fraction of all animals used in research. Between 1994 and 2004 the United States has used an average of 54,000 non\\-human primates, while around 10,000 non\\-human primates were used in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") in 2002\\.", "#### In space", "[thumb\\\|upright\\\|[Sam](/wiki/Little_Joe_2 \"Little Joe 2\"), a [rhesus macaque](/wiki/Rhesus_macaque \"Rhesus macaque\"), was flown to a height of {{convert\\\|88500\\\|m\\\|ft\\\|abbr\\=on}} by [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\") in 1959](/wiki/File:Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg \"Monkey Sam Before The Flight On Little Joe 2.jpg\")\n{{main\\\|Monkeys and apes in space}}\nA number of countries have used monkeys as part of their space exploration programmes, including the United States and France. The first monkey in space was [Albert II](/wiki/Albert_II_%28monkey%29 \"Albert II (monkey)\"), who flew in the US\\-launched [V\\-2 rocket](/wiki/V-2 \"V-2\") on June 14, 1949\\.{{cite web \\\| url \\= https://history.nasa.gov/afspbio/part1\\.htm \\\| title \\= The beginnings of research in space biology at the Air Force Missile Development Center, 1946–1952 \\\| year \\= 1958 \\\| access\\-date \\= 2013\\-04\\-10 \\\| last \\= Bushnell \\\| first \\= D. \\\| website \\= History of Research in Space Biology and Biodynamics \\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[NASA]] \\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130530163509/http://history.nasa.gov/afspbio/part1\\.htm \\\| archive\\-date \\= 2013\\-05\\-30 \\\| url\\-status \\= live }}", "### As food", "{{Main\\\|Monkey meat}}\n[Monkey brains](/wiki/Monkey_brain_%28cuisine%29 \"Monkey brain (cuisine)\") are eaten as a delicacy in parts of [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\"), Africa and China.{{cite web \\\|author\\=Bonné, J. \\\|url\\=https://www.today.com/food/some\\-bravery\\-side\\-dish\\-wbna9687163 \\\|title\\=Some bravery as a side dish \\\|publisher\\=Today.com \\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-15 \\\|date\\=2005\\-10\\-28 }} Monkeys are sometimes eaten in parts of Africa, where they can be sold as \"[bushmeat](/wiki/Bushmeat \"Bushmeat\")\". In traditional [Islamic dietary laws](/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws \"Islamic dietary laws\"), the eating of monkeys is [forbidden](/wiki/Haraam \"Haraam\").{{cite web\\\|author\\=Institut De Recherche Pour Le Développement \\\|year\\=2002 \\\|title\\=Primate Bushmeat : Populations Exposed To Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ScienceDaily]] \\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-15 \\\|url\\=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2002/04/020403025234\\.htm}}", "### Literature", "[upright\\\|thumb\\\|Illustration of Indian monkeys known as bandar from the illuminated manuscript [Baburnama](/wiki/Baburnama \"Baburnama\") (Memoirs of Babur)](/wiki/File:Animals_of_Hindustan_monkeys_called_bandar_that_can_be_taught_to_do_tricks%2C_from_Illuminated_manuscript_Baburnama_%28Memoirs_of_Babur%29.jpg \"Animals of Hindustan monkeys called bandar that can be taught to do tricks, from Illuminated manuscript Baburnama (Memoirs of Babur).jpg\")\n[Sun Wukong](/wiki/Sun_Wukong \"Sun Wukong\") (the \"Monkey King\"), a character who figures prominently in [Chinese mythology](/wiki/Chinese_mythology \"Chinese mythology\"), is the protagonist in the classic Chinese novel [Journey to the West](/wiki/Journey_to_the_West \"Journey to the West\").", "Monkeys are prevalent in numerous books, television programs, and movies. The [television series](/wiki/Television_program \"Television program\") [Monkey](/wiki/Monkey_%28TV_series%29 \"Monkey (TV series)\") and the literary characters [Monsieur Eek](/wiki/Monsieur_Eek \"Monsieur Eek\") and [Curious George](/wiki/Curious_George \"Curious George\") are all examples.", "Informally, \"monkey\" may refer to apes, particularly chimpanzees, gibbons, and gorillas. Author [Terry Pratchett](/wiki/Terry_Pratchett \"Terry Pratchett\") alludes to this difference in usage in his [Discworld](/wiki/Discworld \"Discworld\") novels, in which the [Librarian](/wiki/Librarian_%28Discworld%29 \"Librarian (Discworld)\") of the [Unseen University](/wiki/Unseen_University \"Unseen University\") is an [orangutan](/wiki/Orangutan \"Orangutan\") who gets very violent if referred to as a monkey. Another example is the use of [Simians in Chinese poetry](/wiki/Simians_%28Chinese_poetry%29 \"Simians (Chinese poetry)\").", "The [winged monkeys](/wiki/Winged_monkeys \"Winged monkeys\") are prominent characters in [L. Frank Baum](/wiki/L._Frank_Baum \"L. Frank Baum\")'s [Wizard of Oz](/wiki/List_of_Oz_books \"List of Oz books\") books and in the [1939 film](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_%281939_film%29 \"The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)\") based on Baum's 1900 novel [The Wonderful Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\").", "### Religion and worship", "[thumb\\\|upright\\\|[Abhinandananatha](/wiki/Abhinandananatha \"Abhinandananatha\") with his symbol of monkey below his idol](/wiki/File:Abhinandannath.jpg \"Abhinandannath.jpg\")\nMonkey is the symbol of fourth [Tirthankara](/wiki/Tirthankara \"Tirthankara\") in [Jainism](/wiki/Jainism \"Jainism\"), [Abhinandananatha](/wiki/Abhinandananatha \"Abhinandananatha\").{{Cite book \\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uPhBDwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=mahavira\\+lion\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA102 \\\| title\\=THE MEGA YEARBOOK 2018 \\- Current Affairs \\& General Knowledge for Competitive Exams with 52 Monthly ebook Updates \\& eTests \\- 3rd Edition\\\| isbn\\=9789387421226\\\| last1\\=Experts\\\| first1\\=Disha\\\| date\\=2017\\-12\\-25\\\| publisher\\=Disha Publications}}{{Cite book \\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CeEmpfmbxKEC\\&q\\=mahavira\\+lion\\&pg\\=SL1\\-PA155 \\\| title\\=Indian Hist (Opt)\\\| isbn\\=9780070635777\\\| last1\\=Reddy\\\| date\\=2006\\-12\\-01\\\| publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill Education (India) Pvt Limited}}", "[Hanuman](/wiki/Hanuman \"Hanuman\"), a prominent deity in [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), is a human\\-like monkey god who is believed to bestow courage, strength and longevity to the person who thinks about him or [Rama](/wiki/Rama \"Rama\").", "In [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"), the monkey is an early incarnation of Buddha but may also represent trickery and ugliness. The [Chinese Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism_in_China \"Buddhism in China\") \"[mind monkey](/wiki/Mind_monkey \"Mind monkey\")\" metaphor refers to the unsettled, restless state of human mind. Monkey is also one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolizing greed, with the tiger representing anger and the deer lovesickness.", "The Sanzaru, or [three wise monkeys](/wiki/Three_wise_monkeys \"Three wise monkeys\"), are revered in Japanese folklore; together they embody the proverbial principle to \"see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil\".{{cite book \\\|last\\=Cooper \\\|first\\=J. C. \\\|title\\=Symbolic and Mythological Animals \\\|pages\\=161–63 \\\|year\\=1992 \\\|publisher\\= Aquarian Press \\\|location\\=London \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85538\\-118\\-6}}", "The [Moche](/wiki/Moche_%28culture%29 \"Moche (culture)\") people of ancient Peru worshipped nature.{{cite book\\\|author\\=Benson, E. \\\|title\\=The Mochica: A Culture of Peru \\\|location\\=New York \\\|publisher\\=Praeger Press \\\|year\\=1972 \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-500\\-72001\\-1}} They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted monkeys in their art.{{cite book \\\| author\\=Berrin, K. \\& \\[\\[Larco Museum\\\|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]] \\\|title\\=The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera \\\|location\\=New York \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Thames \\& Hudson]] \\\|year\\=1997 \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-500\\-01802\\-6}}", "The [Tzeltal](/wiki/Tzeltal_people \"Tzeltal people\") people of Mexico worshipped monkeys as incarnations of their dead ancestors.", "### Zodiac", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|Monkeys as Judges of Art, an ironical 1889 painting by [Gabriel von Max](/wiki/Gabriel_von_Max \"Gabriel von Max\").](/wiki/File:Gabriel_Cornelius_von_Max%2C_1840-1915%2C_Monkeys_as_Judges_of_Art%2C_1889.jpg \"Gabriel Cornelius von Max, 1840-1915, Monkeys as Judges of Art, 1889.jpg\")\nThe [Monkey](/wiki/Monkey_%28zodiac%29 \"Monkey (zodiac)\") (猴) is the ninth in the twelve\\-year cycle of animals which appear in the [Chinese zodiac](/wiki/Chinese_zodiac \"Chinese zodiac\") related to the [Chinese calendar](/wiki/Chinese_calendar \"Chinese calendar\"). {{\\#switch:{{\\#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}mod12}}\n\\\|1\\=Last year was the year of the monkey\n\\\|0\\=This year is the year of the monkey\n\\\|11\\=Next year will be the year of the monkey\n\\\|The next time that the monkey will appear as the zodiac sign will be in the year {{\\#expr:(({{CURRENTYEAR}}\\+6\\)/12round0\\)\\*12}}}}.{{Cite book \\\| first \\= T. \\\| last \\= Lau \\\| title \\= The Handbook of Chinese Horoscopes \\\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/handbookofchines00laut\\_0/page/238 238–244] \\\| publisher \\= Souvenir Press \\\| location \\= New York \\\| year \\= 2005 \\\| edition \\= 5th \\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0060777777 \\\| url\\-access \\= registration \\\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/handbookofchines00laut\\_0/page/238 }}{{clear}}", "" ]
History ------- During the [Japanese Empire](/wiki/Japanese_Empire "Japanese Empire")'s occupation of Singapore during the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War") (1942–1945\), thousands of ethnic Chinese were killed in the [Sook Ching massacre](/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre "Sook Ching massacre"). In an effort to remove anti\-Japanese elements in Singapore, Chinese men between the ages of 18 and 50 were to report to the [Kempeitai](/wiki/Kempeitai "Kempeitai"), the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army "Imperial Japanese Army") [military police](/wiki/Military_police "Military police"). The death toll was reported to be 6,000 by the Japanese, but official estimates range between 25,000 and 50,000\.{{citation\\|author\=Heng Wong\\|title\=Operation Sook Ching\\|url\=http://infopedia.nlb.gov.sg/articles/SIP\_40\_2005\-01\-24\.html\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723055935/http://infopedia.nlb.gov.sg/articles/SIP\_40\_2005\-01\-24\.html\\|archive\-date\=23 July 2008\\|publisher\=Singapore Infopedia, \[\[National Library Board]]\\|date\=29 September 1997}}. In February 1962, remains belonging to civilian victims of the Japanese occupation were unearthed in areas like [Siglap](/wiki/Siglap "Siglap"), [Changi](/wiki/Changi "Changi") and [Bukit Timah](/wiki/Bukit_Timah "Bukit Timah"). The [Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry](/wiki/Singapore_Chinese_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry "Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry") (SCCC) undertook the responsibility of gathering the remains and creating a memorial. ### The Civilian War Memorial project On 13 March 1963, [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Singapore "Prime Minister of Singapore") [Lee Kuan Yew](/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew "Lee Kuan Yew") set aside a plot of land at Beach Road for the building of a memorial dedicated to the civilians killed in World War II. The SCCC set up a fund committee that was later enlarged to include all ethnic groups due to good response from the community. With the support of the [Government](/wiki/Government_of_Singapore "Government of Singapore") and contributions from the public, construction of the memorial was able to start. ### Architecture [thumb\\|upright\\|The Civilian War Memorial lit up at night](/wiki/File:Civilian_War_Memorial_at_night.jpg "Civilian War Memorial at night.jpg") The design of the memorial was conceived by Leong Swee Lim of [Swan \& Maclaren Architects](/wiki/Swan_%26_Maclaren_Architects "Swan & Maclaren Architects") whom it won first prize in an open design competition in that month.{{Cite news \\|date\=31 May 1963 \\|title\=TOP DESIGN FOR A MEMORIAL \\|pages\=4 \\|work\=\[\[The Straits Times]] \\|url\=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19630531\-1\.2\.19 \\|access\-date\=31 March 2023 \\|via\=\[\[NewspaperSG]]}} The design was one of Leong's most famous and significant contributions towards Singapore's architecture. The four identical pillars, each {{convert\\|70\\|m}} high, represent the shared experiences and unity of the four major [races of Singapore](/wiki/Race_in_Singapore "Race in Singapore");– Chinese, Eurasian, Indian and Malay. ### Ground\-breaking ceremony On 15 June 1963, Lee Kuan Yew performed the ground\-breaking ceremony of "turning (or breaking) the sod" to lay the foundation for the memorial witnessed by a gathering of representatives from the Inter\-Religious Organisation and members of the consular corps. Construction of the memorial began on 23 April 1966\. A ceremony was held on 1 November that year before the completion of the memorial, which saw 606 urns containing the remains of thousands of unknown civilians from the mass graves interred on either side of the memorial podium, added to the material significance of the structure whose history it represents.	[ "History\n-------", "During the [Japanese Empire](/wiki/Japanese_Empire \"Japanese Empire\")'s occupation of Singapore during the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\") (1942–1945\\), thousands of ethnic Chinese were killed in the [Sook Ching massacre](/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre \"Sook Ching massacre\"). In an effort to remove anti\\-Japanese elements in Singapore, Chinese men between the ages of 18 and 50 were to report to the [Kempeitai](/wiki/Kempeitai \"Kempeitai\"), the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\") [military police](/wiki/Military_police \"Military police\"). The death toll was reported to be 6,000 by the Japanese, but official estimates range between 25,000 and 50,000\\.{{citation\\\|author\\=Heng Wong\\\|title\\=Operation Sook Ching\\\|url\\=http://infopedia.nlb.gov.sg/articles/SIP\\_40\\_2005\\-01\\-24\\.html\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723055935/http://infopedia.nlb.gov.sg/articles/SIP\\_40\\_2005\\-01\\-24\\.html\\\|archive\\-date\\=23 July 2008\\\|publisher\\=Singapore Infopedia, \\[\\[National Library Board]]\\\|date\\=29 September 1997}}.", "In February 1962, remains belonging to civilian victims of the Japanese occupation were unearthed in areas like [Siglap](/wiki/Siglap \"Siglap\"), [Changi](/wiki/Changi \"Changi\") and [Bukit Timah](/wiki/Bukit_Timah \"Bukit Timah\"). The [Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry](/wiki/Singapore_Chinese_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry \"Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry\") (SCCC) undertook the responsibility of gathering the remains and creating a memorial.", "### The Civilian War Memorial project", "On 13 March 1963, [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Singapore \"Prime Minister of Singapore\") [Lee Kuan Yew](/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew \"Lee Kuan Yew\") set aside a plot of land at Beach Road for the building of a memorial dedicated to the civilians killed in World War II. The SCCC set up a fund committee that was later enlarged to include all ethnic groups due to good response from the community. With the support of the [Government](/wiki/Government_of_Singapore \"Government of Singapore\") and contributions from the public, construction of the memorial was able to start.", "### Architecture", "[thumb\\\|upright\\\|The Civilian War Memorial lit up at night](/wiki/File:Civilian_War_Memorial_at_night.jpg \"Civilian War Memorial at night.jpg\")", "The design of the memorial was conceived by Leong Swee Lim of [Swan \\& Maclaren Architects](/wiki/Swan_%26_Maclaren_Architects \"Swan & Maclaren Architects\") whom it won first prize in an open design competition in that month.{{Cite news \\\|date\\=31 May 1963 \\\|title\\=TOP DESIGN FOR A MEMORIAL \\\|pages\\=4 \\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Straits Times]] \\\|url\\=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19630531\\-1\\.2\\.19 \\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2023 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[NewspaperSG]]}} The design was one of Leong's most famous and significant contributions towards Singapore's architecture. The four identical pillars, each {{convert\\\|70\\\|m}} high, represent the shared experiences and unity of the four major [races of Singapore](/wiki/Race_in_Singapore \"Race in Singapore\");– Chinese, Eurasian, Indian and Malay.", "### Ground\\-breaking ceremony", "On 15 June 1963, Lee Kuan Yew performed the ground\\-breaking ceremony of \"turning (or breaking) the sod\" to lay the foundation for the memorial witnessed by a gathering of representatives from the Inter\\-Religious Organisation and members of the consular corps. Construction of the memorial began on 23 April 1966\\.", "A ceremony was held on 1 November that year before the completion of the memorial, which saw 606 urns containing the remains of thousands of unknown civilians from the mass graves interred on either side of the memorial podium, added to the material significance of the structure whose history it represents.", "" ]
Career ------ From 1980 to 1984, De Castries performed audit assignments on behalf of the [Minister of Finances of France](/wiki/Minister_of_the_Economy%2C_Finance_and_Industry_%28France%29 "Minister of the Economy, Finance and Industry (France)"), and in 1984 he became a member of the management of the French Treasury. In 1986, he participated in the privatisation initiated by [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac "Jacques Chirac")'s government, including Compagnie Générale d'Electricité, now known as [Alcatel\-Lucent](/wiki/Alcatel-Lucent "Alcatel-Lucent"), and [TF1](/wiki/TF1 "TF1"), both on the [CAC 40](/wiki/CAC_40 "CAC 40"). De Castries started his career at AXA in 1989, when he joined the central financial direction. In 1991, he was appointed general secretary, in charge of restructurations and mergers (integration of Compagnie du Midi). He was appointed general director in 1993, in charge of North America and UK in 1994, and in charge of the merger and integration with Union des assurances de Paris (UAP) in 1996\. He served as President of the Board of Equitable (which became AXA Financial) in 1997, and has been Chairman of the Board of Directors since 2000\.{{cite news\\|title\=Axa boss de Castries set for surprise move into politics\\|url\=http://www.postonline.co.uk/post/news/1260922/axa\-boss\-castries\-set\-surprise\-politics?page\=post\_breakingnews\_story\&tempPageName\=453877\\|access\-date\=11 February 2011\\|newspaper\=Post Online\\|date\=18 June 2007\\|url\-access\=subscription }}{{cite news\\|title\=xa, AMP $10 Billion Bid May Signal Resurgence in Insurer M\&A\\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\=newsarchive\&sid\=aHnPI9ml1fW4\\|access\-date\=11 February 2011\\|newspaper\=Bloomberg\\|date\=9 November 2009\\|author\=Fabio Benedetti\-Valentini\\|author2\=Oliver Suess}} In 2009, he took full charge at AXA by consolidating the role of chairman with his chief executive position.Scheherazade Daneshkhu (October 7, 2009\), [De Castries is to take full charge of Axa](https://www.ft.com/content/26b60a3a-b369-11de-ae8d-00144feab49a) [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times"). Late in De Castries' tenure, AXA became the first global financial institution to shun investments in coal companies when it sold 500 million euros of coal assets in 2015\.Pilita Clark (May 22, 2015\), [Axa pledges to sell €500m of coal assets by end of year](https://www.ft.com/content/f349dbb0-0072-11e5-b91e-00144feabdc0) [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times"). In 2016, he decided that AXA would join a global movement to exit tobacco investments by unloading about $2 billion in cigarette company stocks and bonds.David Jolly (May 23, 2016\), [French Insurer AXA to Exit Tobacco Investments After Activists’ Campaign](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/24/business/dealbook/france-axa-investments-tobacco.html) [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"). In March 2016, it was announced De Castries would retire from both chairman and CEO roles at AXA on 1 September.{{cite web\\|author\=Jill Treanor \\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/mar/21/axa\-henri\-de\-castries\-resigns\-fuelling\-hsbc\-speculation \\|title\=Axa's Henri de Castries resigns, fuelling HSBC speculation \\| Business \\|work\=The Guardian \\|date\=1970\-01\-01 \\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-23}} By late 2016, De Castries was regarded as frontrunner for taking over as chairman of [HSBC](/wiki/HSBC "HSBC");Sinead Cruise and Simon Jessop (November 7, 2016\), [HSBC investors fear timetable to find new bosses is slipping](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsbc-results-succession/hsbc-investors-fear-timetable-to-find-new-bosses-is-slipping-idUSKBN1321YK) [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters").Ingrid Melander (January 17, 2017\), [French financier de Castries backs presidential hopeful Fillon](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-election-de-castries/french-financier-de-castries-backs-presidential-hopeful-fillon-idUSKBN1512H2) [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters"). instead, the position went to [Mark Tucker](/wiki/Mark_Tucker_%28business%29 "Mark Tucker (business)"). Following the [primaries](/wiki/2016_The_Republicans_%28France%29_presidential_primary "2016 The Republicans (France) presidential primary") for the [2017 presidential election](/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election "2017 French presidential election"), he served as [François Fillon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Fillon "François Fillon")’s senior adviser and was tipped by news media for a future role as finance minister.Javier Espinoza and Patrick Jenkins (September 11, 2017\), [Former Axa boss Henri de Castries joins General Atlantic](https://www.ft.com/content/1f6c209e-9497-11e7-a9e6-11d2f0ebb7f0) [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times"). In 2017, De Castries joined [General Atlantic](/wiki/General_Atlantic "General Atlantic"), the majority shareholder of [Argus Media](/wiki/Argus_Media "Argus Media"), as chairman and senior advisor.[Henri de Castries](https://www.generalatlantic.com/people/henri-de-castries) [General Atlantic](/wiki/General_Atlantic "General Atlantic").	[ "Career\n------", "From 1980 to 1984, De Castries performed audit assignments on behalf of the [Minister of Finances of France](/wiki/Minister_of_the_Economy%2C_Finance_and_Industry_%28France%29 \"Minister of the Economy, Finance and Industry (France)\"), and in 1984 he became a member of the management of the French Treasury. In 1986, he participated in the privatisation initiated by [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac \"Jacques Chirac\")'s government, including Compagnie Générale d'Electricité, now known as [Alcatel\\-Lucent](/wiki/Alcatel-Lucent \"Alcatel-Lucent\"), and [TF1](/wiki/TF1 \"TF1\"), both on the [CAC 40](/wiki/CAC_40 \"CAC 40\").", "De Castries started his career at AXA in 1989, when he joined the central financial direction. In 1991, he was appointed general secretary, in charge of restructurations and mergers (integration of Compagnie du Midi). He was appointed general director in 1993, in charge of North America and UK in 1994, and in charge of the merger and integration with Union des assurances de Paris (UAP) in 1996\\. He served as President of the Board of Equitable (which became AXA Financial) in 1997, and has been Chairman of the Board of Directors since 2000\\.{{cite news\\\|title\\=Axa boss de Castries set for surprise move into politics\\\|url\\=http://www.postonline.co.uk/post/news/1260922/axa\\-boss\\-castries\\-set\\-surprise\\-politics?page\\=post\\_breakingnews\\_story\\&tempPageName\\=453877\\\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2011\\\|newspaper\\=Post Online\\\|date\\=18 June 2007\\\|url\\-access\\=subscription }}{{cite news\\\|title\\=xa, AMP $10 Billion Bid May Signal Resurgence in Insurer M\\&A\\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid\\=newsarchive\\&sid\\=aHnPI9ml1fW4\\\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2011\\\|newspaper\\=Bloomberg\\\|date\\=9 November 2009\\\|author\\=Fabio Benedetti\\-Valentini\\\|author2\\=Oliver Suess}} In 2009, he took full charge at AXA by consolidating the role of chairman with his chief executive position.Scheherazade Daneshkhu (October 7, 2009\\), [De Castries is to take full charge of Axa](https://www.ft.com/content/26b60a3a-b369-11de-ae8d-00144feab49a) [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\").", "Late in De Castries' tenure, AXA became the first global financial institution to shun investments in coal companies when it sold 500 million euros of coal assets in 2015\\.Pilita Clark (May 22, 2015\\), [Axa pledges to sell €500m of coal assets by end of year](https://www.ft.com/content/f349dbb0-0072-11e5-b91e-00144feabdc0) [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\"). In 2016, he decided that AXA would join a global movement to exit tobacco investments by unloading about $2 billion in cigarette company stocks and bonds.David Jolly (May 23, 2016\\), [French Insurer AXA to Exit Tobacco Investments After Activists’ Campaign](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/24/business/dealbook/france-axa-investments-tobacco.html) [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\").", "In March 2016, it was announced De Castries would retire from both chairman and CEO roles at AXA on 1 September.{{cite web\\\|author\\=Jill Treanor \\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/mar/21/axa\\-henri\\-de\\-castries\\-resigns\\-fuelling\\-hsbc\\-speculation \\\|title\\=Axa's Henri de Castries resigns, fuelling HSBC speculation \\\| Business \\\|work\\=The Guardian \\\|date\\=1970\\-01\\-01 \\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-23}}", "By late 2016, De Castries was regarded as frontrunner for taking over as chairman of [HSBC](/wiki/HSBC \"HSBC\");Sinead Cruise and Simon Jessop (November 7, 2016\\), [HSBC investors fear timetable to find new bosses is slipping](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hsbc-results-succession/hsbc-investors-fear-timetable-to-find-new-bosses-is-slipping-idUSKBN1321YK) [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\").Ingrid Melander (January 17, 2017\\), [French financier de Castries backs presidential hopeful Fillon](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-election-de-castries/french-financier-de-castries-backs-presidential-hopeful-fillon-idUSKBN1512H2) [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\"). instead, the position went to [Mark Tucker](/wiki/Mark_Tucker_%28business%29 \"Mark Tucker (business)\"). Following the [primaries](/wiki/2016_The_Republicans_%28France%29_presidential_primary \"2016 The Republicans (France) presidential primary\") for the [2017 presidential election](/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election \"2017 French presidential election\"), he served as [François Fillon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Fillon \"François Fillon\")’s senior adviser and was tipped by news media for a future role as finance minister.Javier Espinoza and Patrick Jenkins (September 11, 2017\\), [Former Axa boss Henri de Castries joins General Atlantic](https://www.ft.com/content/1f6c209e-9497-11e7-a9e6-11d2f0ebb7f0) [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\").", "In 2017, De Castries joined [General Atlantic](/wiki/General_Atlantic \"General Atlantic\"), the majority shareholder of [Argus Media](/wiki/Argus_Media \"Argus Media\"), as chairman and senior advisor.[Henri de Castries](https://www.generalatlantic.com/people/henri-de-castries) [General Atlantic](/wiki/General_Atlantic \"General Atlantic\").", "" ]
History ------- ### Origins [thumb\\|left\\|325px\\|The Balboa Pavilion at night](/wiki/File:Balboa_Pavilion_night_time_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg "Balboa Pavilion night time photo D Ramey Logan.jpg") On September 20, 1905, the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War "United States Department of War") in [Washington D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. "Washington D.C.") granted a group of promoters, called the "Newport Bay Investment Company," permission to construct the Pavilion as a "boat\-house, bath\-house, and pavilion." The promoters built the [pavilion](/wiki/Pavilion "Pavilion") on the Newport Harbor side of the sand spit and its sister project, the [Balboa Pier](/wiki/Balboa_Pier "Balboa Pier"), on the adjacent ocean side of the sand spit, which is today called the [Balboa Peninsula](/wiki/Balboa_Peninsula "Balboa Peninsula"). These two structures were built to attract lot purchasers to this area of Newport Beach called Balboa. ### Design The pavilion was designed by [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") freelance architect Fred R. Dorn, who would later go on to work as an associate of [Morgan, Walls \& Clements](/wiki/Morgan%2C_Walls_%26_Clements "Morgan, Walls & Clements"). On July 1, 1906, the {{convert\\|65\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\=on}}\-high [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") style building was fully completed to coincide with the completion of the [Pacific Electric Railway](/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway "Pacific Electric Railway") Red Car Line extension to central Balboa near the Balboa Pavilion on July 4, 1906, after only 10 days of construction. [frame\\|right\\|The Balboa Pavilion in 1906](/wiki/Image:Balboa_Pavilion_1906c.jpg "Balboa Pavilion 1906c.jpg") With the extension of the Red Car line, People began to flock to Balboa and some purchased lots, and, thus, the Newport Investment Company's plan worked. The original building had a second story meeting room and a first story bathhouse. In the bathhouse, people could change from street attire into rented "bathing suits." Soon, yearly [Fourth of July](/wiki/Fourth_of_July "Fourth of July") bathing beauty parades brought large gatherings of people to Balboa. ### Big Band era The 1930s ushered in the [Big Band](/wiki/Big_Band "Big Band") era. On weekends the Pavilion featured such prominent bands as [Count Basie](/wiki/Count_Basie "Count Basie"), [Benny Goodman](/wiki/Benny_Goodman "Benny Goodman"), and the [Dorsey Brothers](/wiki/Dorsey_Brothers "Dorsey Brothers"). [Phil Harris](/wiki/Phil_Harris "Phil Harris") and his band played regularly on weekdays. The dance step called the "[Balboa](/wiki/Balboa_%28dance%29 "Balboa (dance)")" originated at the Balboa Pavilion and swept across the United States. The Pavilion had several upstairs and downstairs card rooms where patrons would gamble. Until the later 1930s, the Pavilion offered speed boat rides. Two speedy {{convert\\|35\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\=on}} boats would take off full speed from underneath the Balboa Pavilion with sirens blaring and race out of the bay and into the Pacific Ocean. ### Post World War II Right after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Newport Harbor was the center of [sport fishing](/wiki/Sport_fishing "Sport fishing") activity in southern California with over 100 boats and 9 landings, one of which operated out of the Pavilion. Today, only two sport fishing landings with less than ten boats survive, one of which still operates out of the Balboa Pavilion. In 1942, the Pavilion's owners leased the upstairs of the building to a gentleman who built and operated a ten\-lane [bowling](/wiki/Bowling "Bowling") alley. Pinsetters hand set the pins. ### Decay Because the Pavilion is anchored on a narrow strip of sandy waterfront, about 90% of the building was supported on wooden pilings, which extend over the bay. In 1947, the wooden pilings deteriorated, and the building began to collapse into the bay. In 1947 or 1948, the Gronsky family purchased the deteriorated Balboa Pavilion at a very low price and replaced the deteriorating original wooden pilings with large, concrete pilings. The result was a newly fortified, element\-resistant city landmark. In the later 1940s and early 1950s the Balboa Pavilion housed a "Skil\-O\-Quiz" [bingo](/wiki/Bingo_%28US%29 "Bingo (US)") parlor which gave prizes rather than cash. But bingo was deemed too wicked, was outlawed, and the sheriff shut the establishment down.	[ "History\n-------", "### Origins", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|325px\\\|The Balboa Pavilion at night](/wiki/File:Balboa_Pavilion_night_time_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg \"Balboa Pavilion night time photo D Ramey Logan.jpg\")\nOn September 20, 1905, the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War \"United States Department of War\") in [Washington D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. \"Washington D.C.\") granted a group of promoters, called the \"Newport Bay Investment Company,\" permission to construct the Pavilion as a \"boat\\-house, bath\\-house, and pavilion.\"", "The promoters built the [pavilion](/wiki/Pavilion \"Pavilion\") on the Newport Harbor side of the sand spit and its sister project, the [Balboa Pier](/wiki/Balboa_Pier \"Balboa Pier\"), on the adjacent ocean side of the sand spit, which is today called the [Balboa Peninsula](/wiki/Balboa_Peninsula \"Balboa Peninsula\"). These two structures were built to attract lot purchasers to this area of Newport Beach called Balboa.", "### Design", "The pavilion was designed by [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") freelance architect Fred R. Dorn, who would later go on to work as an associate of [Morgan, Walls \\& Clements](/wiki/Morgan%2C_Walls_%26_Clements \"Morgan, Walls & Clements\"). On July 1, 1906, the {{convert\\\|65\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|adj\\=on}}\\-high [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") style building was fully completed to coincide with the completion of the [Pacific Electric Railway](/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway \"Pacific Electric Railway\") Red Car Line extension to central Balboa near the Balboa Pavilion on July 4, 1906, after only 10 days of construction.\n[frame\\\|right\\\|The Balboa Pavilion in 1906](/wiki/Image:Balboa_Pavilion_1906c.jpg \"Balboa Pavilion 1906c.jpg\")\nWith the extension of the Red Car line, People began to flock to Balboa and some purchased lots, and, thus, the Newport Investment Company's plan worked.", "The original building had a second story meeting room and a first story bathhouse. In the bathhouse, people could change from street attire into rented \"bathing suits.\" Soon, yearly [Fourth of July](/wiki/Fourth_of_July \"Fourth of July\") bathing beauty parades brought large gatherings of people to Balboa.", "### Big Band era", "The 1930s ushered in the [Big Band](/wiki/Big_Band \"Big Band\") era. On weekends the Pavilion featured such prominent bands as [Count Basie](/wiki/Count_Basie \"Count Basie\"), [Benny Goodman](/wiki/Benny_Goodman \"Benny Goodman\"), and the [Dorsey Brothers](/wiki/Dorsey_Brothers \"Dorsey Brothers\"). [Phil Harris](/wiki/Phil_Harris \"Phil Harris\") and his band played regularly on weekdays. The dance step called the \"[Balboa](/wiki/Balboa_%28dance%29 \"Balboa (dance)\")\" originated at the Balboa Pavilion and swept across the United States.", "The Pavilion had several upstairs and downstairs card rooms where patrons would gamble.", "Until the later 1930s, the Pavilion offered speed boat rides. Two speedy {{convert\\\|35\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|adj\\=on}} boats would take off full speed from underneath the Balboa Pavilion with sirens blaring and race out of the bay and into the Pacific Ocean.", "### Post World War II", "Right after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Newport Harbor was the center of [sport fishing](/wiki/Sport_fishing \"Sport fishing\") activity in southern California with over 100 boats and 9 landings, one of which operated out of the Pavilion. Today, only two sport fishing landings with less than ten boats survive, one of which still operates out of the Balboa Pavilion.", "In 1942, the Pavilion's owners leased the upstairs of the building to a gentleman who built and operated a ten\\-lane [bowling](/wiki/Bowling \"Bowling\") alley. Pinsetters hand set the pins.", "### Decay", "Because the Pavilion is anchored on a narrow strip of sandy waterfront, about 90% of the building was supported on wooden pilings, which extend over the bay. In 1947, the wooden pilings deteriorated, and the building began to collapse into the bay.", "In 1947 or 1948, the Gronsky family purchased the deteriorated Balboa Pavilion at a very low price and replaced the deteriorating original wooden pilings with large, concrete pilings. The result was a newly fortified, element\\-resistant city landmark.", "In the later 1940s and early 1950s the Balboa Pavilion housed a \"Skil\\-O\\-Quiz\" [bingo](/wiki/Bingo_%28US%29 \"Bingo (US)\") parlor which gave prizes rather than cash. But bingo was deemed too wicked, was outlawed, and the sheriff shut the establishment down.", "" ]
Logic in the West ----------------- ### Prehistory of logic Valid reasoning has been employed in all periods of human history. However, logic studies the principles of valid reasoning, inference and demonstration. It is probable that the idea of demonstrating a conclusion first arose in connection with [geometry](/wiki/Geometry "Geometry"), which originally meant the same as "land measurement".Kneale, p. 2 The [ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") discovered [geometry](/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics "Egyptian mathematics"), including the formula for the volume of a [truncated pyramid](/wiki/Frustum "Frustum").Kneale p. 3 [Ancient Babylon](/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics "Babylonian mathematics") was also skilled in mathematics. [Esagil\-kin\-apli](/wiki/Esagil-kin-apli "Esagil-kin-apli")'s medical Diagnostic Handbook in the 11th century BC was based on a logical set of [axioms](/wiki/Axiom "Axiom") and assumptions,H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004\), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco\-Roman Medicine, p. 99, [Brill Publishers](/wiki/Brill_Publishers "Brill Publishers"), {{ISBN\\|90\-04\-13666\-5}}. while [Babylonian astronomers](/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy "Babylonian astronomy") in the 8th and 7th centuries BC employed an [internal logic](/wiki/Internal_logic "Internal logic") within their predictive planetary systems, an important contribution to the [philosophy of science](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science "Philosophy of science").D. Brown (2000\), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy\-Astrology , Styx Publications, {{ISBN\\|90\-5693\-036\-2}}. ### Ancient Greece before Aristotle While the ancient Egyptians empirically discovered some truths of geometry, the great achievement of the ancient Greeks was to replace empirical methods by demonstrative [proof](/wiki/Mathematical_proof "Mathematical proof"). Both [Thales](/wiki/Thales "Thales") and [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras "Pythagoras") of the [Pre\-Socratic philosophers](/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophers "Pre-Socratic philosophers") seemed aware of geometric methods. Fragments of early proofs are preserved in the works of Plato and Aristotle,Heath, Mathematics in Aristotle, cited in Kneale, p. 5 and the idea of a deductive system was probably known in the Pythagorean school and the [Platonic Academy](/wiki/Platonic_Academy "Platonic Academy"). The proofs of [Euclid of Alexandria](/wiki/Euclid_of_Alexandria "Euclid of Alexandria") are a paradigm of Greek geometry. The three basic principles of geometry are as follows: * Certain propositions must be accepted as true without demonstration; such a proposition is known as an [axiom](/wiki/Axiom "Axiom") of geometry. * Every proposition that is not an axiom of geometry must be demonstrated as following from the axioms of geometry; such a demonstration is known as a [proof](/wiki/Mathematical_proof "Mathematical proof") or a "derivation" of the proposition. * The proof must be formal; that is, the derivation of the proposition must be independent of the particular subject matter in question. Further evidence that early Greek thinkers were concerned with the principles of reasoning is found in the fragment called [dissoi logoi](/wiki/Dissoi_logoi "Dissoi logoi"), probably written at the beginning of the fourth century BC. This is part of a protracted debate about truth and falsity.Kneale, p. 16 In the case of the classical Greek city\-states, interest in argumentation was also stimulated by the activities of the [Rhetoricians](/wiki/Rhetoric "Rhetoric") or Orators and the [Sophists](/wiki/Sophists "Sophists"), who used arguments to defend or attack a thesis, both in legal and political contexts.{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346217/history\-of\-logic\#toc65918 \\|title\=History of logic \\|website\=britannica.com \\|access\-date\=2 April 2018}} [thumb\\|130px\\|left\\|Thales Theorem](/wiki/File:Thales%27_Theorem.svg "Thales' Theorem.svg") #### Thales It is said Thales, most widely regarded as the first philosopher in the [Greek tradition](/wiki/Greek_philosophy "Greek philosophy"),[Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"), Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18\.{{cite book \\|author\-last\=Smith \\|author\-first\=William \\|title\=Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology \\|date\=1870 \\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgree03smituoft\#page/1016 \\|page\=1016 \\|publisher\=Boston, Little}} measured the height of the [pyramids](/wiki/Pyramids "Pyramids") by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. Thales was said to have had a sacrifice in celebration of discovering [Thales' theorem](/wiki/Thales%27_theorem "Thales' theorem") just as Pythagoras had the [Pythagorean theorem](/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem "Pythagorean theorem").T. Patronis \& D. Patsopoulos {{cite book \\|url\=http://journals.tc\-library.org/index.php/hist\_math\_ed/article/viewFile/189/184 \\|title\=The Theorem of Thales: A Study of the naming of theorems in school Geometry textbooks \\|publisher\=\[\[Patras University]] \\|access\-date\=2012\-02\-12 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171258/http://journals.tc\-library.org/index.php/hist\_math\_ed/article/viewFile/189/184 \\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-03 \\|url\-status\=dead}} Thales is the first known individual to use [deductive reasoning](/wiki/Deductive_reasoning "Deductive reasoning") applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to his theorem, and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.{{harv\\|Boyer\\|1991\\|loc\="Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 43}} [Indian](/wiki/Indian_mathematics "Indian mathematics") and Babylonian mathematicians knew his theorem for special cases before he proved it.de Laet, Siegfried J. (1996\). History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development. [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO"), Volume 3, p. 14\. {{ISBN\\|92\-3\-102812\-X}} It is believed that Thales learned that an angle inscribed in a [semicircle](/wiki/Semicircle "Semicircle") is a right angle during his travels to [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon "Babylon").Boyer, Carl B. and [Merzbach, Uta C.](/wiki/Uta_Merzbach "Uta Merzbach") (2010\). A History of Mathematics. John Wiley and Sons, Chapter IV. {{ISBN\\|0\-470\-63056\-6}} #### Pythagoras [thumb\\|180px\\|Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem in Euclid's Elements](/wiki/File:Illustration_to_Euclid%27s_proof_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem.svg "Illustration to Euclid's proof of the Pythagorean theorem.svg") Before 520 BC, on one of his visits to Egypt or Greece, Pythagoras might have met the c. 54 years older Thales.C. B. Boyer (1968\) The systematic study of proof seems to have begun with the school of Pythagoras (i. e. the Pythagoreans) in the late sixth century BC. Indeed, the Pythagoreans, believing all was number, are the first philosophers to emphasize form rather than matter.{{cite book \\|page\=11 \\|author\=Samuel Enoch Stumpf \\|title\=Socrates to Sartre}} #### Heraclitus and Parmenides The writing of [Heraclitus](/wiki/Heraclitus "Heraclitus") (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word [logos](/wiki/Logos "Logos") was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy,F.E. Peters, Greek Philosophical Terms, New York University Press, 1967\. Heraclitus held that everything changes and all was fire and conflicting opposites, seemingly unified only by this Logos. He is known for his obscure sayings. {{blockquote\\|This ''logos'' holds always but humans always prove unable to understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this ''logos'', humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.\\|\[\[Diels\-Kranz]]\\|22B1}} [thumb\\|160px\\|Parmenides has been called the discoverer of logic.](/wiki/File:Busto_di_Parmenide_%28cropped%29.jpg "Busto di Parmenide (cropped).jpg") In contrast to Heraclitus, [Parmenides](/wiki/Parmenides "Parmenides") held that all is one and nothing changes. He may have been a dissident Pythagorean, disagreeing that One (a number) produced the many.{{cite book \\|author\-last\=Cornford \\|author\-first\=Francis MacDonald \\|url\=https://www.bard.edu/library/arendt/pdfs/Cornford\-Parmenides.pdf \\|title\=Plato and Parmenides: Parmenides' ''Way of Truth'' and Plato's ''Parmenides'' translated with an introduction and running commentary \\|publisher\=Liberal Arts Press \\|date\=1957 \\|orig\-date\=1939}} "X is not" must always be false or meaningless. What exists can in no way not exist. Our sense perceptions with its noticing of generation and destruction are in grievous error. Instead of sense perception, Parmenides advocated logos as the means to Truth. He has been called the discoverer of logic,{{cite book \\|title\=Western Philosophy: an introduction \\|author\=R. J. Hollingdale \\|date\=1974 \\|page\=73}}{{cite book \\|author\-last\=Cornford \\|author\-first\=Francis MacDonald \\|url\=https://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/From\_religion\_to\_philosophy.pdf \\|title\=From religion to philosophy: A study in the origins of western speculation \\|publisher\=Longmans, Green and Co. \\|date\=1912}} {{blockquote\\|For this view, that That Which Is Not exists, can never predominate. You must debar your thought from this way of search, nor let ordinary experience in its variety force you along this way, (namely, that of allowing) the eye, sightless as it is, and the ear, full of sound, and the tongue, to rule; but (you must) judge by means of the Reason (\[\[Logos]]) the much\-contested proof which is expounded by me.\\|B 7\.1–8\.2}} [Zeno of Elea](/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea "Zeno of Elea"), a pupil of Parmenides, had the idea of a standard argument pattern found in the method of proof known as [reductio ad absurdum](/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum "Reductio ad absurdum"). This is the technique of drawing an obviously false (that is, "absurd") conclusion from an assumption, thus demonstrating that the assumption is false.Kneale p. 15 Therefore, Zeno and his teacher are seen as the first to apply the art of logic.{{cite web \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DPoqAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA170 \\|title\=The Numismatic Circular \\|date\=2 April 2018 \\|access\-date\=2 April 2018 \\|via\=Google Books}} Plato's dialogue [Parmenides](/wiki/Parmenides_%28dialogue%29 "Parmenides (dialogue)") portrays Zeno as claiming to have written a book defending the [monism](/wiki/Monism "Monism") of Parmenides by demonstrating the absurd consequence of assuming that there is plurality. Zeno famously used this method to develop his [paradoxes](/wiki/Zeno%27s_Paradoxes "Zeno's Paradoxes") in his arguments against motion. Such dialectic reasoning later became popular. The members of this school were called "dialecticians" (from a Greek word meaning "to discuss"). #### Plato {{blockquote\\|Let no one ignorant of geometry enter here.\\|Inscribed over the entrance to Plato's Academy.}} [alt\=Mosaic: seven men standing under a tree\\|thumb\\|200px\\|[Plato's Academy mosaic](/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic "Plato's Academy mosaic")](/wiki/File:MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg "MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg") None of the surviving works of the great fourth\-century philosopher [Plato](/wiki/Plato "Plato") (428–347 BC) include any formal logic,Kneale p. 17 but they include important contributions to the field of [philosophical logic](/wiki/Philosophical_logic "Philosophical logic"). Plato raises three questions: * What is it that can properly be called true or false? * What is the nature of the connection between the assumptions of a valid argument and its conclusion? * What is the nature of definition? The first question arises in the dialogue [Theaetetus](/wiki/Theaetetus_%28dialogue%29 "Theaetetus (dialogue)"), where Plato identifies thought or opinion with talk or discourse (logos)."forming an opinion is talking, and opinion is speech that is held not with someone else or aloud but in silence with oneself" Theaetetus 189E–190A The second question is a result of Plato's [theory of Forms](/wiki/Theory_of_Forms "Theory of Forms"). Forms are not things in the ordinary sense, nor strictly ideas in the mind, but they correspond to what philosophers later called [universals](/wiki/Universals "Universals"), namely an abstract entity common to each set of things that have the same name. In both the [Republic](/wiki/The_Republic_%28Plato%29 "The Republic (Plato)") and the [Sophist](/wiki/Sophist_%28dialogue%29 "Sophist (dialogue)"), Plato suggests that the necessary connection between the assumptions of a valid argument and its conclusion corresponds to a necessary connection between "forms".Kneale p. 20\. For example, the proof given in the Meno that the square on the diagonal is double the area of the original square presumably involves the forms of the square and the triangle, and the necessary relation between them The third question is about [definition](/wiki/Definition "Definition"). Many of Plato's dialogues concern the search for a definition of some important concept (justice, truth, the Good), and it is likely that Plato was impressed by the importance of definition in mathematics.Kneale p. 21 What underlies every definition is a Platonic Form, the common nature present in different particular things. Thus, a definition reflects the ultimate object of understanding, and is the foundation of all valid inference. This had a great influence on Plato's student [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"), in particular Aristotle's notion of the [essence](/wiki/Essence "Essence") of a thing.Zalta, Edward N. "[Aristotle's Logic](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/#Def)". [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University"), 18 March 2000\. Retrieved 13 March 2010\. ### Aristotle {{Main article\\|Term logic}} [thumb\\|160px\\|Aristotle](/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg "Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg") The logic of [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"), and particularly his theory of the [syllogism](/wiki/Syllogism "Syllogism"), has had an enormous influence in [Western thought](/wiki/Western_thought "Western thought").See e.g. [Aristotle's logic](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Aristotle was the first logician to attempt a systematic analysis of [logical syntax](/wiki/Logical_syntax "Logical syntax"), of noun (or [term](/wiki/Terminology "Terminology")), and of verb. He was the first formal logician, in that he demonstrated the principles of reasoning by employing variables to show the underlying [logical form](/wiki/Logical_form "Logical form") of an argument.{{cite book \\|author\-last\=Sowa \\|author\-first\=John F. \\|title\=Knowledge representation: logical, philosophical, and computational foundations \\|date\=2000 \\|publisher\=Brooks/Cole \\|isbn\=0\-534\-94965\-7 \\|location\=Pacific Grove \\|pages\=2 \\|oclc\=38239202}} He sought relations of dependence which characterize necessary inference, and distinguished the [validity](/wiki/Validity_%28logic%29 "Validity (logic)") of these relations, from the truth of the premises. He was the first to deal with the principles of [contradiction](/wiki/Principle_of_contradiction "Principle of contradiction") and [excluded middle](/wiki/Law_of_excluded_middle "Law of excluded middle") in a systematic way.Bochenski p. 63 [alt\=Front cover of book, titled "Aristotelis Logica", with an illustration of eagle on a snake\\|240px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Aristotle's logic was still influential in the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance").](/wiki/File:Aristoteles_Logica_1570_Biblioteca_Huelva.jpg "Aristoteles Logica 1570 Biblioteca Huelva.jpg") #### The Organon His logical works, called the [Organon](/wiki/Organon "Organon"), are the earliest formal study of logic that have come down to modern times. Though it is difficult to determine the dates, the probable order of writing of Aristotle's logical works is: * [The Categories](/wiki/Categories_%28Aristotle%29 "Categories (Aristotle)"), a study of the ten kinds of primitive term. * [The Topics](/wiki/Topics_%28Aristotle%29 "Topics (Aristotle)") (with an appendix called [On Sophistical Refutations](/wiki/On_Sophistical_Refutations "On Sophistical Refutations")), a discussion of dialectics. * [On Interpretation](/wiki/De_Interpretatione "De Interpretatione"), an analysis of simple [categorical propositions](/wiki/Categorical_proposition "Categorical proposition") into simple terms, negation, and signs of quantity. * [The Prior Analytics](/wiki/Prior_Analytics "Prior Analytics"), a formal analysis of what makes a [syllogism](/wiki/Syllogism "Syllogism") (a valid argument, according to Aristotle). * [The Posterior Analytics](/wiki/Posterior_Analytics "Posterior Analytics"), a study of scientific demonstration, containing Aristotle's mature views on logic. [thumb\\|180px\\|This diagram shows the contradictory relationships between [categorical propositions](/wiki/Categorical_proposition "Categorical proposition") in the [square of opposition](/wiki/Square_of_opposition "Square of opposition") of [Aristotelian logic](/wiki/Term_logic "Term logic").](/wiki/File:Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg "Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg") These works are of outstanding importance in the history of logic. In the Categories, he attempts to discern all the possible things to which a term can refer; this idea underpins his philosophical work [Metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics_%28Aristotle%29 "Metaphysics (Aristotle)"), which itself had a profound influence on Western thought. He also developed a theory of non\-formal logic (i.e., the theory of [fallacies](/wiki/Logical_fallacy "Logical fallacy")), which is presented in Topics and Sophistical Refutations. On Interpretation contains a comprehensive treatment of the notions of [opposition](/wiki/Square_of_opposition "Square of opposition") and conversion; chapter 7 is at the origin of the [square of opposition](/wiki/Square_of_opposition "Square of opposition") (or logical square); chapter 9 contains the beginning of [modal logic](/wiki/Modal_logic "Modal logic"). The Prior Analytics contains his exposition of the "syllogism", where three important principles are applied for the first time in history: the use of variables, a purely formal treatment, and the use of an axiomatic system. ### Stoics {{Main\\|Stoic logic}} The other great school of Greek logic is that of the [Stoics](/wiki/Stoicism "Stoicism")."Throughout later antiquity two great schools of logic were distinguished, the Peripatetic which was derived from Aristotle, and the Stoic which was developed by Chrysippus from the teachings of the Megarians" – Kneale p. 113 Stoic logic traces its roots back to the late 5th century BC philosopher [Euclid of Megara](/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara "Euclid of Megara"), a pupil of [Socrates](/wiki/Socrates "Socrates") and slightly older contemporary of Plato, probably following in the tradition of Parmenides and Zeno. His pupils and successors were called "[Megarians](/wiki/Megarian_school "Megarian school")", or "Eristics", and later the "Dialecticians". The two most important dialecticians of the Megarian school were [Diodorus Cronus](/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus "Diodorus Cronus") and [Philo](/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician "Philo the Dialectician"), who were active in the late 4th century BC. [alt\=Stone bust of a bearded, grave\-looking man\\|thumb\\|160px\\|[Chrysippus](/wiki/Chrysippus "Chrysippus") of Soli](/wiki/File:Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg "Chrysippos BM 1846.jpg") The Stoics adopted the Megarian logic and systemized it. The most important member of the school was [Chrysippus](/wiki/Chrysippus "Chrysippus") (c. 278 – c. 206 BC), who was its third head, and who formalized much of Stoic doctrine. He is supposed to have written over 700 works, including at least 300 on logic, almost none of which survive.Oxford Companion, article "Chrysippus", p. 134[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic\-ancient/](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [Susanne Bobzien](/wiki/Susanne_Bobzien "Susanne Bobzien"), Ancient Logic Unlike with Aristotle, we have no complete works by the Megarians or the early Stoics, and have to rely mostly on accounts (sometimes hostile) by later sources, including prominently [Diogenes Laërtius](/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius "Diogenes Laërtius"), [Sextus Empiricus](/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus "Sextus Empiricus"), [Galen](/wiki/Galen "Galen"), [Aulus Gellius](/wiki/Aulus_Gellius "Aulus Gellius"), [Alexander of Aphrodisias](/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias "Alexander of Aphrodisias"), and [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero "Cicero").K. Hülser, Die Fragmente zur Dialektik der Stoiker, 4 vols, Stuttgart 1986–1987 Three significant contributions of the Stoic school were (i) their account of [modality](/wiki/Modal_logic "Modal logic"), (ii) their theory of the [Material conditional](/wiki/Material_conditional "Material conditional"), and (iii) their account of [meaning](/wiki/Meaning_%28philosophy_of_language%29 "Meaning (philosophy of language)") and [truth](/wiki/Truth "Truth").Kneale 117–158 * Modality. According to Aristotle, the Megarians of his day claimed there was no distinction between [potentiality and actuality](/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality_%28Aristotle%29 "Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)").Metaphysics Eta 3, 1046b 29 Diodorus Cronus defined the possible as that which either is or will be, the impossible as what will not be true, and the contingent as that which either is already, or will be false.[Boethius](/wiki/Boethius "Boethius"), Commentary on the Perihermenias, Meiser p. 234 Diodorus is also famous for what is known as his [Master argument](/wiki/Master_argument_%28Diodorus_Cronus%29 "Master argument (Diodorus Cronus)"), which states that each pair of the following 3 propositions contradicts the third proposition: * Everything that is past is true and necessary. * The impossible does not follow from the possible. * What neither is nor will be is possible. Diodorus used the plausibility of the first two to prove that nothing is possible if it neither is nor will be true.[Epictetus](/wiki/Epictetus "Epictetus"), Dissertationes ed. Schenkel ii. 19\. I. Chrysippus, by contrast, denied the second premise and said that the impossible could follow from the possible.Alexander p. 177 * Conditional statements. The first logicians to debate [conditional statements](/wiki/Material_conditional "Material conditional") were Diodorus and his pupil Philo of Megara. Sextus Empiricus refers three times to a debate between Diodorus and Philo. Philo regarded a conditional as true unless it has both a true [antecedent](/wiki/Antecedent_%28logic%29 "Antecedent (logic)") and a false [consequent](/wiki/Consequent "Consequent"). Precisely, let T0 and T1 be true statements, and let F0 and F1 be false statements; then, according to Philo, each of the following conditionals is a true statement, because it is not the case that the consequent is false while the antecedent is true (it is not the case that a false statement is asserted to follow from a true statement): * If T0, then T1 * If F0, then T0 * If F0, then F1 The following conditional does not meet this requirement, and is therefore a false statement according to Philo: * If T0, then F0 Indeed, Sextus says "According to \[Philo], there are three ways in which a conditional may be true, and one in which it may be false."Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. viii, Section 113 Philo's criterion of truth is what would now be called a [truth\-functional](/wiki/Truth-functional "Truth-functional") definition of "if ... then"; it is the definition used in [modern logic](/wiki/Predicate_logic "Predicate logic"). In contrast, Diodorus allowed the validity of conditionals only when the antecedent clause could never lead to an untrue conclusion.Sextus Empiricus, Hypotyp. ii. 110, comp.Cicero, Academica, ii. 47, de Fato, 6\. A century later, the [Stoic](/wiki/Stoicism "Stoicism") philosopher [Chrysippus](/wiki/Chrysippus "Chrysippus") attacked the assumptions of both Philo and Diodorus. * Meaning and truth. The most important and striking difference between Megarian\-Stoic logic and Aristotelian logic is that Megarian\-Stoic logic concerns propositions, not terms, and is thus closer to modern [propositional logic](/wiki/Propositional_logic "Propositional logic").See e.g. Lukasiewicz p. 21 The Stoics distinguished between utterance (phone), which may be noise, speech (lexis), which is articulate but which may be meaningless, and discourse (logos), which is meaningful utterance. The most original part of their theory is the idea that what is expressed by a sentence, called a lekton, is something real; this corresponds to what is now called a proposition. Sextus says that according to the Stoics, three things are linked together: that which signifies, that which is signified, and the object; for example, that which signifies is the word Dion, and that which is signified is what Greeks understand but barbarians do not, and the object is Dion himself.Sextus Bk viii., Sections 11, 12	[ "Logic in the West\n-----------------", "### Prehistory of logic", "Valid reasoning has been employed in all periods of human history. However, logic studies the principles of valid reasoning, inference and demonstration. It is probable that the idea of demonstrating a conclusion first arose in connection with [geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\"), which originally meant the same as \"land measurement\".Kneale, p. 2 The [ancient Egyptians](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") discovered [geometry](/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics \"Egyptian mathematics\"), including the formula for the volume of a [truncated pyramid](/wiki/Frustum \"Frustum\").Kneale p. 3 [Ancient Babylon](/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics \"Babylonian mathematics\") was also skilled in mathematics. [Esagil\\-kin\\-apli](/wiki/Esagil-kin-apli \"Esagil-kin-apli\")'s medical Diagnostic Handbook in the 11th century BC was based on a logical set of [axioms](/wiki/Axiom \"Axiom\") and assumptions,H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004\\), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco\\-Roman Medicine, p. 99, [Brill Publishers](/wiki/Brill_Publishers \"Brill Publishers\"), {{ISBN\\\|90\\-04\\-13666\\-5}}. while [Babylonian astronomers](/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy \"Babylonian astronomy\") in the 8th and 7th centuries BC employed an [internal logic](/wiki/Internal_logic \"Internal logic\") within their predictive planetary systems, an important contribution to the [philosophy of science](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy of science\").D. Brown (2000\\), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy\\-Astrology , Styx Publications, {{ISBN\\\|90\\-5693\\-036\\-2}}.", "### Ancient Greece before Aristotle", "While the ancient Egyptians empirically discovered some truths of geometry, the great achievement of the ancient Greeks was to replace empirical methods by demonstrative [proof](/wiki/Mathematical_proof \"Mathematical proof\"). Both [Thales](/wiki/Thales \"Thales\") and [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras \"Pythagoras\") of the [Pre\\-Socratic philosophers](/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophers \"Pre-Socratic philosophers\") seemed aware of geometric methods.", "Fragments of early proofs are preserved in the works of Plato and Aristotle,Heath, Mathematics in Aristotle, cited in Kneale, p. 5 and the idea of a deductive system was probably known in the Pythagorean school and the [Platonic Academy](/wiki/Platonic_Academy \"Platonic Academy\"). The proofs of [Euclid of Alexandria](/wiki/Euclid_of_Alexandria \"Euclid of Alexandria\") are a paradigm of Greek geometry. The three basic principles of geometry are as follows:", "* Certain propositions must be accepted as true without demonstration; such a proposition is known as an [axiom](/wiki/Axiom \"Axiom\") of geometry.\n* Every proposition that is not an axiom of geometry must be demonstrated as following from the axioms of geometry; such a demonstration is known as a [proof](/wiki/Mathematical_proof \"Mathematical proof\") or a \"derivation\" of the proposition.\n* The proof must be formal; that is, the derivation of the proposition must be independent of the particular subject matter in question.\nFurther evidence that early Greek thinkers were concerned with the principles of reasoning is found in the fragment called [dissoi logoi](/wiki/Dissoi_logoi \"Dissoi logoi\"), probably written at the beginning of the fourth century BC. This is part of a protracted debate about truth and falsity.Kneale, p. 16 In the case of the classical Greek city\\-states, interest in argumentation was also stimulated by the activities of the [Rhetoricians](/wiki/Rhetoric \"Rhetoric\") or Orators and the [Sophists](/wiki/Sophists \"Sophists\"), who used arguments to defend or attack a thesis, both in legal and political contexts.{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346217/history\\-of\\-logic\\#toc65918 \\\|title\\=History of logic \\\|website\\=britannica.com \\\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2018}}\n[thumb\\\|130px\\\|left\\\|Thales Theorem](/wiki/File:Thales%27_Theorem.svg \"Thales' Theorem.svg\")", "#### Thales", "It is said Thales, most widely regarded as the first philosopher in the [Greek tradition](/wiki/Greek_philosophy \"Greek philosophy\"),[Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\"), Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18\\.{{cite book \\\|author\\-last\\=Smith \\\|author\\-first\\=William \\\|title\\=Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology \\\|date\\=1870 \\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgree03smituoft\\#page/1016 \\\|page\\=1016 \\\|publisher\\=Boston, Little}} measured the height of the [pyramids](/wiki/Pyramids \"Pyramids\") by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. Thales was said to have had a sacrifice in celebration of discovering [Thales' theorem](/wiki/Thales%27_theorem \"Thales' theorem\") just as Pythagoras had the [Pythagorean theorem](/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem \"Pythagorean theorem\").T. Patronis \\& D. Patsopoulos {{cite book \\\|url\\=http://journals.tc\\-library.org/index.php/hist\\_math\\_ed/article/viewFile/189/184 \\\|title\\=The Theorem of Thales: A Study of the naming of theorems in school Geometry textbooks \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Patras University]] \\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-12 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171258/http://journals.tc\\-library.org/index.php/hist\\_math\\_ed/article/viewFile/189/184 \\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-03 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Thales is the first known individual to use [deductive reasoning](/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\") applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to his theorem, and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.{{harv\\\|Boyer\\\|1991\\\|loc\\=\"Ionia and the Pythagoreans\" p. 43}} [Indian](/wiki/Indian_mathematics \"Indian mathematics\") and Babylonian mathematicians knew his theorem for special cases before he proved it.de Laet, Siegfried J. (1996\\). History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development. [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\"), Volume 3, p. 14\\. {{ISBN\\\|92\\-3\\-102812\\-X}} It is believed that Thales learned that an angle inscribed in a [semicircle](/wiki/Semicircle \"Semicircle\") is a right angle during his travels to [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon \"Babylon\").Boyer, Carl B. and [Merzbach, Uta C.](/wiki/Uta_Merzbach \"Uta Merzbach\") (2010\\). A History of Mathematics. John Wiley and Sons, Chapter IV. {{ISBN\\\|0\\-470\\-63056\\-6}}", "#### Pythagoras", "[thumb\\\|180px\\\|Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem in Euclid's Elements](/wiki/File:Illustration_to_Euclid%27s_proof_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem.svg \"Illustration to Euclid's proof of the Pythagorean theorem.svg\")\nBefore 520 BC, on one of his visits to Egypt or Greece, Pythagoras might have met the c. 54 years older Thales.C. B. Boyer (1968\\) The systematic study of proof seems to have begun with the school of Pythagoras (i. e. the Pythagoreans) in the late sixth century BC. Indeed, the Pythagoreans, believing all was number, are the first philosophers to emphasize form rather than matter.{{cite book \\\|page\\=11 \\\|author\\=Samuel Enoch Stumpf \\\|title\\=Socrates to Sartre}}", "#### Heraclitus and Parmenides", "The writing of [Heraclitus](/wiki/Heraclitus \"Heraclitus\") (c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was the first place where the word [logos](/wiki/Logos \"Logos\") was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy,F.E. Peters, Greek Philosophical Terms, New York University Press, 1967\\. Heraclitus held that everything changes and all was fire and conflicting opposites, seemingly unified only by this Logos. He is known for his obscure sayings.\n{{blockquote\\\|This ''logos'' holds always but humans always prove unable to understand it, both before hearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance with this ''logos'', humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words and deeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. But other people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do while asleep.\\\|\\[\\[Diels\\-Kranz]]\\\|22B1}}\n[thumb\\\|160px\\\|Parmenides has been called the discoverer of logic.](/wiki/File:Busto_di_Parmenide_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Busto di Parmenide (cropped).jpg\")", "In contrast to Heraclitus, [Parmenides](/wiki/Parmenides \"Parmenides\") held that all is one and nothing changes. He may have been a dissident Pythagorean, disagreeing that One (a number) produced the many.{{cite book \\\|author\\-last\\=Cornford \\\|author\\-first\\=Francis MacDonald \\\|url\\=https://www.bard.edu/library/arendt/pdfs/Cornford\\-Parmenides.pdf \\\|title\\=Plato and Parmenides: Parmenides' ''Way of Truth'' and Plato's ''Parmenides'' translated with an introduction and running commentary \\\|publisher\\=Liberal Arts Press \\\|date\\=1957 \\\|orig\\-date\\=1939}} \"X is not\" must always be false or meaningless. What exists can in no way not exist. Our sense perceptions with its noticing of generation and destruction are in grievous error. Instead of sense perception, Parmenides advocated logos as the means to Truth. He has been called the discoverer of logic,{{cite book \\\|title\\=Western Philosophy: an introduction \\\|author\\=R. J. Hollingdale \\\|date\\=1974 \\\|page\\=73}}{{cite book \\\|author\\-last\\=Cornford \\\|author\\-first\\=Francis MacDonald \\\|url\\=https://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/From\\_religion\\_to\\_philosophy.pdf \\\|title\\=From religion to philosophy: A study in the origins of western speculation \\\|publisher\\=Longmans, Green and Co. \\\|date\\=1912}}", "{{blockquote\\\|For this view, that That Which Is Not exists, can never predominate. You must debar your thought from this way of search, nor let ordinary experience in its variety force you along this way, (namely, that of allowing) the eye, sightless as it is, and the ear, full of sound, and the tongue, to rule; but (you must) judge by means of the Reason (\\[\\[Logos]]) the much\\-contested proof which is expounded by me.\\\|B 7\\.1–8\\.2}}", "[Zeno of Elea](/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea \"Zeno of Elea\"), a pupil of Parmenides, had the idea of a standard argument pattern found in the method of proof known as [reductio ad absurdum](/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum \"Reductio ad absurdum\"). This is the technique of drawing an obviously false (that is, \"absurd\") conclusion from an assumption, thus demonstrating that the assumption is false.Kneale p. 15 Therefore, Zeno and his teacher are seen as the first to apply the art of logic.{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DPoqAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA170 \\\|title\\=The Numismatic Circular \\\|date\\=2 April 2018 \\\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2018 \\\|via\\=Google Books}} Plato's dialogue [Parmenides](/wiki/Parmenides_%28dialogue%29 \"Parmenides (dialogue)\") portrays Zeno as claiming to have written a book defending the [monism](/wiki/Monism \"Monism\") of Parmenides by demonstrating the absurd consequence of assuming that there is plurality. Zeno famously used this method to develop his [paradoxes](/wiki/Zeno%27s_Paradoxes \"Zeno's Paradoxes\") in his arguments against motion. Such dialectic reasoning later became popular. The members of this school were called \"dialecticians\" (from a Greek word meaning \"to discuss\").", "#### Plato", "{{blockquote\\\|Let no one ignorant of geometry enter here.\\\|Inscribed over the entrance to Plato's Academy.}}\n[alt\\=Mosaic: seven men standing under a tree\\\|thumb\\\|200px\\\|[Plato's Academy mosaic](/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic \"Plato's Academy mosaic\")](/wiki/File:MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic.jpg \"MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg\")\nNone of the surviving works of the great fourth\\-century philosopher [Plato](/wiki/Plato \"Plato\") (428–347 BC) include any formal logic,Kneale p. 17 but they include important contributions to the field of [philosophical logic](/wiki/Philosophical_logic \"Philosophical logic\"). Plato raises three questions:", "* What is it that can properly be called true or false?\n* What is the nature of the connection between the assumptions of a valid argument and its conclusion?\n* What is the nature of definition?", "The first question arises in the dialogue [Theaetetus](/wiki/Theaetetus_%28dialogue%29 \"Theaetetus (dialogue)\"), where Plato identifies thought or opinion with talk or discourse (logos).\"forming an opinion is talking, and opinion is speech that is held not with someone else or aloud but in silence with oneself\" Theaetetus 189E–190A The second question is a result of Plato's [theory of Forms](/wiki/Theory_of_Forms \"Theory of Forms\"). Forms are not things in the ordinary sense, nor strictly ideas in the mind, but they correspond to what philosophers later called [universals](/wiki/Universals \"Universals\"), namely an abstract entity common to each set of things that have the same name. In both the [Republic](/wiki/The_Republic_%28Plato%29 \"The Republic (Plato)\") and the [Sophist](/wiki/Sophist_%28dialogue%29 \"Sophist (dialogue)\"), Plato suggests that the necessary connection between the assumptions of a valid argument and its conclusion corresponds to a necessary connection between \"forms\".Kneale p. 20\\. For example, the proof given in the Meno that the square on the diagonal is double the area of the original square presumably involves the forms of the square and the triangle, and the necessary relation between them The third question is about [definition](/wiki/Definition \"Definition\"). Many of Plato's dialogues concern the search for a definition of some important concept (justice, truth, the Good), and it is likely that Plato was impressed by the importance of definition in mathematics.Kneale p. 21 What underlies every definition is a Platonic Form, the common nature present in different particular things. Thus, a definition reflects the ultimate object of understanding, and is the foundation of all valid inference. This had a great influence on Plato's student [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\"), in particular Aristotle's notion of the [essence](/wiki/Essence \"Essence\") of a thing.Zalta, Edward N. \"[Aristotle's Logic](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/#Def)\". [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\"), 18 March 2000\\. Retrieved 13 March 2010\\.", "### Aristotle", "{{Main article\\\|Term logic}}\n[thumb\\\|160px\\\|Aristotle](/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg \"Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg\")\nThe logic of [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\"), and particularly his theory of the [syllogism](/wiki/Syllogism \"Syllogism\"), has had an enormous influence in [Western thought](/wiki/Western_thought \"Western thought\").See e.g. [Aristotle's logic](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Aristotle was the first logician to attempt a systematic analysis of [logical syntax](/wiki/Logical_syntax \"Logical syntax\"), of noun (or [term](/wiki/Terminology \"Terminology\")), and of verb. He was the first formal logician, in that he demonstrated the principles of reasoning by employing variables to show the underlying [logical form](/wiki/Logical_form \"Logical form\") of an argument.{{cite book \\\|author\\-last\\=Sowa \\\|author\\-first\\=John F. \\\|title\\=Knowledge representation: logical, philosophical, and computational foundations \\\|date\\=2000 \\\|publisher\\=Brooks/Cole \\\|isbn\\=0\\-534\\-94965\\-7 \\\|location\\=Pacific Grove \\\|pages\\=2 \\\|oclc\\=38239202}} He sought relations of dependence which characterize necessary inference, and distinguished the [validity](/wiki/Validity_%28logic%29 \"Validity (logic)\") of these relations, from the truth of the premises. He was the first to deal with the principles of [contradiction](/wiki/Principle_of_contradiction \"Principle of contradiction\") and [excluded middle](/wiki/Law_of_excluded_middle \"Law of excluded middle\") in a systematic way.Bochenski p. 63\n[alt\\=Front cover of book, titled \"Aristotelis Logica\", with an illustration of eagle on a snake\\\|240px\\\|thumb\\\|left\\\|Aristotle's logic was still influential in the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\").](/wiki/File:Aristoteles_Logica_1570_Biblioteca_Huelva.jpg \"Aristoteles Logica 1570 Biblioteca Huelva.jpg\")", "#### The Organon", "His logical works, called the [Organon](/wiki/Organon \"Organon\"), are the earliest formal study of logic that have come down to modern times. Though it is difficult to determine the dates, the probable order of writing of Aristotle's logical works is:\n* [The Categories](/wiki/Categories_%28Aristotle%29 \"Categories (Aristotle)\"), a study of the ten kinds of primitive term.\n* [The Topics](/wiki/Topics_%28Aristotle%29 \"Topics (Aristotle)\") (with an appendix called [On Sophistical Refutations](/wiki/On_Sophistical_Refutations \"On Sophistical Refutations\")), a discussion of dialectics.\n* [On Interpretation](/wiki/De_Interpretatione \"De Interpretatione\"), an analysis of simple [categorical propositions](/wiki/Categorical_proposition \"Categorical proposition\") into simple terms, negation, and signs of quantity.\n* [The Prior Analytics](/wiki/Prior_Analytics \"Prior Analytics\"), a formal analysis of what makes a [syllogism](/wiki/Syllogism \"Syllogism\") (a valid argument, according to Aristotle).\n* [The Posterior Analytics](/wiki/Posterior_Analytics \"Posterior Analytics\"), a study of scientific demonstration, containing Aristotle's mature views on logic.\n[thumb\\\|180px\\\|This diagram shows the contradictory relationships between [categorical propositions](/wiki/Categorical_proposition \"Categorical proposition\") in the [square of opposition](/wiki/Square_of_opposition \"Square of opposition\") of [Aristotelian logic](/wiki/Term_logic \"Term logic\").](/wiki/File:Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg \"Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg\")\nThese works are of outstanding importance in the history of logic. In the Categories, he attempts to discern all the possible things to which a term can refer; this idea underpins his philosophical work [Metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics_%28Aristotle%29 \"Metaphysics (Aristotle)\"), which itself had a profound influence on Western thought.", "He also developed a theory of non\\-formal logic (i.e., the theory of [fallacies](/wiki/Logical_fallacy \"Logical fallacy\")), which is presented in Topics and Sophistical Refutations.", "On Interpretation contains a comprehensive treatment of the notions of [opposition](/wiki/Square_of_opposition \"Square of opposition\") and conversion; chapter 7 is at the origin of the [square of opposition](/wiki/Square_of_opposition \"Square of opposition\") (or logical square); chapter 9 contains the beginning of [modal logic](/wiki/Modal_logic \"Modal logic\").", "The Prior Analytics contains his exposition of the \"syllogism\", where three important principles are applied for the first time in history: the use of variables, a purely formal treatment, and the use of an axiomatic system.", "### Stoics", "{{Main\\\|Stoic logic}}\nThe other great school of Greek logic is that of the [Stoics](/wiki/Stoicism \"Stoicism\").\"Throughout later antiquity two great schools of logic were distinguished, the Peripatetic which was derived from Aristotle, and the Stoic which was developed by Chrysippus from the teachings of the Megarians\" – Kneale p. 113 Stoic logic traces its roots back to the late 5th century BC philosopher [Euclid of Megara](/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara \"Euclid of Megara\"), a pupil of [Socrates](/wiki/Socrates \"Socrates\") and slightly older contemporary of Plato, probably following in the tradition of Parmenides and Zeno. His pupils and successors were called \"[Megarians](/wiki/Megarian_school \"Megarian school\")\", or \"Eristics\", and later the \"Dialecticians\". The two most important dialecticians of the Megarian school were [Diodorus Cronus](/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus \"Diodorus Cronus\") and [Philo](/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician \"Philo the Dialectician\"), who were active in the late 4th century BC. \n[alt\\=Stone bust of a bearded, grave\\-looking man\\\|thumb\\\|160px\\\|[Chrysippus](/wiki/Chrysippus \"Chrysippus\") of Soli](/wiki/File:Chrysippos_BM_1846.jpg \"Chrysippos BM 1846.jpg\")\nThe Stoics adopted the Megarian logic and systemized it. The most important member of the school was [Chrysippus](/wiki/Chrysippus \"Chrysippus\") (c. 278 – c. 206 BC), who was its third head, and who formalized much of Stoic doctrine. He is supposed to have written over 700 works, including at least 300 on logic, almost none of which survive.Oxford Companion, article \"Chrysippus\", p. 134[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic\\-ancient/](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [Susanne Bobzien](/wiki/Susanne_Bobzien \"Susanne Bobzien\"), Ancient Logic Unlike with Aristotle, we have no complete works by the Megarians or the early Stoics, and have to rely mostly on accounts (sometimes hostile) by later sources, including prominently [Diogenes Laërtius](/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius \"Diogenes Laërtius\"), [Sextus Empiricus](/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus \"Sextus Empiricus\"), [Galen](/wiki/Galen \"Galen\"), [Aulus Gellius](/wiki/Aulus_Gellius \"Aulus Gellius\"), [Alexander of Aphrodisias](/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias \"Alexander of Aphrodisias\"), and [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero \"Cicero\").K. Hülser, Die Fragmente zur Dialektik der Stoiker, 4 vols, Stuttgart 1986–1987", "Three significant contributions of the Stoic school were (i) their account of [modality](/wiki/Modal_logic \"Modal logic\"), (ii) their theory of the [Material conditional](/wiki/Material_conditional \"Material conditional\"), and (iii) their account of [meaning](/wiki/Meaning_%28philosophy_of_language%29 \"Meaning (philosophy of language)\") and [truth](/wiki/Truth \"Truth\").Kneale 117–158", "* Modality. According to Aristotle, the Megarians of his day claimed there was no distinction between [potentiality and actuality](/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality_%28Aristotle%29 \"Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)\").Metaphysics Eta 3, 1046b 29 Diodorus Cronus defined the possible as that which either is or will be, the impossible as what will not be true, and the contingent as that which either is already, or will be false.[Boethius](/wiki/Boethius \"Boethius\"), Commentary on the Perihermenias, Meiser p. 234 Diodorus is also famous for what is known as his [Master argument](/wiki/Master_argument_%28Diodorus_Cronus%29 \"Master argument (Diodorus Cronus)\"), which states that each pair of the following 3 propositions contradicts the third proposition:", "* Everything that is past is true and necessary.\n* The impossible does not follow from the possible.\n* What neither is nor will be is possible.\n Diodorus used the plausibility of the first two to prove that nothing is possible if it neither is nor will be true.[Epictetus](/wiki/Epictetus \"Epictetus\"), Dissertationes ed. Schenkel ii. 19\\. I. Chrysippus, by contrast, denied the second premise and said that the impossible could follow from the possible.Alexander p. 177\n* Conditional statements. The first logicians to debate [conditional statements](/wiki/Material_conditional \"Material conditional\") were Diodorus and his pupil Philo of Megara. Sextus Empiricus refers three times to a debate between Diodorus and Philo. Philo regarded a conditional as true unless it has both a true [antecedent](/wiki/Antecedent_%28logic%29 \"Antecedent (logic)\") and a false [consequent](/wiki/Consequent \"Consequent\"). Precisely, let T0 and T1 be true statements, and let F0 and F1 be false statements; then, according to Philo, each of the following conditionals is a true statement, because it is not the case that the consequent is false while the antecedent is true (it is not the case that a false statement is asserted to follow from a true statement):", "* If T0, then T1\n* If F0, then T0\n* If F0, then F1\n The following conditional does not meet this requirement, and is therefore a false statement according to Philo:\n* If T0, then F0\n Indeed, Sextus says \"According to \\[Philo], there are three ways in which a conditional may be true, and one in which it may be false.\"Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. viii, Section 113 Philo's criterion of truth is what would now be called a [truth\\-functional](/wiki/Truth-functional \"Truth-functional\") definition of \"if ... then\"; it is the definition used in [modern logic](/wiki/Predicate_logic \"Predicate logic\").\nIn contrast, Diodorus allowed the validity of conditionals only when the antecedent clause could never lead to an untrue conclusion.Sextus Empiricus, Hypotyp. ii. 110, comp.Cicero, Academica, ii. 47, de Fato, 6\\. A century later, the [Stoic](/wiki/Stoicism \"Stoicism\") philosopher [Chrysippus](/wiki/Chrysippus \"Chrysippus\") attacked the assumptions of both Philo and Diodorus.\n* Meaning and truth. The most important and striking difference between Megarian\\-Stoic logic and Aristotelian logic is that Megarian\\-Stoic logic concerns propositions, not terms, and is thus closer to modern [propositional logic](/wiki/Propositional_logic \"Propositional logic\").See e.g. Lukasiewicz p. 21 The Stoics distinguished between utterance (phone), which may be noise, speech (lexis), which is articulate but which may be meaningless, and discourse (logos), which is meaningful utterance. The most original part of their theory is the idea that what is expressed by a sentence, called a lekton, is something real; this corresponds to what is now called a proposition. Sextus says that according to the Stoics, three things are linked together: that which signifies, that which is signified, and the object; for example, that which signifies is the word Dion, and that which is signified is what Greeks understand but barbarians do not, and the object is Dion himself.Sextus Bk viii., Sections 11, 12" ]
Modern logic ------------ {{See also\\|History of mathematical logic}} The development of modern logic falls into roughly five periods:See Bochenski p. 269 * The embryonic period from [Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz") to 1847, when the notion of a logical calculus was discussed and developed, particularly by Leibniz, but no schools were formed, and isolated periodic attempts were abandoned or went unnoticed. * The algebraic period from [Boole](/wiki/Boole "Boole")'s Analysis to [Schröder](/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_%28mathematician%29 "Ernst Schröder (mathematician)")'s Vorlesungen. In this period, there were more practitioners, and a greater continuity of development. * The [logicist](/wiki/Logicist "Logicist") period from the [Begriffsschrift](/wiki/Begriffsschrift "Begriffsschrift") of [Frege](/wiki/Frege "Frege") to the [Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Principia_Mathematica "Principia Mathematica") of [Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") and [Whitehead](/wiki/A._N._Whitehead "A. N. Whitehead"). The aim of the "logicist school" was to incorporate the logic of all mathematical and scientific discourse in a single unified system which, taking as a fundamental principle that all mathematical truths are logical, did not accept any non\-logical terminology. The major logicists were [Frege](/wiki/Gottlob_Frege "Gottlob Frege"), [Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell"), and the early [Wittgenstein](/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein "Ludwig Wittgenstein").Oxford Companion p. 499 It culminates with the Principia, an important work which includes a thorough examination and attempted solution of the [antinomies](/wiki/Antinomy "Antinomy") which had been an obstacle to earlier progress. * The metamathematical period from 1910 to the 1930s, which saw the development of [metalogic](/wiki/Metalogic "Metalogic"), in the [finitist](/wiki/Finitist "Finitist") system of [Hilbert](/wiki/David_Hilbert "David Hilbert"), and the non\-finitist system of [Löwenheim](/wiki/Leopold_L%C3%B6wenheim "Leopold Löwenheim") and [Skolem](/wiki/Skolem "Skolem"), the combination of logic and metalogic in the work of [Gödel](/wiki/G%C3%B6del "Gödel") and [Tarski](/wiki/Alfred_Tarski "Alfred Tarski"). Gödel's [incompleteness theorem](/wiki/Incompleteness_theorem "Incompleteness theorem") of 1931 was one of the greatest achievements in the history of logic. Later in the 1930s, Gödel developed the notion of [set\-theoretic constructibility](/wiki/Set-theoretic_constructibility "Set-theoretic constructibility"). * The period after World War II, when [mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic "Mathematical logic") branched into four inter\-related but separate areas of research: [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory "Model theory"), [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory "Proof theory"), [computability theory](/wiki/Computability_theory "Computability theory"), and [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory "Set theory"), and its ideas and methods began to influence [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy"). ### Embryonic period [thumb\\|upright\\|Leibniz](/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Bernhard Christoph Francke.jpg") The idea that inference could be represented by a purely mechanical process is found as early as [Raymond Llull](/wiki/Ramon_Llull "Ramon Llull"), who proposed a (somewhat eccentric) method of drawing conclusions by a system of concentric rings. The work of logicians such as the [Oxford Calculators](/wiki/Oxford_Calculators "Oxford Calculators")Edith Sylla (1999\), "Oxford Calculators", in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire: Cambridge. led to a method of using letters instead of writing out logical calculations (calculationes) in words, a method used, for instance, in the Logica magna by [Paul of Venice](/wiki/Paul_of_Venice "Paul of Venice"). Three hundred years after Llull, the English philosopher and logician [Thomas Hobbes](/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes "Thomas Hobbes") suggested that all logic and reasoning could be reduced to the mathematical operations of addition and subtraction.El. philos. sect. I de corp 1\.1\.2\. The same idea is found in the work of [Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"), who had read both Llull and Hobbes, and who argued that logic can be represented through a combinatorial process or calculus. But, like Llull and Hobbes, he failed to develop a detailed or comprehensive system, and his work on this topic was not published until long after his death. Leibniz says that ordinary languages are subject to "countless ambiguities" and are unsuited for a calculus, whose task is to expose mistakes in inference arising from the forms and structures of words;Bochenski p. 274 hence, he proposed to identify an [alphabet of human thought](/wiki/Alphabet_of_human_thought "Alphabet of human thought") comprising fundamental concepts which could be composed to express complex ideas,Rutherford, Donald, 1995, "Philosophy and language" in Jolley, N., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge Univ. Press. and create a [calculus ratiocinator](/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator "Calculus ratiocinator") that would make all arguments "as tangible as those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate."Wiener, Philip, 1951\. Leibniz: Selections. Scribner. [Gergonne](/wiki/Joseph_Diaz_Gergonne "Joseph Diaz Gergonne") (1816\) said that reasoning does not have to be about objects about which one has perfectly clear ideas, because algebraic operations can be carried out without having any idea of the meaning of the symbols involved.Essai de dialectique rationelle, 211n, quoted in Bochenski p. 277\. [Bolzano](/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano "Bernard Bolzano") anticipated a fundamental idea of modern proof theory when he defined logical consequence or "deducibility" in terms of variables:{{cite book \\|author\-last\=Bolzano \\|author\-first\=Bernard \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=oA1NDDirneQC\&q\=%22deducible%20from%20propositions%22\&pg\=PA209 \\|title\=The Theory of Science: Die Wissenschaftslehre oder Versuch einer Neuen Darstellung der Logik \\|date\=1972 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of California Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-52001787\-0 \\|editor\-last\=George \\|editor\-first\=Rolf \\|page\=209 \\|translator\-last\=Rolf \\|translator\-first\=George}} > Hence I say that propositions M, N, O,... are deducible from propositions A, B, C, D,... with respect to variable parts i, j,..., if every class of ideas whose substitution for i, j,... makes all of A, B, C, D,... true, also makes all of M, N, O,... true. Occasionally, since it is customary, I shall say that propositions M, N, O,... follow, or can be inferred or derived, from A, B, C, D,.... Propositions A, B, C, D,... I shall call the premises, M, N, O,... the conclusions. This is now known as [semantic validity](/wiki/Semantic_validity "Semantic validity"). ### Algebraic period [thumb\\|140px\\|George Boole](/wiki/File:George_Boole_color.jpg "George Boole color.jpg") Modern logic begins with what is known as the "algebraic school", originating with Boole and including [Peirce](/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce "Charles Sanders Peirce"), [Jevons](/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons "William Stanley Jevons"), [Schröder](/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_%28mathematician%29 "Ernst Schröder (mathematician)"), and [Venn](/wiki/John_Venn "John Venn").See e.g. Bochenski p. 296 and passim Their objective was to develop a calculus to formalise reasoning in the area of classes, propositions, and probabilities. The school begins with Boole's seminal work Mathematical Analysis of Logic which appeared in 1847, although [De Morgan](/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan "Augustus De Morgan") (1847\) is its immediate precursor.Before publishing, he wrote to [De Morgan](/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan "Augustus De Morgan"), who was just finishing his work Formal Logic. De Morgan suggested they should publish first, and thus the two books appeared at the same time, possibly even reaching the bookshops on the same day. cf. Kneale p. 404 The fundamental idea of Boole's system is that algebraic formulae can be used to express logical relations. This idea occurred to Boole in his teenage years, working as an usher in a private school in [Lincoln, Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Lincolnshire "Lincoln, Lincolnshire").Kneale p. 404 For example, let x and y stand for classes, let the symbol \= signify that the classes have the same members, xy stand for the class containing all and only the members of x and y and so on. Boole calls these elective symbols, i.e. symbols which select certain objects for consideration.Kneale p. 407 An expression in which elective symbols are used is called an elective function, and an equation of which the members are elective functions, is an elective equation.Boole (1847\) p. 16 The theory of elective functions and their "development" is essentially the modern idea of [truth\-functions](/wiki/Truth-function "Truth-function") and their expression in [disjunctive normal form](/wiki/Disjunctive_normal_form "Disjunctive normal form"). Boole's system admits of two interpretations, in class logic, and propositional logic. Boole distinguished between "primary propositions" which are the subject of syllogistic theory, and "secondary propositions", which are the subject of propositional logic, and showed how under different "interpretations" the same algebraic system could represent both. An example of a primary proposition is "All inhabitants are either Europeans or Asiatics." An example of a secondary proposition is "Either all inhabitants are Europeans or they are all Asiatics."Boole 1847 pp. 58–59 These are easily distinguished in modern predicate logic, where it is also possible to show that the first follows from the second, but it is a significant disadvantage that there is no way of representing this in the Boolean system.Beaney p. 11 In his Symbolic Logic (1881\), [John Venn](/wiki/John_Venn "John Venn") used diagrams of overlapping areas to express Boolean relations between classes or truth\-conditions of propositions. In 1869 Jevons realised that Boole's methods could be mechanised, and constructed a "logical machine" which he showed to the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society") the following year. In 1885 [Allan Marquand](/wiki/Allan_Marquand "Allan Marquand") proposed an electrical version of the machine that is still extant ([picture at the Firestone Library](https://web.archive.org/web/20080908073359/http://finelib.princeton.edu/instruction/wri172_demonstration.php)). [left\\|thumb\\|160px\\|Charles Sanders Peirce](/wiki/File:Charles_Sanders_Peirce.jpg "Charles Sanders Peirce.jpg") The defects in Boole's system (such as the use of the letter v for existential propositions) were all remedied by his followers. Jevons published Pure Logic, or the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity in 1864, where he suggested a symbol to signify [exclusive or](/wiki/Exclusive_or "Exclusive or"), which allowed Boole's system to be greatly simplified.Kneale p. 422 This was usefully exploited by Schröder when he set out theorems in parallel columns in his Vorlesungen (1890–1905\). Peirce (1880\) showed how all the Boolean elective functions could be expressed by the use of a single primitive binary operation, "[neither ... nor ...](/wiki/Logical_NOR "Logical NOR")" and equally well "[not both ... and ...](/wiki/Sheffer_stroke "Sheffer stroke")",Peirce, "A Boolian Algebra with One Constant", 1880 MS, Collected Papers v. 4, paragraphs 12–20, reprinted Writings v. 4, pp. 218–221\. Google [Preview](https://archive.org/details/writingsofcharle0002peir). however, like many of Peirce's innovations, this remained unknown or unnoticed until [Sheffer](/wiki/Henry_M._Sheffer "Henry M. Sheffer") rediscovered it in 1913\.Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., xiv (1913\), pp. 481–488\. This is now known as the [Sheffer stroke](/wiki/Sheffer_stroke "Sheffer stroke") Boole's early work also lacks the idea of the [logical sum](/wiki/Logical_sum "Logical sum") which originates in Peirce (1867\), [Schröder](/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_%28mathematician%29 "Ernst Schröder (mathematician)") (1877\) and Jevons (1890\),Bochenski 296 and the concept of [inclusion](/wiki/Inclusion_%28logic%29 "Inclusion (logic)"), first suggested by Gergonne (1816\) and clearly articulated by Peirce (1870\). [alt\=Coloured diagram of 4 interlocking sets\\|right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|Boolean multiples](/wiki/File:Boolean_multiples_of_2_3_5.svg "Boolean multiples of 2 3 5.svg") The success of Boole's algebraic system suggested that all logic must be capable of algebraic representation, and there were attempts to express a logic of relations in such form, of which the most ambitious was Schröder's monumental Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik ("Lectures on the Algebra of Logic", vol iii 1895\), although the original idea was again anticipated by Peirce.See CP III Boole's unwavering acceptance of Aristotle's logic is emphasized by the historian of logic [John Corcoran](/wiki/John_Corcoran_%28logician%29 "John Corcoran (logician)") in an accessible introduction to Laws of Thought.[George Boole](/wiki/George_Boole "George Boole"). 1854/2003\. The Laws of Thought, facsimile of 1854 edition, with an introduction by J. Corcoran. Buffalo: Prometheus Books (2003\). Reviewed by James van Evra in Philosophy in Review. 24 (2004\) 167–169\. Corcoran also wrote a point\-by\-point comparison of Prior Analytics and Laws of Thought.JOHN CORCORAN, Aristotle's Prior Analytics and Boole's Laws of Thought, History and Philosophy of Logic, vol. 24 (2003\), pp. 261–288\. According to Corcoran, Boole fully accepted and endorsed Aristotle's logic. Boole's goals were "to go under, over, and beyond" Aristotle's logic by 1\) providing it with mathematical foundations involving equations, 2\) extending the class of problems it could treat—from assessing validity to solving equations—and 3\) expanding the range of applications it could handle—e.g. from propositions having only two terms to those having arbitrarily many. More specifically, Boole agreed with what [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle") said; Boole's 'disagreements', if they might be called that, concern what Aristotle did not say. First, in the realm of foundations, Boole reduced the four propositional forms of Aristotelian logic to formulas in the form of equations—by itself a revolutionary idea. Second, in the realm of logic's problems, Boole's addition of equation solving to logic—another revolutionary idea—involved Boole's doctrine that Aristotle's rules of inference (the "perfect syllogisms") must be supplemented by rules for equation solving. Third, in the realm of applications, Boole's system could handle multi\-term propositions and arguments whereas Aristotle could handle only two\-termed subject\-predicate propositions and arguments. For example, Aristotle's system could not deduce "No quadrangle that is a square is a rectangle that is a rhombus" from "No square that is a quadrangle is a rhombus that is a rectangle" or from "No rhombus that is a rectangle is a square that is a quadrangle". ### Logicist period [thumb\\|160px\\|Gottlob Frege.](/wiki/File:Young_frege.jpg "Young frege.jpg") After Boole, the next great advances were made by the German mathematician [Gottlob Frege](/wiki/Gottlob_Frege "Gottlob Frege"). Frege's objective was the program of [Logicism](/wiki/Logicism "Logicism"), i.e. demonstrating that arithmetic is identical with logic.Kneale p. 435 Frege went much further than any of his predecessors in his rigorous and formal approach to logic, and his calculus or [Begriffsschrift](/wiki/Begriffsschrift "Begriffsschrift") is important. Frege also tried to show that the concept of [number](/wiki/Number "Number") can be defined by purely logical means, so that (if he was right) logic includes arithmetic and all branches of mathematics that are reducible to arithmetic. He was not the first writer to suggest this. In his pioneering work {{Lang\\|de\\|Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik}} (The Foundations of Arithmetic), sections 15–17, he acknowledges the efforts of Leibniz, [J. S. Mill](/wiki/J._S._Mill "J. S. Mill") as well as Jevons, citing the latter's claim that "algebra is a highly developed logic, and number but logical discrimination."Jevons, The Principles of Science, London 1879, p. 156, quoted in Grundlagen 15 Frege's first work, the Begriffsschrift ("concept script") is a rigorously axiomatised system of propositional logic, relying on just two connectives (negational and conditional), two rules of inference (modus ponens and substitution), and six axioms. Frege referred to the "completeness" of this system, but was unable to prove this.Beaney p. 10 – the completeness of Frege's system was eventually proved by [Jan Łukasiewicz](/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz "Jan Łukasiewicz") in 1934 The most significant innovation, however, was his explanation of the [quantifier](/wiki/Quantifier_%28logic%29 "Quantifier (logic)") in terms of mathematical functions. Traditional logic regards the sentence "Caesar is a man" as of fundamentally the same form as "all men are mortal." Sentences with a proper name subject were regarded as universal in character, interpretable as "every Caesar is a man".See for example the argument by the medieval logician [William of Ockham](/wiki/William_of_Ockham "William of Ockham") that singular propositions are universal, in [Summa Logicae](/wiki/Summa_Logicae "Summa Logicae") III. 8 (??) At the outset Frege abandons the traditional "concepts subject and predicate", replacing them with argument and function respectively, which he believes "will stand the test of time. It is easy to see how regarding a content as a function of an argument leads to the formation of concepts. Furthermore, the demonstration of the connection between the meanings of the words if, and, not, or, there is, some, all, and so forth, deserves attention".{{harvnb \\|Frege \\|1879}} in {{harvnb \\|van Heijenoort \\|1967 \\|p\=7}} Frege argued that the quantifier expression "all men" does not have the same logical or semantic form as "all men", and that the universal proposition "every A is B" is a complex proposition involving two functions, namely ' – is A' and ' – is B' such that whatever satisfies the first, also satisfies the second. In modern notation, this would be expressed as \\forall \\; x \\big( A(x) \\rightarrow B (x) \\big) In English, "for all x, if Ax then Bx". Thus only singular propositions are of subject\-predicate form, and they are irreducibly singular, i.e. not reducible to a general proposition. Universal and particular propositions, by contrast, are not of simple subject\-predicate form at all. If "all mammals" were the logical subject of the sentence "all mammals are land\-dwellers", then to negate the whole sentence we would have to negate the predicate to give "all mammals are not land\-dwellers". But this is not the case."On concept and object" p. 198; Geach p. 48 This functional analysis of ordinary\-language sentences later had a great impact on philosophy and [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics "Linguistics"). This means that in Frege's calculus, Boole's "primary" propositions can be represented in a different way from "secondary" propositions. "All inhabitants are either men or women" is [130px\\|alt\=Straight line with bend; text "x" over bend; text "F(x)" to the right of the line.\\|thumb\\|[Frege](/wiki/Frege "Frege")'s "Concept Script"](/wiki/File:BS-13-Begriffsschrift_Quantifier2-svg.svg "BS-13-Begriffsschrift Quantifier2-svg.svg") \\forall \\; x \\Big( I(x) \\rightarrow \\big( M(x) \\lor W(x) \\big) \\Big) whereas "All the inhabitants are men or all the inhabitants are women" is \\forall \\; x \\big( I(x) \\rightarrow M(x) \\big) \\lor \\forall \\;x \\big( I(x) \\rightarrow W(x) \\big) As Frege remarked in a critique of Boole's calculus: "The real difference is that I avoid \[the Boolean] division into two parts ... and give a homogeneous presentation of the lot. In Boole the two parts run alongside one another, so that one is like the mirror image of the other, but for that very reason stands in no organic relation to it."BLC p. 14, quoted in Beaney p. 12 As well as providing a unified and comprehensive system of logic, Frege's calculus also resolved the ancient [problem of multiple generality](/wiki/Problem_of_multiple_generality "Problem of multiple generality"). The ambiguity of "every girl kissed a boy" is difficult to express in traditional logic, but Frege's logic resolves this through the different scope of the quantifiers. Thus \\forall \\; x \\Big( G(x) \\rightarrow \\exists \\; y \\big( B(y) \\land K(x,y) \\big) \\Big) [thumb\\|120px\\|Peano](/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Peano.jpg "Giuseppe Peano.jpg") means that to every girl there corresponds some boy (any one will do) who the girl kissed. But \\exists \\;x \\Big( B(x) \\land \\forall \\;y \\big( G(y) \\rightarrow K(y, x) \\big) \\Big) means that there is some particular boy whom every girl kissed. Without this device, the project of logicism would have been doubtful or impossible. Using it, Frege provided a definition of the [ancestral relation](/wiki/Ancestral_relation "Ancestral relation"), of the [many\-to\-one relation](/wiki/Injective_function "Injective function"), and of [mathematical induction](/wiki/Mathematical_induction "Mathematical induction").See e.g. [The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy](http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/frege.htm), article "Frege" [thumb\\|left\\|130px\\|Ernst Zermelo](/wiki/File:Ernst_Zermelo_1900s.jpg "Ernst Zermelo 1900s.jpg") This period overlaps with the work of what is known as the "mathematical school", which included [Dedekind](/wiki/Richard_Dedekind "Richard Dedekind"), [Pasch](/wiki/Moritz_Pasch "Moritz Pasch"), [Peano](/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano "Giuseppe Peano"), [Hilbert](/wiki/David_Hilbert "David Hilbert"), [Zermelo](/wiki/Ernst_Zermelo "Ernst Zermelo"), [Huntington](/wiki/Edward_Vermilye_Huntington "Edward Vermilye Huntington"), [Veblen](/wiki/Oswald_Veblen "Oswald Veblen") and [Heyting](/wiki/Arend_Heyting "Arend Heyting"). Their objective was the axiomatisation of branches of mathematics like geometry, arithmetic, analysis and set theory. Most notable was [Hilbert's Program](/wiki/Hilbert%27s_Program "Hilbert's Program"), which sought to ground all of mathematics to a finite set of axioms, proving its consistency by "finitistic" means and providing a procedure which would decide the truth or falsity of any mathematical statement. The standard [axiomatization](/wiki/Axiomatization "Axiomatization") of the [natural numbers](/wiki/Natural_number "Natural number") is named the [Peano axioms](/wiki/Peano_axioms "Peano axioms") eponymously. Peano maintained a clear distinction between mathematical and logical symbols. While unaware of Frege's work, he independently recreated his logical apparatus based on the work of Boole and Schröder.Van Heijenoort 1967, p. 83 The logicist project received a near\-fatal setback with the discovery of a paradox in 1901 by [Bertrand Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell"). This proved Frege's [naive set theory](/wiki/Naive_set_theory "Naive set theory") led to a contradiction. Frege's theory contained the axiom that for any formal criterion, there is a set of all objects that meet the criterion. Russell showed that a set containing exactly the sets that are not members of themselves would contradict its own definition (if it is not a member of itself, it is a member of itself, and if it is a member of itself, it is not).See e.g. Potter 2004 This contradiction is now known as [Russell's paradox](/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox "Russell's paradox"). One important method of resolving this paradox was proposed by [Ernst Zermelo](/wiki/Ernst_Zermelo "Ernst Zermelo").Zermelo 1908 [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory "Zermelo set theory") was the first [axiomatic set theory](/wiki/Axiomatic_set_theory "Axiomatic set theory"). It was developed into the now\-canonical [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory "Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory") (ZF). Russell's paradox symbolically is as follows: \\text{Let } R \= \\{ x \\mid x \\not \\in x \\} \\text{, then } R \\in R \\iff R \\not \\in R The monumental [Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Principia_Mathematica "Principia Mathematica"), a three\-volume work on the [foundations of mathematics](/wiki/Foundations_of_mathematics "Foundations of mathematics"), written by Russell and [Alfred North Whitehead](/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead "Alfred North Whitehead") and published 1910–1913 also included an attempt to resolve the paradox, by means of an elaborate [system of types](/wiki/System_of_types "System of types"): a set of elements is of a different type than is each of its elements (set is not the element; one element is not the set) and one cannot speak of the "[set of all sets](/wiki/Set_of_all_sets "Set of all sets")". The Principia was an attempt to derive all mathematical truths from a well\-defined set of [axioms](/wiki/Axiom "Axiom") and [inference rules](/wiki/Inference_rule "Inference rule") in [symbolic logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic "Mathematical logic"). ### Metamathematical period [thumb\\|130px\\|right\\|Kurt Gödel](/wiki/File:Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg "Kurt gödel.jpg") The names of [Gödel](/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del "Kurt Gödel") and [Tarski](/wiki/Alfred_Tarski "Alfred Tarski") dominate the 1930s,Feferman 1999 p. 1 a crucial period in the development of [metamathematics](/wiki/Metamathematics "Metamathematics")—the study of mathematics using mathematical methods to produce [metatheories](/wiki/Metatheory "Metatheory"), or mathematical theories about other mathematical theories. Early investigations into metamathematics had been driven by Hilbert's program. Work on metamathematics culminated in the work of Gödel, who in 1929 showed that a given [first\-order sentence](/wiki/First-order_logic "First-order logic") is [deducible](/wiki/Provability_logic "Provability logic") if and only if it is logically valid—i.e. it is true in every [structure](/wiki/Structure_%28mathematical_logic%29 "Structure (mathematical logic)") for its language. This is known as [Gödel's completeness theorem](/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_completeness_theorem "Gödel's completeness theorem"). A year later, he proved two important theorems, which showed Hibert's program to be unattainable in its original form. The first is that no consistent system of axioms whose theorems can be listed by an [effective procedure](/wiki/Effective_method "Effective method") such as an [algorithm](/wiki/Algorithm "Algorithm") or computer program is capable of proving all facts about the [natural numbers](/wiki/Natural_number "Natural number"). For any such system, there will always be statements about the natural numbers that are true, but that are unprovable within the system. The second is that if such a system is also capable of proving certain basic facts about the natural numbers, then the system cannot prove the consistency of the system itself. These two results are known as [Gödel's incompleteness theorems](/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems "Gödel's incompleteness theorems"), or simply Gödel's Theorem. Later in the decade, Gödel developed the concept of [set\-theoretic constructibility](/wiki/Set-theoretic_constructibility "Set-theoretic constructibility"), as part of his proof that the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice "Axiom of choice") and the [continuum hypothesis](/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis "Continuum hypothesis") are consistent with [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory "Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory"). In [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory "Proof theory"), [Gerhard Gentzen](/wiki/Gerhard_Gentzen "Gerhard Gentzen") developed [natural deduction](/wiki/Natural_deduction "Natural deduction") and the [sequent calculus](/wiki/Sequent_calculus "Sequent calculus"). The former attempts to model logical reasoning as it 'naturally' occurs in practice and is most easily applied to [intuitionistic logic](/wiki/Intuitionistic_logic "Intuitionistic logic"), while the latter was devised to clarify the derivation of logical proofs in any formal system. Since Gentzen's work, natural deduction and sequent calculi have been widely applied in the fields of proof theory, mathematical logic and computer science. Gentzen also proved normalization and cut\-elimination theorems for intuitionistic and classical logic which could be used to reduce logical proofs to a normal form.{{cite book \\|author\-last1\=Girard \\|author\-first1\=Jean\-Yves \\|url\=https://archive.org/details/proofstypes0000gira \\|title\=Proofs and Types \\|author\-last2\=Taylor \\|first2\=Paul \\|author\-last3\=Lafont \\|author\-first3\=Yves \\|date\=1990 \\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science, 7\) \\|isbn\=0\-521\-37181\-3 \\|author\-link1\=Jean\-Yves Girard \\|orig\-date\=1989 \\|url\-access\=registration}} [right\\|200px\\|alt\=Balding man, with bookshelf in background\\|thumb\\|Alfred Tarski](/wiki/File:AlfredTarski1968.jpeg "AlfredTarski1968.jpeg") [Alfred Tarski](/wiki/Alfred_Tarski "Alfred Tarski"), a pupil of [Łukasiewicz](/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz "Jan Łukasiewicz"), is best known for his definition of truth and [logical consequence](/wiki/Logical_consequence "Logical consequence"), and the semantic concept of [logical satisfaction](/wiki/Open_sentence "Open sentence"). In 1933, he published (in Polish) The concept of truth in formalized languages, in which he proposed his [semantic theory of truth](/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth "Semantic theory of truth"): a sentence such as "snow is white" is true if and only if snow is white. Tarski's theory separated the [metalanguage](/wiki/Metalanguage "Metalanguage"), which makes the statement about truth, from the object language, which contains the sentence whose truth is being asserted, and gave a correspondence (the [T\-schema](/wiki/T-schema "T-schema")) between phrases in the object language and elements of an [interpretation](/wiki/Interpretation_%28logic%29 "Interpretation (logic)"). Tarski's approach to the difficult idea of explaining truth has been enduringly influential in logic and philosophy, especially in the development of [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory "Model theory").Feferman and Feferman 2004, p. 122, discussing "The Impact of Tarski's Theory of Truth". Tarski also produced important work on the methodology of deductive systems, and on fundamental principles such as [completeness](/wiki/Completeness_%28logic%29 "Completeness (logic)"), [decidability](/wiki/Decidability_%28logic%29 "Decidability (logic)"), [consistency](/wiki/Consistency "Consistency") and [definability](/wiki/Structure_%28mathematical_logic%29 "Structure (mathematical logic)"). According to Anita Feferman, Tarski "changed the face of logic in the twentieth century".Feferman 1999, p. 1 [Alonzo Church](/wiki/Alonzo_Church "Alonzo Church") and [Alan Turing](/wiki/Alan_Turing "Alan Turing") proposed formal models of computability, giving independent negative solutions to Hilbert's [Entscheidungsproblem](/wiki/Entscheidungsproblem "Entscheidungsproblem") in 1936 and 1937, respectively. The Entscheidungsproblem asked for a procedure that, given any formal mathematical statement, would algorithmically determine whether the statement is true. Church and Turing proved there is no such procedure; Turing's paper introduced the [halting problem](/wiki/Halting_problem "Halting problem") as a key example of a mathematical problem without an algorithmic solution. Church's system for computation developed into the modern [λ\-calculus](/wiki/%CE%9B-calculus "Λ-calculus"), while the [Turing machine](/wiki/Turing_machine "Turing machine") became a standard model for a general\-purpose computing device. It was soon shown that many other proposed models of computation were equivalent in power to those proposed by Church and Turing. These results led to the [Church–Turing thesis](/wiki/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis "Church–Turing thesis") that any deterministic [algorithm](/wiki/Algorithm "Algorithm") that can be carried out by a human can be carried out by a Turing machine. Church proved additional undecidability results, showing that both [Peano arithmetic](/wiki/Peano_arithmetic "Peano arithmetic") and [first\-order logic](/wiki/First-order_logic "First-order logic") are [undecidable](/wiki/Undecidable_problem "Undecidable problem"). Later work by [Emil Post](/wiki/Emil_Post "Emil Post") and [Stephen Cole Kleene](/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene "Stephen Cole Kleene") in the 1940s extended the scope of computability theory and introduced the concept of [degrees of unsolvability](/wiki/Degrees_of_unsolvability "Degrees of unsolvability"). The results of the first few decades of the twentieth century also had an impact upon [analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy "Analytic philosophy") and [philosophical logic](/wiki/Philosophical_logic "Philosophical logic"), particularly from the 1950s onwards, in subjects such as [modal logic](/wiki/Modal_logic "Modal logic"), [temporal logic](/wiki/Temporal_logic "Temporal logic"), [deontic logic](/wiki/Deontic_logic "Deontic logic"), and [relevance logic](/wiki/Relevance_logic "Relevance logic"). ### Logic after WWII [alt\=Man with a beard and straw hat on a beach\\|thumb\\|[Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke "Saul Kripke")](/wiki/File:Kripke.JPG "Kripke.JPG") After World War II, [mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic "Mathematical logic") branched into four inter\-related but separate areas of research: [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory "Model theory"), [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory "Proof theory"), [computability theory](/wiki/Computability_theory "Computability theory"), and [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory "Set theory").See e.g. Barwise, Handbook of Mathematical Logic In set theory, the method of [forcing](/wiki/Forcing_%28mathematics%29 "Forcing (mathematics)") revolutionized the field by providing a robust method for constructing models and obtaining independence results. [Paul Cohen](/wiki/Paul_Cohen "Paul Cohen") introduced this method in 1963 to prove the independence of the [continuum hypothesis](/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis "Continuum hypothesis") and the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice "Axiom of choice") from [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory "Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory").{{cite journal \\| jstor\=72252 \\| last1\=Cohen \\| first1\=Paul J. \\| title\=The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis, II \\| journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| date\=1964 \\| volume\=51 \\| issue\=1 \\| pages\=105–110 \\| doi\=10\.1073/pnas.51\.1\.105 \\| pmid\=16591132 \\| pmc\=300611 \\| bibcode\=1964PNAS...51\..105C \\| doi\-access\=free }} His technique, which was simplified and extended soon after its introduction, has since been applied to many other problems in all areas of mathematical logic. Computability theory had its roots in the work of Turing, Church, Kleene, and Post in the 1930s and 40s. It developed into a study of abstract computability, which became known as [recursion theory](/wiki/Recursion_theory "Recursion theory").Many of the foundational papers are collected in The Undecidable (1965\) edited by Martin Davis The [priority method](/wiki/Turing_degree "Turing degree"), discovered independently by [Albert Muchnik](/wiki/Albert_Muchnik "Albert Muchnik") and [Richard Friedberg](/wiki/Richard_Friedberg "Richard Friedberg") in the 1950s, led to major advances in the understanding of the [degrees of unsolvability](/wiki/Degrees_of_unsolvability "Degrees of unsolvability") and related structures. Research into higher\-order computability theory demonstrated its connections to set theory. The fields of [constructive analysis](/wiki/Constructive_analysis "Constructive analysis") and [computable analysis](/wiki/Computable_analysis "Computable analysis") were developed to study the effective content of classical mathematical theorems; these in turn inspired the program of [reverse mathematics](/wiki/Reverse_mathematics "Reverse mathematics"). A separate branch of computability theory, [computational complexity theory](/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory "Computational complexity theory"), was also characterized in logical terms as a result of investigations into [descriptive complexity](/wiki/Descriptive_complexity "Descriptive complexity"). Model theory applies the methods of mathematical logic to study models of particular mathematical theories. Alfred Tarski published much pioneering work in the field, which is named after a series of papers he published under the title Contributions to the theory of models. In the 1960s, [Abraham Robinson](/wiki/Abraham_Robinson "Abraham Robinson") used model\-theoretic techniques to develop calculus and analysis based on [infinitesimals](/wiki/Non-standard_analysis "Non-standard analysis"), a problem that first had been proposed by Leibniz. In proof theory, the relationship between classical mathematics and intuitionistic mathematics was clarified via tools such as the [realizability](/wiki/Realizability "Realizability") method invented by [Georg Kreisel](/wiki/Georg_Kreisel "Georg Kreisel") and Gödel's [Dialectica interpretation](/wiki/Dialectica_interpretation "Dialectica interpretation"). This work inspired the contemporary area of [proof mining](/wiki/Proof_mining "Proof mining"). The [Curry–Howard correspondence](/wiki/Curry%E2%80%93Howard_correspondence "Curry–Howard correspondence") emerged as a deep analogy between logic and computation, including a correspondence between systems of natural deduction and [typed lambda calculi](/wiki/Typed_lambda_calculus "Typed lambda calculus") used in computer science. As a result, research into this class of formal systems began to address both logical and computational aspects; this area of research came to be known as modern type theory. Advances were also made in [ordinal analysis](/wiki/Ordinal_analysis "Ordinal analysis") and the study of independence results in arithmetic such as the [Paris–Harrington theorem](/wiki/Paris%E2%80%93Harrington_theorem "Paris–Harrington theorem"). This was also a period, particularly in the 1950s and afterwards, when the ideas of mathematical logic begin to influence philosophical thinking. For example, [tense logic](/wiki/Tense_logic "Tense logic") is a formalised system for representing, and reasoning about, propositions qualified in terms of time. The philosopher [Arthur Prior](/wiki/Arthur_Prior "Arthur Prior") played a significant role in its development in the 1960s. [Modal logics](/wiki/Modal_logic "Modal logic") extend the scope of formal logic to include the elements of [modality](/wiki/Linguistic_modality "Linguistic modality") (for example, [possibility](/wiki/Logical_possibility "Logical possibility") and [necessity](/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions%23Necessary_conditions "Necessary and sufficient conditions#Necessary conditions")). The ideas of [Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke "Saul Kripke"), particularly about [possible worlds](/wiki/Possible_world "Possible world"), and the formal system now called [Kripke semantics](/wiki/Kripke_semantics "Kripke semantics") have had a profound impact on [analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy "Analytic philosophy").Jerry Fodor, "[Water's water everywhere](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n20/jerry-fodor/waters-water-everywhere)", London Review of Books, 21 October 2004 His best known and most influential work is [Naming and Necessity](/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity "Naming and Necessity") (1980\).See Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 2: The Age of Meaning, Scott Soames: "Naming and Necessity is among the most important works ever, ranking with the classical work of Frege in the late nineteenth century, and of Russell, Tarski and Wittgenstein in the first half of the twentieth century". Cited in Byrne, Alex and Hall, Ned. 2004\. 'Necessary Truths'. Boston Review October/November 2004 [Deontic logics](/wiki/Deontic_logic "Deontic logic") are closely related to modal logics: they attempt to capture the logical features of [obligation](/wiki/Obligation "Obligation"), [permission](/wiki/Permission_%28philosophy%29 "Permission (philosophy)") and related concepts. Although some basic novelties [syncretizing](/wiki/Syncretism "Syncretism") mathematical and philosophical logic were shown by [Bolzano](/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano%23Metaphysics "Bernard Bolzano#Metaphysics") in the early 1800s, it was [Ernst Mally](/wiki/Ernst_Mally "Ernst Mally"), a pupil of [Alexius Meinong](/wiki/Alexius_Meinong "Alexius Meinong"), who was to propose the first formal deontic system in his Grundgesetze des Sollens, based on the syntax of Whitehead's and Russell's [propositional calculus](/wiki/Propositional_calculus "Propositional calculus"). Another logical system founded after World War II was [fuzzy logic](/wiki/Fuzzy_logic "Fuzzy logic") by Azerbaijani mathematician [Lotfi Asker Zadeh](/wiki/Lotfi_Asker_Zadeh "Lotfi Asker Zadeh") in 1965\.	[ "Modern logic\n------------", "{{See also\\\|History of mathematical logic}}", "The development of modern logic falls into roughly five periods:See Bochenski p. 269\n* The embryonic period from [Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz \"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\") to 1847, when the notion of a logical calculus was discussed and developed, particularly by Leibniz, but no schools were formed, and isolated periodic attempts were abandoned or went unnoticed.\n* The algebraic period from [Boole](/wiki/Boole \"Boole\")'s Analysis to [Schröder](/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_%28mathematician%29 \"Ernst Schröder (mathematician)\")'s Vorlesungen. In this period, there were more practitioners, and a greater continuity of development.\n* The [logicist](/wiki/Logicist \"Logicist\") period from the [Begriffsschrift](/wiki/Begriffsschrift \"Begriffsschrift\") of [Frege](/wiki/Frege \"Frege\") to the [Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Principia_Mathematica \"Principia Mathematica\") of [Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\") and [Whitehead](/wiki/A._N._Whitehead \"A. N. Whitehead\"). The aim of the \"logicist school\" was to incorporate the logic of all mathematical and scientific discourse in a single unified system which, taking as a fundamental principle that all mathematical truths are logical, did not accept any non\\-logical terminology. The major logicists were [Frege](/wiki/Gottlob_Frege \"Gottlob Frege\"), [Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\"), and the early [Wittgenstein](/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein \"Ludwig Wittgenstein\").Oxford Companion p. 499 It culminates with the Principia, an important work which includes a thorough examination and attempted solution of the [antinomies](/wiki/Antinomy \"Antinomy\") which had been an obstacle to earlier progress.\n* The metamathematical period from 1910 to the 1930s, which saw the development of [metalogic](/wiki/Metalogic \"Metalogic\"), in the [finitist](/wiki/Finitist \"Finitist\") system of [Hilbert](/wiki/David_Hilbert \"David Hilbert\"), and the non\\-finitist system of [Löwenheim](/wiki/Leopold_L%C3%B6wenheim \"Leopold Löwenheim\") and [Skolem](/wiki/Skolem \"Skolem\"), the combination of logic and metalogic in the work of [Gödel](/wiki/G%C3%B6del \"Gödel\") and [Tarski](/wiki/Alfred_Tarski \"Alfred Tarski\"). Gödel's [incompleteness theorem](/wiki/Incompleteness_theorem \"Incompleteness theorem\") of 1931 was one of the greatest achievements in the history of logic. Later in the 1930s, Gödel developed the notion of [set\\-theoretic constructibility](/wiki/Set-theoretic_constructibility \"Set-theoretic constructibility\").\n* The period after World War II, when [mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\") branched into four inter\\-related but separate areas of research: [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory \"Model theory\"), [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory \"Proof theory\"), [computability theory](/wiki/Computability_theory \"Computability theory\"), and [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory \"Set theory\"), and its ideas and methods began to influence [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\").", "### Embryonic period", "[thumb\\\|upright\\\|Leibniz](/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg \"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Bernhard Christoph Francke.jpg\")\nThe idea that inference could be represented by a purely mechanical process is found as early as [Raymond Llull](/wiki/Ramon_Llull \"Ramon Llull\"), who proposed a (somewhat eccentric) method of drawing conclusions by a system of concentric rings. The work of logicians such as the [Oxford Calculators](/wiki/Oxford_Calculators \"Oxford Calculators\")Edith Sylla (1999\\), \"Oxford Calculators\", in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire: Cambridge. led to a method of using letters instead of writing out logical calculations (calculationes) in words, a method used, for instance, in the Logica magna by [Paul of Venice](/wiki/Paul_of_Venice \"Paul of Venice\"). Three hundred years after Llull, the English philosopher and logician [Thomas Hobbes](/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes \"Thomas Hobbes\") suggested that all logic and reasoning could be reduced to the mathematical operations of addition and subtraction.El. philos. sect. I de corp 1\\.1\\.2\\. The same idea is found in the work of [Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz \"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\"), who had read both Llull and Hobbes, and who argued that logic can be represented through a combinatorial process or calculus. But, like Llull and Hobbes, he failed to develop a detailed or comprehensive system, and his work on this topic was not published until long after his death. Leibniz says that ordinary languages are subject to \"countless ambiguities\" and are unsuited for a calculus, whose task is to expose mistakes in inference arising from the forms and structures of words;Bochenski p. 274 hence, he proposed to identify an [alphabet of human thought](/wiki/Alphabet_of_human_thought \"Alphabet of human thought\") comprising fundamental concepts which could be composed to express complex ideas,Rutherford, Donald, 1995, \"Philosophy and language\" in Jolley, N., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge Univ. Press. and create a [calculus ratiocinator](/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator \"Calculus ratiocinator\") that would make all arguments \"as tangible as those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate.\"Wiener, Philip, 1951\\. Leibniz: Selections. Scribner.", "[Gergonne](/wiki/Joseph_Diaz_Gergonne \"Joseph Diaz Gergonne\") (1816\\) said that reasoning does not have to be about objects about which one has perfectly clear ideas, because algebraic operations can be carried out without having any idea of the meaning of the symbols involved.Essai de dialectique rationelle, 211n, quoted in Bochenski p. 277\\. [Bolzano](/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano \"Bernard Bolzano\") anticipated a fundamental idea of modern proof theory when he defined logical consequence or \"deducibility\" in terms of variables:{{cite book \\\|author\\-last\\=Bolzano \\\|author\\-first\\=Bernard \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oA1NDDirneQC\\&q\\=%22deducible%20from%20propositions%22\\&pg\\=PA209 \\\|title\\=The Theory of Science: Die Wissenschaftslehre oder Versuch einer Neuen Darstellung der Logik \\\|date\\=1972 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of California Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-52001787\\-0 \\\|editor\\-last\\=George \\\|editor\\-first\\=Rolf \\\|page\\=209 \\\|translator\\-last\\=Rolf \\\|translator\\-first\\=George}}\n> Hence I say that propositions M, N, O,... are deducible from propositions A, B, C, D,... with respect to variable parts i, j,..., if every class of ideas whose substitution for i, j,... makes all of A, B, C, D,... true, also makes all of M, N, O,... true. Occasionally, since it is customary, I shall say that propositions M, N, O,... follow, or can be inferred or derived, from A, B, C, D,.... Propositions A, B, C, D,... I shall call the premises, M, N, O,... the conclusions.", "This is now known as [semantic validity](/wiki/Semantic_validity \"Semantic validity\").", "### Algebraic period", "[thumb\\\|140px\\\|George Boole](/wiki/File:George_Boole_color.jpg \"George Boole color.jpg\")\nModern logic begins with what is known as the \"algebraic school\", originating with Boole and including [Peirce](/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce \"Charles Sanders Peirce\"), [Jevons](/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons \"William Stanley Jevons\"), [Schröder](/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_%28mathematician%29 \"Ernst Schröder (mathematician)\"), and [Venn](/wiki/John_Venn \"John Venn\").See e.g. Bochenski p. 296 and passim Their objective was to develop a calculus to formalise reasoning in the area of classes, propositions, and probabilities. The school begins with Boole's seminal work Mathematical Analysis of Logic which appeared in 1847, although [De Morgan](/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan \"Augustus De Morgan\") (1847\\) is its immediate precursor.Before publishing, he wrote to [De Morgan](/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan \"Augustus De Morgan\"), who was just finishing his work Formal Logic. De Morgan suggested they should publish first, and thus the two books appeared at the same time, possibly even reaching the bookshops on the same day. cf. Kneale p. 404 The fundamental idea of Boole's system is that algebraic formulae can be used to express logical relations. This idea occurred to Boole in his teenage years, working as an usher in a private school in [Lincoln, Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Lincolnshire \"Lincoln, Lincolnshire\").Kneale p. 404 For example, let x and y stand for classes, let the symbol \\= signify that the classes have the same members, xy stand for the class containing all and only the members of x and y and so on. Boole calls these elective symbols, i.e. symbols which select certain objects for consideration.Kneale p. 407 An expression in which elective symbols are used is called an elective function, and an equation of which the members are elective functions, is an elective equation.Boole (1847\\) p. 16 The theory of elective functions and their \"development\" is essentially the modern idea of [truth\\-functions](/wiki/Truth-function \"Truth-function\") and their expression in [disjunctive normal form](/wiki/Disjunctive_normal_form \"Disjunctive normal form\").", "Boole's system admits of two interpretations, in class logic, and propositional logic. Boole distinguished between \"primary propositions\" which are the subject of syllogistic theory, and \"secondary propositions\", which are the subject of propositional logic, and showed how under different \"interpretations\" the same algebraic system could represent both. An example of a primary proposition is \"All inhabitants are either Europeans or Asiatics.\" An example of a secondary proposition is \"Either all inhabitants are Europeans or they are all Asiatics.\"Boole 1847 pp. 58–59 These are easily distinguished in modern predicate logic, where it is also possible to show that the first follows from the second, but it is a significant disadvantage that there is no way of representing this in the Boolean system.Beaney p. 11", "In his Symbolic Logic (1881\\), [John Venn](/wiki/John_Venn \"John Venn\") used diagrams of overlapping areas to express Boolean relations between classes or truth\\-conditions of propositions. In 1869 Jevons realised that Boole's methods could be mechanised, and constructed a \"logical machine\" which he showed to the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society \"Royal Society\") the following year. In 1885 [Allan Marquand](/wiki/Allan_Marquand \"Allan Marquand\") proposed an electrical version of the machine that is still extant ([picture at the Firestone Library](https://web.archive.org/web/20080908073359/http://finelib.princeton.edu/instruction/wri172_demonstration.php)).\n[left\\\|thumb\\\|160px\\\|Charles Sanders Peirce](/wiki/File:Charles_Sanders_Peirce.jpg \"Charles Sanders Peirce.jpg\")\nThe defects in Boole's system (such as the use of the letter v for existential propositions) were all remedied by his followers. Jevons published Pure Logic, or the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity in 1864, where he suggested a symbol to signify [exclusive or](/wiki/Exclusive_or \"Exclusive or\"), which allowed Boole's system to be greatly simplified.Kneale p. 422 This was usefully exploited by Schröder when he set out theorems in parallel columns in his Vorlesungen (1890–1905\\). Peirce (1880\\) showed how all the Boolean elective functions could be expressed by the use of a single primitive binary operation, \"[neither ... nor ...](/wiki/Logical_NOR \"Logical NOR\")\" and equally well \"[not both ... and ...](/wiki/Sheffer_stroke \"Sheffer stroke\")\",Peirce, \"A Boolian Algebra with One Constant\", 1880 MS, Collected Papers v. 4, paragraphs 12–20, reprinted Writings v. 4, pp. 218–221\\. Google [Preview](https://archive.org/details/writingsofcharle0002peir). however, like many of Peirce's innovations, this remained unknown or unnoticed until [Sheffer](/wiki/Henry_M._Sheffer \"Henry M. Sheffer\") rediscovered it in 1913\\.Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., xiv (1913\\), pp. 481–488\\. This is now known as the [Sheffer stroke](/wiki/Sheffer_stroke \"Sheffer stroke\") Boole's early work also lacks the idea of the [logical sum](/wiki/Logical_sum \"Logical sum\") which originates in Peirce (1867\\), [Schröder](/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_%28mathematician%29 \"Ernst Schröder (mathematician)\") (1877\\) and Jevons (1890\\),Bochenski 296 and the concept of [inclusion](/wiki/Inclusion_%28logic%29 \"Inclusion (logic)\"), first suggested by Gergonne (1816\\) and clearly articulated by Peirce (1870\\).\n[alt\\=Coloured diagram of 4 interlocking sets\\\|right\\\|thumb\\\|250px\\\|Boolean multiples](/wiki/File:Boolean_multiples_of_2_3_5.svg \"Boolean multiples of 2 3 5.svg\")\nThe success of Boole's algebraic system suggested that all logic must be capable of algebraic representation, and there were attempts to express a logic of relations in such form, of which the most ambitious was Schröder's monumental Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik (\"Lectures on the Algebra of Logic\", vol iii 1895\\), although the original idea was again anticipated by Peirce.See CP III", "Boole's unwavering acceptance of Aristotle's logic is emphasized by the historian of logic [John Corcoran](/wiki/John_Corcoran_%28logician%29 \"John Corcoran (logician)\") in an accessible introduction to Laws of Thought.[George Boole](/wiki/George_Boole \"George Boole\"). 1854/2003\\. The Laws of Thought, facsimile of 1854 edition, with an introduction by J. Corcoran. Buffalo: Prometheus Books (2003\\). Reviewed by James van Evra in Philosophy in Review. 24 (2004\\) 167–169\\. Corcoran also wrote a point\\-by\\-point comparison of Prior Analytics and Laws of Thought.JOHN CORCORAN, Aristotle's Prior Analytics and Boole's Laws of Thought, History and Philosophy of Logic, vol. 24 (2003\\), pp. 261–288\\. According to Corcoran, Boole fully accepted and endorsed Aristotle's logic. Boole's goals were \"to go under, over, and beyond\" Aristotle's logic by 1\\) providing it with mathematical foundations involving equations, 2\\) extending the class of problems it could treat—from assessing validity to solving equations—and 3\\) expanding the range of applications it could handle—e.g. from propositions having only two terms to those having arbitrarily many.", "More specifically, Boole agreed with what [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") said; Boole's 'disagreements', if they might be called that, concern what Aristotle did not say. \nFirst, in the realm of foundations, Boole reduced the four propositional forms of Aristotelian logic to formulas in the form of equations—by itself a revolutionary idea. \nSecond, in the realm of logic's problems, Boole's addition of equation solving to logic—another revolutionary idea—involved Boole's doctrine that Aristotle's rules of inference (the \"perfect syllogisms\") must be supplemented by rules for equation solving. \nThird, in the realm of applications, Boole's system could handle multi\\-term propositions and arguments whereas Aristotle could handle only two\\-termed subject\\-predicate propositions and arguments. For example, Aristotle's system could not deduce \"No quadrangle that is a square is a rectangle that is a rhombus\" from \"No square that is a quadrangle is a rhombus that is a rectangle\" or from \"No rhombus that is a rectangle is a square that is a quadrangle\".", "### Logicist period", "[thumb\\\|160px\\\|Gottlob Frege.](/wiki/File:Young_frege.jpg \"Young frege.jpg\")\nAfter Boole, the next great advances were made by the German mathematician [Gottlob Frege](/wiki/Gottlob_Frege \"Gottlob Frege\"). Frege's objective was the program of [Logicism](/wiki/Logicism \"Logicism\"), i.e. demonstrating that arithmetic is identical with logic.Kneale p. 435 Frege went much further than any of his predecessors in his rigorous and formal approach to logic, and his calculus or [Begriffsschrift](/wiki/Begriffsschrift \"Begriffsschrift\") is important. Frege also tried to show that the concept of [number](/wiki/Number \"Number\") can be defined by purely logical means, so that (if he was right) logic includes arithmetic and all branches of mathematics that are reducible to arithmetic. He was not the first writer to suggest this. In his pioneering work {{Lang\\\|de\\\|Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik}} (The Foundations of Arithmetic), sections 15–17, he acknowledges the efforts of Leibniz, [J. S. Mill](/wiki/J._S._Mill \"J. S. Mill\") as well as Jevons, citing the latter's claim that \"algebra is a highly developed logic, and number but logical discrimination.\"Jevons, The Principles of Science, London 1879, p. 156, quoted in Grundlagen 15", "Frege's first work, the Begriffsschrift (\"concept script\") is a rigorously axiomatised system of propositional logic, relying on just two connectives (negational and conditional), two rules of inference (modus ponens and substitution), and six axioms. Frege referred to the \"completeness\" of this system, but was unable to prove this.Beaney p. 10 – the completeness of Frege's system was eventually proved by [Jan Łukasiewicz](/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz \"Jan Łukasiewicz\") in 1934 The most significant innovation, however, was his explanation of the [quantifier](/wiki/Quantifier_%28logic%29 \"Quantifier (logic)\") in terms of mathematical functions. Traditional logic regards the sentence \"Caesar is a man\" as of fundamentally the same form as \"all men are mortal.\" Sentences with a proper name subject were regarded as universal in character, interpretable as \"every Caesar is a man\".See for example the argument by the medieval logician [William of Ockham](/wiki/William_of_Ockham \"William of Ockham\") that singular propositions are universal, in [Summa Logicae](/wiki/Summa_Logicae \"Summa Logicae\") III. 8 (??) At the outset Frege abandons the traditional \"concepts subject and predicate\", replacing them with argument and function respectively, which he believes \"will stand the test of time. It is easy to see how regarding a content as a function of an argument leads to the formation of concepts. Furthermore, the demonstration of the connection between the meanings of the words if, and, not, or, there is, some, all, and so forth, deserves attention\".{{harvnb \\\|Frege \\\|1879}} in {{harvnb \\\|van Heijenoort \\\|1967 \\\|p\\=7}} Frege argued that the quantifier expression \"all men\" does not have the same logical or semantic form as \"all men\", and that the universal proposition \"every A is B\" is a complex proposition involving two functions, namely ' – is A' and ' – is B' such that whatever satisfies the first, also satisfies the second. In modern notation, this would be expressed as", "\\\\forall \\\\; x \\\\big( A(x) \\\\rightarrow B (x) \\\\big)\nIn English, \"for all x, if Ax then Bx\". Thus only singular propositions are of subject\\-predicate form, and they are irreducibly singular, i.e. not reducible to a general proposition. Universal and particular propositions, by contrast, are not of simple subject\\-predicate form at all. If \"all mammals\" were the logical subject of the sentence \"all mammals are land\\-dwellers\", then to negate the whole sentence we would have to negate the predicate to give \"all mammals are not land\\-dwellers\". But this is not the case.\"On concept and object\" p. 198; Geach p. 48 This functional analysis of ordinary\\-language sentences later had a great impact on philosophy and [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics \"Linguistics\").", "This means that in Frege's calculus, Boole's \"primary\" propositions can be represented in a different way from \"secondary\" propositions. \"All inhabitants are either men or women\" is\n[130px\\\|alt\\=Straight line with bend; text \"x\" over bend; text \"F(x)\" to the right of the line.\\\|thumb\\\|[Frege](/wiki/Frege \"Frege\")'s \"Concept Script\"](/wiki/File:BS-13-Begriffsschrift_Quantifier2-svg.svg \"BS-13-Begriffsschrift Quantifier2-svg.svg\")\n \\\\forall \\\\; x \\\\Big( I(x) \\\\rightarrow \\\\big( M(x) \\\\lor W(x) \\\\big) \\\\Big)", "whereas \"All the inhabitants are men or all the inhabitants are women\" is", "\\\\forall \\\\; x \\\\big( I(x) \\\\rightarrow M(x) \\\\big) \\\\lor \\\\forall \\\\;x \\\\big( I(x) \\\\rightarrow W(x) \\\\big)\nAs Frege remarked in a critique of Boole's calculus:", "\"The real difference is that I avoid \\[the Boolean] division into two parts ... and give a homogeneous presentation of the lot. In Boole the two parts run alongside one another, so that one is like the mirror image of the other, but for that very reason stands in no organic relation to it.\"BLC p. 14, quoted in Beaney p. 12\nAs well as providing a unified and comprehensive system of logic, Frege's calculus also resolved the ancient [problem of multiple generality](/wiki/Problem_of_multiple_generality \"Problem of multiple generality\"). The ambiguity of \"every girl kissed a boy\" is difficult to express in traditional logic, but Frege's logic resolves this through the different scope of the quantifiers. Thus", "\\\\forall \\\\; x \\\\Big( G(x) \\\\rightarrow \\\\exists \\\\; y \\\\big( B(y) \\\\land K(x,y) \\\\big) \\\\Big)\n[thumb\\\|120px\\\|Peano](/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Peano.jpg \"Giuseppe Peano.jpg\")\nmeans that to every girl there corresponds some boy (any one will do) who the girl kissed. But\n\\\\exists \\\\;x \\\\Big( B(x) \\\\land \\\\forall \\\\;y \\\\big( G(y) \\\\rightarrow K(y, x) \\\\big) \\\\Big)\nmeans that there is some particular boy whom every girl kissed. Without this device, the project of logicism would have been doubtful or impossible. Using it, Frege provided a definition of the [ancestral relation](/wiki/Ancestral_relation \"Ancestral relation\"), of the [many\\-to\\-one relation](/wiki/Injective_function \"Injective function\"), and of [mathematical induction](/wiki/Mathematical_induction \"Mathematical induction\").See e.g. [The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy](http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/frege.htm), article \"Frege\"\n[thumb\\\|left\\\|130px\\\|Ernst Zermelo](/wiki/File:Ernst_Zermelo_1900s.jpg \"Ernst Zermelo 1900s.jpg\")\nThis period overlaps with the work of what is known as the \"mathematical school\", which included [Dedekind](/wiki/Richard_Dedekind \"Richard Dedekind\"), [Pasch](/wiki/Moritz_Pasch \"Moritz Pasch\"), [Peano](/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano \"Giuseppe Peano\"), [Hilbert](/wiki/David_Hilbert \"David Hilbert\"), [Zermelo](/wiki/Ernst_Zermelo \"Ernst Zermelo\"), [Huntington](/wiki/Edward_Vermilye_Huntington \"Edward Vermilye Huntington\"), [Veblen](/wiki/Oswald_Veblen \"Oswald Veblen\") and [Heyting](/wiki/Arend_Heyting \"Arend Heyting\"). Their objective was the axiomatisation of branches of mathematics like geometry, arithmetic, analysis and set theory. Most notable was [Hilbert's Program](/wiki/Hilbert%27s_Program \"Hilbert's Program\"), which sought to ground all of mathematics to a finite set of axioms, proving its consistency by \"finitistic\" means and providing a procedure which would decide the truth or falsity of any mathematical statement. The standard [axiomatization](/wiki/Axiomatization \"Axiomatization\") of the [natural numbers](/wiki/Natural_number \"Natural number\") is named the [Peano axioms](/wiki/Peano_axioms \"Peano axioms\") eponymously. Peano maintained a clear distinction between mathematical and logical symbols. While unaware of Frege's work, he independently recreated his logical apparatus based on the work of Boole and Schröder.Van Heijenoort 1967, p. 83", "The logicist project received a near\\-fatal setback with the discovery of a paradox in 1901 by [Bertrand Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\"). This proved Frege's [naive set theory](/wiki/Naive_set_theory \"Naive set theory\") led to a contradiction. Frege's theory contained the axiom that for any formal criterion, there is a set of all objects that meet the criterion. Russell showed that a set containing exactly the sets that are not members of themselves would contradict its own definition (if it is not a member of itself, it is a member of itself, and if it is a member of itself, it is not).See e.g. Potter 2004 This contradiction is now known as [Russell's paradox](/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox \"Russell's paradox\"). One important method of resolving this paradox was proposed by [Ernst Zermelo](/wiki/Ernst_Zermelo \"Ernst Zermelo\").Zermelo 1908 [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory \"Zermelo set theory\") was the first [axiomatic set theory](/wiki/Axiomatic_set_theory \"Axiomatic set theory\"). It was developed into the now\\-canonical [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory \"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory\") (ZF). Russell's paradox symbolically is as follows:", "\\\\text{Let } R \\= \\\\{ x \\\\mid x \\\\not \\\\in x \\\\} \\\\text{, then } R \\\\in R \\\\iff R \\\\not \\\\in R\nThe monumental [Principia Mathematica](/wiki/Principia_Mathematica \"Principia Mathematica\"), a three\\-volume work on the [foundations of mathematics](/wiki/Foundations_of_mathematics \"Foundations of mathematics\"), written by Russell and [Alfred North Whitehead](/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead \"Alfred North Whitehead\") and published 1910–1913 also included an attempt to resolve the paradox, by means of an elaborate [system of types](/wiki/System_of_types \"System of types\"): a set of elements is of a different type than is each of its elements (set is not the element; one element is not the set) and one cannot speak of the \"[set of all sets](/wiki/Set_of_all_sets \"Set of all sets\")\". The Principia was an attempt to derive all mathematical truths from a well\\-defined set of [axioms](/wiki/Axiom \"Axiom\") and [inference rules](/wiki/Inference_rule \"Inference rule\") in [symbolic logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\").\n### Metamathematical period", "[thumb\\\|130px\\\|right\\\|Kurt Gödel](/wiki/File:Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg \"Kurt gödel.jpg\")\nThe names of [Gödel](/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del \"Kurt Gödel\") and [Tarski](/wiki/Alfred_Tarski \"Alfred Tarski\") dominate the 1930s,Feferman 1999 p. 1 a crucial period in the development of [metamathematics](/wiki/Metamathematics \"Metamathematics\")—the study of mathematics using mathematical methods to produce [metatheories](/wiki/Metatheory \"Metatheory\"), or mathematical theories about other mathematical theories. Early investigations into metamathematics had been driven by Hilbert's program. Work on metamathematics culminated in the work of Gödel, who in 1929 showed that a given [first\\-order sentence](/wiki/First-order_logic \"First-order logic\") is [deducible](/wiki/Provability_logic \"Provability logic\") if and only if it is logically valid—i.e. it is true in every [structure](/wiki/Structure_%28mathematical_logic%29 \"Structure (mathematical logic)\") for its language. This is known as [Gödel's completeness theorem](/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_completeness_theorem \"Gödel's completeness theorem\"). A year later, he proved two important theorems, which showed Hibert's program to be unattainable in its original form. The first is that no consistent system of axioms whose theorems can be listed by an [effective procedure](/wiki/Effective_method \"Effective method\") such as an [algorithm](/wiki/Algorithm \"Algorithm\") or computer program is capable of proving all facts about the [natural numbers](/wiki/Natural_number \"Natural number\"). For any such system, there will always be statements about the natural numbers that are true, but that are unprovable within the system. The second is that if such a system is also capable of proving certain basic facts about the natural numbers, then the system cannot prove the consistency of the system itself. These two results are known as [Gödel's incompleteness theorems](/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems \"Gödel's incompleteness theorems\"), or simply Gödel's Theorem. Later in the decade, Gödel developed the concept of [set\\-theoretic constructibility](/wiki/Set-theoretic_constructibility \"Set-theoretic constructibility\"), as part of his proof that the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice \"Axiom of choice\") and the [continuum hypothesis](/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis \"Continuum hypothesis\") are consistent with [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory \"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory\").\nIn [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory \"Proof theory\"), [Gerhard Gentzen](/wiki/Gerhard_Gentzen \"Gerhard Gentzen\") developed [natural deduction](/wiki/Natural_deduction \"Natural deduction\") and the [sequent calculus](/wiki/Sequent_calculus \"Sequent calculus\"). The former attempts to model logical reasoning as it 'naturally' occurs in practice and is most easily applied to [intuitionistic logic](/wiki/Intuitionistic_logic \"Intuitionistic logic\"), while the latter was devised to clarify the derivation of logical proofs in any formal system. Since Gentzen's work, natural deduction and sequent calculi have been widely applied in the fields of proof theory, mathematical logic and computer science. Gentzen also proved normalization and cut\\-elimination theorems for intuitionistic and classical logic which could be used to reduce logical proofs to a normal form.{{cite book \\\|author\\-last1\\=Girard \\\|author\\-first1\\=Jean\\-Yves \\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/proofstypes0000gira \\\|title\\=Proofs and Types \\\|author\\-last2\\=Taylor \\\|first2\\=Paul \\\|author\\-last3\\=Lafont \\\|author\\-first3\\=Yves \\\|date\\=1990 \\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science, 7\\) \\\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-37181\\-3 \\\|author\\-link1\\=Jean\\-Yves Girard \\\|orig\\-date\\=1989 \\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}\n[right\\\|200px\\\|alt\\=Balding man, with bookshelf in background\\\|thumb\\\|Alfred Tarski](/wiki/File:AlfredTarski1968.jpeg \"AlfredTarski1968.jpeg\")\n[Alfred Tarski](/wiki/Alfred_Tarski \"Alfred Tarski\"), a pupil of [Łukasiewicz](/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz \"Jan Łukasiewicz\"), is best known for his definition of truth and [logical consequence](/wiki/Logical_consequence \"Logical consequence\"), and the semantic concept of [logical satisfaction](/wiki/Open_sentence \"Open sentence\"). In 1933, he published (in Polish) The concept of truth in formalized languages, in which he proposed his [semantic theory of truth](/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth \"Semantic theory of truth\"): a sentence such as \"snow is white\" is true if and only if snow is white. Tarski's theory separated the [metalanguage](/wiki/Metalanguage \"Metalanguage\"), which makes the statement about truth, from the object language, which contains the sentence whose truth is being asserted, and gave a correspondence (the [T\\-schema](/wiki/T-schema \"T-schema\")) between phrases in the object language and elements of an [interpretation](/wiki/Interpretation_%28logic%29 \"Interpretation (logic)\"). Tarski's approach to the difficult idea of explaining truth has been enduringly influential in logic and philosophy, especially in the development of [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory \"Model theory\").Feferman and Feferman 2004, p. 122, discussing \"The Impact of Tarski's Theory of Truth\". Tarski also produced important work on the methodology of deductive systems, and on fundamental principles such as [completeness](/wiki/Completeness_%28logic%29 \"Completeness (logic)\"), [decidability](/wiki/Decidability_%28logic%29 \"Decidability (logic)\"), [consistency](/wiki/Consistency \"Consistency\") and [definability](/wiki/Structure_%28mathematical_logic%29 \"Structure (mathematical logic)\"). According to Anita Feferman, Tarski \"changed the face of logic in the twentieth century\".Feferman 1999, p. 1", "[Alonzo Church](/wiki/Alonzo_Church \"Alonzo Church\") and [Alan Turing](/wiki/Alan_Turing \"Alan Turing\") proposed formal models of computability, giving independent negative solutions to Hilbert's [Entscheidungsproblem](/wiki/Entscheidungsproblem \"Entscheidungsproblem\") in 1936 and 1937, respectively. The Entscheidungsproblem asked for a procedure that, given any formal mathematical statement, would algorithmically determine whether the statement is true. Church and Turing proved there is no such procedure; Turing's paper introduced the [halting problem](/wiki/Halting_problem \"Halting problem\") as a key example of a mathematical problem without an algorithmic solution.", "Church's system for computation developed into the modern [λ\\-calculus](/wiki/%CE%9B-calculus \"Λ-calculus\"), while the [Turing machine](/wiki/Turing_machine \"Turing machine\") became a standard model for a general\\-purpose computing device. It was soon shown that many other proposed models of computation were equivalent in power to those proposed by Church and Turing. These results led to the [Church–Turing thesis](/wiki/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis \"Church–Turing thesis\") that any deterministic [algorithm](/wiki/Algorithm \"Algorithm\") that can be carried out by a human can be carried out by a Turing machine. Church proved additional undecidability results, showing that both [Peano arithmetic](/wiki/Peano_arithmetic \"Peano arithmetic\") and [first\\-order logic](/wiki/First-order_logic \"First-order logic\") are [undecidable](/wiki/Undecidable_problem \"Undecidable problem\"). Later work by [Emil Post](/wiki/Emil_Post \"Emil Post\") and [Stephen Cole Kleene](/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene \"Stephen Cole Kleene\") in the 1940s extended the scope of computability theory and introduced the concept of [degrees of unsolvability](/wiki/Degrees_of_unsolvability \"Degrees of unsolvability\").", "The results of the first few decades of the twentieth century also had an impact upon [analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\") and [philosophical logic](/wiki/Philosophical_logic \"Philosophical logic\"), particularly from the 1950s onwards, in subjects such as [modal logic](/wiki/Modal_logic \"Modal logic\"), [temporal logic](/wiki/Temporal_logic \"Temporal logic\"), [deontic logic](/wiki/Deontic_logic \"Deontic logic\"), and [relevance logic](/wiki/Relevance_logic \"Relevance logic\").", "### Logic after WWII", "[alt\\=Man with a beard and straw hat on a beach\\\|thumb\\\|[Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke \"Saul Kripke\")](/wiki/File:Kripke.JPG \"Kripke.JPG\")", "After World War II, [mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\") branched into four inter\\-related but separate areas of research: [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory \"Model theory\"), [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory \"Proof theory\"), [computability theory](/wiki/Computability_theory \"Computability theory\"), and [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory \"Set theory\").See e.g. Barwise, Handbook of Mathematical Logic", "In set theory, the method of [forcing](/wiki/Forcing_%28mathematics%29 \"Forcing (mathematics)\") revolutionized the field by providing a robust method for constructing models and obtaining independence results. [Paul Cohen](/wiki/Paul_Cohen \"Paul Cohen\") introduced this method in 1963 to prove the independence of the [continuum hypothesis](/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis \"Continuum hypothesis\") and the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice \"Axiom of choice\") from [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory \"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory\").{{cite journal \\\| jstor\\=72252 \\\| last1\\=Cohen \\\| first1\\=Paul J. \\\| title\\=The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis, II \\\| journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\\| date\\=1964 \\\| volume\\=51 \\\| issue\\=1 \\\| pages\\=105–110 \\\| doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.51\\.1\\.105 \\\| pmid\\=16591132 \\\| pmc\\=300611 \\\| bibcode\\=1964PNAS...51\\..105C \\\| doi\\-access\\=free }} His technique, which was simplified and extended soon after its introduction, has since been applied to many other problems in all areas of mathematical logic.", "Computability theory had its roots in the work of Turing, Church, Kleene, and Post in the 1930s and 40s. It developed into a study of abstract computability, which became known as [recursion theory](/wiki/Recursion_theory \"Recursion theory\").Many of the foundational papers are collected in The Undecidable (1965\\) edited by Martin Davis The [priority method](/wiki/Turing_degree \"Turing degree\"), discovered independently by [Albert Muchnik](/wiki/Albert_Muchnik \"Albert Muchnik\") and [Richard Friedberg](/wiki/Richard_Friedberg \"Richard Friedberg\") in the 1950s, led to major advances in the understanding of the [degrees of unsolvability](/wiki/Degrees_of_unsolvability \"Degrees of unsolvability\") and related structures. Research into higher\\-order computability theory demonstrated its connections to set theory. The fields of [constructive analysis](/wiki/Constructive_analysis \"Constructive analysis\") and [computable analysis](/wiki/Computable_analysis \"Computable analysis\") were developed to study the effective content of classical mathematical theorems; these in turn inspired the program of [reverse mathematics](/wiki/Reverse_mathematics \"Reverse mathematics\"). A separate branch of computability theory, [computational complexity theory](/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory \"Computational complexity theory\"), was also characterized in logical terms as a result of investigations into [descriptive complexity](/wiki/Descriptive_complexity \"Descriptive complexity\").", "Model theory applies the methods of mathematical logic to study models of particular mathematical theories. Alfred Tarski published much pioneering work in the field, which is named after a series of papers he published under the title Contributions to the theory of models. In the 1960s, [Abraham Robinson](/wiki/Abraham_Robinson \"Abraham Robinson\") used model\\-theoretic techniques to develop calculus and analysis based on [infinitesimals](/wiki/Non-standard_analysis \"Non-standard analysis\"), a problem that first had been proposed by Leibniz.", "In proof theory, the relationship between classical mathematics and intuitionistic mathematics was clarified via tools such as the [realizability](/wiki/Realizability \"Realizability\") method invented by [Georg Kreisel](/wiki/Georg_Kreisel \"Georg Kreisel\") and Gödel's [Dialectica interpretation](/wiki/Dialectica_interpretation \"Dialectica interpretation\"). This work inspired the contemporary area of [proof mining](/wiki/Proof_mining \"Proof mining\"). The [Curry–Howard correspondence](/wiki/Curry%E2%80%93Howard_correspondence \"Curry–Howard correspondence\") emerged as a deep analogy between logic and computation, including a correspondence between systems of natural deduction and [typed lambda calculi](/wiki/Typed_lambda_calculus \"Typed lambda calculus\") used in computer science. As a result, research into this class of formal systems began to address both logical and computational aspects; this area of research came to be known as modern type theory. Advances were also made in [ordinal analysis](/wiki/Ordinal_analysis \"Ordinal analysis\") and the study of independence results in arithmetic such as the [Paris–Harrington theorem](/wiki/Paris%E2%80%93Harrington_theorem \"Paris–Harrington theorem\").", "This was also a period, particularly in the 1950s and afterwards, when the ideas of mathematical logic begin to influence philosophical thinking. For example, [tense logic](/wiki/Tense_logic \"Tense logic\") is a formalised system for representing, and reasoning about, propositions qualified in terms of time. The philosopher [Arthur Prior](/wiki/Arthur_Prior \"Arthur Prior\") played a significant role in its development in the 1960s. [Modal logics](/wiki/Modal_logic \"Modal logic\") extend the scope of formal logic to include the elements of [modality](/wiki/Linguistic_modality \"Linguistic modality\") (for example, [possibility](/wiki/Logical_possibility \"Logical possibility\") and [necessity](/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions%23Necessary_conditions \"Necessary and sufficient conditions#Necessary conditions\")). The ideas of [Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke \"Saul Kripke\"), particularly about [possible worlds](/wiki/Possible_world \"Possible world\"), and the formal system now called [Kripke semantics](/wiki/Kripke_semantics \"Kripke semantics\") have had a profound impact on [analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\").Jerry Fodor, \"[Water's water everywhere](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n20/jerry-fodor/waters-water-everywhere)\", London Review of Books, 21 October 2004 His best known and most influential work is [Naming and Necessity](/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity \"Naming and Necessity\") (1980\\).See Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 2: The Age of Meaning, Scott Soames: \"Naming and Necessity is among the most important works ever, ranking with the classical work of Frege in the late nineteenth century, and of Russell, Tarski and Wittgenstein in the first half of the twentieth century\". Cited in Byrne, Alex and Hall, Ned. 2004\\. 'Necessary Truths'. Boston Review October/November 2004 [Deontic logics](/wiki/Deontic_logic \"Deontic logic\") are closely related to modal logics: they attempt to capture the logical features of [obligation](/wiki/Obligation \"Obligation\"), [permission](/wiki/Permission_%28philosophy%29 \"Permission (philosophy)\") and related concepts. Although some basic novelties [syncretizing](/wiki/Syncretism \"Syncretism\") mathematical and philosophical logic were shown by [Bolzano](/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano%23Metaphysics \"Bernard Bolzano#Metaphysics\") in the early 1800s, it was [Ernst Mally](/wiki/Ernst_Mally \"Ernst Mally\"), a pupil of [Alexius Meinong](/wiki/Alexius_Meinong \"Alexius Meinong\"), who was to propose the first formal deontic system in his Grundgesetze des Sollens, based on the syntax of Whitehead's and Russell's [propositional calculus](/wiki/Propositional_calculus \"Propositional calculus\").", "Another logical system founded after World War II was [fuzzy logic](/wiki/Fuzzy_logic \"Fuzzy logic\") by Azerbaijani mathematician [Lotfi Asker Zadeh](/wiki/Lotfi_Asker_Zadeh \"Lotfi Asker Zadeh\") in 1965\\.", "" ]
### Logic after WWII [alt\=Man with a beard and straw hat on a beach\\|thumb\\|[Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke "Saul Kripke")](/wiki/File:Kripke.JPG "Kripke.JPG") After World War II, [mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic "Mathematical logic") branched into four inter\-related but separate areas of research: [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory "Model theory"), [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory "Proof theory"), [computability theory](/wiki/Computability_theory "Computability theory"), and [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory "Set theory").See e.g. Barwise, Handbook of Mathematical Logic In set theory, the method of [forcing](/wiki/Forcing_%28mathematics%29 "Forcing (mathematics)") revolutionized the field by providing a robust method for constructing models and obtaining independence results. [Paul Cohen](/wiki/Paul_Cohen "Paul Cohen") introduced this method in 1963 to prove the independence of the [continuum hypothesis](/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis "Continuum hypothesis") and the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice "Axiom of choice") from [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory "Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory").{{cite journal \\| jstor\=72252 \\| last1\=Cohen \\| first1\=Paul J. \\| title\=The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis, II \\| journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| date\=1964 \\| volume\=51 \\| issue\=1 \\| pages\=105–110 \\| doi\=10\.1073/pnas.51\.1\.105 \\| pmid\=16591132 \\| pmc\=300611 \\| bibcode\=1964PNAS...51\..105C \\| doi\-access\=free }} His technique, which was simplified and extended soon after its introduction, has since been applied to many other problems in all areas of mathematical logic. Computability theory had its roots in the work of Turing, Church, Kleene, and Post in the 1930s and 40s. It developed into a study of abstract computability, which became known as [recursion theory](/wiki/Recursion_theory "Recursion theory").Many of the foundational papers are collected in The Undecidable (1965\) edited by Martin Davis The [priority method](/wiki/Turing_degree "Turing degree"), discovered independently by [Albert Muchnik](/wiki/Albert_Muchnik "Albert Muchnik") and [Richard Friedberg](/wiki/Richard_Friedberg "Richard Friedberg") in the 1950s, led to major advances in the understanding of the [degrees of unsolvability](/wiki/Degrees_of_unsolvability "Degrees of unsolvability") and related structures. Research into higher\-order computability theory demonstrated its connections to set theory. The fields of [constructive analysis](/wiki/Constructive_analysis "Constructive analysis") and [computable analysis](/wiki/Computable_analysis "Computable analysis") were developed to study the effective content of classical mathematical theorems; these in turn inspired the program of [reverse mathematics](/wiki/Reverse_mathematics "Reverse mathematics"). A separate branch of computability theory, [computational complexity theory](/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory "Computational complexity theory"), was also characterized in logical terms as a result of investigations into [descriptive complexity](/wiki/Descriptive_complexity "Descriptive complexity"). Model theory applies the methods of mathematical logic to study models of particular mathematical theories. Alfred Tarski published much pioneering work in the field, which is named after a series of papers he published under the title Contributions to the theory of models. In the 1960s, [Abraham Robinson](/wiki/Abraham_Robinson "Abraham Robinson") used model\-theoretic techniques to develop calculus and analysis based on [infinitesimals](/wiki/Non-standard_analysis "Non-standard analysis"), a problem that first had been proposed by Leibniz. In proof theory, the relationship between classical mathematics and intuitionistic mathematics was clarified via tools such as the [realizability](/wiki/Realizability "Realizability") method invented by [Georg Kreisel](/wiki/Georg_Kreisel "Georg Kreisel") and Gödel's [Dialectica interpretation](/wiki/Dialectica_interpretation "Dialectica interpretation"). This work inspired the contemporary area of [proof mining](/wiki/Proof_mining "Proof mining"). The [Curry–Howard correspondence](/wiki/Curry%E2%80%93Howard_correspondence "Curry–Howard correspondence") emerged as a deep analogy between logic and computation, including a correspondence between systems of natural deduction and [typed lambda calculi](/wiki/Typed_lambda_calculus "Typed lambda calculus") used in computer science. As a result, research into this class of formal systems began to address both logical and computational aspects; this area of research came to be known as modern type theory. Advances were also made in [ordinal analysis](/wiki/Ordinal_analysis "Ordinal analysis") and the study of independence results in arithmetic such as the [Paris–Harrington theorem](/wiki/Paris%E2%80%93Harrington_theorem "Paris–Harrington theorem"). This was also a period, particularly in the 1950s and afterwards, when the ideas of mathematical logic begin to influence philosophical thinking. For example, [tense logic](/wiki/Tense_logic "Tense logic") is a formalised system for representing, and reasoning about, propositions qualified in terms of time. The philosopher [Arthur Prior](/wiki/Arthur_Prior "Arthur Prior") played a significant role in its development in the 1960s. [Modal logics](/wiki/Modal_logic "Modal logic") extend the scope of formal logic to include the elements of [modality](/wiki/Linguistic_modality "Linguistic modality") (for example, [possibility](/wiki/Logical_possibility "Logical possibility") and [necessity](/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions%23Necessary_conditions "Necessary and sufficient conditions#Necessary conditions")). The ideas of [Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke "Saul Kripke"), particularly about [possible worlds](/wiki/Possible_world "Possible world"), and the formal system now called [Kripke semantics](/wiki/Kripke_semantics "Kripke semantics") have had a profound impact on [analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy "Analytic philosophy").Jerry Fodor, "[Water's water everywhere](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n20/jerry-fodor/waters-water-everywhere)", London Review of Books, 21 October 2004 His best known and most influential work is [Naming and Necessity](/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity "Naming and Necessity") (1980\).See Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 2: The Age of Meaning, Scott Soames: "Naming and Necessity is among the most important works ever, ranking with the classical work of Frege in the late nineteenth century, and of Russell, Tarski and Wittgenstein in the first half of the twentieth century". Cited in Byrne, Alex and Hall, Ned. 2004\. 'Necessary Truths'. Boston Review October/November 2004 [Deontic logics](/wiki/Deontic_logic "Deontic logic") are closely related to modal logics: they attempt to capture the logical features of [obligation](/wiki/Obligation "Obligation"), [permission](/wiki/Permission_%28philosophy%29 "Permission (philosophy)") and related concepts. Although some basic novelties [syncretizing](/wiki/Syncretism "Syncretism") mathematical and philosophical logic were shown by [Bolzano](/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano%23Metaphysics "Bernard Bolzano#Metaphysics") in the early 1800s, it was [Ernst Mally](/wiki/Ernst_Mally "Ernst Mally"), a pupil of [Alexius Meinong](/wiki/Alexius_Meinong "Alexius Meinong"), who was to propose the first formal deontic system in his Grundgesetze des Sollens, based on the syntax of Whitehead's and Russell's [propositional calculus](/wiki/Propositional_calculus "Propositional calculus"). Another logical system founded after World War II was [fuzzy logic](/wiki/Fuzzy_logic "Fuzzy logic") by Azerbaijani mathematician [Lotfi Asker Zadeh](/wiki/Lotfi_Asker_Zadeh "Lotfi Asker Zadeh") in 1965\.	[ "### Logic after WWII", "[alt\\=Man with a beard and straw hat on a beach\\\|thumb\\\|[Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke \"Saul Kripke\")](/wiki/File:Kripke.JPG \"Kripke.JPG\")", "After World War II, [mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\") branched into four inter\\-related but separate areas of research: [model theory](/wiki/Model_theory \"Model theory\"), [proof theory](/wiki/Proof_theory \"Proof theory\"), [computability theory](/wiki/Computability_theory \"Computability theory\"), and [set theory](/wiki/Set_theory \"Set theory\").See e.g. Barwise, Handbook of Mathematical Logic", "In set theory, the method of [forcing](/wiki/Forcing_%28mathematics%29 \"Forcing (mathematics)\") revolutionized the field by providing a robust method for constructing models and obtaining independence results. [Paul Cohen](/wiki/Paul_Cohen \"Paul Cohen\") introduced this method in 1963 to prove the independence of the [continuum hypothesis](/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis \"Continuum hypothesis\") and the [axiom of choice](/wiki/Axiom_of_choice \"Axiom of choice\") from [Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory \"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory\").{{cite journal \\\| jstor\\=72252 \\\| last1\\=Cohen \\\| first1\\=Paul J. \\\| title\\=The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis, II \\\| journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\\| date\\=1964 \\\| volume\\=51 \\\| issue\\=1 \\\| pages\\=105–110 \\\| doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.51\\.1\\.105 \\\| pmid\\=16591132 \\\| pmc\\=300611 \\\| bibcode\\=1964PNAS...51\\..105C \\\| doi\\-access\\=free }} His technique, which was simplified and extended soon after its introduction, has since been applied to many other problems in all areas of mathematical logic.", "Computability theory had its roots in the work of Turing, Church, Kleene, and Post in the 1930s and 40s. It developed into a study of abstract computability, which became known as [recursion theory](/wiki/Recursion_theory \"Recursion theory\").Many of the foundational papers are collected in The Undecidable (1965\\) edited by Martin Davis The [priority method](/wiki/Turing_degree \"Turing degree\"), discovered independently by [Albert Muchnik](/wiki/Albert_Muchnik \"Albert Muchnik\") and [Richard Friedberg](/wiki/Richard_Friedberg \"Richard Friedberg\") in the 1950s, led to major advances in the understanding of the [degrees of unsolvability](/wiki/Degrees_of_unsolvability \"Degrees of unsolvability\") and related structures. Research into higher\\-order computability theory demonstrated its connections to set theory. The fields of [constructive analysis](/wiki/Constructive_analysis \"Constructive analysis\") and [computable analysis](/wiki/Computable_analysis \"Computable analysis\") were developed to study the effective content of classical mathematical theorems; these in turn inspired the program of [reverse mathematics](/wiki/Reverse_mathematics \"Reverse mathematics\"). A separate branch of computability theory, [computational complexity theory](/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory \"Computational complexity theory\"), was also characterized in logical terms as a result of investigations into [descriptive complexity](/wiki/Descriptive_complexity \"Descriptive complexity\").", "Model theory applies the methods of mathematical logic to study models of particular mathematical theories. Alfred Tarski published much pioneering work in the field, which is named after a series of papers he published under the title Contributions to the theory of models. In the 1960s, [Abraham Robinson](/wiki/Abraham_Robinson \"Abraham Robinson\") used model\\-theoretic techniques to develop calculus and analysis based on [infinitesimals](/wiki/Non-standard_analysis \"Non-standard analysis\"), a problem that first had been proposed by Leibniz.", "In proof theory, the relationship between classical mathematics and intuitionistic mathematics was clarified via tools such as the [realizability](/wiki/Realizability \"Realizability\") method invented by [Georg Kreisel](/wiki/Georg_Kreisel \"Georg Kreisel\") and Gödel's [Dialectica interpretation](/wiki/Dialectica_interpretation \"Dialectica interpretation\"). This work inspired the contemporary area of [proof mining](/wiki/Proof_mining \"Proof mining\"). The [Curry–Howard correspondence](/wiki/Curry%E2%80%93Howard_correspondence \"Curry–Howard correspondence\") emerged as a deep analogy between logic and computation, including a correspondence between systems of natural deduction and [typed lambda calculi](/wiki/Typed_lambda_calculus \"Typed lambda calculus\") used in computer science. As a result, research into this class of formal systems began to address both logical and computational aspects; this area of research came to be known as modern type theory. Advances were also made in [ordinal analysis](/wiki/Ordinal_analysis \"Ordinal analysis\") and the study of independence results in arithmetic such as the [Paris–Harrington theorem](/wiki/Paris%E2%80%93Harrington_theorem \"Paris–Harrington theorem\").", "This was also a period, particularly in the 1950s and afterwards, when the ideas of mathematical logic begin to influence philosophical thinking. For example, [tense logic](/wiki/Tense_logic \"Tense logic\") is a formalised system for representing, and reasoning about, propositions qualified in terms of time. The philosopher [Arthur Prior](/wiki/Arthur_Prior \"Arthur Prior\") played a significant role in its development in the 1960s. [Modal logics](/wiki/Modal_logic \"Modal logic\") extend the scope of formal logic to include the elements of [modality](/wiki/Linguistic_modality \"Linguistic modality\") (for example, [possibility](/wiki/Logical_possibility \"Logical possibility\") and [necessity](/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions%23Necessary_conditions \"Necessary and sufficient conditions#Necessary conditions\")). The ideas of [Saul Kripke](/wiki/Saul_Kripke \"Saul Kripke\"), particularly about [possible worlds](/wiki/Possible_world \"Possible world\"), and the formal system now called [Kripke semantics](/wiki/Kripke_semantics \"Kripke semantics\") have had a profound impact on [analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\").Jerry Fodor, \"[Water's water everywhere](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n20/jerry-fodor/waters-water-everywhere)\", London Review of Books, 21 October 2004 His best known and most influential work is [Naming and Necessity](/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity \"Naming and Necessity\") (1980\\).See Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 2: The Age of Meaning, Scott Soames: \"Naming and Necessity is among the most important works ever, ranking with the classical work of Frege in the late nineteenth century, and of Russell, Tarski and Wittgenstein in the first half of the twentieth century\". Cited in Byrne, Alex and Hall, Ned. 2004\\. 'Necessary Truths'. Boston Review October/November 2004 [Deontic logics](/wiki/Deontic_logic \"Deontic logic\") are closely related to modal logics: they attempt to capture the logical features of [obligation](/wiki/Obligation \"Obligation\"), [permission](/wiki/Permission_%28philosophy%29 \"Permission (philosophy)\") and related concepts. Although some basic novelties [syncretizing](/wiki/Syncretism \"Syncretism\") mathematical and philosophical logic were shown by [Bolzano](/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano%23Metaphysics \"Bernard Bolzano#Metaphysics\") in the early 1800s, it was [Ernst Mally](/wiki/Ernst_Mally \"Ernst Mally\"), a pupil of [Alexius Meinong](/wiki/Alexius_Meinong \"Alexius Meinong\"), who was to propose the first formal deontic system in his Grundgesetze des Sollens, based on the syntax of Whitehead's and Russell's [propositional calculus](/wiki/Propositional_calculus \"Propositional calculus\").", "Another logical system founded after World War II was [fuzzy logic](/wiki/Fuzzy_logic \"Fuzzy logic\") by Azerbaijani mathematician [Lotfi Asker Zadeh](/wiki/Lotfi_Asker_Zadeh \"Lotfi Asker Zadeh\") in 1965\\.", "" ]
Biography --------- Pavel Shperov was born in Simferopol on 4 July 1971\. Between 1988 and 1993, he studied at the Simferopol State University (now the [Tavrida National V.I. Vernadsky University](/wiki/Tavrida_National_V.I._Vernadsky_University "Tavrida National V.I. Vernadsky University")), at the Faculty of Physics, specializing in "engineer\-physicist", but did not receive a diploma. He had currently studied at the [Russian State Social University](/wiki/Russian_State_Social_University "Russian State Social University"), specialty "State and Municipal Administration".{{Cite web\\|url\=https://tass.ru/encyclopedia/person/shperov\-pavel\-valentinovich\\|title\=Шперов, Павел Валентинович Депутат Государственной думы РФ\\|author\=\\|website\=ТАСС\\|date\=2018\\|publisher\=}}. Between 1989 and 1991, he was a member of the Orthodox\-Monarchical Order\-Union. In February 1991, Shperov joined the Russian Society of Crimea, and became a deputy chairman in 2008\. Since March 1992, Shperov was a member of the Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union. Since April 1992, the party evolved into the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia. In 1993, he was appointed head of the southern bureau of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, which united all branches of the party in Ukraine, and in 1996, he became an authorized representative of the Supreme Council of the Liberal Democratic Party in the territory of the [Autonomous Republic of Crimea](/wiki/Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea "Autonomous Republic of Crimea") in Ukraine. Between 1996 and 2005, he was a member of the Congress of the Russian People of Crimea (later the Congress of Russian Communities of Crimea), and was a member of the Congress Duma. Between 1997 and 2008, he was engaged in private entrepreneurial activity, as from 2008 to 2016, he was the director of [RosKrym Company LLC](/wiki/RosKrym_Company_LLC "RosKrym Company LLC"). Since 2008, he was the chieftain of the “Tauride Cossack Hundreds”. He took part in organizing and conducting events aimed at the return of [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea") to [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), was a delegate to the World Cossack Congress in Novocherkassk in 2012\. In February 2014, Shperov had become a member of the Crimean self\-defense, chief of staff of the 10th company of people's self\-defense. In 2014, Shperov was appointed coordinator of the Crimean Regional Branch (KRO) of the LDPR, and was also elected a member of the Coordinating Council of the KRO LDPR. From 2014 to 2016, Sheprov was a member of parliament, a deputy of the State Council of the Republic of Crimea of the 1st convocation. He was elected on the lists of the Crimean regional branch of the Liberal Democratic Party (the third number of the general part of the list). He was a member of the committee on agrarian policy, ecology and natural resources, as well as the committee on industrial policy, transport and the fuel and energy complex. On 18 September 2016, Shperov was elected a member of parliament, a deputy of the State Duma of the VII convocation. He was nominated by the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (first number in regional group No. 11, Republic of Crimea), and is a member of the LDPR faction. He was member of the Committee for the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States"), Eurasian Integration and Relations with Compatriots.{{Cite web\\|url\=http://duma.gov.ru/duma/persons/99112891/\\|title\=Шперов Павел Валентинович\\|publisher\=Государственная Дума\\|lang\=ru\\|accessdate\=2019\-02\-20}} ### Sanctions Sanctioned by the [UK](/wiki/UK "UK") government in 2016 in relation to [Russo\-Ukrainian War](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War "Russo-Ukrainian War"). {{cite web \\|title\=CONSOLIDATED LIST OF FINANCIAL SANCTIONS TARGETS IN THE UK \\|url\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/1150217/Russia.pdf \\|access\-date\=16 April 2023}}	[ "Biography\n---------", "Pavel Shperov was born in Simferopol on 4 July 1971\\.", "Between 1988 and 1993, he studied at the Simferopol State University (now the [Tavrida National V.I. Vernadsky University](/wiki/Tavrida_National_V.I._Vernadsky_University \"Tavrida National V.I. Vernadsky University\")), at the Faculty of Physics, specializing in \"engineer\\-physicist\", but did not receive a diploma. He had currently studied at the [Russian State Social University](/wiki/Russian_State_Social_University \"Russian State Social University\"), specialty \"State and Municipal Administration\".{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://tass.ru/encyclopedia/person/shperov\\-pavel\\-valentinovich\\\|title\\=Шперов, Павел Валентинович Депутат Государственной думы РФ\\\|author\\=\\\|website\\=ТАСС\\\|date\\=2018\\\|publisher\\=}}.", "Between 1989 and 1991, he was a member of the Orthodox\\-Monarchical Order\\-Union.", "In February 1991, Shperov joined the Russian Society of Crimea, and became a deputy chairman in 2008\\.", "Since March 1992, Shperov was a member of the Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union. Since April 1992, the party evolved into the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia. In 1993, he was appointed head of the southern bureau of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, which united all branches of the party in Ukraine, and in 1996, he became an authorized representative of the Supreme Council of the Liberal Democratic Party in the territory of the [Autonomous Republic of Crimea](/wiki/Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea \"Autonomous Republic of Crimea\") in Ukraine.", "Between 1996 and 2005, he was a member of the Congress of the Russian People of Crimea (later the Congress of Russian Communities of Crimea), and was a member of the Congress Duma.", "Between 1997 and 2008, he was engaged in private entrepreneurial activity, as from 2008 to 2016, he was the director of [RosKrym Company LLC](/wiki/RosKrym_Company_LLC \"RosKrym Company LLC\").", "Since 2008, he was the chieftain of the “Tauride Cossack Hundreds”. He took part in organizing and conducting events aimed at the return of [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\") to [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), was a delegate to the World Cossack Congress in Novocherkassk in 2012\\.", "In February 2014, Shperov had become a member of the Crimean self\\-defense, chief of staff of the 10th company of people's self\\-defense.", "In 2014, Shperov was appointed coordinator of the Crimean Regional Branch (KRO) of the LDPR, and was also elected a member of the Coordinating Council of the KRO LDPR.", "From 2014 to 2016, Sheprov was a member of parliament, a deputy of the State Council of the Republic of Crimea of the 1st convocation. He was elected on the lists of the Crimean regional branch of the Liberal Democratic Party (the third number of the general part of the list). He was a member of the committee on agrarian policy, ecology and natural resources, as well as the committee on industrial policy, transport and the fuel and energy complex.", "On 18 September 2016, Shperov was elected a member of parliament, a deputy of the State Duma of the VII convocation. He was nominated by the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (first number in regional group No. 11, Republic of Crimea), and is a member of the LDPR faction. He was member of the Committee for the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\"), Eurasian Integration and Relations with Compatriots.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://duma.gov.ru/duma/persons/99112891/\\\|title\\=Шперов Павел Валентинович\\\|publisher\\=Государственная Дума\\\|lang\\=ru\\\|accessdate\\=2019\\-02\\-20}}", "### Sanctions", "Sanctioned by the [UK](/wiki/UK \"UK\") government in 2016 in relation to [Russo\\-Ukrainian War](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War \"Russo-Ukrainian War\"). {{cite web \\\|title\\=CONSOLIDATED LIST OF FINANCIAL SANCTIONS TARGETS IN THE UK \\\|url\\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/1150217/Russia.pdf \\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2023}}", "" ]
League history -------------- The Women's National Football Conference was founded in 2018, with their inaugural season in 2019\. On their website, the WNFC is described as looking to create a standard of excellence and opportunities. The WNFC does not charge teams of players a fee for entry into the league; rather, teams are invited into the league based on quality of market, team, players and ownership.[About Us – WNFCFootball.com](https://www.wnfcfootball.com/about/) On December 10, 2018, the WNFC announced a partnership with [Adidas](/wiki/Adidas "Adidas"), as part of the latter's "She Breaks Barriers" initiative.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.adidas.com/us/shebreaksbarriers \\|title\=ADIDAS KICKS OFF INITIATIVE TO BREAK DOWN BARRIERS FACED BY WOMEN AND GIRLS IN SPORT \\|date\=December 10, 2018 \\|website\=Adidas.com \\|access\-date\=August 13, 2019}} As part of that partnership, Adidas serves as the WNFC's presenting sponsor, with all WNFC teams wearing custom\-made Adidas uniforms. ### 2019 The WNFC played their inaugural season in 2019 with fourteen regular teams and one exhibition team. Five teams came to the WNFC from the [Independent Women's Football League](/wiki/Independent_Women%27s_Football_League "Independent Women's Football League") (which folded after the 2018 season), three from the WFA, two from the USWFL, and five were teams playing their inaugural season in the WNFC. The season began on April 6 and ended with the inaugural [IX Cup](/wiki/IX_Cup "IX Cup") (named in honor of [Title IX](/wiki/Title_IX "Title IX")) on June 29, which saw the Texas Elite Spartans defeat the [Utah Falconz](/wiki/Utah_Falconz "Utah Falconz") 19–14\.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.wnfcfootball.com/wnfcs\-ix\-cup\-championship\-lives\-up\-to\-the\-hype/ \\|title\=WNFC'S IX CUP CHAMPIONSHIP LIVES UP TO THE HYPE! \\|date\=July 9, 2019 \\|access\-date\=August 13, 2019}} In October 2019, The Women's National Football Conference launched the anti\-bullying, girls empowerment program, Got Her Back.{{cite web \\|title\=Women’s National Football Conference (WNFC) Launches Anti Bullying, Girls Empowerment Program \\|url\=https://www.wnfcfootball.com/news/gotherbacknews \\|access\-date\=August 22, 2024 \\|date\=October 2, 2019}} ### 2020 The WNFC added seven teams for the 2020 season: three from the WFA, two from the USWFL and three expansion teams. No games were played due to [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19"). ### 2021 The WNFC returned to play on May 1, 2021\. The league provided weekly COVID\-19 testing for all its 20 teams. All games were streamed on the Vyre Network. The season ended with Texas Elite Spartans defeating the San Diego Rebellion 27–6\. ### 2022 The WNFC played Week 1 of its 2022 season on April 2\. All games were streamed on the Vyre Network. The season ended with the Texas Elite Spartans defeating the Utah Falconz 48–12\. The WNFC website reported that their broadcast viewership across all Vyre Network platforms had incewased by 475% from 2021, throughout the course of the 2022 season. ### 2023 The WNFC played Week 1 of its 2023 season on April 1\. All games were streamed on the Vyre Network. The season ended with the Texas Elite Spartans defeating the Mississippi Lady Panthers 49–7\. ### 2024 The WNFC played Week 1 of its 2024 season on April 6\. All games were streamed on Caffeine TV and DAZN. The season ended with the Mississippi Lady Panthers defeating the Texas Elite Spartans 13–6\. The WNFC has reported that there were 10 million streams on Caffeine TV and 15 million paid subscriptions on DAZN. The WNFC has announced that starting in the 2025 season, each tackle team will also be fielding a flag football team for women ages 18\+. On May 9, 2024, the WNFC announced a partnership with Gridiron Football.{{cite web \\|title\=WNFC and Gridiron Football Unite Forces in Historic Partnership \\|url\=https://www.wnfcwomensfootball.com/news/wnfc\-and\-gridiron\-football\-unite\-forces\-in\-historic\-partnership \\|website\=WNFC \\|access\-date\=August 22, 2024 \\|language\=en \\|date\=May 9, 2024}}	[ "League history\n--------------", "The Women's National Football Conference was founded in 2018, with their inaugural season in 2019\\. On their website, the WNFC is described as looking to create a standard of excellence and opportunities. The WNFC does not charge teams of players a fee for entry into the league; rather, teams are invited into the league based on quality of market, team, players and ownership.[About Us – WNFCFootball.com](https://www.wnfcfootball.com/about/)", "On December 10, 2018, the WNFC announced a partnership with [Adidas](/wiki/Adidas \"Adidas\"), as part of the latter's \"She Breaks Barriers\" initiative.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.adidas.com/us/shebreaksbarriers \\\|title\\=ADIDAS KICKS OFF INITIATIVE TO BREAK DOWN BARRIERS FACED BY WOMEN AND GIRLS IN SPORT \\\|date\\=December 10, 2018 \\\|website\\=Adidas.com \\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2019}} As part of that partnership, Adidas serves as the WNFC's presenting sponsor, with all WNFC teams wearing custom\\-made Adidas uniforms.", "### 2019", "The WNFC played their inaugural season in 2019 with fourteen regular teams and one exhibition team. Five teams came to the WNFC from the [Independent Women's Football League](/wiki/Independent_Women%27s_Football_League \"Independent Women's Football League\") (which folded after the 2018 season), three from the WFA, two from the USWFL, and five were teams playing their inaugural season in the WNFC.", "The season began on April 6 and ended with the inaugural [IX Cup](/wiki/IX_Cup \"IX Cup\") (named in honor of [Title IX](/wiki/Title_IX \"Title IX\")) on June 29, which saw the Texas Elite Spartans defeat the [Utah Falconz](/wiki/Utah_Falconz \"Utah Falconz\") 19–14\\.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.wnfcfootball.com/wnfcs\\-ix\\-cup\\-championship\\-lives\\-up\\-to\\-the\\-hype/ \\\|title\\=WNFC'S IX CUP CHAMPIONSHIP LIVES UP TO THE HYPE! \\\|date\\=July 9, 2019 \\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2019}}", "In October 2019, The Women's National Football Conference launched the anti\\-bullying, girls empowerment program, Got Her Back.{{cite web \\\|title\\=Women’s National Football Conference (WNFC) Launches Anti Bullying, Girls Empowerment Program \\\|url\\=https://www.wnfcfootball.com/news/gotherbacknews \\\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2024 \\\|date\\=October 2, 2019}}", "### 2020", "The WNFC added seven teams for the 2020 season: three from the WFA, two from the USWFL and three expansion teams. No games were played due to [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\").", "### 2021", "The WNFC returned to play on May 1, 2021\\. The league provided weekly COVID\\-19 testing for all its 20 teams. All games were streamed on the Vyre Network. The season ended with Texas Elite Spartans defeating the San Diego Rebellion 27–6\\.", "### 2022", "The WNFC played Week 1 of its 2022 season on April 2\\. All games were streamed on the Vyre Network. The season ended with the Texas Elite Spartans defeating the Utah Falconz 48–12\\. The WNFC website reported that their broadcast viewership across all Vyre Network platforms had incewased by 475% from 2021, throughout the course of the 2022 season.", "### 2023", "The WNFC played Week 1 of its 2023 season on April 1\\. All games were streamed on the Vyre Network. The season ended with the Texas Elite Spartans defeating the Mississippi Lady Panthers 49–7\\.", "### 2024", "The WNFC played Week 1 of its 2024 season on April 6\\. All games were streamed on Caffeine TV and DAZN. The season ended with the Mississippi Lady Panthers defeating the Texas Elite Spartans 13–6\\. The WNFC has reported that there were 10 million streams on Caffeine TV and 15 million paid subscriptions on DAZN.", "The WNFC has announced that starting in the 2025 season, each tackle team will also be fielding a flag football team for women ages 18\\+.", "On May 9, 2024, the WNFC announced a partnership with Gridiron Football.{{cite web \\\|title\\=WNFC and Gridiron Football Unite Forces in Historic Partnership \\\|url\\=https://www.wnfcwomensfootball.com/news/wnfc\\-and\\-gridiron\\-football\\-unite\\-forces\\-in\\-historic\\-partnership \\\|website\\=WNFC \\\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2024 \\\|language\\=en \\\|date\\=May 9, 2024}}", "" ]
In practice ----------- ### Animal liberation {{Further\\|Animal rights movement\\|Abolitionism (animal rights)\\|Veganarchism\\|Anarchism and animal rights}} The first recorded [direct action](/wiki/Direct_action "Direct action") for [animal liberation](/wiki/Animal_liberation_movement "Animal liberation movement") which progressed (after a considerable delay) into a movement of leaderless resistance was by the original "Band of Mercy" in 1824 whose goal was to thwart [fox hunters](/wiki/Fox_hunters "Fox hunters").{{cite book\\|editor\-last1\=Best\\|editor\-first1\=Steven\\|editor\-last2\=Nocella\\|editor\-first2\=Anthony J.\\|title\=Terrorists or Freedom Fighters\\|publisher\=Lantern Books\\|date\=2004}} Inspired by this group and after seeing a pregnant deer driven into the village by fox hunters to be killed, John Prestige decided to actively oppose this sport and formed the [Hunt Saboteurs Association](/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association "Hunt Saboteurs Association") in 1964\. Within a year, a leaderless model of hunt\-sabotage groups was formed across the United Kingdom. A new [Band of Mercy](/wiki/Band_of_Mercy "Band of Mercy") was then formed in 1972\. It used direct action to liberate animals and cause economic sabotage against those thought to be abusing animals. [Ronnie Lee](/wiki/Ronnie_Lee "Ronnie Lee") and others changed the name of the movement to the [Animal Liberation Front](/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front "Animal Liberation Front") (ALF) in 1976 and adopted a leaderless resistance model focusing broadly on animal liberation.{{cite book\\|author\-last\=Webb\\|author\-first\=Robin\\|chapter\=Animal Liberation — By 'Whatever Means Necessary'\\|editor\-last1\=Best\\|editor\-first1\=Steven\\|editor\-last2\=Nocella\\|editor\-first2\=Anthony J.\\|title\=Terrorists or Freedom Fighters\\|publisher\=Lantern Books\\|date\=2004\\|page\=77}} [Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 "Earth First!") and the [environmental movement](/wiki/Environmental_movement "Environmental movement") in the 1980s also adopted the leaderless resistance model.{{cite web \\| author \= Southern Poverty Law Center \\| title \= From Push to Shove \\| url \= http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\=42 \\| access\-date \= May 7, 2006 \\| archive\-date \= November 22, 2009 \\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20091122190431/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\=42 \\| url\-status \= dead }} An animal liberation movement advocating violence emerged with the name [Animal Rights Militia](/wiki/Animal_Rights_Militia "Animal Rights Militia") (ARM) in 1982\. Letter bombs were sent to the then [British Prime Minister](/wiki/British_Prime_Minister "British Prime Minister"), [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher "Margaret Thatcher"). Two years later the name Hunt Retribution Squad (HRS) was also used.{{cite book\\|last\=Singer\\|first\=Peter\\|url\=http://www.utilitarian.org/texts/alm.html\\|title\=The Animal Liberation Movement: Its philosophy, its achievements and its future\\|publisher\=Old Hammond Press\\|date\=1985\\|access\-date\=2007\-11\-09\\|isbn\=0948062029}}{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article495376\.ece?token\=null\&offset\=24\\|url\-status\=dead\\|date\=2004\-10\-17\\|title\=Focus: Desecrated\\|last\=Chittenden\\|first\=Maurice\\|newspaper\=The Sunday Times\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629144247/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article495376\.ece\\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-29}} The [Earth Liberation Front](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Front "Earth Liberation Front") (ELF) formed in 1992, breaking from Earth First! when that organization decided to focus on public direct action, instead of the [ecotage](/wiki/Ecotage "Ecotage") that the ELF participated in.{{cite news\\|last\=Alleyne\\|first\=Richard\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030301084345/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml\=%2Fnews%2F2001%2F01%2F19%2Fncam119\.xml\\|archive\-date\=2003\-03\-01\\|title\=Terror tactics that brought a company to its knees\\|newspaper\=The Daily Telegraph\\|date\=January 19, 2001\\|url\=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml\=%2Fnews%2F2001%2F01%2F19%2Fncam119\.xml\\|url\-status\=dead}} A [violent](/wiki/Violent "Violent") group called the [Justice Department](/wiki/Justice_Department_%28animal_rights_group%29 "Justice Department (animal rights group)") was established in 1993, and in 1994 {{clarify \\|date\=July 2018 \\|reason\=this sounds threatening, but without more information, it's vague. Amazon.com sends razor blades to people, but it doesn't make the papers.\\|text\=sent razor blades}} to hunters such as [Prince Charles](/wiki/Prince_Charles "Prince Charles") and to [animal researchers](/wiki/Animal_research "Animal research").{{cite news\\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/902751\.stm\\|title\=Animal rights, terror tactics\\|work\=BBC News\\|date\=30 August 2000}}{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\=42\\|title\=From push to shove\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122190431/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\=42 \\|archive\-date\=2009\-11\-22 \\|website\=Southern Poverty Law Group Intelligence Report\\|date\=Fall 2002\\|page\=3}} In 1999 the leaderless resistance strategy was employed by animal liberation organisations like [Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty](/wiki/Stop_Huntingdon_Animal_Cruelty "Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty") (SHAC), which was formed from the [Consort beagles](/wiki/Consort_beagles "Consort beagles") campaign and [Save the Hill Grove Cats](/wiki/Save_the_Hill_Grove_Cats "Save the Hill Grove Cats") to close down [Huntingdon Life Sciences](/wiki/Huntingdon_Life_Sciences "Huntingdon Life Sciences") (HLS). Despite claiming successes{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.shac.net/MISC/quantum\\|url\-status\=usurped\\|title\=Quantum Analytics: Drop HLS\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050326153421/http://www.shac.net:80/MISC/quantum/\\|archive\-date\=2005\-03\-26\\|website\=Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty}} leaderless animal liberation and environmental movements generally lack the broad popular support that often occurs in strictly political or military conflicts.{{citation needed\\|date\=July 2018}} The [Revolutionary Cells\-\-Animal Liberation Brigade](/wiki/Revolutionary_Cells_%28RCALB%29 "Revolutionary Cells (RCALB)") (RCALB) appeared in 2003 and sent pipe bombs to [Chiron Corporation](/wiki/Chiron_Corporation "Chiron Corporation") and used [incendiary devices](/wiki/Incendiary_device "Incendiary device") against other targets{{clarify \\|date\=July 2018 \\|reason\=It's unclear what the significance of this is to the page topic.\\|text\=, whilst a year later on the south coast of \[\[Dorset]], the \[\[Lobster Liberation Front]] (LLF) was founded}}.{{cite news\\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/dorset/3939111\.stm\\|url\-status\=dead\\|title\=Activists' 'war' to save lobsters\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203122120/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/dorset/3939111\.stm \\|archive\-date\=2008\-12\-03 \\|work\=BBC News\\|date\=July 30, 2004}} Within a few years of the victories claimed by the SHAC, other campaigns against animal testing laboratories emerged. At the same time, [SPEAK Campaigns](/wiki/SPEAK_%28animals%29 "SPEAK (animals)") and the more radical ALF militants, [Oxford Arson Squad](/wiki/Oxford_Arson_Squad "Oxford Arson Squad") began their campaigns towards the same goal: to end [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University "Oxford University")'s animal research. In April 2009, the [Militant Forces Against Huntingdon Life Sciences](/wiki/Militant_Forces_Against_Huntingdon_Life_Sciences "Militant Forces Against Huntingdon Life Sciences") (MFAH) became active. With the ALF, they began targeting HLS customer and financial Directors, as well as company property. Since then, groups{{Who\\|date\=July 2018}} have reported over a dozen actions in Europe, including painting homes, burning cars, and grave desecration. Militants{{Who\\|date\=July 2018}}, however, oppose {{clarify \\|date\=July 2018 \\|reason\=what this ideology consists of has not been explained, so this remains vague\\|text\=ALF ideology}}, instead believing in [any necessary action](/wiki/By_any_means_necessary "By any means necessary") to prevent suffering at HLS's laboratories.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.directaction.info/news\_apr07\_09\.htm\\|url\-status\=dead\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816175231/http://www.directaction.info/news\_apr07\_09\.htm\\|archive\-date\=2009\-08\-16\\|title\=MFAH Communique\\|date\=7 April 2009\\|work\=\[\[Bite Back Magazine]]\\|number\=14}} ### Radical Islamists {{unreferenced section\\|date\=May 2015}} Leaderless resistance is also often well\-suited to terrorist objectives. The [Islamist](/wiki/Islamist_terrorism "Islamist terrorism") organization [Al\-Qaeda](/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda") uses a typical figurehead/leaderless cell structure. The organization itself may be pyramidal, but sympathizers who act on its pronouncements often do so spontaneously and independently. Given the small, clandestine character of terrorist cells, it is easy to assume they necessarily constitute leaderless resistance models. When there is bidirectional communication with external leadership, however, the label is inappropriate. The men who executed the bombings of the [London Underground](/wiki/London_Underground "London Underground") on July 7, 2005 constituted a leaderless resistance cell in that they purportedly acted out of sympathy for [Islamic fundamentalism](/wiki/Islamic_fundamentalism "Islamic fundamentalism") but under their own auspices. The hijackers involved in the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks"), by contrast, allegedly received training, direction, and funding from Al\-Qaeda, and are not properly designated a leaderless cell. ### Neo\-Nazis and White nationalists The concept of leaderless resistance remains important to far\-right thinking in the United States,{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} as a proposed response to perceived federal government over\-reach at the expense of individual rights. [Simson Garfinkel](/wiki/Simson_Garfinkel "Simson Garfinkel"), however, found in his research that for the most part the far right seldom used this tactic.{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2015}} [Timothy McVeigh](/wiki/Timothy_McVeigh "Timothy McVeigh") is one example in the United States. McVeigh worked in a small cell which based its attack on motivations widespread among far\-right anti\-government groups and the [militia movement](/wiki/American_militia_movement "American militia movement").{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2015}} Leaderless resistance has been advocated by white supremacist groups such as [White Aryan Resistance](/wiki/White_Aryan_Resistance "White Aryan Resistance") (WAR) and the British neo\-Nazi [Combat 18](/wiki/Combat_18 "Combat 18") (C18\). The modern [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") is also credited with having developed a leaderless resistance model.{{cite web \\| author \= University of Michigan \\| title \= Right\-Wing Domestic Terrorism \\| url \= http://www\-personal.umich.edu/\~lormand/agenda/9909/06\.pdf \\| access\-date \= May 7, 2006 }} [Troy Southgate](/wiki/Troy_Southgate "Troy Southgate") also advocated forms of leaderless resistance during his time as a leading activist in the [National Revolutionary Faction](/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Faction "National Revolutionary Faction") and a pioneer of [National\-Anarchism](/wiki/National-Anarchism "National-Anarchism"). [James Mason](/wiki/James_Mason_%28neo-Nazi%29 "James Mason (neo-Nazi)") a former [American Nazi Party](/wiki/American_Nazi_Party "American Nazi Party") member and neo\-Nazi was a proponent of the idea of "leaderless resistance" as detailed in SIEGE a collection of writings from the defunct National Socialist Liberation Front (NSLF) which advocated violence against political opponents, Jews and non\-whites of which he deemed to be the supposedly Jewish controlled entity he referred to as "The System" which has since been embraced by the terrorist group [Atomwaffen Division](/wiki/Atomwaffen_Division "Atomwaffen Division") (AWD) in the modern day. [Stormfront](/wiki/Stormfront_%28website%29 "Stormfront (website)"), [Aryan Nations](/wiki/Aryan_Nations "Aryan Nations"), and [Hammerskin Nation](/wiki/Hammerskin_Nation "Hammerskin Nation") (HSN) link to Beam's Leaderless Resistance. These groups promote lone wolf actions. {{clarify \\|date\=July 2018 \\|reason\=There needs to be more context to show how this quote is used to wink\-and\-nod to promote lone wolf actions. As is, it just seems like a banal quote that could be said by anyone.\\|text\=While nominally decrying violence, the sites praise the man who "practices what he preaches, and who backs up his words with his deeds." }}{{Cite journal \\|title\=Recruitment by Extremist Groups on the Internet \\|journal\=\[\[First Monday (journal)\\|First Monday]] \\|volume\=6 \\|issue\=2 \\|date\=February 2001 \\|first\=Beverly \\|last\=Ray \\|author2\=George E. Marsh II \\|doi\=10\.5210/fm.v6i2\.834 \\|doi\-access\= free}} Stormfront, while regretting the loss of life, explains how Benjamin Nathaniel Smith's [1999 killing spree](/wiki/1999_Independence_Day_weekend_shootings "1999 Independence Day weekend shootings") was compelled by circumstances.{{citation needed\\|date\=July 2018}} The [World Church of the Creator](/wiki/World_Church_of_the_Creator "World Church of the Creator") (WCOTC) gave a mixed message, calling Smith "a selfless man who gave his life in the resistance to Jewish/mud tyranny," but noting "the Church does not condone his acts." Examples of modern\-day leaderless resistance/lone\-wolf terrorism include: * 1999 [Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Jewish_Community_Center_shooting "Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting") * 1999 [murders of Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder](/wiki/Murders_of_Gary_Matson_and_Winfield_Mowder "Murders of Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder") * 2008 [Knoxville Unitarian Universalist church shooting](/wiki/Knoxville_Unitarian_Universalist_church_shooting "Knoxville Unitarian Universalist church shooting") * 2009 [United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting](/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum_shooting "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting") * [2011 Norway attacks](/wiki/2011_Norway_attacks "2011 Norway attacks") * 2012 [Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting](/wiki/Wisconsin_Sikh_temple_shooting "Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting") * 2014 [Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting](/wiki/Overland_Park_Jewish_Community_Center_shooting "Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting") * 2015 [Charleston church shooting](/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting "Charleston church shooting") * [2015 Lafayette shooting](/wiki/2015_Lafayette_shooting "2015 Lafayette shooting") * 2016 [Murder of Jo Cox](/wiki/Murder_of_Jo_Cox "Murder of Jo Cox") * 2017 [Quebec City mosque shooting](/wiki/Quebec_City_mosque_shooting "Quebec City mosque shooting") * 2018 [Pittsburgh synagogue shooting](/wiki/Pittsburgh_synagogue_shooting "Pittsburgh synagogue shooting") * 2019 [Christchurch mosque shootings](/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings "Christchurch mosque shootings") * 2019 [Escondido mosque fire](/wiki/Escondido_mosque_fire "Escondido mosque fire") and [Poway synagogue shooting](/wiki/Poway_synagogue_shooting "Poway synagogue shooting") * [2019 El Paso shooting](/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting "2019 El Paso shooting") * [2022 Buffalo shooting](/wiki/2022_Buffalo_shooting "2022 Buffalo shooting") * 2022 [Colorado Springs nightclub shooting](/wiki/Colorado_Springs_nightclub_shooting "Colorado Springs nightclub shooting") ### Radical environmentalism {{Main article\\|Radical environmentalism}} {{Further information\\|Ecotage\\|Eco\-terrorism\\|Earth liberation}} Leaderless resistance emerged in the environmental movement in 1976 when [John Hanna](/wiki/John_Hanna_%28activist%29 "John Hanna (activist)") and others as the [Environmental Life Force](/wiki/Environmental_Life_Force "Environmental Life Force") (ELF) (also known now as the original ELF) used explosive and [incendiary devices](/wiki/Incendiary_device "Incendiary device"). The group conducted armed actions in northern [California](/wiki/California "California") and [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"), later disbanding in 1978 following Hanna's arrest for placing incendiary devices on seven crop\-dusters at the [Salinas, California](/wiki/Salinas%2C_California "Salinas, California") airport on [May Day](/wiki/May_Day "May Day"), 1977\.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.originalelf.org/ \\|title\=Original ELF \\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-01 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415040756/http://www.originalelf.org/ \\|archive\-date\=2012\-04\-15 \\|url\-status\=dead }} A decade and a half later this form of [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare") resurfaced using the same [acronym](/wiki/Acronym "Acronym"). [thumb\\|right\\|180px\\|The symbol of [Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 "Earth First!"): a Monkey wrench and stone hammer.](/wiki/Image:Earthfirstmonkeywrench.png "Earthfirstmonkeywrench.png") In 1980 [Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 "Earth First!") was founded by [Dave Foreman](/wiki/Dave_Foreman "Dave Foreman") and others to confront environmental destruction, primarily of the American West. Inspired by the [Edward Abbey](/wiki/Edward_Abbey "Edward Abbey") novel [The Monkey Wrench Gang](/wiki/The_Monkey_Wrench_Gang "The Monkey Wrench Gang"), Earth First! made use of such techniques as [treesitting](/wiki/Treesitting "Treesitting")[Earth First's first treesitting civil disobedience action](http://www.penbay.org/ef/treesit_first1985.html) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051016222643/http://www.penbay.org/ef/treesit\_first1985\.html \\|date\=2005\-10\-16 }}, Earth First! 1985, Oregon, June 1985\. and [treespiking](/wiki/Treespiking "Treespiking")[Tree Spiking Memo](http://www.things.org/~jym/ef/tree-spiking-memo.html) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424015446/http://www.things.org/\~jym/ef/tree\-spiking\-memo.html \\|date\=2008\-04\-24 }}, Earth First!, April 1990\. to stop [logging](/wiki/Logging "Logging") companies, as well as other activities targeted towards [mining](/wiki/Mining "Mining"), [road](/wiki/Road "Road") construction,{{cite book \\| title \= Earth First! and the Anti\-Roads Movement: Radical Environmentalism and Comparative Social Movements \\| last \= Wall \\| first \= Derek \\| year \= 1999 \\| publisher \= Routledge }} [suburban](/wiki/Suburb "Suburb") development, and [energy companies](/wiki/Energy_development "Energy development"). The organization was committed to nonviolent [ecotage](/wiki/Ecotage "Ecotage") techniques from the group's inception. Others split from the movement in the 1990s, including the [Earth Liberation Front](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Front "Earth Liberation Front") (ELF) in 1992, which named itself after the [Animal Liberation Front](/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front "Animal Liberation Front") (ALF) which had formed in the 1970s.[ELF Burns Down Vail](http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/tree/16/fire.html) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211235040/http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/tree/16/fire.html \\|date\=2006\-02\-11 }}, FIRE, December 1999\. Three years later in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), inspired by the ELF in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), the first Earth Liberation [direct action](/wiki/Direct_action "Direct action") occurred, but this time as the [Earth Liberation Army](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Army "Earth Liberation Army") (ELA), a similar movement who use ecotage and [monkeywrenching](/wiki/Monkeywrenching "Monkeywrenching") as a tool. A series of actions earned ELF the label of [eco\-terrorists](/wiki/Eco-terrorism "Eco-terrorism"),[Earth Liberation Front is now FBI's No. 1 Domestic Terrorist Threat](http://prfamerica.org/EarthLiberationFrontNo1onFBIList.html), Property Rights of America Foundation Inc, March 2001\.[ELF News](http://www.earthliberationfront.com/elf_news.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211170759/http://earthliberationfront.com/elf\_news.htm \\|date\=2009\-02\-11 }}, Earth Liberation Front including the burning of a [ski](/wiki/Ski "Ski") resort in [Vail, Colorado](/wiki/Vail%2C_Colorado "Vail, Colorado") in 1998, and the burning of an [SUV](/wiki/SUV "SUV") dealership in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon") in 1999\. In the same year the ELA made headlines by setting fire to the [Vail Resorts](/wiki/Vail_Resorts "Vail Resorts") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), causing $12 million in damages.Paige, Sean. ["waste \& abuse"](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_36_15/ai_56063251) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925184013/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m1571/is\_36\_15/ai\_56063251 \\|date\=2008\-09\-25 }}, BNet, September 27th 1999\. The defendants in that case were later charged in the [FBI](/wiki/FBI "FBI")'s "[Operation Backfire](/wiki/Operation_Backfire_%28FBI%29 "Operation Backfire (FBI)")" with other crimes; this was later named by environmentalists as the [Green Scare](/wiki/Green_Scare "Green Scare"), alluding to the [Red Scare](/wiki/Red_Scare "Red Scare") periods of fear over communist infiltration of U.S.[Eco\-Terror Indictments: "Operation Backfire" Nets 11](https://www.fbi.gov/page2/jan06/elf012006.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817222138/http://www.fbi.gov/page2/jan06/elf012006\.htm \\|date\=2010\-08\-17 }}, [FBI](/wiki/FBI "FBI"), January 20th 2006\.[Resentencing date set for Jeff Luers](http://www.freedom4um.com/cgi-bin/readart.cgi?ArtNum=69570), Freedom4um, 29 December 2007\. Following the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks "September 11, 2001 attacks") several laws were passed increasing the penalty for ecoterrorism, and the U.S. Congress held hearings on the activity of groups such as the ELF. To date no one has been killed as a result of an ELF or ALF action, and both groups forbid harming human or non\-human life.[Bron Taylor](/wiki/Bron_Taylor "Bron Taylor"), 1998\. Religion, Violence and Radical Environmentalism: From Earth First! to the Unabomber to the Earth Liberation Front, Terrorism and Political Violence 10(4\):1\-42 {{doi\\|10\.1080/09546559808427480}} In 2005 the FBI announced that the ELF was America's greatest domestic terrorist threat, responsible for over 1,200 "criminal incidents" amounting to tens of millions of dollars in damage to property.[Best, Steven](/wiki/Steven_Best "Steven Best") and Best \& Nocella. Igniting a Revolution: Voices in Defense of the Earth, [Lantern Books](/wiki/Lantern_Books "Lantern Books"), 2006, p. 47\. The United States [Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security "Department of Homeland Security") confirmed this with regards to both the ALF and ELF.[FBI, ATF address domestic terrorism](http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/05/19/domestic.terrorism/index.html), [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN"), May 19th 2005\. {{clarify \\|date\=July 2018 \\|reason\=Why is this example listed here? What does it illustrate about leaderless resistance?\\|text\=\[\[Plane Stupid]] launched in 2005, an attempt to combat the growing airport expansions in the UK by using \[\[direct action]]. A year later the first \[\[Camp for Climate Action]] was held, with 600 people attending a protest called ''Reclaim Power'' and then converging on \[\[Drax power station\\|Drax Power Station]] in \[\[North Yorkshire]] in an attempt to shut it down. There were thirty\-eight arrests, with four breaching the fence and the railway line being blocked.{{cite journal\\|url\=http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1223134\.ece \\|title\=The Battle of Drax: 38 held as protest fails to close plant \\|journal\=\[\[The Independent]] \\|date\=2006\-09\-01 \\|first\=Jonathan \\|last\=Brown \\|access\-date\=April 4, 2010 \\|url\-status\=dead \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301045057/http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1223134\.ece \\|archive\-date\=March 1, 2007 }}{{cite news\\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/climatechange/story/0,,1862662,00\.html\\|title\=In the shadow of Drax, not so much a fight as a festival\\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]]\\|date\=2006\-09\-01 \\| location\=London \\| first\=Martin \\| last\=Wainwright \\| access\-date\=April 4, 2010}}}} #### Movements/organizations * [Camp for Climate Action](/wiki/Camp_for_Climate_Action "Camp for Climate Action") * [Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 "Earth First!") * [Earth Liberation Army](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Army "Earth Liberation Army") (ELA) * [Earth Liberation Front](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Front "Earth Liberation Front") (ELF) * [Environmental Life Force](/wiki/Environmental_Life_Force "Environmental Life Force") * [Plane Stupid](/wiki/Plane_Stupid "Plane Stupid") * [Antifa](/wiki/Antifa_%28United_States%29 "Antifa (United States)") ### Anti\-abortion militancy Anti\-abortion [militants](/wiki/Militant_%28word%29 "Militant (word)") [The Army of God](/wiki/Army_of_God_%28USA%29 "Army of God (USA)") use leaderless resistance as their organizing principle. As of 2009, The Army of God's webpage hosts a reprint of an article entitled "Leaderless Resistance" from a publication called The Seditionist.{{cite web\\|author\=Louis Beam \\|url\=http://www.armyofgod.com/LeaderlessResistance.htm \\|title\=Leaderless Resistance \\|publisher\=Armyofgod.com \\|date\=1962\-04\-17 \\|access\-date\=2012\-11\-07}}{{cite news\\| url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-srv/national/longterm/shooting/stories/loner072298\.htm \\| newspaper\=The Washington Post \\| title\=A Most Dangerous Profile: The Loner \\| date\=August 18, 1998 \\| access\-date\=April 4, 2010}}{{cite web\\|author\=Jennifer Gonnerman \\|url\=http://www.villagevoice.com/1998\-11\-10/news/the\-terrorist\-campaign\-against\-abortion/3 \\|title\=The Terrorist Campaign Against Abortion \\|publisher\=Village Voice \\|date\=1998\-11\-10 \\|access\-date\=2012\-11\-07}}	[ "In practice\n-----------", "### Animal liberation", "{{Further\\\|Animal rights movement\\\|Abolitionism (animal rights)\\\|Veganarchism\\\|Anarchism and animal rights}}", "The first recorded [direct action](/wiki/Direct_action \"Direct action\") for [animal liberation](/wiki/Animal_liberation_movement \"Animal liberation movement\") which progressed (after a considerable delay) into a movement of leaderless resistance was by the original \"Band of Mercy\" in 1824 whose goal was to thwart [fox hunters](/wiki/Fox_hunters \"Fox hunters\").{{cite book\\\|editor\\-last1\\=Best\\\|editor\\-first1\\=Steven\\\|editor\\-last2\\=Nocella\\\|editor\\-first2\\=Anthony J.\\\|title\\=Terrorists or Freedom Fighters\\\|publisher\\=Lantern Books\\\|date\\=2004}} Inspired by this group and after seeing a pregnant deer driven into the village by fox hunters to be killed, John Prestige decided to actively oppose this sport and formed the [Hunt Saboteurs Association](/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association \"Hunt Saboteurs Association\") in 1964\\. Within a year, a leaderless model of hunt\\-sabotage groups was formed across the United Kingdom.", "A new [Band of Mercy](/wiki/Band_of_Mercy \"Band of Mercy\") was then formed in 1972\\. It used direct action to liberate animals and cause economic sabotage against those thought to be abusing animals. [Ronnie Lee](/wiki/Ronnie_Lee \"Ronnie Lee\") and others changed the name of the movement to the [Animal Liberation Front](/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front \"Animal Liberation Front\") (ALF) in 1976 and adopted a leaderless resistance model focusing broadly on animal liberation.{{cite book\\\|author\\-last\\=Webb\\\|author\\-first\\=Robin\\\|chapter\\=Animal Liberation — By 'Whatever Means Necessary'\\\|editor\\-last1\\=Best\\\|editor\\-first1\\=Steven\\\|editor\\-last2\\=Nocella\\\|editor\\-first2\\=Anthony J.\\\|title\\=Terrorists or Freedom Fighters\\\|publisher\\=Lantern Books\\\|date\\=2004\\\|page\\=77}}", "[Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 \"Earth First!\") and the [environmental movement](/wiki/Environmental_movement \"Environmental movement\") in the 1980s also adopted the leaderless resistance model.{{cite web \\\| author \\= Southern Poverty Law Center \\\| title \\= From Push to Shove \\\| url \\= http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\\=42 \\\| access\\-date \\= May 7, 2006 \\\| archive\\-date \\= November 22, 2009 \\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20091122190431/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\\=42 \\\| url\\-status \\= dead }} An animal liberation movement advocating violence emerged with the name [Animal Rights Militia](/wiki/Animal_Rights_Militia \"Animal Rights Militia\") (ARM) in 1982\\. Letter bombs were sent to the then [British Prime Minister](/wiki/British_Prime_Minister \"British Prime Minister\"), [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher \"Margaret Thatcher\"). Two years later the name Hunt Retribution Squad (HRS) was also used.{{cite book\\\|last\\=Singer\\\|first\\=Peter\\\|url\\=http://www.utilitarian.org/texts/alm.html\\\|title\\=The Animal Liberation Movement: Its philosophy, its achievements and its future\\\|publisher\\=Old Hammond Press\\\|date\\=1985\\\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-11\\-09\\\|isbn\\=0948062029}}{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article495376\\.ece?token\\=null\\&offset\\=24\\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\\|date\\=2004\\-10\\-17\\\|title\\=Focus: Desecrated\\\|last\\=Chittenden\\\|first\\=Maurice\\\|newspaper\\=The Sunday Times\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629144247/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article495376\\.ece\\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-29}}", "The [Earth Liberation Front](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Front \"Earth Liberation Front\") (ELF) formed in 1992, breaking from Earth First! when that organization decided to focus on public direct action, instead of the [ecotage](/wiki/Ecotage \"Ecotage\") that the ELF participated in.{{cite news\\\|last\\=Alleyne\\\|first\\=Richard\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030301084345/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml\\=%2Fnews%2F2001%2F01%2F19%2Fncam119\\.xml\\\|archive\\-date\\=2003\\-03\\-01\\\|title\\=Terror tactics that brought a company to its knees\\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Telegraph\\\|date\\=January 19, 2001\\\|url\\=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml\\=%2Fnews%2F2001%2F01%2F19%2Fncam119\\.xml\\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} A [violent](/wiki/Violent \"Violent\") group called the [Justice Department](/wiki/Justice_Department_%28animal_rights_group%29 \"Justice Department (animal rights group)\") was established in 1993, and in 1994 {{clarify \\\|date\\=July 2018 \\\|reason\\=this sounds threatening, but without more information, it's vague. Amazon.com sends razor blades to people, but it doesn't make the papers.\\\|text\\=sent razor blades}} to hunters such as [Prince Charles](/wiki/Prince_Charles \"Prince Charles\") and to [animal researchers](/wiki/Animal_research \"Animal research\").{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/902751\\.stm\\\|title\\=Animal rights, terror tactics\\\|work\\=BBC News\\\|date\\=30 August 2000}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\\=42\\\|title\\=From push to shove\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122190431/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid\\=42 \\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-11\\-22 \\\|website\\=Southern Poverty Law Group Intelligence Report\\\|date\\=Fall 2002\\\|page\\=3}}", "In 1999 the leaderless resistance strategy was employed by animal liberation organisations like [Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty](/wiki/Stop_Huntingdon_Animal_Cruelty \"Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty\") (SHAC), which was formed from the [Consort beagles](/wiki/Consort_beagles \"Consort beagles\") campaign and [Save the Hill Grove Cats](/wiki/Save_the_Hill_Grove_Cats \"Save the Hill Grove Cats\") to close down [Huntingdon Life Sciences](/wiki/Huntingdon_Life_Sciences \"Huntingdon Life Sciences\") (HLS). Despite claiming successes{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.shac.net/MISC/quantum\\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\\|title\\=Quantum Analytics: Drop HLS\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050326153421/http://www.shac.net:80/MISC/quantum/\\\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-03\\-26\\\|website\\=Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty}} leaderless animal liberation and environmental movements generally lack the broad popular support that often occurs in strictly political or military conflicts.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2018}} The [Revolutionary Cells\\-\\-Animal Liberation Brigade](/wiki/Revolutionary_Cells_%28RCALB%29 \"Revolutionary Cells (RCALB)\") (RCALB) appeared in 2003 and sent pipe bombs to [Chiron Corporation](/wiki/Chiron_Corporation \"Chiron Corporation\") and used [incendiary devices](/wiki/Incendiary_device \"Incendiary device\") against other targets{{clarify \\\|date\\=July 2018 \\\|reason\\=It's unclear what the significance of this is to the page topic.\\\|text\\=, whilst a year later on the south coast of \\[\\[Dorset]], the \\[\\[Lobster Liberation Front]] (LLF) was founded}}.{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/dorset/3939111\\.stm\\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\\|title\\=Activists' 'war' to save lobsters\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203122120/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/dorset/3939111\\.stm \\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-03 \\\|work\\=BBC News\\\|date\\=July 30, 2004}}", "Within a few years of the victories claimed by the SHAC, other campaigns against animal testing laboratories emerged. At the same time, [SPEAK Campaigns](/wiki/SPEAK_%28animals%29 \"SPEAK (animals)\") and the more radical ALF militants, [Oxford Arson Squad](/wiki/Oxford_Arson_Squad \"Oxford Arson Squad\") began their campaigns towards the same goal: to end [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University \"Oxford University\")'s animal research.", "In April 2009, the [Militant Forces Against Huntingdon Life Sciences](/wiki/Militant_Forces_Against_Huntingdon_Life_Sciences \"Militant Forces Against Huntingdon Life Sciences\") (MFAH) became active. With the ALF, they began targeting HLS customer and financial Directors, as well as company property. Since then, groups{{Who\\\|date\\=July 2018}} have reported over a dozen actions in Europe, including painting homes, burning cars, and grave desecration. Militants{{Who\\\|date\\=July 2018}}, however, oppose {{clarify \\\|date\\=July 2018 \\\|reason\\=what this ideology consists of has not been explained, so this remains vague\\\|text\\=ALF ideology}}, instead believing in [any necessary action](/wiki/By_any_means_necessary \"By any means necessary\") to prevent suffering at HLS's laboratories.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.directaction.info/news\\_apr07\\_09\\.htm\\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816175231/http://www.directaction.info/news\\_apr07\\_09\\.htm\\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-16\\\|title\\=MFAH Communique\\\|date\\=7 April 2009\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Bite Back Magazine]]\\\|number\\=14}}", "### Radical Islamists", "{{unreferenced section\\\|date\\=May 2015}}\nLeaderless resistance is also often well\\-suited to terrorist objectives. The [Islamist](/wiki/Islamist_terrorism \"Islamist terrorism\") organization [Al\\-Qaeda](/wiki/Al-Qaeda \"Al-Qaeda\") uses a typical figurehead/leaderless cell structure. The organization itself may be pyramidal, but sympathizers who act on its pronouncements often do so spontaneously and independently.", "Given the small, clandestine character of terrorist cells, it is easy to assume they necessarily constitute leaderless resistance models. When there is bidirectional communication with external leadership, however, the label is inappropriate. The men who executed the bombings of the [London Underground](/wiki/London_Underground \"London Underground\") on July 7, 2005 constituted a leaderless resistance cell in that they purportedly acted out of sympathy for [Islamic fundamentalism](/wiki/Islamic_fundamentalism \"Islamic fundamentalism\") but under their own auspices. The hijackers involved in the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\"), by contrast, allegedly received training, direction, and funding from Al\\-Qaeda, and are not properly designated a leaderless cell.", "### Neo\\-Nazis and White nationalists", "The concept of leaderless resistance remains important to far\\-right thinking in the United States,{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} as a proposed response to perceived federal government over\\-reach at the expense of individual rights. [Simson Garfinkel](/wiki/Simson_Garfinkel \"Simson Garfinkel\"), however, found in his research that for the most part the far right seldom used this tactic.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2015}} [Timothy McVeigh](/wiki/Timothy_McVeigh \"Timothy McVeigh\") is one example in the United States. McVeigh worked in a small cell which based its attack on motivations widespread among far\\-right anti\\-government groups and the [militia movement](/wiki/American_militia_movement \"American militia movement\").{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2015}}", "Leaderless resistance has been advocated by white supremacist groups such as [White Aryan Resistance](/wiki/White_Aryan_Resistance \"White Aryan Resistance\") (WAR) and the British neo\\-Nazi [Combat 18](/wiki/Combat_18 \"Combat 18\") (C18\\). The modern [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") is also credited with having developed a leaderless resistance model.{{cite web \\\| author \\= University of Michigan \\\| title \\= Right\\-Wing Domestic Terrorism \\\| url \\= http://www\\-personal.umich.edu/\\~lormand/agenda/9909/06\\.pdf \\\| access\\-date \\= May 7, 2006 }} [Troy Southgate](/wiki/Troy_Southgate \"Troy Southgate\") also advocated forms of leaderless resistance during his time as a leading activist in the [National Revolutionary Faction](/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Faction \"National Revolutionary Faction\") and a pioneer of [National\\-Anarchism](/wiki/National-Anarchism \"National-Anarchism\"). [James Mason](/wiki/James_Mason_%28neo-Nazi%29 \"James Mason (neo-Nazi)\") a former [American Nazi Party](/wiki/American_Nazi_Party \"American Nazi Party\") member and neo\\-Nazi was a proponent of the idea of \"leaderless resistance\" as detailed in SIEGE a collection of writings from the defunct National Socialist Liberation Front (NSLF) which advocated violence against political opponents, Jews and non\\-whites of which he deemed to be the supposedly Jewish controlled entity he referred to as \"The System\" which has since been embraced by the terrorist group [Atomwaffen Division](/wiki/Atomwaffen_Division \"Atomwaffen Division\") (AWD) in the modern day.", "[Stormfront](/wiki/Stormfront_%28website%29 \"Stormfront (website)\"), [Aryan Nations](/wiki/Aryan_Nations \"Aryan Nations\"), and [Hammerskin Nation](/wiki/Hammerskin_Nation \"Hammerskin Nation\") (HSN) link to Beam's Leaderless Resistance. These groups promote lone wolf actions. {{clarify \\\|date\\=July 2018 \\\|reason\\=There needs to be more context to show how this quote is used to wink\\-and\\-nod to promote lone wolf actions. As is, it just seems like a banal quote that could be said by anyone.\\\|text\\=While nominally decrying violence, the sites praise the man who \"practices what he preaches, and who backs up his words with his deeds.\" }}{{Cite journal \\\|title\\=Recruitment by Extremist Groups on the Internet \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[First Monday (journal)\\\|First Monday]] \\\|volume\\=6 \\\|issue\\=2 \\\|date\\=February 2001 \\\|first\\=Beverly \\\|last\\=Ray \\\|author2\\=George E. Marsh II \\\|doi\\=10\\.5210/fm.v6i2\\.834 \\\|doi\\-access\\= free}} Stormfront, while regretting the loss of life, explains how Benjamin Nathaniel Smith's [1999 killing spree](/wiki/1999_Independence_Day_weekend_shootings \"1999 Independence Day weekend shootings\") was compelled by circumstances.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2018}} The [World Church of the Creator](/wiki/World_Church_of_the_Creator \"World Church of the Creator\") (WCOTC) gave a mixed message, calling Smith \"a selfless man who gave his life in the resistance to Jewish/mud tyranny,\" but noting \"the Church does not condone his acts.\"", "Examples of modern\\-day leaderless resistance/lone\\-wolf terrorism include:", "* 1999 [Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Jewish_Community_Center_shooting \"Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting\")\n* 1999 [murders of Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder](/wiki/Murders_of_Gary_Matson_and_Winfield_Mowder \"Murders of Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder\")\n* 2008 [Knoxville Unitarian Universalist church shooting](/wiki/Knoxville_Unitarian_Universalist_church_shooting \"Knoxville Unitarian Universalist church shooting\")\n* 2009 [United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting](/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum_shooting \"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting\")\n* [2011 Norway attacks](/wiki/2011_Norway_attacks \"2011 Norway attacks\")\n* 2012 [Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting](/wiki/Wisconsin_Sikh_temple_shooting \"Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting\")\n* 2014 [Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting](/wiki/Overland_Park_Jewish_Community_Center_shooting \"Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting\")\n* 2015 [Charleston church shooting](/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting \"Charleston church shooting\")\n* [2015 Lafayette shooting](/wiki/2015_Lafayette_shooting \"2015 Lafayette shooting\")\n* 2016 [Murder of Jo Cox](/wiki/Murder_of_Jo_Cox \"Murder of Jo Cox\")\n* 2017 [Quebec City mosque shooting](/wiki/Quebec_City_mosque_shooting \"Quebec City mosque shooting\")\n* 2018 [Pittsburgh synagogue shooting](/wiki/Pittsburgh_synagogue_shooting \"Pittsburgh synagogue shooting\")\n* 2019 [Christchurch mosque shootings](/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings \"Christchurch mosque shootings\")\n* 2019 [Escondido mosque fire](/wiki/Escondido_mosque_fire \"Escondido mosque fire\") and [Poway synagogue shooting](/wiki/Poway_synagogue_shooting \"Poway synagogue shooting\")\n* [2019 El Paso shooting](/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting \"2019 El Paso shooting\")\n* [2022 Buffalo shooting](/wiki/2022_Buffalo_shooting \"2022 Buffalo shooting\")\n* 2022 [Colorado Springs nightclub shooting](/wiki/Colorado_Springs_nightclub_shooting \"Colorado Springs nightclub shooting\")", "### Radical environmentalism", "{{Main article\\\|Radical environmentalism}}\n{{Further information\\\|Ecotage\\\|Eco\\-terrorism\\\|Earth liberation}}\nLeaderless resistance emerged in the environmental movement in 1976 when [John Hanna](/wiki/John_Hanna_%28activist%29 \"John Hanna (activist)\") and others as the [Environmental Life Force](/wiki/Environmental_Life_Force \"Environmental Life Force\") (ELF) (also known now as the original ELF) used explosive and [incendiary devices](/wiki/Incendiary_device \"Incendiary device\"). The group conducted armed actions in northern [California](/wiki/California \"California\") and [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\"), later disbanding in 1978 following Hanna's arrest for placing incendiary devices on seven crop\\-dusters at the [Salinas, California](/wiki/Salinas%2C_California \"Salinas, California\") airport on [May Day](/wiki/May_Day \"May Day\"), 1977\\.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.originalelf.org/ \\\|title\\=Original ELF \\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-01 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415040756/http://www.originalelf.org/ \\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-15 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead }} A decade and a half later this form of [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare \"Guerrilla warfare\") resurfaced using the same [acronym](/wiki/Acronym \"Acronym\").\n[thumb\\\|right\\\|180px\\\|The symbol of [Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 \"Earth First!\"): a Monkey wrench and stone hammer.](/wiki/Image:Earthfirstmonkeywrench.png \"Earthfirstmonkeywrench.png\")", "In 1980 [Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 \"Earth First!\") was founded by [Dave Foreman](/wiki/Dave_Foreman \"Dave Foreman\") and others to confront environmental destruction, primarily of the American West. Inspired by the [Edward Abbey](/wiki/Edward_Abbey \"Edward Abbey\") novel [The Monkey Wrench Gang](/wiki/The_Monkey_Wrench_Gang \"The Monkey Wrench Gang\"), Earth First! made use of such techniques as [treesitting](/wiki/Treesitting \"Treesitting\")[Earth First's first treesitting civil disobedience action](http://www.penbay.org/ef/treesit_first1985.html) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051016222643/http://www.penbay.org/ef/treesit\\_first1985\\.html \\\|date\\=2005\\-10\\-16 }}, Earth First! 1985, Oregon, June 1985\\. and [treespiking](/wiki/Treespiking \"Treespiking\")[Tree Spiking Memo](http://www.things.org/~jym/ef/tree-spiking-memo.html) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424015446/http://www.things.org/\\~jym/ef/tree\\-spiking\\-memo.html \\\|date\\=2008\\-04\\-24 }}, Earth First!, April 1990\\. to stop [logging](/wiki/Logging \"Logging\") companies, as well as other activities targeted towards [mining](/wiki/Mining \"Mining\"), [road](/wiki/Road \"Road\") construction,{{cite book \\\| title \\= Earth First! and the Anti\\-Roads Movement: Radical Environmentalism and Comparative Social Movements \\\| last \\= Wall \\\| first \\= Derek \\\| year \\= 1999 \\\| publisher \\= Routledge }} [suburban](/wiki/Suburb \"Suburb\") development, and [energy companies](/wiki/Energy_development \"Energy development\").", "The organization was committed to nonviolent [ecotage](/wiki/Ecotage \"Ecotage\") techniques from the group's inception. Others split from the movement in the 1990s, including the [Earth Liberation Front](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Front \"Earth Liberation Front\") (ELF) in 1992, which named itself after the [Animal Liberation Front](/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front \"Animal Liberation Front\") (ALF) which had formed in the 1970s.[ELF Burns Down Vail](http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/tree/16/fire.html) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211235040/http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/tree/16/fire.html \\\|date\\=2006\\-02\\-11 }}, FIRE, December 1999\\. Three years later in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), inspired by the ELF in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), the first Earth Liberation [direct action](/wiki/Direct_action \"Direct action\") occurred, but this time as the [Earth Liberation Army](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Army \"Earth Liberation Army\") (ELA), a similar movement who use ecotage and [monkeywrenching](/wiki/Monkeywrenching \"Monkeywrenching\") as a tool.", "A series of actions earned ELF the label of [eco\\-terrorists](/wiki/Eco-terrorism \"Eco-terrorism\"),[Earth Liberation Front is now FBI's No. 1 Domestic Terrorist Threat](http://prfamerica.org/EarthLiberationFrontNo1onFBIList.html), Property Rights of America Foundation Inc, March 2001\\.[ELF News](http://www.earthliberationfront.com/elf_news.htm) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211170759/http://earthliberationfront.com/elf\\_news.htm \\\|date\\=2009\\-02\\-11 }}, Earth Liberation Front including the burning of a [ski](/wiki/Ski \"Ski\") resort in [Vail, Colorado](/wiki/Vail%2C_Colorado \"Vail, Colorado\") in 1998, and the burning of an [SUV](/wiki/SUV \"SUV\") dealership in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\") in 1999\\. In the same year the ELA made headlines by setting fire to the [Vail Resorts](/wiki/Vail_Resorts \"Vail Resorts\") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), causing $12 million in damages.Paige, Sean. [\"waste \\& abuse\"](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_36_15/ai_56063251) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925184013/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m1571/is\\_36\\_15/ai\\_56063251 \\\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-25 }}, BNet, September 27th 1999\\. The defendants in that case were later charged in the [FBI](/wiki/FBI \"FBI\")'s \"[Operation Backfire](/wiki/Operation_Backfire_%28FBI%29 \"Operation Backfire (FBI)\")\" with other crimes; this was later named by environmentalists as the [Green Scare](/wiki/Green_Scare \"Green Scare\"), alluding to the [Red Scare](/wiki/Red_Scare \"Red Scare\") periods of fear over communist infiltration of U.S.[Eco\\-Terror Indictments: \"Operation Backfire\" Nets 11](https://www.fbi.gov/page2/jan06/elf012006.htm) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817222138/http://www.fbi.gov/page2/jan06/elf012006\\.htm \\\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-17 }}, [FBI](/wiki/FBI \"FBI\"), January 20th 2006\\.[Resentencing date set for Jeff Luers](http://www.freedom4um.com/cgi-bin/readart.cgi?ArtNum=69570), Freedom4um, 29 December 2007\\.", "Following the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks \"September 11, 2001 attacks\") several laws were passed increasing the penalty for ecoterrorism, and the U.S. Congress held hearings on the activity of groups such as the ELF. To date no one has been killed as a result of an ELF or ALF action, and both groups forbid harming human or non\\-human life.[Bron Taylor](/wiki/Bron_Taylor \"Bron Taylor\"), 1998\\. Religion, Violence and Radical Environmentalism: From Earth First! to the Unabomber to the Earth Liberation Front, Terrorism and Political Violence 10(4\\):1\\-42 {{doi\\\|10\\.1080/09546559808427480}}", "In 2005 the FBI announced that the ELF was America's greatest domestic terrorist threat, responsible for over 1,200 \"criminal incidents\" amounting to tens of millions of dollars in damage to property.[Best, Steven](/wiki/Steven_Best \"Steven Best\") and Best \\& Nocella. Igniting a Revolution: Voices in Defense of the Earth, [Lantern Books](/wiki/Lantern_Books \"Lantern Books\"), 2006, p. 47\\. The United States [Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security \"Department of Homeland Security\") confirmed this with regards to both the ALF and ELF.[FBI, ATF address domestic terrorism](http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/05/19/domestic.terrorism/index.html), [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\"), May 19th 2005\\.", "{{clarify \\\|date\\=July 2018 \\\|reason\\=Why is this example listed here? What does it illustrate about leaderless resistance?\\\|text\\=\\[\\[Plane Stupid]] launched in 2005, an attempt to combat the growing airport expansions in the UK by using \\[\\[direct action]]. A year later the first \\[\\[Camp for Climate Action]] was held, with 600 people attending a protest called ''Reclaim Power'' and then converging on \\[\\[Drax power station\\\|Drax Power Station]] in \\[\\[North Yorkshire]] in an attempt to shut it down. There were thirty\\-eight arrests, with four breaching the fence and the railway line being blocked.{{cite journal\\\|url\\=http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1223134\\.ece \\\|title\\=The Battle of Drax: 38 held as protest fails to close plant \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\\|date\\=2006\\-09\\-01 \\\|first\\=Jonathan \\\|last\\=Brown \\\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2010 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301045057/http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1223134\\.ece \\\|archive\\-date\\=March 1, 2007 }}{{cite news\\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/climatechange/story/0,,1862662,00\\.html\\\|title\\=In the shadow of Drax, not so much a fight as a festival\\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\\|date\\=2006\\-09\\-01 \\\| location\\=London \\\| first\\=Martin \\\| last\\=Wainwright \\\| access\\-date\\=April 4, 2010}}}}", "#### Movements/organizations", "* [Camp for Climate Action](/wiki/Camp_for_Climate_Action \"Camp for Climate Action\")\n* [Earth First!](/wiki/Earth_First%21 \"Earth First!\")\n* [Earth Liberation Army](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Army \"Earth Liberation Army\") (ELA)\n* [Earth Liberation Front](/wiki/Earth_Liberation_Front \"Earth Liberation Front\") (ELF)\n* [Environmental Life Force](/wiki/Environmental_Life_Force \"Environmental Life Force\")\n* [Plane Stupid](/wiki/Plane_Stupid \"Plane Stupid\")\n* [Antifa](/wiki/Antifa_%28United_States%29 \"Antifa (United States)\")", "### Anti\\-abortion militancy", "Anti\\-abortion [militants](/wiki/Militant_%28word%29 \"Militant (word)\") [The Army of God](/wiki/Army_of_God_%28USA%29 \"Army of God (USA)\") use leaderless resistance as their organizing principle. As of 2009, The Army of God's webpage hosts a reprint of an article entitled \"Leaderless Resistance\" from a publication called The Seditionist.{{cite web\\\|author\\=Louis Beam \\\|url\\=http://www.armyofgod.com/LeaderlessResistance.htm \\\|title\\=Leaderless Resistance \\\|publisher\\=Armyofgod.com \\\|date\\=1962\\-04\\-17 \\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-07}}{{cite news\\\| url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-srv/national/longterm/shooting/stories/loner072298\\.htm \\\| newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\\| title\\=A Most Dangerous Profile: The Loner \\\| date\\=August 18, 1998 \\\| access\\-date\\=April 4, 2010}}{{cite web\\\|author\\=Jennifer Gonnerman \\\|url\\=http://www.villagevoice.com/1998\\-11\\-10/news/the\\-terrorist\\-campaign\\-against\\-abortion/3 \\\|title\\=The Terrorist Campaign Against Abortion \\\|publisher\\=Village Voice \\\|date\\=1998\\-11\\-10 \\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-07}}", "" ]
History ------- The Gernrode\-Harzgerode Railway Company was founded on 10 May 1886 with the aim of developing the East Harz by means of a small scale railway line. After the experience of the [Felda Railway](/wiki/Felda_Railway "Felda Railway") in [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia "Thuringia") it was decided on cost grounds that a concession would be granted in March 1887 for a {{Track gauge\\|1000mm\\|allk\=on}} line from Gernrode to Harzgerode and Silberhütte. Gernrode had already had a railway connexion since 1885\. By 7 August 1887 the first section of the line, from Gernrode to Mägdesprung, was opened. Gradually the network was expanded until, on 15 July 1905, it reaches its farthest extent at Eisfelder Talmühle station. To counter the increase in motorised traffic in the 1930s, the GHE introduced new [diesel](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") [railbuses](/wiki/Railbus "Railbus") (the [GHE T 1](/wiki/GHE_T_1 "GHE T 1")) and its own bus routes. From April to May 1945 operations of the GHE's lines ceased. In April 1946, all tracks were dismantled as [war reparation](/wiki/War_reparation "War reparation") payments to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), with the exceptions of the lines from Eisfelder Talmühle via Stiege to Hasselfelde and from Straßberg to the [Flussspat](/wiki/Flussspat "Flussspat") mineshaft. From 15 April 1945, running powers were transferred to the NWE. The GHE was nationalised on 30 June 1946, together with its remaining installations and buildings. In October 1946 work started on rebuilding the line from Gernrode to Harzgerode and Straßberg. It was completed in July 1949, but the GHE did not live to see it; on 1 April that year the line and its installations were transferred to the management of [Deutsche Reichsbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn_%28GDR%29 "Deutsche Reichsbahn (GDR)"). ### Bus services In the 1920s, [buses](/wiki/Bus "Bus") began to compete with the railway and, as a result, many railway companies started up their own bus routes. The GHE initially opened their first bus routes with the involvement of the East Harz Transport (Ostharzbahnen GmbH) on 24 February 1925\. Because traffic on the routes developed favourably, not least because the timetables of buses and trains were harmonised with one another, the GHE bought more buses in the 1930s and took over the concession from the East Harz Transport in 1933 for more bus routes. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") the GHE had to give up several buses and lorries that had been procured for the transportation of express goods, so that their motorised services had to be almost entirely withdrawn. After the end of the war in 1945 several of their commandeered vehicles were returned. In 1946, road and rail services were separated, the former continuing as an independent company.	[ "History\n-------", "The Gernrode\\-Harzgerode Railway Company was founded on 10 May 1886 with the aim of developing the East Harz by means of a small scale railway line. After the experience of the [Felda Railway](/wiki/Felda_Railway \"Felda Railway\") in [Thuringia](/wiki/Thuringia \"Thuringia\") it was decided on cost grounds that a concession would be granted in March 1887 for a {{Track gauge\\\|1000mm\\\|allk\\=on}} line from Gernrode to Harzgerode and Silberhütte. Gernrode had already had a railway connexion since 1885\\.", "By 7 August 1887 the first section of the line, from Gernrode to Mägdesprung, was opened. Gradually the network was expanded until, on 15 July 1905, it reaches its farthest extent at Eisfelder Talmühle station. To counter the increase in motorised traffic in the 1930s, the GHE introduced new [diesel](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") [railbuses](/wiki/Railbus \"Railbus\") (the [GHE T 1](/wiki/GHE_T_1 \"GHE T 1\")) and its own bus routes.", "From April to May 1945 operations of the GHE's lines ceased. In April 1946, all tracks were dismantled as [war reparation](/wiki/War_reparation \"War reparation\") payments to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), with the exceptions of the lines from Eisfelder Talmühle via Stiege to Hasselfelde and from Straßberg to the [Flussspat](/wiki/Flussspat \"Flussspat\") mineshaft. From 15 April 1945, running powers were transferred to the NWE. The GHE was nationalised on 30 June 1946, together with its remaining installations and buildings.", "In October 1946 work started on rebuilding the line from Gernrode to Harzgerode and Straßberg. It was completed in July 1949, but the GHE did not live to see it; on 1 April that year the line and its installations were transferred to the management of [Deutsche Reichsbahn](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn_%28GDR%29 \"Deutsche Reichsbahn (GDR)\").", "### Bus services", "In the 1920s, [buses](/wiki/Bus \"Bus\") began to compete with the railway and, as a result, many railway companies started up their own bus routes. The GHE initially opened their first bus routes with the involvement of the East Harz Transport (Ostharzbahnen GmbH) on 24 February 1925\\. Because traffic on the routes developed favourably, not least because the timetables of buses and trains were harmonised with one another, the GHE bought more buses in the 1930s and took over the concession from the East Harz Transport in 1933 for more bus routes.", "During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") the GHE had to give up several buses and lorries that had been procured for the transportation of express goods, so that their motorised services had to be almost entirely withdrawn. After the end of the war in 1945 several of their commandeered vehicles were returned. In 1946, road and rail services were separated, the former continuing as an independent company.", "" ]
German Reich ------------ ### German Empire (1863–1918\) [thumb\\|left\\|Medal 1890 Bebel and Liebknecht after their success in the federal elections](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_obverse.jpg "Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), obverse.jpg") [thumb\\|left\\|The reverse of that medal commemorating the [1890 Reichstagswahl](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election "1890 German federal election")](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_reverse.jpg "Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), reverse.jpg") The party was founded on 23 May 1863 by [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle "Ferdinand Lassalle") under the name {{lang\\|de\\|Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein}} (ADAV, [General German Workers' Association](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association "General German Workers' Association")). In 1869, [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel "August Bebel") and [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht "Wilhelm Liebknecht") founded the {{lang\\|de\\|Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei}} (SDAP, [Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany")), which merged with the ADAV at a conference held in Gotha in 1875, taking the name Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAPD). At this conference, the party developed the [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program "Gotha Program"), which [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx") criticized in his [Critique of the Gotha Program](/wiki/Critique_of_the_Gotha_Program "Critique of the Gotha Program"). Through the [Anti\-Socialist Laws](/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws "Anti-Socialist Laws"), [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck "Otto von Bismarck") had the party outlawed for its pro\-revolution, anti\-monarchy sentiments in 1878; but in 1890 it was legalized again after the successful [elections to the Reichstag](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election "1890 German federal election"). That year, in its [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt "Halle, Saxony-Anhalt") convention, it changed its name to {{lang\\|de\\|Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands}} (SPD), as it is known to this day. Anti\-socialist campaigns were counterproductive. 1878 to 1890 was the SPD's "heroic period". The party's new program drawn up in 1891 at Halle was more radical than 1875's [Gotha program](/wiki/Gotha_Program "Gotha Program"). From 1881 to 1890 the party's support increased faster than in any other period. In 1896, the [National Liberals](/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_%28Germany%29 "National Liberal Party (Germany)") and [Conservatives](/wiki/German_Conservative_Party "German Conservative Party") in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") replaced the democratic vote with a Prussian\-style three\-tiered suffrage, upper class votes counting the most. They did this to drive out the local SPD which lost its last seat in 1901\. However, in the 1903 election, the number of socialist deputies increased from 11 to 22 out of 23\.Retallack, Imperial Germany, page 187 [thumb\\|[August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel "August Bebel") in 1863, co\-chairman from 1892 to 1913](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14077-0005%2C_August_Bebel.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14077-0005, August Bebel.jpg") [thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|SPD members in Reichstag 1889, (sitting from left to right: [Georg Schumacher](/wiki/Georg_Schumacher "Georg Schumacher"), [Friedrich Harm](/wiki/Friedrich_Harm "Friedrich Harm"), [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel "August Bebel"), [Heinrich Meister](/wiki/Heinrich_Meister "Heinrich Meister") and [Karl Frohme](/wiki/Karl_Frohme "Karl Frohme"). Standing: [Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Wilhelm_Dietz "Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz"), [August Kühn](/wiki/August_K%C3%BChn "August Kühn"), [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht "Wilhelm Liebknecht"), [Karl Grillenberger](/wiki/Karl_Grillenberger "Karl Grillenberger"), and [Paul Singer](/wiki/Paul_Singer_%28politician%29 "Paul Singer (politician)"))](/wiki/File:Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg "Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg") Because Social Democrats could be elected as list\-free candidates while the party was outlawed, SPD continued to be a growing force in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)"), becoming the strongest party in 1912 (in the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire"), the parliamentary balance of forces had no influence on the formation of the cabinet). During this period, SPD deputies in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)") were able to win some improvements in working and living conditions for working\-class Germans,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.country\-data.com/cgi\-bin/query/r\-4869\.html\\|publisher\=country\-data.com\\|title\=Germany \- Political Parties\\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} thereby advancing the cause of its policies in a general way and securing material benefits for its supporters.The German Social Democratic Party, 1875–1933: From Ghetto To Government by W. L. Guttsman In the [Landtag](/wiki/Landtag "Landtag"), the SPD was able to extract some concessions from time to time in areas for which the assembly was responsible, such as education and social policy. In Hesse, the party was successful in demanding that church tax be listed separately in assessments, and it was able to secure improvements in judicial procedure. The SPD also had occasional successes in raising wages and improving the working conditions of municipal labourers. SPD pressure in the Reichstag in the late nineteenth century supported an expansion in the system of factory inspection, together with a minor reform in military service under which the families of reservists, called up for training or manoeuvres, could receive an allowance. In the 1880s, SPD deputies in Saxony successfully agitated in support of improved safety for miners and better control of mines. In 1908, the same year the government legalized women's participation in politics, [Luise Zietz](/wiki/Luise_Zietz "Luise Zietz") became the first woman appointed to the executive committee of the SPD.{{cite book\\|author\=Joseph A. Biesinger\\|title\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=exMn24SA7fMC\&pg\=PA755\\|date\=1 January 2006\\|publisher\=Infobase Publishing\\|isbn\=978\-0\-8160\-7471\-6\\|pages\=755–}}{{cite web \\|first\=Jennifer \\|last\=Striewski \\|location\=\[\[Bonn]] \\|url\=http://www.rheinische\-geschichte.lvr.de/persoenlichkeiten/J/Seiten/MarieJuchacz.aspx \\|title\=Marie Juchacz (1879\-1956\), Begründerin der Arbeiterwohlfahrt \\|language\=de \\|trans\-title\=Marie Juchacz (1879\-1956\), founder of workers' welfare \\|publisher\=\[\[:de:Landschaftsverband Rheinland\\|Landschaftsverband Rheinland]] (LVR), \[\[Cologne]] \\|date\=8 March 2013 \\|access\-date\=2014\-11\-11}} Despite the passage of anti\-socialist legislation, the SPD continued to grow in strength in the early twentieth century, with a steady rise in membership from 384,327 in 1905/06 to 1,085,905 in 1913/14\. SPD was seen as a populist party, and people from every quarter of German society sought help and advice from it. With its counseling service (provided free of charge by the mostly trade union maintained workers' secretarial offices), the German social democratic movement helped large numbers of Germans to secure their legal rights, primarily in social security. There also existed a dynamic educational movement, with hundreds of courses and individual lectures, theatre performances, libraries, peripatetic teachers, a central school for workers' education, and a famous Party School, as noted by the historians Susanne Miller and Heinrich Potthoff: {{cquote\\|With all of this, the SPD and the Free Trade Unions were not only delivering the necessary tools for the political and social struggle, but were also a cultural movement in the widest sense of the term.{{cite book \\|title\=The Social Democratic Party of Germany 1848–2005 \\|date\=1987 \\|first1\=Heinrich \\|last1\=Potthoff \\|first2\=Susanne \\|last2\=Miller}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2013}}}} Growth in strength did not initially translate into larger numbers in the Reichstag. The original constituencies had been drawn at the empire's formation in 1871, when Germany was almost two\-thirds rural. They were never redrawn to reflect the dramatic growth of Germany's cities in the 1890s. By the turn of the century, the urban\-rural ratio was reversed, and almost two\-thirds of all Germans lived in cities and towns. Even with this change, the party still managed to become the largest single faction in the Reichstag at the 1912 elections. It would be the largest party in Germany for the next two decades. In the states of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria"), [Württemberg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg "Württemberg"), [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse "Hesse"), and [Baden](/wiki/Baden "Baden"), the SPD was successful in extracting various socio\-political and democratic concessions (including the replacement of the class\-based electoral systems with universal suffrage) through electoral alliances with bourgeois parties, voting for parliamentary bills and state budgets. In the Reichstag, the SPD resorted to a policy of tactical compromise in order to exert direct influence on legislation. In 1894, the parliamentary SPD voted for a government bill for the first time ever. It reduced the import duty on wheat, which led to a reduction in the price of food. In 1913, the votes of SPD parliamentarians helped to bring in new tax laws affecting the wealthy, which were necessary due to the increase in military spending. The Social Democrats gave particular attention to carrying out reforms at the local level, founding a tradition of community politics which intensified after 1945\. The establishment of local labour exchanges and the introduction of unemployment benefits can be credited in part to the SPD. In 1913, the number of Social Democrats on municipal and district councils approached 13,000\. As noted by Heinrich Potthoff and Susanne Miller: {{cquote\\|Here, and in their work in the administration of industrial insurance, in community employment offices and courts of arbitration, lay one of the roots of the gradual penetration by the Social Democrats of the imperial German state.{{page needed\\|date\=June 2013}}}} As Sally Waller wrote, the SPD encouraged great loyalty from its members by organising educational courses, choral societies, sports clubs, and libraries. The party also ran welfare clinics, founded libraries, produced newspapers, and organised holidays, rallies, and festivals. As also noted by Weller, they played a role in shaping a number of progressive reforms: {{cquote\\|The SPD also helped promote Germany's extensive system of welfare support giving Germany the most comprehensive system of social insurance in Europe by 1913\. They pressed successfully for some constitutional changes like the secret ballot (1904\) and payment of MPs (1906\), which permitted lower middle and working\-class men, with no other income, to put themselves forward as deputies for the Reichstag. In 1911, they supported measures whereby Alsace\-Lorraine was given Reichstag representation and universal male suffrage at 21 years was introduced. They also successfully resisted the taxation proposals that would hit the working man harder and promoted progressive taxes, whereby those with the most would be forced to pay more.AQA History: The Development of Germany, 1871–1925 by Sally Waller}} The influence of the SPD on policymaking was noted by one socialist politician, who told the leading American liberal politician [William Jennings Bryan](/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan "William Jennings Bryan") that {{cquote\\|the socialists of Germany have organized a liberal party of unrivaled strength; they have educated the working classes to a very high standard of political intelligence and to a strong sense of their independence and of their social mission, as the living and progressive force in every social respect; they have promoted the organization of trade unions; and have by their incessant agitation compelled the other parties and the government to take up social and labor legislation.The Old World and its Ways By Bryan, William Jennings, 1907, P.424}} According to historian Richard M. Watt: {{cquote\\|The political and organizational success of the Social Democrats had enabled them to demand and obtain a respectable body of legislation incorporating social reform, outlawing child labor and improving working conditions and wages, to the point where the German Social Democratic Party was the model for socialist parties in every other nation, and the German worker the most envied in Continental Europe.The Kings Depart: The Tragedy of Germany: Versailles and the German Revolution by Richard M. Watt}} #### Erfurt Program and revisionism (1891–1899\) As a reaction to government prosecution, the [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program "Erfurt Program") of 1891 was more radical than the Gotha Program of 1875, demanding [nationalization](/wiki/Nationalization "Nationalization") of Germany's major industries. In fact in 1891 the party officially became a Marxist Party to the gratification of aging Engels.{{cite book \\|last1\=Billington \\|first1\=James H. \\|title\=Fire in the Minds of Men —Origins of the Revolutionary Faith \\|date\=1999 \\|publisher\=Transaction Publishers \\|location\=New Brunswick, N.J. \\|isbn\=0\-7658\-0471\-9 \\|page\=377}} However, the party began to move away from [revolutionary socialism](/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism "Revolutionary socialism") at the turn of the 20th century{{Citation needed\\|date\=June 2023}}. [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein "Eduard Bernstein") authored a series of articles on the Problems of Socialism between 1896 and 1898, and later a book, {{lang\\|de\\|Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie}} ("The Prerequisites for Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy"), published in 1899, in which he argued that the winning of reforms under capitalism would be enough to bring about socialism. Radical party activist [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg "Rosa Luxemburg") accused Bernstein of [revisionism](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism "Marxist revisionism") and argued against his ideas in her pamphlet [Social Reform or Revolution](/wiki/Social_Reform_or_Revolution "Social Reform or Revolution"), and Bernstein's program was not adopted by the party. \| Programs of the Social Democratic Party of Germany \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Year \| Program name \| Brief description \| \| 1869 \| {{ill\\|Eisenach Program\\|de\\|Eisenacher Programm}} \| Founding program of the [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany") \| \| 1875 \| [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program "Gotha Program") \| Unification of SDAP and [ADAV](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association "General German Workers' Association") \| \| 1891 \| [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program "Erfurt Program") \| Classical Marxist program \| \| 1921 \| {{ill\\|Görlitz Program\\|de\\|Görlitzer Programm}} \| Strongly revisionist program of the [MSPD](/wiki/Majority_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany") \| \| 1925 \| {{ill\\|Heidelberg Program\\|de\\|Heidelberger Programm}} \| Orientation towards United States of Europe \| \| 1959 \| [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program "Godesberg Program") \| People's party of democratic socialism \| \| 1989 \| {{ill\\|Berlin Program\\|de\\|Berliner Programm}} \| Ecological renewal of industrial society \| \| 2007 \| {{ill\\|Hamburg Program\\|de\\|Hamburger Programm}} \| Current programme of the SPD \| #### First World War (1912–1917\) Conservative elites nevertheless became alarmed at SPD growth—especially after it won 35% of the national vote in the [1912 German federal election](/wiki/1912_German_federal_election "1912 German federal election"). Some elites looked to a foreign war as a solution to Germany's internal problems. SPD policy limited antimilitarism to aggressive wars—Germans saw 1914 as a defensive war. On 25 July 1914, the SPD leadership appealed to its membership to demonstrate for peace and large numbers turned out in orderly demonstrations. The SPD was not revolutionary and many members were nationalistic. When the war began, some conservatives wanted to use force to suppress the SPD, but Chancellor Bethmann\-Hollweg refused. However, the increasing loyalty of the party establishment towards Emperor and Reich, coupled with its antipathy toward Russia led the party under Bebel's successor [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert "Friedrich Ebert") to support the war. This was helped by the fact that Germany had waited until after the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") announced mobilization to begin its own mobilization, allowing Germany to claim it was the victim of Russian aggression.{{Cite book \\|last\=Robson \\|first\=Stuart \\|url\=http://archive.org/details/firstworldwar0000robs\_r5x1 \\|title\=The First World War \\|date\=2007 \\|publisher\=\[\[Pearson Longman]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-4058\-2471\-2 \\|edition\=1 \\|location\=Harrow, England \\|pages\=17–19 \\|language\=en \\|ref\=None}} The SPD members of the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)") voted 96–14 on 3 August 1914 to support the war. They next voted the money for the war, but resisted demands for an aggressive peace policy that would involve takeover of new territoriesV. R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (1974\) pp 178\-85{{cite journal \\|last1\=Groh \\|first1\=Dieter \\|title\=The 'Unpatriotic Socialists' and the State \\|journal\=\[\[Journal of Contemporary History]] \\|date\=1966 \\|volume\=1 \\|issue\=4 \\|pages\=151–177 \\|doi\=10\.1177/002200946600100406 \\|jstor\=259895 \\|s2cid\=159501407}} Even if socialists felt beleaguered in Germany, they knew they would suffer far more under [Tsarist autocracy](/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy "Tsarist autocracy"); they believed that the gains they had made for the working class, politically and materially, now required them to support the nation.{{cite book \\|last\=Strachan \\|first\=Hew \\|title\=The First World War: A New History \\|publisher\=\[\[Simon \& Schuster]] \\|date\=2014}} There remained an antiwar element, especially in Berlin. They – including [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg "Rosa Luxemburg"), [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht "Karl Liebknecht") and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase "Hugo Haase") – were expelled from the SPD in 1917 and formed the [Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany"), in which the [Spartacist League](/wiki/Spartacist_League "Spartacist League") was influential.. Bernstein left the party during the war, as did [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky "Karl Kautsky"), who had played an important role as the leading Marxist theoretician and editor of the theoretical journal of SPD, "[Die Neue Zeit](/wiki/Die_Neue_Zeit "Die Neue Zeit")". Neither joined the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") after the war; they both came back to the SPD in the early 1920s. From 1915 on theoretical discussions within the SPD were dominated by a group of former [anti\-revisionist](/wiki/Anti-revisionism "Anti-revisionism") [Marxists](/wiki/Marxism "Marxism"), who tried to legitimize the support of the First World War by the German SPD group in the Reichstag with Marxist arguments. Instead of the class struggle they proclaimed the struggle of peoples. The group was led by [Heinrich Cunow](/wiki/Heinrich_Cunow "Heinrich Cunow"), [Paul Lensch](/wiki/Paul_Lensch "Paul Lensch") and [Konrad Haenisch](/wiki/Konrad_Haenisch "Konrad Haenisch") ("{{lang\\|de\\|Lensch\-Cunow\-Haenisch\-Gruppe}}") and was close to the Russian\-German revolutionary and social scientist [Alexander Parvus](/wiki/Alexander_Parvus "Alexander Parvus"), who gave a public forum to the group with his journal "{{lang\\|de\\|Die Glocke}}". From the teachings of [Kurt Schumacher](/wiki/Kurt_Schumacher "Kurt Schumacher") and Professor [Johann Plenge](/wiki/Johann_Plenge "Johann Plenge"), there is a link to the current centrist "{{lang\\|de\\|\[\[Seeheimer Kreis]]}}" within the SPD founded by [Annemarie Renger](/wiki/Annemarie_Renger "Annemarie Renger"), Schumacher's former secretary. #### German Revolution (1918–1919\) In the [1918 revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 "German Revolution of 1918–19"), Ebert controversially sided with the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr "Reichswehr") against the [Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising "Spartacist uprising"), while the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 "Reichstag (Weimar Republic)") elected him as [head of the new government](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_%28Federal_Republic%29 "Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic)"). A revolutionary government met for the first time in November 1918\. Known as the [Council of People's Commissioners](/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Deputies "Council of the People's Deputies"), it consisted of three Majority Social Democrats ([Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert "Friedrich Ebert"), [Philipp Scheidemann](/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann "Philipp Scheidemann"), and [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg "Otto Landsberg")) and three Independent Social Democrats ([Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth "Emil Barth"), [Wilhelm Dittmann](/wiki/Wilhelm_Dittmann "Wilhelm Dittmann"), and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase "Hugo Haase")). The new government faced a social crisis in the German Reich following the end of the First World War, with Germany threatened by hunger and chaos. There was, for the most part, an orderly return of soldiers back into civilian life, while the threat of starvation was combated. Wage levels were raised,Comparative Economic Systems, Volume 3 by Richard L. Carson universal proportional representation for all parliaments was introduced, and a series of regulations on [unemployment benefits](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits "Unemployment benefits"), job\-creation and protection measures, [health insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance_in_Germany "Health insurance in Germany"), and [pensions](/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany "Pensions in Germany")Weimar Germany by Anthony McElligott saw the institution of important political and social reforms. In February 1918, workers made an agreement with employers which secured them total freedom of association, the legal guarantee of an [eight\-hour workday](/wiki/Eight-hour_day "Eight-hour day"), and the extension of wage agreements to all branches of trade and industry. The People's Commissioners made these changes legally binding. In addition, the SPD\-steered provisional government introduced binding state arbitration of labor conflicts, created worker's councils in large industrial firms, and opened the path to the unionization of rural labourers.German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation by William W. Hagan In December 1918, a decree was passed providing relief for the unemployed. This provided that communities were to be responsible for unemployment relief (without fixing an amount) and established that the Reich would contribute 50% and the respective German state 33% of the outlay. That same month, the government declared that labour exchanges were to be further developed with the financial assistance of the Reich. Responsibility for job placement was first transferred from the Demobilization Office to the Minister of Labour and then to the National Employment Exchange Office, which came into being in January 1920\.The Evolution of Social Insurance 1881–1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria, and Switzerland edited by Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher in collaboration with [Martin Partington](/wiki/Martin_Partington "Martin Partington") ### Weimar Republic (1918–1933\) [thumb\\|SPD activists calling for the National Assembly elections in 1919](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-033-15%2C_Berlin%2C_SPD-Wahlpropaganda.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-033-15, Berlin, SPD-Wahlpropaganda.jpg") [thumb\\|{{lang\\|de\\|Reichspräsident}} [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert "Friedrich Ebert") (in office 1919–1925\), one of the first social democratic heads of state in the world](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01111%2C_Friedrich_Ebert.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 102-01111, Friedrich Ebert.jpg") Subsequently, the Social Democratic Party and the newly founded [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") (KPD), which consisted mostly of former members of the SPD, became bitter rivals, not least because of the legacy of the [German Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution "German Revolution"). Under [Defense Minister of Germany](/wiki/Defense_Minister_of_Germany "Defense Minister of Germany") [Gustav Noske](/wiki/Gustav_Noske "Gustav Noske"), the party aided in putting down the Communist and left wing [Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising "Spartacist uprising") throughout Germany in early 1919 with the use of the extreme right wing [Freikorps](/wiki/Freikorps "Freikorps"), a decision that has remained the source of much controversy amongst historians to this day. While the KPD remained in staunch opposition to the newly established parliamentary system, the SPD became a part of the so\-called [Weimar Coalition](/wiki/Weimar_Coalition "Weimar Coalition"), one of the pillars of the struggling republic, leading several of the short\-lived interwar [cabinets](/wiki/Cabinets "Cabinets"). The threat of the Communists put the SPD in a difficult position. The party had a choice between becoming more radical (which could weaken the Communists but lose its base among the [middle class](/wiki/Middle_class "Middle class")) or stay moderate, which would damage its base among the working class. Splinter groups formed: In 1928, a small group calling itself [Neu Beginnen](/wiki/Neu_Beginnen "Neu Beginnen"), in the autumn of 1931, the [Socialist Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Workers' Party of Germany"). The [Iron Front](/wiki/Iron_Front "Iron Front"), founded in December 1931, was not a splinter party but a nonpartisan association led mostly by the SPD.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\-republik/innenpolitik/die\-eiserne\-front.html \\|title\=Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Kapitel: Weimarer Republik \\|language\=de \\|trans\-title\=Just seen on LeMO: LeMO Chapter: Weimar Republic}} #### Social reform (1918–1926\) Under Weimar, the SPD was able put its ideas of social justice into practice by influencing a number of progressive social changes while both in and out of government. The SPD re\-introduced and overhauled the Bismarckian welfare state, providing protection for the disadvantaged, the unemployed, the aged, and the young. The "Decree on Collective Agreements, Workers' and Employees' Committees, and the Settlement of Labour Disputes" of December 1918 boosted the legal effectiveness of collective bargaining contracts, while a number of measures were carried out to assist veterans, including the Decree on Social Provision for Disabled Veterans and Surviving Dependents of February 1919 and the Compensation Law for Re\-enlisted Men and Officers of September 1919\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Stolleis \\|first1\=Michael \\|title\=Origins of the German Welfare State: Social Policy in Germany to 1945 \\|date\=2012 \\|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-22522\-2}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} As noted by one study, “The Social Democrats were not only ideologically committed to state intervention in the economic process, but also had been the main force behind the soziale volkstaat (social welfare state), that net of social services and public insurance schemes that remains one of the Weimar Republic’s most lasting legacies.”Weimar Prussia, 1925–1933 The Illusion of Strength By Dietrich Orlow, 1991, P.174 The War Victims' Benefits Law of May 1920 introduced a more generous war\-disability system than had existed in the past.{{cite book \\|last1\=Moeller \\|first1\=Robert G. \\|title\=West Germany Under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era \\|date\=1997 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of Michigan Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-472\-06648\-3 \\|page\=94 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2E22iqWFrrYC\&pg\=PA94 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} This new piece of legislation took into account all grievances voiced during the war and, for the first time in social legislation in Germany, considered child maintenance in calculating widows' pensions.{{cite book \\|last1\=Higonnet \\|first1\=Margaret R. \\|last2\=Jenson \\|first2\=Jane \\|last3\=Michel \\|first3\=Sonya \\|title\=Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars \\|date\=1987 \\|publisher\=\[\[Yale University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-300\-04429\-4 \\|page\=134 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kdm3N\-YMI9YC\&pg\=PA134 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In 1919, the federal government launched a campaign to recolonize parts of the German interior including in Silesia,{{cite book \\|last1\=Lutz \\|first1\=Ralph Haswell \\|title\=The German Revolution of 1918 \\|date\=1922 \\|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press\\|CUP Archive]] \\|page\=101 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qQg4AAAAIAAJ\&pg\=PA101 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} and new provisions for maternity were introduced.{{cite book \\|title\=The American Labor Legislation Review \\|date\=1920 \\|publisher\=American association for labor legislation \\|page\=152 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pVVJAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA152 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}}{{cite book \\|last1\=Dickinson \\|first1\=Edward Ross \\|title\=The Politics of German Child Welfare from the Empire to the Federal Republic \\|date\=1996 \\|publisher\=\[\[Harvard University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-68862\-9 \\|page\=144 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yM0y7LOn6x0C\&pg\=PA144 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In February 1920, an industrial relations law was passed, giving workers in industry legally guaranteed representation, together with the right to [co\-determination](/wiki/Co-determination "Co-determination") in cases of hiring and firing, holiday arrangements, the fixing of working hours and regulations, and the introduction of new methods of payment. A Socialisation Law was also passed, while the government adopted guidelines on the [workers' councils](/wiki/Workers%27_council "Workers' council"). In addition to workers' councils at national, regional, and factory level, the government made provision for economic councils in which employers and employees would work together on matters affecting the economy as a whole (such as nationalisation) and lend support to the Weimar parliament. SPD governments also introduced unemployment insurance benefits for all workers (in 1918\),{{cite book \\|last1\=Thane \\|first1\=Pat \\|title\=The Foundations of the Welfare State \\|date\=2016 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-317\-88906\-9}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} trade union recognition and an eight\-hour workday, while municipalities that came under SPD control or influence expanded educational and job\-training opportunities and set up health clinics.{{cite book \\|last1\=Weitz \\|first1\=Eric D. \\|title\=Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy \\|date\=2007 \\|publisher\=\[\[Princeton University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-691\-01695\-5}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Off the shop floor, Social Democratic workers took advantage of the adult education halls, public libraries, swimming pools, schools, and low\-income apartments built by municipalities during the Weimar years, while considerable wage increases won for the majority of workers by the [Free Trade Unions](/wiki/Free_Trade_Unions_%28Germany%29 "Free Trade Unions (Germany)") between 1924 and 1928 helped to narrow the gap between unskilled and skilled workers.{{cite book \\|last1\=Harsch \\|first1\=Donna \\|title\=German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism \\|date\=2000 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of North Carolina Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8078\-6192\-9}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} A number of reforms were also made in education, as characterised by the introduction of the four\-year common primary school.{{cite book \\|last1\=Jacoby \\|first1\=Wade \\|title\=Imitation and Politics: Redesigning Modern Germany \\|date\=2001 \\|publisher\=\[\[Cornell University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8014\-8769\-9}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Educational opportunities were further widened by the promotion of [adult education](/wiki/Adult_education "Adult education") and culture. The SPD also played an active and exemplary role in the development of local politics in thousands of towns and communities during this period.{{cite book \\|last1\=Potthoff \\|first1\=Heinrich \\|last2\=Miller \\|first2\=Susanne \\|title\=The Social Democratic Party of Germany, 1848\-2005 \\|date\=2006 \\|publisher\=Dietz \\|isbn\=978\-3\-8012\-0365\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} In 1923, the SPD Minister of Finance, [Rudolf Hilferding](/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding "Rudolf Hilferding"), laid much of the groundwork for the stabilization of the German currency.{{cite book \\|last1\=Fletcher \\|first1\=Roger \\|last2\=Brandt \\|first2\=Willy \\|title\=Bernstein to Brandt: A Short History of German Social Democracy \\|date\=1987 \\|publisher\=Edward Arnold \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7131\-6480\-0}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} As noted by Edward R. Dickinson, the [German Revolution of 1918–1919](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919 "German Revolution of 1918–1919") and the democratisation of the state and local franchise provided Social Democracy with a greater degree of influence at all levels of government than it had been able to achieve before 1914\. As a result of the reform of municipal franchises, socialists gained control of many of the country's major cities. This provided Social Democrats with a considerable degree of influence in social policy, as most welfare programmes (even those programmes mandated by national legislation) were implemented by municipal government. By the Twenties, with the absence of a revolution and the reformist and revision element dominant in the SPD, Social Democrats regarded the expansion of social welfare programmes, and particularly the idea that the citizen had a right to have his or her basic needs met by society at large, as central to the construction of a just and democratic social order. Social Democrats therefore pushed the expansion of social welfare programmes energetically at all levels of government, and SPD municipal administrations were in the forefront of the development of social programmes. As remarked by [Hedwig Wachenheim](/wiki/Hedwig_Wachenheim "Hedwig Wachenheim") in 1926, under Social Democratic administration many of the country's larger cities began to become experimental "proletarian cooperatives."{{cite book \\|last1\=Dickinson \\|first1\=Edward Ross \\|title\=The Politics of German Child Welfare from the Empire to the Federal Republic \\|date\=1996 \\|publisher\=\[\[Harvard University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-68862\-9 \\|page\=147 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yM0y7LOn6x0C\&pg\=PA147 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} As noted by another study, “The Party achieved a great deal at this local level in areas such as social welfare, health, education, and training, although the onset of the Great Depression after 1929 undermined many of these achievements.”The German Left and the Weimar Republic A Selection of Documents Translated and Introduced by Ben Fowkes, 2014, P.13 Protective measures for workers were vastly improved, under the influence or direction of the SPD, and members of the SPD pointed to positive changes that they had sponsored, such as improvements in public health, unemployment insurance, maternity benefits, and the building of municipal housing.{{cite book \\|last1\=Weitz \\|first1\=Eric D. \\|title\=Creating German Communism, 1890\-1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State \\|date\=2021 \\|publisher\=\[\[Princeton University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-691\-22812\-9}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} During its time in opposition throughout the Twenties, the SPD was able to help push through a series of reforms beneficial to workers, including increased investment in [public housing](/wiki/Public_housing "Public housing"), expanded disability, health, and social insurance programmes, the restoration of an eight\-hour workday in large firms, and the implementation of binding arbitration by the Labour Ministry.{{cite book \\|last1\=Smaldone \\|first1\=William \\|title\=Confronting Hitler: German Social Democrats in Defense of the Weimar Republic, 1929\-1933 \\|date\=2010 \\|publisher\=\[\[Lexington Books]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7391\-3211\-1}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} In 1926, the Social Democrats were responsible for a law which increased maternity benefit "to cover the cost of midwifery, medical help and all necessary medication and equipment for home births."{{cite book \\|last1\=Usborne \\|first1\=Cornelie \\|title\=The Politics of the Body in Weimar Germany: Women's Reproductive Rights and Duties \\|date\=1992 \\|publisher\=Springer \\|isbn\=978\-1\-349\-12244\-8 \\|page\=47 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=L6euCwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA47 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} #### In government (1918–1924; 1928–1930\) In the [Free State of Prussia](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia "Free State of Prussia"), (which became an SPD stronghold following the introduction of [universal suffrage](/wiki/Universal_suffrage "Universal suffrage")) an important housing law was passed in 1918 which empowered local authorities to erect small dwellings and buildings of public utility, provide open spaces, and enact planning measures. The law further directed that all districts with more than 10,000 inhabitants had to issue police ordinances regarding housing hygiene. In addition, a reform in education was carried out.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Donson \\|first1\=Andrew \\|title\=The Teenagers' Revolution: ''Schülerräte'' in the Democratization and Right\-Wing Radicalization of Germany, 1918–1923 \\|journal\=\[\[Central European History]] \\|date\=September 2011 \\|volume\=44 \\|issue\=3 \\|pages\=420–446 \\|doi\=10\.1017/S0008938911000380 \\|s2cid\=145229969}} Similar measures were introduced in other areas subjected to the influence of the SPD, with the Reich (also under the influence of the SPD) controlling rents and subsidising the construction of housing.Germany In The Twentieth Century by David Childs During the Weimar era, the SPD held the chancellorship on two occasions, first from 1918 to 1920, and then again from 1928 to 1930\. Through aggressive opposition politics, the SPD (backed by the union revival linked to economic upsurge) was able to effect greater progress in social policy from 1924 to 1928 than during the previous and subsequent periods of the party's participation in government. In Prussia, the SPD was part of the government from 1918 to 1932, and for all but nine months of that time (April–November 1921 and February–April 1925\), a member of the SPD was minister president. The SPD's last period in office was arguably a failure, due to both its lack of a parliamentary majority (which forced it to make compromises to right\-wing parties) and its inability to confront the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). In 1927, the defence ministry had prevailed on the government of [Wilhelm Marx](/wiki/Wilhelm_Marx "Wilhelm Marx") to provide funds in its draft budget of 1928 for the construction of the first of six small battleships allowed for under the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles"), although the Federal Council (largely for financial reasons) stopped this action. This issue played a major role during the [1928 German federal election](/wiki/1928_German_federal_election "1928 German federal election"), with supporters of the proposal arguing that all the possibilities left for German armaments should be fully used, while the SPD and the KPD saw this as a wasteful expenditure, arguing that such money should instead be spent on providing free meals for schoolchildren. The SPD's lack of a parliamentary majority (which prevented it from undertaking any major domestic reform){{cite book \\|title\=A history of modern Germany: 1840–1945 \\|first\=Hajo \\|last\=Holborn \\|author\-link\=Hajo Holborn}} meant that, in order to hold the coalition together, [Hermann Müller](/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_%28politician%2C_born_1876%29 "Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)") and the other SPD ministers were forced to make concessions on issues such as taxation, unemployment insurance, and the construction of pocket battleships. Party chairman [Otto Wels](/wiki/Otto_Wels "Otto Wels") demanded that the funds be spent on free school meals as had been promised during the election campaign. However, against the wishes and votes of Wels and the other SPD deputies, the SPD ministers in [Müller's cabinet](/wiki/Second_M%C3%BCller_cabinet "Second Müller cabinet") (including Müller himself) voted in favour of the first battleship being built, a decision that arguably destroyed the party's credibility.{{cite book \\|title\=A history of modern Germany, 1800–2000 \\|first\=Martin \\|last\=Kitchen \\|author\-link\=Martin Kitchen}} Müller's SPD government eventually fell as a result of the catastrophic effects of the Great Depression. Müller's government, an ideologically diverse "Grand Coalition" representing five parties ranging from the left to the right, was unable to develop effective counter\-measures to tackle the catastrophic effects of the economic crisis, as characterised by the massive rise in the numbers of registered unemployed. In 1928–29, 2\.5 million were estimated to be unemployed, a figure that reached over 3 million by the following winter. A major problem facing Müller's government was a deficit in the Reich budget, which the government spending more than it was receiving. This situation was made worse by the inadequacy of the unemployment scheme which was unable to pay out enough benefits to the rising numbers of unemployed, forcing the government to make contributions to the scheme (which in turn worsened the budget deficit). The coalition was badly divided on this issue, with the SPD wishing to raise the level of contributions to the scheme while safeguarding both those in work and those out of work as much as possible. The right\-wing parties, by contrast, wished to reduce unemployment benefits while lightening the tax burden. Unable to garner enough support in the Reichstag to pass laws, Müller turned to President [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg "Paul von Hindenburg") for support, wishing him to grant him the use of the emergency powers under [Article 48](/wiki/Article_48_%28Weimar_Constitution%29 "Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)") of the [Weimar Constitution](/wiki/Weimar_Constitution "Weimar Constitution") so that he did not have to rely on support from the Reichstag.{{cite book \\|title\=Germany, 1858–1990: Hope, terror, and revival \\|first\=Alison \\|last\=Kitson \\|author\-link\=Alison Kitson}} Müller refused to agree to reductions in unemployment benefit which the [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 "Centre Party (Germany)") under [Heinrich Brüning](/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning "Heinrich Brüning") saw as necessary.Essential Modern World History by Steve Waugh The government finally collapsed in March 1930 when Müller (lacking support from Hindenburg) resigned, a fall from office that according to the historian [William Smaldone](/wiki/William_Smaldone "William Smaldone") marked "the effective end of parliamentary government under Weimar." The new government under [Heinrich Brüning](/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning "Heinrich Brüning") was propped up by President Hindenburg without the support of the Reichstag and operated by emergency decree. When the decrees were repealed, the Reichstag was dissolved and the [1930 election](/wiki/1930_German_federal_election "1930 German federal election") delivered an enormous and shocking surge for the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party"). The SPD decided to tolerate Brüning's government and not repeal his decrees in an effort to avoid further instability and Nazi gains. As the Brüning government implemented austerity to counter the depression, the SPD debated its own economic program. The proto\-Keynesian [WTB plan](/wiki/WTB_plan "WTB plan") was supported by the unions but rejected by the party. They went into 1932 with no specific economic programme, and faced harsh defeat in the [July 1932 elections](/wiki/July_1932_German_federal_election "July 1932 German federal election"). #### Collapse (1932–1933\) [thumb\\|A widely publicized SPD election poster from 1932, with [Three Arrows](/wiki/Three_Arrows "Three Arrows") symbol representing resistance against reactionary conservatism, Nazism and Communism, and with the slogan "Against [Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen "Franz von Papen"), [Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler"), [Thälmann](/wiki/Ernst_Th%C3%A4lmann "Ernst Thälmann")."](/wiki/File:Three_Arrows_election_poster_of_the_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany%2C_1932_-_Gegen_Papen%2C_Hitler%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann.jpg "Three Arrows election poster of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, 1932 - Gegen Papen, Hitler, Thälmann.jpg") On 20 July 1932, the SPD\-led Prussian government in Berlin, headed by [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun "Otto Braun"), was ousted by [Franz von Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen "Franz von Papen"), the new Chancellor, by means of a Presidential decree. Following the appointment of [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") as chancellor on 30 January 1933 by President Hindenburg, the SPD received 18\.25% of the votes during the last (at least partially) [free elections on 5 March](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election "March 1933 German federal election"), gaining 120 seats. However, the SPD was unable to prevent the ratification of the [Enabling Act](/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933 "Enabling Act of 1933"), which granted extraconstitutional powers to the government. The SPD was the only party to vote against the act (the KPD being already outlawed and its deputies were under arrest, dead, or in exile). Several of its deputies had been detained by the police under the provisions of the [Reichstag Fire Decree](/wiki/Reichstag_Fire_Decree "Reichstag Fire Decree"), which suspended [civil liberties](/wiki/Civil_liberties "Civil liberties"). Others suspected that the SPD would be next, and fled into exile.{{cite book \\|first\=William \\|last\=Shirer \\|author\-link\=William Shirer \\|title\=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich \\|edition\=Touchstone \\|location\=New York \\|publisher\=\[\[Simon \& Schuster]] \\|date\=1990}} However, even if they had all been present, the Act would have still passed, as the 441 votes in favour would have still been more than the required two\-thirds majority. After the passing of the Enabling Act, dozens of SPD deputies were arrested, and several more fled into exile. Most of the leadership settled in [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague"). Those that remained tried their best to appease the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party"). On 19 May, the few SPD deputies who had not been jailed or fled into exile voted in favour of Hitler's foreign policy statement, in which he declared his willingness to renounce all offensive weapons if other countries followed suit. They also publicly distanced themselves from their brethren abroad who condemned Hitler's tactics.{{cite book\\|last\=Evans\\|first\=Richard J.\\|author\-link\=Richard J. Evans\\|title\=The Coming of the Third Reich\\|title\-link\=The Third Reich Trilogy\#The Coming of the Third Reich\\|publisher\=\[\[Penguin Group\\|Penguin Press]]\\|location\=\[\[New York City]]\\|date\=2003\\|isbn\=978\-0\-14\-100975\-9}} It was to no avail. Over the course of the spring, the police confiscated the SPD's buildings, newspapers and property. On 21 June 1933, Interior Minister [Wilhelm Frick](/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick "Wilhelm Frick") ordered the SPD closed down on the basis of the [Reichstag Fire Decree](/wiki/Reichstag_Fire_Decree "Reichstag Fire Decree"), declaring the party "subversive and inimical to the State." All SPD deputies at the state and federal level were stripped of their seats, and all SPD meetings and publications were banned. Party members were also blacklisted from public office and the civil service. Frick took the line that the SPD members in exile were committing treason from abroad, while those still in Germany were helping them. The party was a member of the [Labour and Socialist International](/wiki/Labour_and_Socialist_International "Labour and Socialist International") between 1923 and 1940\.Kowalski, Werner. [Geschichte der sozialistischen arbeiter\-internationale: 1923 \- 19](https://books.google.com/books?id=83QdPwAACAAJ). Berlin: Dt. Verl. d. Wissenschaften, 1985\. p. 287 ### Nazi era and SoPaDe (1933–1945\) [thumb\\|Former SPD minister president of Oldenburg, Bernhard Kuhnt, humiliated by Nazis in 1933](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-18450-0002%2C_Dem%C3%BCtigung_von_Bernhard_Kuhnt_durch_SA.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-18450-0002, Demütigung von Bernhard Kuhnt durch SA.jpg") Being the only party in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 "Reichstag (Weimar Republic)") to have voted against the [Enabling Act](/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933 "Enabling Act of 1933"), the SPD was banned in the summer of 1933 by the new [Nazi government](/wiki/Government_of_Nazi_Germany "Government of Nazi Germany"). Many of its members were jailed or sent to [Nazi concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps "Nazi concentration camps"). An exile organization, known as [Sopade](/wiki/Sopade "Sopade"), was established, initially in Prague. Others left the areas where they had been politically active and moved to other towns where they were not known. Between 1936 and 1939 some SPD members fought in the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") for the [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_faction_%28Spanish_Civil_War%29 "Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)") against [Francisco Franco](/wiki/Francisco_Franco "Francisco Franco")'s [Nationalists](/wiki/Nationalist_faction_%28Spanish_Civil_War%29 "Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)") and the German [Condor Legion](/wiki/Condor_Legion "Condor Legion"). After the [annexation of Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_%281938%E2%80%931945%29 "Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)") in 1938 the exile party resettled in Paris and, after the [defeat of France](/wiki/Battle_of_France "Battle of France") in 1940, in London. Only a few days after the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") in September 1939 the exiled SPD in Paris declared its support for the Allies and for the military removal from power of the [Nazi government](/wiki/Nazi_government "Nazi government").	[ "German Reich\n------------", "### German Empire (1863–1918\\)", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|Medal 1890 Bebel and Liebknecht after their success in the federal elections](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_obverse.jpg \"Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), obverse.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|left\\\|The reverse of that medal commemorating the [1890 Reichstagswahl](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election \"1890 German federal election\")](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_reverse.jpg \"Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), reverse.jpg\")\nThe party was founded on 23 May 1863 by [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle \"Ferdinand Lassalle\") under the name {{lang\\\|de\\\|Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein}} (ADAV, [General German Workers' Association](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association \"General German Workers' Association\")). In 1869, [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel \"August Bebel\") and [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht \"Wilhelm Liebknecht\") founded the {{lang\\\|de\\\|Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei}} (SDAP, [Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany\")), which merged with the ADAV at a conference held in Gotha in 1875, taking the name Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAPD). At this conference, the party developed the [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program \"Gotha Program\"), which [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") criticized in his [Critique of the Gotha Program](/wiki/Critique_of_the_Gotha_Program \"Critique of the Gotha Program\"). Through the [Anti\\-Socialist Laws](/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws \"Anti-Socialist Laws\"), [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\") had the party outlawed for its pro\\-revolution, anti\\-monarchy sentiments in 1878; but in 1890 it was legalized again after the successful [elections to the Reichstag](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election \"1890 German federal election\"). That year, in its [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt \"Halle, Saxony-Anhalt\") convention, it changed its name to {{lang\\\|de\\\|Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands}} (SPD), as it is known to this day.", "Anti\\-socialist campaigns were counterproductive. 1878 to 1890 was the SPD's \"heroic period\". The party's new program drawn up in 1891 at Halle was more radical than 1875's [Gotha program](/wiki/Gotha_Program \"Gotha Program\"). From 1881 to 1890 the party's support increased faster than in any other period. In 1896, the [National Liberals](/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_%28Germany%29 \"National Liberal Party (Germany)\") and [Conservatives](/wiki/German_Conservative_Party \"German Conservative Party\") in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") replaced the democratic vote with a Prussian\\-style three\\-tiered suffrage, upper class votes counting the most. They did this to drive out the local SPD which lost its last seat in 1901\\. However, in the 1903 election, the number of socialist deputies increased from 11 to 22 out of 23\\.Retallack, Imperial Germany, page 187", "[thumb\\\|[August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel \"August Bebel\") in 1863, co\\-chairman from 1892 to 1913](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14077-0005%2C_August_Bebel.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14077-0005, August Bebel.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|right\\\|300px\\\|SPD members in Reichstag 1889, (sitting from left to right: [Georg Schumacher](/wiki/Georg_Schumacher \"Georg Schumacher\"), [Friedrich Harm](/wiki/Friedrich_Harm \"Friedrich Harm\"), [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel \"August Bebel\"), [Heinrich Meister](/wiki/Heinrich_Meister \"Heinrich Meister\") and [Karl Frohme](/wiki/Karl_Frohme \"Karl Frohme\"). Standing: [Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Wilhelm_Dietz \"Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz\"), [August Kühn](/wiki/August_K%C3%BChn \"August Kühn\"), [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht \"Wilhelm Liebknecht\"), [Karl Grillenberger](/wiki/Karl_Grillenberger \"Karl Grillenberger\"), and [Paul Singer](/wiki/Paul_Singer_%28politician%29 \"Paul Singer (politician)\"))](/wiki/File:Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg \"Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg\")\nBecause Social Democrats could be elected as list\\-free candidates while the party was outlawed, SPD continued to be a growing force in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\"), becoming the strongest party in 1912 (in the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\"), the parliamentary balance of forces had no influence on the formation of the cabinet). During this period, SPD deputies in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\") were able to win some improvements in working and living conditions for working\\-class Germans,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.country\\-data.com/cgi\\-bin/query/r\\-4869\\.html\\\|publisher\\=country\\-data.com\\\|title\\=Germany \\- Political Parties\\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} thereby advancing the cause of its policies in a general way and securing material benefits for its supporters.The German Social Democratic Party, 1875–1933: From Ghetto To Government by W. L. Guttsman", "In the [Landtag](/wiki/Landtag \"Landtag\"), the SPD was able to extract some concessions from time to time in areas for which the assembly was responsible, such as education and social policy. In Hesse, the party was successful in demanding that church tax be listed separately in assessments, and it was able to secure improvements in judicial procedure. The SPD also had occasional successes in raising wages and improving the working conditions of municipal labourers.", "SPD pressure in the Reichstag in the late nineteenth century supported an expansion in the system of factory inspection, together with a minor reform in military service under which the families of reservists, called up for training or manoeuvres, could receive an allowance. In the 1880s, SPD deputies in Saxony successfully agitated in support of improved safety for miners and better control of mines.", "In 1908, the same year the government legalized women's participation in politics, [Luise Zietz](/wiki/Luise_Zietz \"Luise Zietz\") became the first woman appointed to the executive committee of the SPD.{{cite book\\\|author\\=Joseph A. Biesinger\\\|title\\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=exMn24SA7fMC\\&pg\\=PA755\\\|date\\=1 January 2006\\\|publisher\\=Infobase Publishing\\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8160\\-7471\\-6\\\|pages\\=755–}}{{cite web \\\|first\\=Jennifer \\\|last\\=Striewski \\\|location\\=\\[\\[Bonn]] \\\|url\\=http://www.rheinische\\-geschichte.lvr.de/persoenlichkeiten/J/Seiten/MarieJuchacz.aspx \\\|title\\=Marie Juchacz (1879\\-1956\\), Begründerin der Arbeiterwohlfahrt \\\|language\\=de \\\|trans\\-title\\=Marie Juchacz (1879\\-1956\\), founder of workers' welfare \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[:de:Landschaftsverband Rheinland\\\|Landschaftsverband Rheinland]] (LVR), \\[\\[Cologne]] \\\|date\\=8 March 2013 \\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-11}}", "Despite the passage of anti\\-socialist legislation, the SPD continued to grow in strength in the early twentieth century, with a steady rise in membership from 384,327 in 1905/06 to 1,085,905 in 1913/14\\. SPD was seen as a populist party, and people from every quarter of German society sought help and advice from it. With its counseling service (provided free of charge by the mostly trade union maintained workers' secretarial offices), the German social democratic movement helped large numbers of Germans to secure their legal rights, primarily in social security. There also existed a dynamic educational movement, with hundreds of courses and individual lectures, theatre performances, libraries, peripatetic teachers, a central school for workers' education, and a famous Party School, as noted by the historians Susanne Miller and Heinrich Potthoff:", "{{cquote\\\|With all of this, the SPD and the Free Trade Unions were not only delivering the necessary tools for the political and social struggle, but were also a cultural movement in the widest sense of the term.{{cite book \\\|title\\=The Social Democratic Party of Germany 1848–2005 \\\|date\\=1987 \\\|first1\\=Heinrich \\\|last1\\=Potthoff \\\|first2\\=Susanne \\\|last2\\=Miller}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2013}}}}", "Growth in strength did not initially translate into larger numbers in the Reichstag. The original constituencies had been drawn at the empire's formation in 1871, when Germany was almost two\\-thirds rural. They were never redrawn to reflect the dramatic growth of Germany's cities in the 1890s. By the turn of the century, the urban\\-rural ratio was reversed, and almost two\\-thirds of all Germans lived in cities and towns. Even with this change, the party still managed to become the largest single faction in the Reichstag at the 1912 elections. It would be the largest party in Germany for the next two decades.", "In the states of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\"), [Württemberg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Württemberg\"), [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse \"Hesse\"), and [Baden](/wiki/Baden \"Baden\"), the SPD was successful in extracting various socio\\-political and democratic concessions (including the replacement of the class\\-based electoral systems with universal suffrage) through electoral alliances with bourgeois parties, voting for parliamentary bills and state budgets. In the Reichstag, the SPD resorted to a policy of tactical compromise in order to exert direct influence on legislation. In 1894, the parliamentary SPD voted for a government bill for the first time ever. It reduced the import duty on wheat, which led to a reduction in the price of food. In 1913, the votes of SPD parliamentarians helped to bring in new tax laws affecting the wealthy, which were necessary due to the increase in military spending.", "The Social Democrats gave particular attention to carrying out reforms at the local level, founding a tradition of community politics which intensified after 1945\\. The establishment of local labour exchanges and the introduction of unemployment benefits can be credited in part to the SPD. In 1913, the number of Social Democrats on municipal and district councils approached 13,000\\. As noted by Heinrich Potthoff and Susanne Miller:", "{{cquote\\\|Here, and in their work in the administration of industrial insurance, in community employment offices and courts of arbitration, lay one of the roots of the gradual penetration by the Social Democrats of the imperial German state.{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2013}}}}", "As Sally Waller wrote, the SPD encouraged great loyalty from its members by organising educational courses, choral societies, sports clubs, and libraries. The party also ran welfare clinics, founded libraries, produced newspapers, and organised holidays, rallies, and festivals. As also noted by Weller, they played a role in shaping a number of progressive reforms:", "{{cquote\\\|The SPD also helped promote Germany's extensive system of welfare support giving Germany the most comprehensive system of social insurance in Europe by 1913\\. They pressed successfully for some constitutional changes like the secret ballot (1904\\) and payment of MPs (1906\\), which permitted lower middle and working\\-class men, with no other income, to put themselves forward as deputies for the Reichstag. In 1911, they supported measures whereby Alsace\\-Lorraine was given Reichstag representation and universal male suffrage at 21 years was introduced. They also successfully resisted the taxation proposals that would hit the working man harder and promoted progressive taxes, whereby those with the most would be forced to pay more.AQA History: The Development of Germany, 1871–1925 by Sally Waller}}", "The influence of the SPD on policymaking was noted by one socialist politician, who told the leading American liberal politician [William Jennings Bryan](/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan \"William Jennings Bryan\") that", "{{cquote\\\|the socialists of Germany have organized a liberal party of unrivaled strength; they have educated the working classes to a very high standard of political intelligence and to a strong sense of their independence and of their social mission, as the living and progressive force in every social respect; they have promoted the organization of trade unions; and have by their incessant agitation compelled the other parties and the government to take up social and labor legislation.The Old World and its Ways By Bryan, William Jennings, 1907, P.424}}", "According to historian Richard M. Watt:", "{{cquote\\\|The political and organizational success of the Social Democrats had enabled them to demand and obtain a respectable body of legislation incorporating social reform, outlawing child labor and improving working conditions and wages, to the point where the German Social Democratic Party was the model for socialist parties in every other nation, and the German worker the most envied in Continental Europe.The Kings Depart: The Tragedy of Germany: Versailles and the German Revolution by Richard M. Watt}}", "#### Erfurt Program and revisionism (1891–1899\\)", "As a reaction to government prosecution, the [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program \"Erfurt Program\") of 1891 was more radical than the Gotha Program of 1875, demanding [nationalization](/wiki/Nationalization \"Nationalization\") of Germany's major industries. In fact in 1891 the party officially became a Marxist Party to the gratification of aging Engels.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Billington \\\|first1\\=James H. \\\|title\\=Fire in the Minds of Men —Origins of the Revolutionary Faith \\\|date\\=1999 \\\|publisher\\=Transaction Publishers \\\|location\\=New Brunswick, N.J. \\\|isbn\\=0\\-7658\\-0471\\-9 \\\|page\\=377}} However, the party began to move away from [revolutionary socialism](/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism \"Revolutionary socialism\") at the turn of the 20th century{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2023}}. [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein \"Eduard Bernstein\") authored a series of articles on the Problems of Socialism between 1896 and 1898, and later a book, {{lang\\\|de\\\|Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie}} (\"The Prerequisites for Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy\"), published in 1899, in which he argued that the winning of reforms under capitalism would be enough to bring about socialism. Radical party activist [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg \"Rosa Luxemburg\") accused Bernstein of [revisionism](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism \"Marxist revisionism\") and argued against his ideas in her pamphlet [Social Reform or Revolution](/wiki/Social_Reform_or_Revolution \"Social Reform or Revolution\"), and Bernstein's program was not adopted by the party.", "\| Programs of the Social Democratic Party of Germany \| \| \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| Year \| Program name \| Brief description \|\n\| 1869 \| {{ill\\\|Eisenach Program\\\|de\\\|Eisenacher Programm}} \| Founding program of the [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany\") \|\n\| 1875 \| [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program \"Gotha Program\") \| Unification of SDAP and [ADAV](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association \"General German Workers' Association\") \|\n\| 1891 \| [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program \"Erfurt Program\") \| Classical Marxist program \|\n\| 1921 \| {{ill\\\|Görlitz Program\\\|de\\\|Görlitzer Programm}} \| Strongly revisionist program of the [MSPD](/wiki/Majority_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany\") \|\n\| 1925 \| {{ill\\\|Heidelberg Program\\\|de\\\|Heidelberger Programm}} \| Orientation towards United States of Europe \|\n\| 1959 \| [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program \"Godesberg Program\") \| People's party of democratic socialism \|\n\| 1989 \| {{ill\\\|Berlin Program\\\|de\\\|Berliner Programm}} \| Ecological renewal of industrial society \|\n\| 2007 \| {{ill\\\|Hamburg Program\\\|de\\\|Hamburger Programm}} \| Current programme of the SPD \|", "", "#### First World War (1912–1917\\)", "Conservative elites nevertheless became alarmed at SPD growth—especially after it won 35% of the national vote in the [1912 German federal election](/wiki/1912_German_federal_election \"1912 German federal election\"). Some elites looked to a foreign war as a solution to Germany's internal problems. SPD policy limited antimilitarism to aggressive wars—Germans saw 1914 as a defensive war. On 25 July 1914, the SPD leadership appealed to its membership to demonstrate for peace and large numbers turned out in orderly demonstrations. The SPD was not revolutionary and many members were nationalistic. When the war began, some conservatives wanted to use force to suppress the SPD, but Chancellor Bethmann\\-Hollweg refused. However, the increasing loyalty of the party establishment towards Emperor and Reich, coupled with its antipathy toward Russia led the party under Bebel's successor [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert \"Friedrich Ebert\") to support the war. This was helped by the fact that Germany had waited until after the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") announced mobilization to begin its own mobilization, allowing Germany to claim it was the victim of Russian aggression.{{Cite book \\\|last\\=Robson \\\|first\\=Stuart \\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/firstworldwar0000robs\\_r5x1 \\\|title\\=The First World War \\\|date\\=2007 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Pearson Longman]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4058\\-2471\\-2 \\\|edition\\=1 \\\|location\\=Harrow, England \\\|pages\\=17–19 \\\|language\\=en \\\|ref\\=None}} The SPD members of the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\") voted 96–14 on 3 August 1914 to support the war. They next voted the money for the war, but resisted demands for an aggressive peace policy that would involve takeover of new territoriesV. R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (1974\\) pp 178\\-85{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Groh \\\|first1\\=Dieter \\\|title\\=The 'Unpatriotic Socialists' and the State \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Contemporary History]] \\\|date\\=1966 \\\|volume\\=1 \\\|issue\\=4 \\\|pages\\=151–177 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/002200946600100406 \\\|jstor\\=259895 \\\|s2cid\\=159501407}} Even if socialists felt beleaguered in Germany, they knew they would suffer far more under [Tsarist autocracy](/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy \"Tsarist autocracy\"); they believed that the gains they had made for the working class, politically and materially, now required them to support the nation.{{cite book \\\|last\\=Strachan \\\|first\\=Hew \\\|title\\=The First World War: A New History \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Simon \\& Schuster]] \\\|date\\=2014}}", "There remained an antiwar element, especially in Berlin. They – including [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg \"Rosa Luxemburg\"), [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht \"Karl Liebknecht\") and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase \"Hugo Haase\") – were expelled from the SPD in 1917 and formed the [Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany\"), in which the [Spartacist League](/wiki/Spartacist_League \"Spartacist League\") was influential.. Bernstein left the party during the war, as did [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky \"Karl Kautsky\"), who had played an important role as the leading Marxist theoretician and editor of the theoretical journal of SPD, \"[Die Neue Zeit](/wiki/Die_Neue_Zeit \"Die Neue Zeit\")\". Neither joined the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") after the war; they both came back to the SPD in the early 1920s. From 1915 on theoretical discussions within the SPD were dominated by a group of former [anti\\-revisionist](/wiki/Anti-revisionism \"Anti-revisionism\") [Marxists](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\"), who tried to legitimize the support of the First World War by the German SPD group in the Reichstag with Marxist arguments. Instead of the class struggle they proclaimed the struggle of peoples. The group was led by [Heinrich Cunow](/wiki/Heinrich_Cunow \"Heinrich Cunow\"), [Paul Lensch](/wiki/Paul_Lensch \"Paul Lensch\") and [Konrad Haenisch](/wiki/Konrad_Haenisch \"Konrad Haenisch\") (\"{{lang\\\|de\\\|Lensch\\-Cunow\\-Haenisch\\-Gruppe}}\") and was close to the Russian\\-German revolutionary and social scientist [Alexander Parvus](/wiki/Alexander_Parvus \"Alexander Parvus\"), who gave a public forum to the group with his journal \"{{lang\\\|de\\\|Die Glocke}}\". From the teachings of [Kurt Schumacher](/wiki/Kurt_Schumacher \"Kurt Schumacher\") and Professor [Johann Plenge](/wiki/Johann_Plenge \"Johann Plenge\"), there is a link to the current centrist \"{{lang\\\|de\\\|\\[\\[Seeheimer Kreis]]}}\" within the SPD founded by [Annemarie Renger](/wiki/Annemarie_Renger \"Annemarie Renger\"), Schumacher's former secretary.", "#### German Revolution (1918–1919\\)", "In the [1918 revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 \"German Revolution of 1918–19\"), Ebert controversially sided with the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr \"Reichswehr\") against the [Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising \"Spartacist uprising\"), while the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 \"Reichstag (Weimar Republic)\") elected him as [head of the new government](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_%28Federal_Republic%29 \"Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic)\").", "A revolutionary government met for the first time in November 1918\\. Known as the [Council of People's Commissioners](/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Deputies \"Council of the People's Deputies\"), it consisted of three Majority Social Democrats ([Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert \"Friedrich Ebert\"), [Philipp Scheidemann](/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann \"Philipp Scheidemann\"), and [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg \"Otto Landsberg\")) and three Independent Social Democrats ([Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth \"Emil Barth\"), [Wilhelm Dittmann](/wiki/Wilhelm_Dittmann \"Wilhelm Dittmann\"), and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase \"Hugo Haase\")). The new government faced a social crisis in the German Reich following the end of the First World War, with Germany threatened by hunger and chaos. There was, for the most part, an orderly return of soldiers back into civilian life, while the threat of starvation was combated. Wage levels were raised,Comparative Economic Systems, Volume 3 by Richard L. Carson universal proportional representation for all parliaments was introduced, and a series of regulations on [unemployment benefits](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits \"Unemployment benefits\"), job\\-creation and protection measures, [health insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance_in_Germany \"Health insurance in Germany\"), and [pensions](/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany \"Pensions in Germany\")Weimar Germany by Anthony McElligott saw the institution of important political and social reforms. In February 1918, workers made an agreement with employers which secured them total freedom of association, the legal guarantee of an [eight\\-hour workday](/wiki/Eight-hour_day \"Eight-hour day\"), and the extension of wage agreements to all branches of trade and industry. The People's Commissioners made these changes legally binding. In addition, the SPD\\-steered provisional government introduced binding state arbitration of labor conflicts, created worker's councils in large industrial firms, and opened the path to the unionization of rural labourers.German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation by William W. Hagan In December 1918, a decree was passed providing relief for the unemployed. This provided that communities were to be responsible for unemployment relief (without fixing an amount) and established that the Reich would contribute 50% and the respective German state 33% of the outlay. That same month, the government declared that labour exchanges were to be further developed with the financial assistance of the Reich. Responsibility for job placement was first transferred from the Demobilization Office to the Minister of Labour and then to the National Employment Exchange Office, which came into being in January 1920\\.The Evolution of Social Insurance 1881–1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria, and Switzerland edited by Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher in collaboration with [Martin Partington](/wiki/Martin_Partington \"Martin Partington\")", "### Weimar Republic (1918–1933\\)", "[thumb\\\|SPD activists calling for the National Assembly elections in 1919](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-033-15%2C_Berlin%2C_SPD-Wahlpropaganda.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-033-15, Berlin, SPD-Wahlpropaganda.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|{{lang\\\|de\\\|Reichspräsident}} [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert \"Friedrich Ebert\") (in office 1919–1925\\), one of the first social democratic heads of state in the world](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01111%2C_Friedrich_Ebert.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 102-01111, Friedrich Ebert.jpg\")\nSubsequently, the Social Democratic Party and the newly founded [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") (KPD), which consisted mostly of former members of the SPD, became bitter rivals, not least because of the legacy of the [German Revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution \"German Revolution\"). Under [Defense Minister of Germany](/wiki/Defense_Minister_of_Germany \"Defense Minister of Germany\") [Gustav Noske](/wiki/Gustav_Noske \"Gustav Noske\"), the party aided in putting down the Communist and left wing [Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising \"Spartacist uprising\") throughout Germany in early 1919 with the use of the extreme right wing [Freikorps](/wiki/Freikorps \"Freikorps\"), a decision that has remained the source of much controversy amongst historians to this day. While the KPD remained in staunch opposition to the newly established parliamentary system, the SPD became a part of the so\\-called [Weimar Coalition](/wiki/Weimar_Coalition \"Weimar Coalition\"), one of the pillars of the struggling republic, leading several of the short\\-lived interwar [cabinets](/wiki/Cabinets \"Cabinets\"). The threat of the Communists put the SPD in a difficult position. The party had a choice between becoming more radical (which could weaken the Communists but lose its base among the [middle class](/wiki/Middle_class \"Middle class\")) or stay moderate, which would damage its base among the working class. Splinter groups formed: In 1928, a small group calling itself [Neu Beginnen](/wiki/Neu_Beginnen \"Neu Beginnen\"), in the autumn of 1931, the [Socialist Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Workers' Party of Germany\"). The [Iron Front](/wiki/Iron_Front \"Iron Front\"), founded in December 1931, was not a splinter party but a nonpartisan association led mostly by the SPD.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer\\-republik/innenpolitik/die\\-eiserne\\-front.html \\\|title\\=Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Kapitel: Weimarer Republik \\\|language\\=de \\\|trans\\-title\\=Just seen on LeMO: LeMO Chapter: Weimar Republic}}", "#### Social reform (1918–1926\\)", "Under Weimar, the SPD was able put its ideas of social justice into practice by influencing a number of progressive social changes while both in and out of government. The SPD re\\-introduced and overhauled the Bismarckian welfare state, providing protection for the disadvantaged, the unemployed, the aged, and the young. The \"Decree on Collective Agreements, Workers' and Employees' Committees, and the Settlement of Labour Disputes\" of December 1918 boosted the legal effectiveness of collective bargaining contracts, while a number of measures were carried out to assist veterans, including the Decree on Social Provision for Disabled Veterans and Surviving Dependents of February 1919 and the Compensation Law for Re\\-enlisted Men and Officers of September 1919\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Stolleis \\\|first1\\=Michael \\\|title\\=Origins of the German Welfare State: Social Policy in Germany to 1945 \\\|date\\=2012 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-22522\\-2}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} As noted by one study, “The Social Democrats were not only ideologically committed to state intervention in the economic process, but also had been the main force behind the soziale volkstaat (social welfare state), that net of social services and public insurance schemes that remains one of the Weimar Republic’s most lasting legacies.”Weimar Prussia, 1925–1933 The Illusion of Strength By Dietrich Orlow, 1991, P.174 The War Victims' Benefits Law of May 1920 introduced a more generous war\\-disability system than had existed in the past.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Moeller \\\|first1\\=Robert G. \\\|title\\=West Germany Under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era \\\|date\\=1997 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Michigan Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-472\\-06648\\-3 \\\|page\\=94 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2E22iqWFrrYC\\&pg\\=PA94 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} This new piece of legislation took into account all grievances voiced during the war and, for the first time in social legislation in Germany, considered child maintenance in calculating widows' pensions.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Higonnet \\\|first1\\=Margaret R. \\\|last2\\=Jenson \\\|first2\\=Jane \\\|last3\\=Michel \\\|first3\\=Sonya \\\|title\\=Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars \\\|date\\=1987 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yale University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-300\\-04429\\-4 \\\|page\\=134 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kdm3N\\-YMI9YC\\&pg\\=PA134 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "In 1919, the federal government launched a campaign to recolonize parts of the German interior including in Silesia,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Lutz \\\|first1\\=Ralph Haswell \\\|title\\=The German Revolution of 1918 \\\|date\\=1922 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press\\\|CUP Archive]] \\\|page\\=101 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qQg4AAAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=PA101 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} and new provisions for maternity were introduced.{{cite book \\\|title\\=The American Labor Legislation Review \\\|date\\=1920 \\\|publisher\\=American association for labor legislation \\\|page\\=152 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pVVJAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA152 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Dickinson \\\|first1\\=Edward Ross \\\|title\\=The Politics of German Child Welfare from the Empire to the Federal Republic \\\|date\\=1996 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harvard University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-68862\\-9 \\\|page\\=144 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yM0y7LOn6x0C\\&pg\\=PA144 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} In February 1920, an industrial relations law was passed, giving workers in industry legally guaranteed representation, together with the right to [co\\-determination](/wiki/Co-determination \"Co-determination\") in cases of hiring and firing, holiday arrangements, the fixing of working hours and regulations, and the introduction of new methods of payment. A Socialisation Law was also passed, while the government adopted guidelines on the [workers' councils](/wiki/Workers%27_council \"Workers' council\"). In addition to workers' councils at national, regional, and factory level, the government made provision for economic councils in which employers and employees would work together on matters affecting the economy as a whole (such as nationalisation) and lend support to the Weimar parliament.", "SPD governments also introduced unemployment insurance benefits for all workers (in 1918\\),{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Thane \\\|first1\\=Pat \\\|title\\=The Foundations of the Welfare State \\\|date\\=2016 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-317\\-88906\\-9}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} trade union recognition and an eight\\-hour workday, while municipalities that came under SPD control or influence expanded educational and job\\-training opportunities and set up health clinics.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Weitz \\\|first1\\=Eric D. \\\|title\\=Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy \\\|date\\=2007 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Princeton University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-691\\-01695\\-5}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Off the shop floor, Social Democratic workers took advantage of the adult education halls, public libraries, swimming pools, schools, and low\\-income apartments built by municipalities during the Weimar years, while considerable wage increases won for the majority of workers by the [Free Trade Unions](/wiki/Free_Trade_Unions_%28Germany%29 \"Free Trade Unions (Germany)\") between 1924 and 1928 helped to narrow the gap between unskilled and skilled workers.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Harsch \\\|first1\\=Donna \\\|title\\=German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism \\\|date\\=2000 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of North Carolina Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8078\\-6192\\-9}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} A number of reforms were also made in education, as characterised by the introduction of the four\\-year common primary school.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Jacoby \\\|first1\\=Wade \\\|title\\=Imitation and Politics: Redesigning Modern Germany \\\|date\\=2001 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cornell University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8014\\-8769\\-9}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Educational opportunities were further widened by the promotion of [adult education](/wiki/Adult_education \"Adult education\") and culture. The SPD also played an active and exemplary role in the development of local politics in thousands of towns and communities during this period.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Potthoff \\\|first1\\=Heinrich \\\|last2\\=Miller \\\|first2\\=Susanne \\\|title\\=The Social Democratic Party of Germany, 1848\\-2005 \\\|date\\=2006 \\\|publisher\\=Dietz \\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-8012\\-0365\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} In 1923, the SPD Minister of Finance, [Rudolf Hilferding](/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding \"Rudolf Hilferding\"), laid much of the groundwork for the stabilization of the German currency.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Fletcher \\\|first1\\=Roger \\\|last2\\=Brandt \\\|first2\\=Willy \\\|title\\=Bernstein to Brandt: A Short History of German Social Democracy \\\|date\\=1987 \\\|publisher\\=Edward Arnold \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7131\\-6480\\-0}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "As noted by Edward R. Dickinson, the [German Revolution of 1918–1919](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919 \"German Revolution of 1918–1919\") and the democratisation of the state and local franchise provided Social Democracy with a greater degree of influence at all levels of government than it had been able to achieve before 1914\\. As a result of the reform of municipal franchises, socialists gained control of many of the country's major cities. This provided Social Democrats with a considerable degree of influence in social policy, as most welfare programmes (even those programmes mandated by national legislation) were implemented by municipal government. By the Twenties, with the absence of a revolution and the reformist and revision element dominant in the SPD, Social Democrats regarded the expansion of social welfare programmes, and particularly the idea that the citizen had a right to have his or her basic needs met by society at large, as central to the construction of a just and democratic social order. Social Democrats therefore pushed the expansion of social welfare programmes energetically at all levels of government, and SPD municipal administrations were in the forefront of the development of social programmes. As remarked by [Hedwig Wachenheim](/wiki/Hedwig_Wachenheim \"Hedwig Wachenheim\") in 1926, under Social Democratic administration many of the country's larger cities began to become experimental \"proletarian cooperatives.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Dickinson \\\|first1\\=Edward Ross \\\|title\\=The Politics of German Child Welfare from the Empire to the Federal Republic \\\|date\\=1996 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harvard University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-68862\\-9 \\\|page\\=147 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yM0y7LOn6x0C\\&pg\\=PA147 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} As noted by another study, “The Party achieved a great deal at this local level in areas such as social welfare, health, education, and training, although the onset of the Great Depression after 1929 undermined many of these achievements.”The German Left and the Weimar Republic A Selection of Documents Translated and Introduced by Ben Fowkes, 2014, P.13", "Protective measures for workers were vastly improved, under the influence or direction of the SPD, and members of the SPD pointed to positive changes that they had sponsored, such as improvements in public health, unemployment insurance, maternity benefits, and the building of municipal housing.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Weitz \\\|first1\\=Eric D. \\\|title\\=Creating German Communism, 1890\\-1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State \\\|date\\=2021 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Princeton University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-691\\-22812\\-9}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} During its time in opposition throughout the Twenties, the SPD was able to help push through a series of reforms beneficial to workers, including increased investment in [public housing](/wiki/Public_housing \"Public housing\"), expanded disability, health, and social insurance programmes, the restoration of an eight\\-hour workday in large firms, and the implementation of binding arbitration by the Labour Ministry.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Smaldone \\\|first1\\=William \\\|title\\=Confronting Hitler: German Social Democrats in Defense of the Weimar Republic, 1929\\-1933 \\\|date\\=2010 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Lexington Books]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7391\\-3211\\-1}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} In 1926, the Social Democrats were responsible for a law which increased maternity benefit \"to cover the cost of midwifery, medical help and all necessary medication and equipment for home births.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Usborne \\\|first1\\=Cornelie \\\|title\\=The Politics of the Body in Weimar Germany: Women's Reproductive Rights and Duties \\\|date\\=1992 \\\|publisher\\=Springer \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-349\\-12244\\-8 \\\|page\\=47 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=L6euCwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA47 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "#### In government (1918–1924; 1928–1930\\)", "In the [Free State of Prussia](/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia \"Free State of Prussia\"), (which became an SPD stronghold following the introduction of [universal suffrage](/wiki/Universal_suffrage \"Universal suffrage\")) an important housing law was passed in 1918 which empowered local authorities to erect small dwellings and buildings of public utility, provide open spaces, and enact planning measures. The law further directed that all districts with more than 10,000 inhabitants had to issue police ordinances regarding housing hygiene. In addition, a reform in education was carried out.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Donson \\\|first1\\=Andrew \\\|title\\=The Teenagers' Revolution: ''Schülerräte'' in the Democratization and Right\\-Wing Radicalization of Germany, 1918–1923 \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Central European History]] \\\|date\\=September 2011 \\\|volume\\=44 \\\|issue\\=3 \\\|pages\\=420–446 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0008938911000380 \\\|s2cid\\=145229969}} Similar measures were introduced in other areas subjected to the influence of the SPD, with the Reich (also under the influence of the SPD) controlling rents and subsidising the construction of housing.Germany In The Twentieth Century by David Childs", "During the Weimar era, the SPD held the chancellorship on two occasions, first from 1918 to 1920, and then again from 1928 to 1930\\. Through aggressive opposition politics, the SPD (backed by the union revival linked to economic upsurge) was able to effect greater progress in social policy from 1924 to 1928 than during the previous and subsequent periods of the party's participation in government. In Prussia, the SPD was part of the government from 1918 to 1932, and for all but nine months of that time (April–November 1921 and February–April 1925\\), a member of the SPD was minister president.", "The SPD's last period in office was arguably a failure, due to both its lack of a parliamentary majority (which forced it to make compromises to right\\-wing parties) and its inability to confront the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). In 1927, the defence ministry had prevailed on the government of [Wilhelm Marx](/wiki/Wilhelm_Marx \"Wilhelm Marx\") to provide funds in its draft budget of 1928 for the construction of the first of six small battleships allowed for under the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\"), although the Federal Council (largely for financial reasons) stopped this action. This issue played a major role during the [1928 German federal election](/wiki/1928_German_federal_election \"1928 German federal election\"), with supporters of the proposal arguing that all the possibilities left for German armaments should be fully used, while the SPD and the KPD saw this as a wasteful expenditure, arguing that such money should instead be spent on providing free meals for schoolchildren. The SPD's lack of a parliamentary majority (which prevented it from undertaking any major domestic reform){{cite book \\\|title\\=A history of modern Germany: 1840–1945 \\\|first\\=Hajo \\\|last\\=Holborn \\\|author\\-link\\=Hajo Holborn}} meant that, in order to hold the coalition together, [Hermann Müller](/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_%28politician%2C_born_1876%29 \"Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)\") and the other SPD ministers were forced to make concessions on issues such as taxation, unemployment insurance, and the construction of pocket battleships.", "Party chairman [Otto Wels](/wiki/Otto_Wels \"Otto Wels\") demanded that the funds be spent on free school meals as had been promised during the election campaign. However, against the wishes and votes of Wels and the other SPD deputies, the SPD ministers in [Müller's cabinet](/wiki/Second_M%C3%BCller_cabinet \"Second Müller cabinet\") (including Müller himself) voted in favour of the first battleship being built, a decision that arguably destroyed the party's credibility.{{cite book \\\|title\\=A history of modern Germany, 1800–2000 \\\|first\\=Martin \\\|last\\=Kitchen \\\|author\\-link\\=Martin Kitchen}}", "Müller's SPD government eventually fell as a result of the catastrophic effects of the Great Depression. Müller's government, an ideologically diverse \"Grand Coalition\" representing five parties ranging from the left to the right, was unable to develop effective counter\\-measures to tackle the catastrophic effects of the economic crisis, as characterised by the massive rise in the numbers of registered unemployed. In 1928–29, 2\\.5 million were estimated to be unemployed, a figure that reached over 3 million by the following winter. A major problem facing Müller's government was a deficit in the Reich budget, which the government spending more than it was receiving. This situation was made worse by the inadequacy of the unemployment scheme which was unable to pay out enough benefits to the rising numbers of unemployed, forcing the government to make contributions to the scheme (which in turn worsened the budget deficit). The coalition was badly divided on this issue, with the SPD wishing to raise the level of contributions to the scheme while safeguarding both those in work and those out of work as much as possible. The right\\-wing parties, by contrast, wished to reduce unemployment benefits while lightening the tax burden. Unable to garner enough support in the Reichstag to pass laws, Müller turned to President [Paul von Hindenburg](/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg \"Paul von Hindenburg\") for support, wishing him to grant him the use of the emergency powers under [Article 48](/wiki/Article_48_%28Weimar_Constitution%29 \"Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)\") of the [Weimar Constitution](/wiki/Weimar_Constitution \"Weimar Constitution\") so that he did not have to rely on support from the Reichstag.{{cite book \\\|title\\=Germany, 1858–1990: Hope, terror, and revival \\\|first\\=Alison \\\|last\\=Kitson \\\|author\\-link\\=Alison Kitson}}", "Müller refused to agree to reductions in unemployment benefit which the [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Centre Party (Germany)\") under [Heinrich Brüning](/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning \"Heinrich Brüning\") saw as necessary.Essential Modern World History by Steve Waugh The government finally collapsed in March 1930 when Müller (lacking support from Hindenburg) resigned, a fall from office that according to the historian [William Smaldone](/wiki/William_Smaldone \"William Smaldone\") marked \"the effective end of parliamentary government under Weimar.\" The new government under [Heinrich Brüning](/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning \"Heinrich Brüning\") was propped up by President Hindenburg without the support of the Reichstag and operated by emergency decree. When the decrees were repealed, the Reichstag was dissolved and the [1930 election](/wiki/1930_German_federal_election \"1930 German federal election\") delivered an enormous and shocking surge for the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\"). The SPD decided to tolerate Brüning's government and not repeal his decrees in an effort to avoid further instability and Nazi gains. As the Brüning government implemented austerity to counter the depression, the SPD debated its own economic program. The proto\\-Keynesian [WTB plan](/wiki/WTB_plan \"WTB plan\") was supported by the unions but rejected by the party. They went into 1932 with no specific economic programme, and faced harsh defeat in the [July 1932 elections](/wiki/July_1932_German_federal_election \"July 1932 German federal election\").", "#### Collapse (1932–1933\\)", "[thumb\\\|A widely publicized SPD election poster from 1932, with [Three Arrows](/wiki/Three_Arrows \"Three Arrows\") symbol representing resistance against reactionary conservatism, Nazism and Communism, and with the slogan \"Against [Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen \"Franz von Papen\"), [Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\"), [Thälmann](/wiki/Ernst_Th%C3%A4lmann \"Ernst Thälmann\").\"](/wiki/File:Three_Arrows_election_poster_of_the_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany%2C_1932_-_Gegen_Papen%2C_Hitler%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann.jpg \"Three Arrows election poster of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, 1932 - Gegen Papen, Hitler, Thälmann.jpg\")\nOn 20 July 1932, the SPD\\-led Prussian government in Berlin, headed by [Otto Braun](/wiki/Otto_Braun \"Otto Braun\"), was ousted by [Franz von Papen](/wiki/Franz_von_Papen \"Franz von Papen\"), the new Chancellor, by means of a Presidential decree. Following the appointment of [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") as chancellor on 30 January 1933 by President Hindenburg, the SPD received 18\\.25% of the votes during the last (at least partially) [free elections on 5 March](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election \"March 1933 German federal election\"), gaining 120 seats. However, the SPD was unable to prevent the ratification of the [Enabling Act](/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933 \"Enabling Act of 1933\"), which granted extraconstitutional powers to the government. The SPD was the only party to vote against the act (the KPD being already outlawed and its deputies were under arrest, dead, or in exile). Several of its deputies had been detained by the police under the provisions of the [Reichstag Fire Decree](/wiki/Reichstag_Fire_Decree \"Reichstag Fire Decree\"), which suspended [civil liberties](/wiki/Civil_liberties \"Civil liberties\"). Others suspected that the SPD would be next, and fled into exile.{{cite book \\\|first\\=William \\\|last\\=Shirer \\\|author\\-link\\=William Shirer \\\|title\\=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich \\\|edition\\=Touchstone \\\|location\\=New York \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Simon \\& Schuster]] \\\|date\\=1990}} However, even if they had all been present, the Act would have still passed, as the 441 votes in favour would have still been more than the required two\\-thirds majority.", "After the passing of the Enabling Act, dozens of SPD deputies were arrested, and several more fled into exile. Most of the leadership settled in [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\"). Those that remained tried their best to appease the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\"). On 19 May, the few SPD deputies who had not been jailed or fled into exile voted in favour of Hitler's foreign policy statement, in which he declared his willingness to renounce all offensive weapons if other countries followed suit. They also publicly distanced themselves from their brethren abroad who condemned Hitler's tactics.{{cite book\\\|last\\=Evans\\\|first\\=Richard J.\\\|author\\-link\\=Richard J. Evans\\\|title\\=The Coming of the Third Reich\\\|title\\-link\\=The Third Reich Trilogy\\#The Coming of the Third Reich\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Penguin Group\\\|Penguin Press]]\\\|location\\=\\[\\[New York City]]\\\|date\\=2003\\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-14\\-100975\\-9}}", "It was to no avail. Over the course of the spring, the police confiscated the SPD's buildings, newspapers and property. On 21 June 1933, Interior Minister [Wilhelm Frick](/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick \"Wilhelm Frick\") ordered the SPD closed down on the basis of the [Reichstag Fire Decree](/wiki/Reichstag_Fire_Decree \"Reichstag Fire Decree\"), declaring the party \"subversive and inimical to the State.\" All SPD deputies at the state and federal level were stripped of their seats, and all SPD meetings and publications were banned. Party members were also blacklisted from public office and the civil service. Frick took the line that the SPD members in exile were committing treason from abroad, while those still in Germany were helping them.\nThe party was a member of the [Labour and Socialist International](/wiki/Labour_and_Socialist_International \"Labour and Socialist International\") between 1923 and 1940\\.Kowalski, Werner. [Geschichte der sozialistischen arbeiter\\-internationale: 1923 \\- 19](https://books.google.com/books?id=83QdPwAACAAJ). Berlin: Dt. Verl. d. Wissenschaften, 1985\\. p. 287", "### Nazi era and SoPaDe (1933–1945\\)", "[thumb\\\|Former SPD minister president of Oldenburg, Bernhard Kuhnt, humiliated by Nazis in 1933](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-18450-0002%2C_Dem%C3%BCtigung_von_Bernhard_Kuhnt_durch_SA.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-18450-0002, Demütigung von Bernhard Kuhnt durch SA.jpg\")\nBeing the only party in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 \"Reichstag (Weimar Republic)\") to have voted against the [Enabling Act](/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933 \"Enabling Act of 1933\"), the SPD was banned in the summer of 1933 by the new [Nazi government](/wiki/Government_of_Nazi_Germany \"Government of Nazi Germany\"). Many of its members were jailed or sent to [Nazi concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps \"Nazi concentration camps\"). An exile organization, known as [Sopade](/wiki/Sopade \"Sopade\"), was established, initially in Prague. Others left the areas where they had been politically active and moved to other towns where they were not known.", "Between 1936 and 1939 some SPD members fought in the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") for the [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_faction_%28Spanish_Civil_War%29 \"Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)\") against [Francisco Franco](/wiki/Francisco_Franco \"Francisco Franco\")'s [Nationalists](/wiki/Nationalist_faction_%28Spanish_Civil_War%29 \"Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)\") and the German [Condor Legion](/wiki/Condor_Legion \"Condor Legion\").", "After the [annexation of Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_%281938%E2%80%931945%29 \"Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)\") in 1938 the exile party resettled in Paris and, after the [defeat of France](/wiki/Battle_of_France \"Battle of France\") in 1940, in London. Only a few days after the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in September 1939 the exiled SPD in Paris declared its support for the Allies and for the military removal from power of the [Nazi government](/wiki/Nazi_government \"Nazi government\").", "" ]
### German Empire (1863–1918\) [thumb\\|left\\|Medal 1890 Bebel and Liebknecht after their success in the federal elections](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_obverse.jpg "Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), obverse.jpg") [thumb\\|left\\|The reverse of that medal commemorating the [1890 Reichstagswahl](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election "1890 German federal election")](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_reverse.jpg "Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), reverse.jpg") The party was founded on 23 May 1863 by [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle "Ferdinand Lassalle") under the name {{lang\\|de\\|Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein}} (ADAV, [General German Workers' Association](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association "General German Workers' Association")). In 1869, [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel "August Bebel") and [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht "Wilhelm Liebknecht") founded the {{lang\\|de\\|Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei}} (SDAP, [Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany")), which merged with the ADAV at a conference held in Gotha in 1875, taking the name Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAPD). At this conference, the party developed the [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program "Gotha Program"), which [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx") criticized in his [Critique of the Gotha Program](/wiki/Critique_of_the_Gotha_Program "Critique of the Gotha Program"). Through the [Anti\-Socialist Laws](/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws "Anti-Socialist Laws"), [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck "Otto von Bismarck") had the party outlawed for its pro\-revolution, anti\-monarchy sentiments in 1878; but in 1890 it was legalized again after the successful [elections to the Reichstag](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election "1890 German federal election"). That year, in its [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt "Halle, Saxony-Anhalt") convention, it changed its name to {{lang\\|de\\|Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands}} (SPD), as it is known to this day. Anti\-socialist campaigns were counterproductive. 1878 to 1890 was the SPD's "heroic period". The party's new program drawn up in 1891 at Halle was more radical than 1875's [Gotha program](/wiki/Gotha_Program "Gotha Program"). From 1881 to 1890 the party's support increased faster than in any other period. In 1896, the [National Liberals](/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_%28Germany%29 "National Liberal Party (Germany)") and [Conservatives](/wiki/German_Conservative_Party "German Conservative Party") in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony "Saxony") replaced the democratic vote with a Prussian\-style three\-tiered suffrage, upper class votes counting the most. They did this to drive out the local SPD which lost its last seat in 1901\. However, in the 1903 election, the number of socialist deputies increased from 11 to 22 out of 23\.Retallack, Imperial Germany, page 187 [thumb\\|[August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel "August Bebel") in 1863, co\-chairman from 1892 to 1913](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14077-0005%2C_August_Bebel.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14077-0005, August Bebel.jpg") [thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|SPD members in Reichstag 1889, (sitting from left to right: [Georg Schumacher](/wiki/Georg_Schumacher "Georg Schumacher"), [Friedrich Harm](/wiki/Friedrich_Harm "Friedrich Harm"), [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel "August Bebel"), [Heinrich Meister](/wiki/Heinrich_Meister "Heinrich Meister") and [Karl Frohme](/wiki/Karl_Frohme "Karl Frohme"). Standing: [Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Wilhelm_Dietz "Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz"), [August Kühn](/wiki/August_K%C3%BChn "August Kühn"), [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht "Wilhelm Liebknecht"), [Karl Grillenberger](/wiki/Karl_Grillenberger "Karl Grillenberger"), and [Paul Singer](/wiki/Paul_Singer_%28politician%29 "Paul Singer (politician)"))](/wiki/File:Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg "Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg") Because Social Democrats could be elected as list\-free candidates while the party was outlawed, SPD continued to be a growing force in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)"), becoming the strongest party in 1912 (in the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire"), the parliamentary balance of forces had no influence on the formation of the cabinet). During this period, SPD deputies in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)") were able to win some improvements in working and living conditions for working\-class Germans,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.country\-data.com/cgi\-bin/query/r\-4869\.html\\|publisher\=country\-data.com\\|title\=Germany \- Political Parties\\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} thereby advancing the cause of its policies in a general way and securing material benefits for its supporters.The German Social Democratic Party, 1875–1933: From Ghetto To Government by W. L. Guttsman In the [Landtag](/wiki/Landtag "Landtag"), the SPD was able to extract some concessions from time to time in areas for which the assembly was responsible, such as education and social policy. In Hesse, the party was successful in demanding that church tax be listed separately in assessments, and it was able to secure improvements in judicial procedure. The SPD also had occasional successes in raising wages and improving the working conditions of municipal labourers. SPD pressure in the Reichstag in the late nineteenth century supported an expansion in the system of factory inspection, together with a minor reform in military service under which the families of reservists, called up for training or manoeuvres, could receive an allowance. In the 1880s, SPD deputies in Saxony successfully agitated in support of improved safety for miners and better control of mines. In 1908, the same year the government legalized women's participation in politics, [Luise Zietz](/wiki/Luise_Zietz "Luise Zietz") became the first woman appointed to the executive committee of the SPD.{{cite book\\|author\=Joseph A. Biesinger\\|title\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=exMn24SA7fMC\&pg\=PA755\\|date\=1 January 2006\\|publisher\=Infobase Publishing\\|isbn\=978\-0\-8160\-7471\-6\\|pages\=755–}}{{cite web \\|first\=Jennifer \\|last\=Striewski \\|location\=\[\[Bonn]] \\|url\=http://www.rheinische\-geschichte.lvr.de/persoenlichkeiten/J/Seiten/MarieJuchacz.aspx \\|title\=Marie Juchacz (1879\-1956\), Begründerin der Arbeiterwohlfahrt \\|language\=de \\|trans\-title\=Marie Juchacz (1879\-1956\), founder of workers' welfare \\|publisher\=\[\[:de:Landschaftsverband Rheinland\\|Landschaftsverband Rheinland]] (LVR), \[\[Cologne]] \\|date\=8 March 2013 \\|access\-date\=2014\-11\-11}} Despite the passage of anti\-socialist legislation, the SPD continued to grow in strength in the early twentieth century, with a steady rise in membership from 384,327 in 1905/06 to 1,085,905 in 1913/14\. SPD was seen as a populist party, and people from every quarter of German society sought help and advice from it. With its counseling service (provided free of charge by the mostly trade union maintained workers' secretarial offices), the German social democratic movement helped large numbers of Germans to secure their legal rights, primarily in social security. There also existed a dynamic educational movement, with hundreds of courses and individual lectures, theatre performances, libraries, peripatetic teachers, a central school for workers' education, and a famous Party School, as noted by the historians Susanne Miller and Heinrich Potthoff: {{cquote\\|With all of this, the SPD and the Free Trade Unions were not only delivering the necessary tools for the political and social struggle, but were also a cultural movement in the widest sense of the term.{{cite book \\|title\=The Social Democratic Party of Germany 1848–2005 \\|date\=1987 \\|first1\=Heinrich \\|last1\=Potthoff \\|first2\=Susanne \\|last2\=Miller}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2013}}}} Growth in strength did not initially translate into larger numbers in the Reichstag. The original constituencies had been drawn at the empire's formation in 1871, when Germany was almost two\-thirds rural. They were never redrawn to reflect the dramatic growth of Germany's cities in the 1890s. By the turn of the century, the urban\-rural ratio was reversed, and almost two\-thirds of all Germans lived in cities and towns. Even with this change, the party still managed to become the largest single faction in the Reichstag at the 1912 elections. It would be the largest party in Germany for the next two decades. In the states of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria"), [Württemberg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg "Württemberg"), [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse "Hesse"), and [Baden](/wiki/Baden "Baden"), the SPD was successful in extracting various socio\-political and democratic concessions (including the replacement of the class\-based electoral systems with universal suffrage) through electoral alliances with bourgeois parties, voting for parliamentary bills and state budgets. In the Reichstag, the SPD resorted to a policy of tactical compromise in order to exert direct influence on legislation. In 1894, the parliamentary SPD voted for a government bill for the first time ever. It reduced the import duty on wheat, which led to a reduction in the price of food. In 1913, the votes of SPD parliamentarians helped to bring in new tax laws affecting the wealthy, which were necessary due to the increase in military spending. The Social Democrats gave particular attention to carrying out reforms at the local level, founding a tradition of community politics which intensified after 1945\. The establishment of local labour exchanges and the introduction of unemployment benefits can be credited in part to the SPD. In 1913, the number of Social Democrats on municipal and district councils approached 13,000\. As noted by Heinrich Potthoff and Susanne Miller: {{cquote\\|Here, and in their work in the administration of industrial insurance, in community employment offices and courts of arbitration, lay one of the roots of the gradual penetration by the Social Democrats of the imperial German state.{{page needed\\|date\=June 2013}}}} As Sally Waller wrote, the SPD encouraged great loyalty from its members by organising educational courses, choral societies, sports clubs, and libraries. The party also ran welfare clinics, founded libraries, produced newspapers, and organised holidays, rallies, and festivals. As also noted by Weller, they played a role in shaping a number of progressive reforms: {{cquote\\|The SPD also helped promote Germany's extensive system of welfare support giving Germany the most comprehensive system of social insurance in Europe by 1913\. They pressed successfully for some constitutional changes like the secret ballot (1904\) and payment of MPs (1906\), which permitted lower middle and working\-class men, with no other income, to put themselves forward as deputies for the Reichstag. In 1911, they supported measures whereby Alsace\-Lorraine was given Reichstag representation and universal male suffrage at 21 years was introduced. They also successfully resisted the taxation proposals that would hit the working man harder and promoted progressive taxes, whereby those with the most would be forced to pay more.AQA History: The Development of Germany, 1871–1925 by Sally Waller}} The influence of the SPD on policymaking was noted by one socialist politician, who told the leading American liberal politician [William Jennings Bryan](/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan "William Jennings Bryan") that {{cquote\\|the socialists of Germany have organized a liberal party of unrivaled strength; they have educated the working classes to a very high standard of political intelligence and to a strong sense of their independence and of their social mission, as the living and progressive force in every social respect; they have promoted the organization of trade unions; and have by their incessant agitation compelled the other parties and the government to take up social and labor legislation.The Old World and its Ways By Bryan, William Jennings, 1907, P.424}} According to historian Richard M. Watt: {{cquote\\|The political and organizational success of the Social Democrats had enabled them to demand and obtain a respectable body of legislation incorporating social reform, outlawing child labor and improving working conditions and wages, to the point where the German Social Democratic Party was the model for socialist parties in every other nation, and the German worker the most envied in Continental Europe.The Kings Depart: The Tragedy of Germany: Versailles and the German Revolution by Richard M. Watt}} #### Erfurt Program and revisionism (1891–1899\) As a reaction to government prosecution, the [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program "Erfurt Program") of 1891 was more radical than the Gotha Program of 1875, demanding [nationalization](/wiki/Nationalization "Nationalization") of Germany's major industries. In fact in 1891 the party officially became a Marxist Party to the gratification of aging Engels.{{cite book \\|last1\=Billington \\|first1\=James H. \\|title\=Fire in the Minds of Men —Origins of the Revolutionary Faith \\|date\=1999 \\|publisher\=Transaction Publishers \\|location\=New Brunswick, N.J. \\|isbn\=0\-7658\-0471\-9 \\|page\=377}} However, the party began to move away from [revolutionary socialism](/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism "Revolutionary socialism") at the turn of the 20th century{{Citation needed\\|date\=June 2023}}. [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein "Eduard Bernstein") authored a series of articles on the Problems of Socialism between 1896 and 1898, and later a book, {{lang\\|de\\|Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie}} ("The Prerequisites for Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy"), published in 1899, in which he argued that the winning of reforms under capitalism would be enough to bring about socialism. Radical party activist [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg "Rosa Luxemburg") accused Bernstein of [revisionism](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism "Marxist revisionism") and argued against his ideas in her pamphlet [Social Reform or Revolution](/wiki/Social_Reform_or_Revolution "Social Reform or Revolution"), and Bernstein's program was not adopted by the party. \| Programs of the Social Democratic Party of Germany \| \| \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Year \| Program name \| Brief description \| \| 1869 \| {{ill\\|Eisenach Program\\|de\\|Eisenacher Programm}} \| Founding program of the [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany") \| \| 1875 \| [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program "Gotha Program") \| Unification of SDAP and [ADAV](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association "General German Workers' Association") \| \| 1891 \| [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program "Erfurt Program") \| Classical Marxist program \| \| 1921 \| {{ill\\|Görlitz Program\\|de\\|Görlitzer Programm}} \| Strongly revisionist program of the [MSPD](/wiki/Majority_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany") \| \| 1925 \| {{ill\\|Heidelberg Program\\|de\\|Heidelberger Programm}} \| Orientation towards United States of Europe \| \| 1959 \| [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program "Godesberg Program") \| People's party of democratic socialism \| \| 1989 \| {{ill\\|Berlin Program\\|de\\|Berliner Programm}} \| Ecological renewal of industrial society \| \| 2007 \| {{ill\\|Hamburg Program\\|de\\|Hamburger Programm}} \| Current programme of the SPD \| #### First World War (1912–1917\) Conservative elites nevertheless became alarmed at SPD growth—especially after it won 35% of the national vote in the [1912 German federal election](/wiki/1912_German_federal_election "1912 German federal election"). Some elites looked to a foreign war as a solution to Germany's internal problems. SPD policy limited antimilitarism to aggressive wars—Germans saw 1914 as a defensive war. On 25 July 1914, the SPD leadership appealed to its membership to demonstrate for peace and large numbers turned out in orderly demonstrations. The SPD was not revolutionary and many members were nationalistic. When the war began, some conservatives wanted to use force to suppress the SPD, but Chancellor Bethmann\-Hollweg refused. However, the increasing loyalty of the party establishment towards Emperor and Reich, coupled with its antipathy toward Russia led the party under Bebel's successor [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert "Friedrich Ebert") to support the war. This was helped by the fact that Germany had waited until after the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") announced mobilization to begin its own mobilization, allowing Germany to claim it was the victim of Russian aggression.{{Cite book \\|last\=Robson \\|first\=Stuart \\|url\=http://archive.org/details/firstworldwar0000robs\_r5x1 \\|title\=The First World War \\|date\=2007 \\|publisher\=\[\[Pearson Longman]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-4058\-2471\-2 \\|edition\=1 \\|location\=Harrow, England \\|pages\=17–19 \\|language\=en \\|ref\=None}} The SPD members of the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 "Reichstag (German Empire)") voted 96–14 on 3 August 1914 to support the war. They next voted the money for the war, but resisted demands for an aggressive peace policy that would involve takeover of new territoriesV. R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (1974\) pp 178\-85{{cite journal \\|last1\=Groh \\|first1\=Dieter \\|title\=The 'Unpatriotic Socialists' and the State \\|journal\=\[\[Journal of Contemporary History]] \\|date\=1966 \\|volume\=1 \\|issue\=4 \\|pages\=151–177 \\|doi\=10\.1177/002200946600100406 \\|jstor\=259895 \\|s2cid\=159501407}} Even if socialists felt beleaguered in Germany, they knew they would suffer far more under [Tsarist autocracy](/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy "Tsarist autocracy"); they believed that the gains they had made for the working class, politically and materially, now required them to support the nation.{{cite book \\|last\=Strachan \\|first\=Hew \\|title\=The First World War: A New History \\|publisher\=\[\[Simon \& Schuster]] \\|date\=2014}} There remained an antiwar element, especially in Berlin. They – including [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg "Rosa Luxemburg"), [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht "Karl Liebknecht") and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase "Hugo Haase") – were expelled from the SPD in 1917 and formed the [Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany"), in which the [Spartacist League](/wiki/Spartacist_League "Spartacist League") was influential.. Bernstein left the party during the war, as did [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky "Karl Kautsky"), who had played an important role as the leading Marxist theoretician and editor of the theoretical journal of SPD, "[Die Neue Zeit](/wiki/Die_Neue_Zeit "Die Neue Zeit")". Neither joined the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") after the war; they both came back to the SPD in the early 1920s. From 1915 on theoretical discussions within the SPD were dominated by a group of former [anti\-revisionist](/wiki/Anti-revisionism "Anti-revisionism") [Marxists](/wiki/Marxism "Marxism"), who tried to legitimize the support of the First World War by the German SPD group in the Reichstag with Marxist arguments. Instead of the class struggle they proclaimed the struggle of peoples. The group was led by [Heinrich Cunow](/wiki/Heinrich_Cunow "Heinrich Cunow"), [Paul Lensch](/wiki/Paul_Lensch "Paul Lensch") and [Konrad Haenisch](/wiki/Konrad_Haenisch "Konrad Haenisch") ("{{lang\\|de\\|Lensch\-Cunow\-Haenisch\-Gruppe}}") and was close to the Russian\-German revolutionary and social scientist [Alexander Parvus](/wiki/Alexander_Parvus "Alexander Parvus"), who gave a public forum to the group with his journal "{{lang\\|de\\|Die Glocke}}". From the teachings of [Kurt Schumacher](/wiki/Kurt_Schumacher "Kurt Schumacher") and Professor [Johann Plenge](/wiki/Johann_Plenge "Johann Plenge"), there is a link to the current centrist "{{lang\\|de\\|\[\[Seeheimer Kreis]]}}" within the SPD founded by [Annemarie Renger](/wiki/Annemarie_Renger "Annemarie Renger"), Schumacher's former secretary. #### German Revolution (1918–1919\) In the [1918 revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 "German Revolution of 1918–19"), Ebert controversially sided with the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr "Reichswehr") against the [Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising "Spartacist uprising"), while the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 "Reichstag (Weimar Republic)") elected him as [head of the new government](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_%28Federal_Republic%29 "Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic)"). A revolutionary government met for the first time in November 1918\. Known as the [Council of People's Commissioners](/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Deputies "Council of the People's Deputies"), it consisted of three Majority Social Democrats ([Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert "Friedrich Ebert"), [Philipp Scheidemann](/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann "Philipp Scheidemann"), and [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg "Otto Landsberg")) and three Independent Social Democrats ([Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth "Emil Barth"), [Wilhelm Dittmann](/wiki/Wilhelm_Dittmann "Wilhelm Dittmann"), and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase "Hugo Haase")). The new government faced a social crisis in the German Reich following the end of the First World War, with Germany threatened by hunger and chaos. There was, for the most part, an orderly return of soldiers back into civilian life, while the threat of starvation was combated. Wage levels were raised,Comparative Economic Systems, Volume 3 by Richard L. Carson universal proportional representation for all parliaments was introduced, and a series of regulations on [unemployment benefits](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits "Unemployment benefits"), job\-creation and protection measures, [health insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance_in_Germany "Health insurance in Germany"), and [pensions](/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany "Pensions in Germany")Weimar Germany by Anthony McElligott saw the institution of important political and social reforms. In February 1918, workers made an agreement with employers which secured them total freedom of association, the legal guarantee of an [eight\-hour workday](/wiki/Eight-hour_day "Eight-hour day"), and the extension of wage agreements to all branches of trade and industry. The People's Commissioners made these changes legally binding. In addition, the SPD\-steered provisional government introduced binding state arbitration of labor conflicts, created worker's councils in large industrial firms, and opened the path to the unionization of rural labourers.German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation by William W. Hagan In December 1918, a decree was passed providing relief for the unemployed. This provided that communities were to be responsible for unemployment relief (without fixing an amount) and established that the Reich would contribute 50% and the respective German state 33% of the outlay. That same month, the government declared that labour exchanges were to be further developed with the financial assistance of the Reich. Responsibility for job placement was first transferred from the Demobilization Office to the Minister of Labour and then to the National Employment Exchange Office, which came into being in January 1920\.The Evolution of Social Insurance 1881–1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria, and Switzerland edited by Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher in collaboration with [Martin Partington](/wiki/Martin_Partington "Martin Partington")	[ "### German Empire (1863–1918\\)", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|Medal 1890 Bebel and Liebknecht after their success in the federal elections](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_obverse.jpg \"Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), obverse.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|left\\\|The reverse of that medal commemorating the [1890 Reichstagswahl](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election \"1890 German federal election\")](/wiki/File:Medal_1890_German_Reichstag_Election_Bebel_Liebknecht_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany_%28SPD%29%2C_reverse.jpg \"Medal 1890 German Reichstag Election Bebel Liebknecht Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), reverse.jpg\")\nThe party was founded on 23 May 1863 by [Ferdinand Lassalle](/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle \"Ferdinand Lassalle\") under the name {{lang\\\|de\\\|Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein}} (ADAV, [General German Workers' Association](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association \"General German Workers' Association\")). In 1869, [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel \"August Bebel\") and [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht \"Wilhelm Liebknecht\") founded the {{lang\\\|de\\\|Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei}} (SDAP, [Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany\")), which merged with the ADAV at a conference held in Gotha in 1875, taking the name Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAPD). At this conference, the party developed the [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program \"Gotha Program\"), which [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") criticized in his [Critique of the Gotha Program](/wiki/Critique_of_the_Gotha_Program \"Critique of the Gotha Program\"). Through the [Anti\\-Socialist Laws](/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws \"Anti-Socialist Laws\"), [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\") had the party outlawed for its pro\\-revolution, anti\\-monarchy sentiments in 1878; but in 1890 it was legalized again after the successful [elections to the Reichstag](/wiki/1890_German_federal_election \"1890 German federal election\"). That year, in its [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt \"Halle, Saxony-Anhalt\") convention, it changed its name to {{lang\\\|de\\\|Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands}} (SPD), as it is known to this day.", "Anti\\-socialist campaigns were counterproductive. 1878 to 1890 was the SPD's \"heroic period\". The party's new program drawn up in 1891 at Halle was more radical than 1875's [Gotha program](/wiki/Gotha_Program \"Gotha Program\"). From 1881 to 1890 the party's support increased faster than in any other period. In 1896, the [National Liberals](/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_%28Germany%29 \"National Liberal Party (Germany)\") and [Conservatives](/wiki/German_Conservative_Party \"German Conservative Party\") in [Saxony](/wiki/Saxony \"Saxony\") replaced the democratic vote with a Prussian\\-style three\\-tiered suffrage, upper class votes counting the most. They did this to drive out the local SPD which lost its last seat in 1901\\. However, in the 1903 election, the number of socialist deputies increased from 11 to 22 out of 23\\.Retallack, Imperial Germany, page 187", "[thumb\\\|[August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel \"August Bebel\") in 1863, co\\-chairman from 1892 to 1913](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14077-0005%2C_August_Bebel.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14077-0005, August Bebel.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|right\\\|300px\\\|SPD members in Reichstag 1889, (sitting from left to right: [Georg Schumacher](/wiki/Georg_Schumacher \"Georg Schumacher\"), [Friedrich Harm](/wiki/Friedrich_Harm \"Friedrich Harm\"), [August Bebel](/wiki/August_Bebel \"August Bebel\"), [Heinrich Meister](/wiki/Heinrich_Meister \"Heinrich Meister\") and [Karl Frohme](/wiki/Karl_Frohme \"Karl Frohme\"). Standing: [Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz](/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Wilhelm_Dietz \"Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Dietz\"), [August Kühn](/wiki/August_K%C3%BChn \"August Kühn\"), [Wilhelm Liebknecht](/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht \"Wilhelm Liebknecht\"), [Karl Grillenberger](/wiki/Karl_Grillenberger \"Karl Grillenberger\"), and [Paul Singer](/wiki/Paul_Singer_%28politician%29 \"Paul Singer (politician)\"))](/wiki/File:Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg \"Reichstagsfraktion1889.jpg\")\nBecause Social Democrats could be elected as list\\-free candidates while the party was outlawed, SPD continued to be a growing force in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\"), becoming the strongest party in 1912 (in the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\"), the parliamentary balance of forces had no influence on the formation of the cabinet). During this period, SPD deputies in the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\") were able to win some improvements in working and living conditions for working\\-class Germans,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.country\\-data.com/cgi\\-bin/query/r\\-4869\\.html\\\|publisher\\=country\\-data.com\\\|title\\=Germany \\- Political Parties\\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} thereby advancing the cause of its policies in a general way and securing material benefits for its supporters.The German Social Democratic Party, 1875–1933: From Ghetto To Government by W. L. Guttsman", "In the [Landtag](/wiki/Landtag \"Landtag\"), the SPD was able to extract some concessions from time to time in areas for which the assembly was responsible, such as education and social policy. In Hesse, the party was successful in demanding that church tax be listed separately in assessments, and it was able to secure improvements in judicial procedure. The SPD also had occasional successes in raising wages and improving the working conditions of municipal labourers.", "SPD pressure in the Reichstag in the late nineteenth century supported an expansion in the system of factory inspection, together with a minor reform in military service under which the families of reservists, called up for training or manoeuvres, could receive an allowance. In the 1880s, SPD deputies in Saxony successfully agitated in support of improved safety for miners and better control of mines.", "In 1908, the same year the government legalized women's participation in politics, [Luise Zietz](/wiki/Luise_Zietz \"Luise Zietz\") became the first woman appointed to the executive committee of the SPD.{{cite book\\\|author\\=Joseph A. Biesinger\\\|title\\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=exMn24SA7fMC\\&pg\\=PA755\\\|date\\=1 January 2006\\\|publisher\\=Infobase Publishing\\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8160\\-7471\\-6\\\|pages\\=755–}}{{cite web \\\|first\\=Jennifer \\\|last\\=Striewski \\\|location\\=\\[\\[Bonn]] \\\|url\\=http://www.rheinische\\-geschichte.lvr.de/persoenlichkeiten/J/Seiten/MarieJuchacz.aspx \\\|title\\=Marie Juchacz (1879\\-1956\\), Begründerin der Arbeiterwohlfahrt \\\|language\\=de \\\|trans\\-title\\=Marie Juchacz (1879\\-1956\\), founder of workers' welfare \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[:de:Landschaftsverband Rheinland\\\|Landschaftsverband Rheinland]] (LVR), \\[\\[Cologne]] \\\|date\\=8 March 2013 \\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-11}}", "Despite the passage of anti\\-socialist legislation, the SPD continued to grow in strength in the early twentieth century, with a steady rise in membership from 384,327 in 1905/06 to 1,085,905 in 1913/14\\. SPD was seen as a populist party, and people from every quarter of German society sought help and advice from it. With its counseling service (provided free of charge by the mostly trade union maintained workers' secretarial offices), the German social democratic movement helped large numbers of Germans to secure their legal rights, primarily in social security. There also existed a dynamic educational movement, with hundreds of courses and individual lectures, theatre performances, libraries, peripatetic teachers, a central school for workers' education, and a famous Party School, as noted by the historians Susanne Miller and Heinrich Potthoff:", "{{cquote\\\|With all of this, the SPD and the Free Trade Unions were not only delivering the necessary tools for the political and social struggle, but were also a cultural movement in the widest sense of the term.{{cite book \\\|title\\=The Social Democratic Party of Germany 1848–2005 \\\|date\\=1987 \\\|first1\\=Heinrich \\\|last1\\=Potthoff \\\|first2\\=Susanne \\\|last2\\=Miller}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2013}}}}", "Growth in strength did not initially translate into larger numbers in the Reichstag. The original constituencies had been drawn at the empire's formation in 1871, when Germany was almost two\\-thirds rural. They were never redrawn to reflect the dramatic growth of Germany's cities in the 1890s. By the turn of the century, the urban\\-rural ratio was reversed, and almost two\\-thirds of all Germans lived in cities and towns. Even with this change, the party still managed to become the largest single faction in the Reichstag at the 1912 elections. It would be the largest party in Germany for the next two decades.", "In the states of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\"), [Württemberg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Württemberg\"), [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse \"Hesse\"), and [Baden](/wiki/Baden \"Baden\"), the SPD was successful in extracting various socio\\-political and democratic concessions (including the replacement of the class\\-based electoral systems with universal suffrage) through electoral alliances with bourgeois parties, voting for parliamentary bills and state budgets. In the Reichstag, the SPD resorted to a policy of tactical compromise in order to exert direct influence on legislation. In 1894, the parliamentary SPD voted for a government bill for the first time ever. It reduced the import duty on wheat, which led to a reduction in the price of food. In 1913, the votes of SPD parliamentarians helped to bring in new tax laws affecting the wealthy, which were necessary due to the increase in military spending.", "The Social Democrats gave particular attention to carrying out reforms at the local level, founding a tradition of community politics which intensified after 1945\\. The establishment of local labour exchanges and the introduction of unemployment benefits can be credited in part to the SPD. In 1913, the number of Social Democrats on municipal and district councils approached 13,000\\. As noted by Heinrich Potthoff and Susanne Miller:", "{{cquote\\\|Here, and in their work in the administration of industrial insurance, in community employment offices and courts of arbitration, lay one of the roots of the gradual penetration by the Social Democrats of the imperial German state.{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2013}}}}", "As Sally Waller wrote, the SPD encouraged great loyalty from its members by organising educational courses, choral societies, sports clubs, and libraries. The party also ran welfare clinics, founded libraries, produced newspapers, and organised holidays, rallies, and festivals. As also noted by Weller, they played a role in shaping a number of progressive reforms:", "{{cquote\\\|The SPD also helped promote Germany's extensive system of welfare support giving Germany the most comprehensive system of social insurance in Europe by 1913\\. They pressed successfully for some constitutional changes like the secret ballot (1904\\) and payment of MPs (1906\\), which permitted lower middle and working\\-class men, with no other income, to put themselves forward as deputies for the Reichstag. In 1911, they supported measures whereby Alsace\\-Lorraine was given Reichstag representation and universal male suffrage at 21 years was introduced. They also successfully resisted the taxation proposals that would hit the working man harder and promoted progressive taxes, whereby those with the most would be forced to pay more.AQA History: The Development of Germany, 1871–1925 by Sally Waller}}", "The influence of the SPD on policymaking was noted by one socialist politician, who told the leading American liberal politician [William Jennings Bryan](/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan \"William Jennings Bryan\") that", "{{cquote\\\|the socialists of Germany have organized a liberal party of unrivaled strength; they have educated the working classes to a very high standard of political intelligence and to a strong sense of their independence and of their social mission, as the living and progressive force in every social respect; they have promoted the organization of trade unions; and have by their incessant agitation compelled the other parties and the government to take up social and labor legislation.The Old World and its Ways By Bryan, William Jennings, 1907, P.424}}", "According to historian Richard M. Watt:", "{{cquote\\\|The political and organizational success of the Social Democrats had enabled them to demand and obtain a respectable body of legislation incorporating social reform, outlawing child labor and improving working conditions and wages, to the point where the German Social Democratic Party was the model for socialist parties in every other nation, and the German worker the most envied in Continental Europe.The Kings Depart: The Tragedy of Germany: Versailles and the German Revolution by Richard M. Watt}}", "#### Erfurt Program and revisionism (1891–1899\\)", "As a reaction to government prosecution, the [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program \"Erfurt Program\") of 1891 was more radical than the Gotha Program of 1875, demanding [nationalization](/wiki/Nationalization \"Nationalization\") of Germany's major industries. In fact in 1891 the party officially became a Marxist Party to the gratification of aging Engels.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Billington \\\|first1\\=James H. \\\|title\\=Fire in the Minds of Men —Origins of the Revolutionary Faith \\\|date\\=1999 \\\|publisher\\=Transaction Publishers \\\|location\\=New Brunswick, N.J. \\\|isbn\\=0\\-7658\\-0471\\-9 \\\|page\\=377}} However, the party began to move away from [revolutionary socialism](/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism \"Revolutionary socialism\") at the turn of the 20th century{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2023}}. [Eduard Bernstein](/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein \"Eduard Bernstein\") authored a series of articles on the Problems of Socialism between 1896 and 1898, and later a book, {{lang\\\|de\\\|Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie}} (\"The Prerequisites for Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy\"), published in 1899, in which he argued that the winning of reforms under capitalism would be enough to bring about socialism. Radical party activist [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg \"Rosa Luxemburg\") accused Bernstein of [revisionism](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism \"Marxist revisionism\") and argued against his ideas in her pamphlet [Social Reform or Revolution](/wiki/Social_Reform_or_Revolution \"Social Reform or Revolution\"), and Bernstein's program was not adopted by the party.", "\| Programs of the Social Democratic Party of Germany \| \| \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| Year \| Program name \| Brief description \|\n\| 1869 \| {{ill\\\|Eisenach Program\\\|de\\\|Eisenacher Programm}} \| Founding program of the [SDAP](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Workers%27_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany\") \|\n\| 1875 \| [Gotha Program](/wiki/Gotha_Program \"Gotha Program\") \| Unification of SDAP and [ADAV](/wiki/General_German_Workers%27_Association \"General German Workers' Association\") \|\n\| 1891 \| [Erfurt Program](/wiki/Erfurt_Program \"Erfurt Program\") \| Classical Marxist program \|\n\| 1921 \| {{ill\\\|Görlitz Program\\\|de\\\|Görlitzer Programm}} \| Strongly revisionist program of the [MSPD](/wiki/Majority_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany\") \|\n\| 1925 \| {{ill\\\|Heidelberg Program\\\|de\\\|Heidelberger Programm}} \| Orientation towards United States of Europe \|\n\| 1959 \| [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program \"Godesberg Program\") \| People's party of democratic socialism \|\n\| 1989 \| {{ill\\\|Berlin Program\\\|de\\\|Berliner Programm}} \| Ecological renewal of industrial society \|\n\| 2007 \| {{ill\\\|Hamburg Program\\\|de\\\|Hamburger Programm}} \| Current programme of the SPD \|", "", "#### First World War (1912–1917\\)", "Conservative elites nevertheless became alarmed at SPD growth—especially after it won 35% of the national vote in the [1912 German federal election](/wiki/1912_German_federal_election \"1912 German federal election\"). Some elites looked to a foreign war as a solution to Germany's internal problems. SPD policy limited antimilitarism to aggressive wars—Germans saw 1914 as a defensive war. On 25 July 1914, the SPD leadership appealed to its membership to demonstrate for peace and large numbers turned out in orderly demonstrations. The SPD was not revolutionary and many members were nationalistic. When the war began, some conservatives wanted to use force to suppress the SPD, but Chancellor Bethmann\\-Hollweg refused. However, the increasing loyalty of the party establishment towards Emperor and Reich, coupled with its antipathy toward Russia led the party under Bebel's successor [Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert \"Friedrich Ebert\") to support the war. This was helped by the fact that Germany had waited until after the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") announced mobilization to begin its own mobilization, allowing Germany to claim it was the victim of Russian aggression.{{Cite book \\\|last\\=Robson \\\|first\\=Stuart \\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/firstworldwar0000robs\\_r5x1 \\\|title\\=The First World War \\\|date\\=2007 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Pearson Longman]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4058\\-2471\\-2 \\\|edition\\=1 \\\|location\\=Harrow, England \\\|pages\\=17–19 \\\|language\\=en \\\|ref\\=None}} The SPD members of the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28German_Empire%29 \"Reichstag (German Empire)\") voted 96–14 on 3 August 1914 to support the war. They next voted the money for the war, but resisted demands for an aggressive peace policy that would involve takeover of new territoriesV. R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (1974\\) pp 178\\-85{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Groh \\\|first1\\=Dieter \\\|title\\=The 'Unpatriotic Socialists' and the State \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of Contemporary History]] \\\|date\\=1966 \\\|volume\\=1 \\\|issue\\=4 \\\|pages\\=151–177 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/002200946600100406 \\\|jstor\\=259895 \\\|s2cid\\=159501407}} Even if socialists felt beleaguered in Germany, they knew they would suffer far more under [Tsarist autocracy](/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy \"Tsarist autocracy\"); they believed that the gains they had made for the working class, politically and materially, now required them to support the nation.{{cite book \\\|last\\=Strachan \\\|first\\=Hew \\\|title\\=The First World War: A New History \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Simon \\& Schuster]] \\\|date\\=2014}}", "There remained an antiwar element, especially in Berlin. They – including [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg \"Rosa Luxemburg\"), [Karl Liebknecht](/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht \"Karl Liebknecht\") and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase \"Hugo Haase\") – were expelled from the SPD in 1917 and formed the [Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany\"), in which the [Spartacist League](/wiki/Spartacist_League \"Spartacist League\") was influential.. Bernstein left the party during the war, as did [Karl Kautsky](/wiki/Karl_Kautsky \"Karl Kautsky\"), who had played an important role as the leading Marxist theoretician and editor of the theoretical journal of SPD, \"[Die Neue Zeit](/wiki/Die_Neue_Zeit \"Die Neue Zeit\")\". Neither joined the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") after the war; they both came back to the SPD in the early 1920s. From 1915 on theoretical discussions within the SPD were dominated by a group of former [anti\\-revisionist](/wiki/Anti-revisionism \"Anti-revisionism\") [Marxists](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\"), who tried to legitimize the support of the First World War by the German SPD group in the Reichstag with Marxist arguments. Instead of the class struggle they proclaimed the struggle of peoples. The group was led by [Heinrich Cunow](/wiki/Heinrich_Cunow \"Heinrich Cunow\"), [Paul Lensch](/wiki/Paul_Lensch \"Paul Lensch\") and [Konrad Haenisch](/wiki/Konrad_Haenisch \"Konrad Haenisch\") (\"{{lang\\\|de\\\|Lensch\\-Cunow\\-Haenisch\\-Gruppe}}\") and was close to the Russian\\-German revolutionary and social scientist [Alexander Parvus](/wiki/Alexander_Parvus \"Alexander Parvus\"), who gave a public forum to the group with his journal \"{{lang\\\|de\\\|Die Glocke}}\". From the teachings of [Kurt Schumacher](/wiki/Kurt_Schumacher \"Kurt Schumacher\") and Professor [Johann Plenge](/wiki/Johann_Plenge \"Johann Plenge\"), there is a link to the current centrist \"{{lang\\\|de\\\|\\[\\[Seeheimer Kreis]]}}\" within the SPD founded by [Annemarie Renger](/wiki/Annemarie_Renger \"Annemarie Renger\"), Schumacher's former secretary.", "#### German Revolution (1918–1919\\)", "In the [1918 revolution](/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319 \"German Revolution of 1918–19\"), Ebert controversially sided with the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr \"Reichswehr\") against the [Spartacist uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_uprising \"Spartacist uprising\"), while the [Reichstag](/wiki/Reichstag_%28Weimar_Republic%29 \"Reichstag (Weimar Republic)\") elected him as [head of the new government](/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_%28Federal_Republic%29 \"Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic)\").", "A revolutionary government met for the first time in November 1918\\. Known as the [Council of People's Commissioners](/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Deputies \"Council of the People's Deputies\"), it consisted of three Majority Social Democrats ([Friedrich Ebert](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert \"Friedrich Ebert\"), [Philipp Scheidemann](/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann \"Philipp Scheidemann\"), and [Otto Landsberg](/wiki/Otto_Landsberg \"Otto Landsberg\")) and three Independent Social Democrats ([Emil Barth](/wiki/Emil_Barth \"Emil Barth\"), [Wilhelm Dittmann](/wiki/Wilhelm_Dittmann \"Wilhelm Dittmann\"), and [Hugo Haase](/wiki/Hugo_Haase \"Hugo Haase\")). The new government faced a social crisis in the German Reich following the end of the First World War, with Germany threatened by hunger and chaos. There was, for the most part, an orderly return of soldiers back into civilian life, while the threat of starvation was combated. Wage levels were raised,Comparative Economic Systems, Volume 3 by Richard L. Carson universal proportional representation for all parliaments was introduced, and a series of regulations on [unemployment benefits](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits \"Unemployment benefits\"), job\\-creation and protection measures, [health insurance](/wiki/Health_insurance_in_Germany \"Health insurance in Germany\"), and [pensions](/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany \"Pensions in Germany\")Weimar Germany by Anthony McElligott saw the institution of important political and social reforms. In February 1918, workers made an agreement with employers which secured them total freedom of association, the legal guarantee of an [eight\\-hour workday](/wiki/Eight-hour_day \"Eight-hour day\"), and the extension of wage agreements to all branches of trade and industry. The People's Commissioners made these changes legally binding. In addition, the SPD\\-steered provisional government introduced binding state arbitration of labor conflicts, created worker's councils in large industrial firms, and opened the path to the unionization of rural labourers.German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation by William W. Hagan In December 1918, a decree was passed providing relief for the unemployed. This provided that communities were to be responsible for unemployment relief (without fixing an amount) and established that the Reich would contribute 50% and the respective German state 33% of the outlay. That same month, the government declared that labour exchanges were to be further developed with the financial assistance of the Reich. Responsibility for job placement was first transferred from the Demobilization Office to the Minister of Labour and then to the National Employment Exchange Office, which came into being in January 1920\\.The Evolution of Social Insurance 1881–1981: Studies of Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria, and Switzerland edited by Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher in collaboration with [Martin Partington](/wiki/Martin_Partington \"Martin Partington\")", "" ]
German Republic --------------- ### From occupation to the Federal Republic (1946–1966\) [thumb\\|World War I volunteer and concentration camp inmate [Kurt Schumacher](/wiki/Kurt_Schumacher "Kurt Schumacher"), SPD chairman after the war](/wiki/File:Kurt_Schumacher.jpg "Kurt Schumacher.jpg") The SPD was recreated after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") in 1946 and admitted in all four [occupation zones](/wiki/Allied_Occupation_Zones_in_Germany "Allied Occupation Zones in Germany"). In [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany"), it was initially in opposition from the first election of the newly founded Federal Republic in 1949 until 1966\. The party had a leftist period and opposed the republic's integration into Western structures, believing that this might diminish the chances for [German reunification](/wiki/German_reunification "German reunification"). The SPD was somewhat hampered for much of the early history of the Federal Republic, in part because the bulk of its former heartland was now in the Soviet occupation sector, which later became [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany"). In the latter area, the SPD was forced to merge with the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany "Communist Party of Germany") to form the [Socialist Unity Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany "Socialist Unity Party of Germany") (SED) in 1946\. The few recalcitrant SPD members were quickly pushed out, leaving the SED as essentially a renamed and enlarged KPD. In the British Occupation Zone, the SPD held a referendum on the issue of merging with the KPD, with 80% of party members rejecting such a fusion. This referendum was ignored by the newly formed SED.{{Cite book \\|title\=A History of Germany: 1815\-1990 \\|last\=Carr \\|first\=William \\|publisher\=\[\[Hodder \& Stoughton]] \\|year\=1991 \\|edition\=4th \\|location\=United Kingdom \\|pages\=369–370}} Nonetheless, a few former SPD members held high posts in the [East German government](/wiki/Politics_of_East_Germany "Politics of East Germany"). [Otto Grotewohl](/wiki/Otto_Grotewohl "Otto Grotewohl") served as East Germany's first prime minister from 1949 to 1964\. For much of that time he retained some vestiges of his SPD roots. For instance, he publicly advocated a less repressive approach to governing, especially during the crackdown on the [East German uprising of 1953](/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953 "East German uprising of 1953"). [Friedrich Ebert, Jr.](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert%2C_Jr. "Friedrich Ebert, Jr."), son of former president Ebert, served as mayor of [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin "East Berlin") from 1949 to 1967; he'd reportedly been blackmailed into supporting the merger by using his father's role in the schism of 1918 against him. During the [fall of Communist rule](/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany "Monday demonstrations in East Germany") in 1989, the SPD (first called SDP) was re\-established as a separate party in East Germany ([Social Democratic Party in the GDR](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_in_the_GDR "Social Democratic Party in the GDR")), independent of the rump SED, and then merged with its West German counterpart upon reunification. Despite remaining out of office for much of the postwar period, the SPD were able to gain control of a number of local governments and implement progressive social reforms. As noted by [Manfred Schmidt](/wiki/Manfred_G._Schmidt "Manfred G. Schmidt"), SPD\-controlled Lander governments were more active in the social sphere and transferred more funds to public employment and education than CDU/CSU\-controlled Lander.{{cite book \\|last1\=Braunthal \\|first1\=Gerard \\|title\=The German Social Democrats Since 1969: A Party In Power And Opposition \\|date\=1994 \\|publisher\=Avalon Publishing \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8133\-1535\-5}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} During the mid\-sixties, mainly SPD\-governed Lander such as Hesse and the three city\-states launched the first experiments with comprehensive schools as a means of as expanding educational opportunities.The German education system since 1945 by Ivan Christoph Führ SPD local governments were also active in encouraging the post\-war housing boom in West Germany, with some of the best results in housing construction during this period achieved by SPD\-controlled Lander authorities such as West Berlin, Hamburg, and Bremen. In the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag "Bundestag"), the SPD opposition were partly responsible for the establishment of the postwar [welfare state](/wiki/Welfare_state "Welfare state") under the [Adenauer](/wiki/Adenauer "Adenauer") Administration, having put parliamentary pressure on the CDU to carry out more progressive social policies during its time in office.{{cite book \\|last1\=Childs \\|first1\=David \\|title\=The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy and Soviet Communism Since 1945 \\|date\=2000 \\|publisher\=\[\[Psychology Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-22195\-5}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} In the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag "Bundestag"), The SPD aspired to be a "constructive opposition," which expressed itself not only in the role it played in framing the significant amount of new legislation introduced in the first parliamentary terms of the Bundestag, but also in the fact that by far the biggest proportion of all laws were passed with the votes of SPD members. The SPD played a notable part in legislation on reforms to the national pensions scheme, the integration of refugees, and the building of public\-sector housing. The SPD also had a high\-profile "in judicial policy with the Public Prosecutor Adolf Arndt, in the parliamentary decision on the Federal Constitutional Court, and reparations for the victims of National Socialism." In 1951, the law on the right of "co\-determination" for employees in the steel, iron, and mining industries was passed with the combined votes of the SPD and CDU, and against those of the FDP. ### Governing party (1966–1982\) [thumbnail\\|right\\|Logo of the Social Democratic Party during the 1960s and 1970s](/wiki/File:Sozialdemokratische_Partei_Deutschlands%2C_Logo_1969-1982.png "Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, Logo 1969-1982.png") In 1966 the coalition of the [Christian Democratic Union](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Germany)") (CDU) and the liberal [Free Democratic Party](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 "Free Democratic Party (Germany)") (FDP) fell and a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition "Grand coalition") between CDU/CSU and SPD was formed under the leadership of CDU Chancellor [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger "Kurt Georg Kiesinger"), with SPD leader [Willy Brandt](/wiki/Willy_Brandt "Willy Brandt") as [Vice\-Chancellor](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany "Vice-Chancellor of Germany"). The welfare state was considerably expanded,{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\_35\.pdf \\|title\=Labor Parties and Labor Movements in a Post\-Fordist Political Economy: The British, French, and German Cases \\|first1\=Anthony \\|last1\=Daley \\|first2\=Chris \\|last2\=Howell \\|first3\=Stephen J. \\|last3\=Silvia \\|publisher\=\[\[Harvard University]] \\|access\-date\=22 March 2014 \\|archive\-date\=22 March 2014 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322135253/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\_35\.pdf }} while social spending was almost doubled between 1969 and 1975\.{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.country\-data.com/cgi\-bin/query/r\-4975\.html \\|publisher\=country\-data.com \\|title\=Germany \- Social Democratic Party of Germany \\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} Changes were made to income maintenance schemes which met some of the SPD's long\-standing demands,Growth to Limits: Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy by Peter Flora and many other social reforms were introduced, including the equalising of wages and salaries between white\-collar and blue\-collar employees, the continuation of wage and salary payments, a law to promote employment, and a vocational training law. Although these measures were largely due to the efforts of the CDU minister [Hans Katzer](/wiki/Hans_Katzer "Hans Katzer"), it is arguable that he would never have been able to push his programme through the cabinet (let alone envisage it) without the SPD.{{cite book \\|last1\=Dönhoff \\|first1\=Marion \\|title\=Foe Into Friend: The Makers of the New Germany from Konrad Adenauer to Helmut Schmidt \\|date\=1982 \\|publisher\=Weidenfeld and Nicolson \\|isbn\=978\-0\-297\-78058\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} The 1969 Employment Promotion Act, which was based largely on a proposal prepared by the SPD in 1966, established active labour market intervention measures such as employment research,The German economy by E. Owen Smith and offered "substantial state assistance to employees with educational aspirations."{{cite book \\|last1\=Jobert \\|first1\=Annette \\|last2\=Marry \\|first2\=Catherine \\|last3\=Rainbird \\|first3\=Helen \\|last4\=Tanguy \\|first4\=Lucie \\|title\=Education and Work in Great Britain, Germany and Italy \\|date\=2013 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-68733\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Under the direction of the SPD [Minister of Economics](/wiki/Minister_of_Economics "Minister of Economics") [Karl Schiller](/wiki/Karl_Schiller "Karl Schiller"), the federal government adopted [Keynesian](/wiki/Keynesian_economics "Keynesian economics") [demand management](/wiki/Demand_management "Demand management") for the first time ever. Schiller called for legislation that would provide both his ministry and the federal government with greater authority to guide economic policy.{{cite web \\|url\=http://countrystudies.us/germany/137\.htm\\|publisher\=countrystudies.us \\|title\=Germany \- The Economic Miracle and Beyond \\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} In 1967, Schiller introduced the Law for Promoting Stability and Growth,Germany in Our Time: A Political History of the Postwar Years by [Alfred Grosser](/wiki/Alfred_Grosser "Alfred Grosser") which was subsequently passed by the Bundestag. Regarded as the Magna Carta of medium\-term economic management, the legislation provided for coordination of federal, Lander, and local budget plans in order to give fiscal policy a stronger impact. It also set a number of optimistic targets for four basic standards by which West German economic success would henceforth be measured, which included trade balance, employment levels, economic growth, and currency stability. One of the rare German Keynesians of that era, Schiller believed that government had both "the obligation and the capacity to shape economic trends and to smooth out and even eliminate the business cycle," and his adopted policy of Keynesian demand management helped West Germany to overcome the economic recession of 1966/67\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Cooper \\|first1\=Alice Holmes \\|title\=Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements Since 1945 \\|date\=1996 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of Michigan Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-472\-10624\-0}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Unemployment was quickly reduced (standing at just under 1% by Autumn 1968\), while industrial output rose by almost 12% in 1968\. The successful economic and financial policies pursued by the Grand Coalition under the direction of Schiller was also helped by the persuasion of entrepreneurs and trade unions to accept a programme of "concerted action." According to Lisanne Radice and Giles Radice, "concerted action" was not a formal [incomes policy](/wiki/Incomes_policy "Incomes policy"), but it did nevertheless ensure that collective bargaining took place "within a broadly agreed view of the direction of the economy and the relationships between full employment, output and inflation."{{cite book \\|last1\=Radice \\|first1\=Giles \\|last2\=Radice \\|first2\=Lisanne \\|title\=Socialists in the Recession: The Search for Solidarity \\|date\=1986 \\|publisher\=Macmillan \\|isbn\=978\-0\-333\-38846\-4}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} In addition, Schiller's economic policies were not only successful in restoring West Germany's economic growth, but they also demonstrated the SPD's economic competence, and this undoubtedly played a major role in the victory of the SPD in the [federal election of 1969](/wiki/1969_West_German_federal_election "1969 West German federal election"). [thumb\\|Party convention of 1982: SPD chairman Willy Brandt and chancellor Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F062768-0008%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_SPD-Parteitag%2C_Schmidt%2C_Brandt.jpg "Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F062768-0008, München, SPD-Parteitag, Schmidt, Brandt.jpg") In 1969 the SPD won a majority for the first time since 1928 by forming a [social\-liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition "Social-liberal coalition") with the FDP and led the federal government under Chancellors Willy Brandt and [Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/Helmut_Schmidt "Helmut Schmidt") from 1969 until 1982\. In its 1959 [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program "Godesberg Program"), the SPD officially abandoned the concept of a workers' party and Marxist principles, while continuing to stress [social welfare provision](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision "Social welfare provision"). Although the SPD originally opposed West Germany's 1955 rearmament and entry into [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") while it favoured neutrality and reunification with East Germany, it now strongly supports German ties with the alliance. A wide range of reforms were carried out under the [Social\-Liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition "Social-liberal coalition"), including, as summarised by one historical study 'improved health and accident insurance, better [unemployment compensation](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits "Unemployment benefits"), [rent control](/wiki/Rent_regulation "Rent regulation"), payments to families with children, subsidies to encourage savings and investments, and measures to "humanize the world of work" such as better medical care for on\-the\-job illnesses or injuries and mandated improvements in the work environment.'A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress Under the SDP\-FDP coalition, social policies in West Germany took on a more egalitarian character and a number of important reforms were carried out to improve the prospects of previously neglected and underprivileged groups.{{cite book \\|last1\=Walker \\|first1\=Robert \\|last2\=Lawson \\|first2\=Roger \\|last3\=Townsend \\|first3\=Peter \\|title\=Responses to Poverty: Lessons from Europe \\|date\=1984 \\|publisher\=\[\[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8386\-3222\-2}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Greater emphasis was placed on policies favouring single parents, larger families, and the lower paid, and further improvements were made in social benefits for pensioners and disabled persons. Rates of [social assistance](/wiki/Social_assistance "Social assistance") (excluding rent) as a percentage of average gross earnings of men in manufacturing industries rose during the Social\-Liberal coalition's time in office,{{cite book \\|last1\=George \\|first1\=Victor \\|last2\=Lawson \\|first2\=Roger \\|title\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\|date\=1980 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \& Kegan Paul \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7100\-0424\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} while social welfare provision was greatly extended, with pensions and health care opened up to large sections of the population.{{cite book \\|last1\=Lewis \\|first1\=Derek R. \\|last2\=Schwitalla \\|first2\=Johannes \\|last3\=Zitzlsperger \\|first3\=Ulrike \\|title\=Contemporary Germany: A Handbook \\|date\=2001 \\|publisher\=Arnold \\|isbn\=978\-0\-340\-74040\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} This in turn substantially increased the size and cost of the social budget, as social program costs grew by over 10% a year during much of the 1970s. Government spending as a percentage of GDP rose significantly under the SPD\-FDP coalition, from 39% in 1969 to around 50% by 1982\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Sinn \\|first1\=Hans\-Werner \\|title\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\|date\=2007 \\|publisher\=\[\[MIT Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-19558\-4}} Between 1970 and 1981, social spending as a proportion of GNP rose by 21\.4%, and in terms of percentage of GNP went up from 25,7% in 1970 to 31\.2% in 1981\. Much was accomplished in the way of social reform during the SDP\-FDP coalition's first five years on office, with one study noting that ""the years 1969 to 1974 represent a phase of social policy in which the state introduced new minimum benefits and extended existing ones."{{cite book \\|last1\=Leisering \\|first1\=Lutz \\|last2\=Leibfried \\|first2\=Stephan \\|title\=Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective \\|date\=2001 \\|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-00352\-0 \\|page\=185 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KScADiSdelIC\&pg\=PA185 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In April 1970, the government drew up an Action Programme for the Promotion of the Rehabilitation of Handicapped Persons.{{cite book \\|last1\=Schewe \\|first1\=Dieter \\|last2\=Nordhorn \\|first2\=Karlhugo \\|last3\=Schenke \\|first3\=Klaus \\|title\=Survey of social security in the Federal Republic of Germany \\|date\=1972 \\|publisher\=Federal Minister for Labour and Social Affairs \\|oclc\=643574180}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} During that same year, bills were tabled to extend and increase housing allowances (passed in 1970\), to extend and standardise the promotion of vocational training (passed in 1971\), to automatically index pensions for war victims (passed in 1970\), to increase family allowances (passed in 1970\), and to reform "shop rules" (which came into force in 1972\). In 1974, a bankruptcy allowance was introduced for employed persons when their employers became insolvent. Developments in [accident insurance](/wiki/Accident_insurance "Accident insurance") led to the inclusion of schoolchildren, students and children at kindergarten and thus to more widespread measures for [accident prevention](/wiki/Accident_Prevention "Accident Prevention"). In addition, farm and household assistance was introduced as a new service in agricultural accident insurance. A major pension reform law extended the accessibility of pension insurance by providing generous possibilities for backpayments of contributions, while adjustment of currently paid out pensions was brought forward by 6 months. The Rehabilitation and Assimilation Law of 1974 improved and standardised [benefits for the disabled](/wiki/Disability_benefits "Disability benefits"), while a law was passed that same year on the establishment of an additional relief fund for persons employed in agriculture and forestry. The Law on the Improvement of Works' Old Age Schemes of 1974 brought conditional non\-forfeiture of qualifying periods for works pensions as well as the prohibition of cuts in works pensions due to increases in social insurance pensions. In addition, a number of reforms in areas such as civil and consumer rights{{cite news \\|title\=Dreizehn Jahre geliehene Macht \\|trans\-title\=Thirteen years of borrowed power \\|language\=de \\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/dreizehn\-jahre\-geliehene\-macht\-a\-4dd36291\-0002\-0001\-0000\-000014348240 \\|work\=\[\[Der Spiegel]] \\|date\=10 March 1982}} the environment, [education](/wiki/Education "Education"), and [urban renewal](/wiki/Urban_renewal "Urban renewal"){{cite book \\|last1\=Flüchter \\|first1\=Winfried \\|title\=Japan and Central Europe Restructuring: Geographical Aspects of Socio\-economic, Urban, and Regional Development \\|date\=1995 \\|publisher\=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag \\|isbn\=978\-3\-447\-03531\-6 \\|page\=150 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=C8J1pypuORUC\&pg\=PA150 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}}{{cite book \\|editor1\-last\=Burgers \\|editor1\-first\=Jack \\|editor2\-last\=Vranken \\|editor2\-first\=Jan \\|title\=How to Make Successful Urban Development Programme: Experience from Nine European Countries \\|date\=2004 \\|publisher\=Garant \\|isbn\=978\-90\-441\-1393\-8 \\|page\=100 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TdAM2GS0t3kC\&pg\=PA100 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} were carried out. in 1972, a pension reform act was passed which, according to one historical study, ensured that workers "would not suffer financial hardship and could maintain an adequate standard of living after retirement."A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress. In 1973, sickness benefits became available in cases where a parent had to care for a sick child.{{cite book \\|last1\=Companje \\|first1\=Karel\-Peter \\|last2\=Veraghtert \\|first2\=Karel \\|last3\=Widdershoven \\|first3\=Brigitte \\|title\=Two Centuries of Solidarity: German, Belgian, and Dutch Social Health Care Insurance 1770\-2008 \\|date\=2009 \\|publisher\=\[\[Amsterdam University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-90\-5260\-344\-5 \\|page\=210 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=64U\_dlAI6g0C\&pg\=PA210 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In March 1974, Social Assistance (SA) was expanded, "concerning family supplements, means test, and certain additional payments."{{cite book \\|last1\=Picot \\|first1\=Georg \\|title\=Politics of Segmentation: Party Competition and Social Protection in Europe \\|date\=2013\-06\-17 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-136\-47682\-2 \\|page\=58 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=e8gYDKWOM\_wC\&pg\=PA58 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} Under a law of April 1974, the protection hitherto granted to the victims of war or industrial accidents for the purpose of their occupational and social reintegration was extended to all handicapped persons, whatever the cause of their handicap, provided that their capacity to work has been reduced by at least 50%. Another law, passed in August that same year, supplemented this protection by providing that henceforth the benefits for the purposes of medical and occupational rehabilitation would be the same for all the categories of persons concerned: war victims, the sick, the victims of industrial accidents, congenitally handicapped persons, representing a total of about 4 million persons in all. In addition, a new benefit was introduced to help such people in all branches of social security, taking the form of an adaptation benefit equivalent to 80% of the previous gross salary and to be granted over the period between the time when the person in question is forced to stop work and the time when he resumes work. A law on home\-based workers, passed by the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag "Bundestag") in June 1974, sought to modernise the working conditions of approximately 300 000 people who work at home by means of the following measures:{{cite web \\|title\=Report on the development of the social situation in the Community in 1973 \\|website\=Archive of European Integration \\|date\=1974 \\|url\=http://aei.pitt.edu/9801/}} * Employers were obliged to inform their home\-based workers concerning the method of calculation and the composition of their pay. * In order to increase safety at work the employer was obliged to explain accident risks and dangers to health. * Home\-based workers were now given the opportunity of making contributions towards asset formation. * Protection from dismissal was extended. The periods of notice, which are graduated according to the length of time the worker has been employed, were considerably increased. In addition, the guarantee of payment during the period of notice was consolidated. * The agreed wage for the same or equivalent work in industry would be used more than previously as the standard for wage increases for home\-based workers. * The Law also applied to office work at home, which was becoming increasingly important and substantial. Children's allowances for students up to the age of twenty\-seven were introduced, together with a flexible retirement age, new married couples' and families' legislation, an extension of co\-determination, rehabilitation and special employment rights for the severely handicapped, adjustments and increases in the pensions of war victims, a revision of child benefit, a new youth employment protection law, health insurance for farmers, pension schemes for the self\-employed, and guaranteed works' pensions. Although the principle of the social welfare state was enshrined in the constitution of West Germany, and laws and measures taken (often jointly by the CDU/CSU coalition partners and the SPD) to meet this commitment, it was only when the SPD came to power in Bonn that the provisions of the social welfare system "reached a level which few other countries could equal." In 1975, three tax levels were introduced that removed many lower\-income persons from the tax rolls and raised child benefit payments. Various improvements were also made to health care provision and coverage during the social\-liberal coalition's time in office. In 1974, domestic aid during in\-patient or in\-patient cures was established, sick pay to compensate for wages lost while caring for a child was introduced, and the time\-limit to in\-patient care was removed. That same year, the cover of rehabilitation services was increased, together with the cover of dental and orthodontic services.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Bärnighausen \\|first1\=Till \\|last2\=Sauerborn \\|first2\=Rainer \\|title\=One hundred and eighteen years of the German health insurance system: are there any lessons for middle\- and low\-income countries? \\|journal\=\[\[Social Science \& Medicine]] \\|date\=May 2002 \\|volume\=54 \\|issue\=10 \\|pages\=1559–1587 \\|doi\=10\.1016/S0277\-9536(01\)00137\-X \\|pmid\=12061488}} Health insurance coverage was extended to self\-employed agricultural workers in 1972, and to students and the disabled in 1975\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl\_health\_care\_develop.htm\\|publisher\=germanculture.com.ua\\|title\=Development of the Health Care System in Germany\\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} in 1971, an International Transactions Tax Law was passed.{{cite book \\|last1\=Campbell \\|first1\=Dennis \\|title\=International Handbook on Comparative Business Law \\|date\=2013 \\|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \\|isbn\=978\-94\-017\-4399\-0 \\|page\=79 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fMSfBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT79 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In 1974, a number of amendments were made to the Federal Social Assistance Act. "Help for [the vulnerable](/wiki/Social_vulnerability "Social vulnerability")" was renamed "help for overcoming particular social difficulties," and the number of people eligible for assistance was greatly extended to include all those "whose own capabilities cannot meet the increasing demands of modern industrial society." The intention of these amendments was to include especially such groups as discharged prisoners, drug and narcotic addicts, alcoholics, and the homeless.Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective by Lutz Leisering and Stephan Leibfried Under the SPD, people who formerly had to be supported by their relatives became entitled to social assistance.{{cite book \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0KnP2KKdzyAC\&q\=malaise\+first\+welfare\+state\+brandt\+1972\+and\+1974\&pg\=PA182 \\|title\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\|access\-date\=2012\-11\-14 \\|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-19558\-4 \\|year\=2007 \\|last1\=Sinn \\|first1\=Hans\-Werner \\|publisher\=MIT Press \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In addition, the recreational and residential value of towns (building schools, training institutions, baths, sports facilities, Kindegarten etc.) was increased from 1970 with the help of a new programme.{{cite web \\|url\=https://archive.org/details/WahlprogrammDerSpdMitWillyBrandtFrFriedenSicherheitUndEine \\|title\=Wahlprogramm der SPD : mit Willy Brandt fur Frieden, Sicherheit und eine bessere Qualitat des Lebens: Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands \\|language\=de \\|trans\-title\=Election program of the SPD: with Willy Brandt for peace, security and a better quality of life: Social Democratic Party of Germany \\|via\=\[\[Internet Archive]] \\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} A number of liberal social reforms in areas like censorship,{{cite book \\|last1\=Pavelec \\|first1\=S. Mike \\|title\=The Military\-Industrial Complex and American Society \\|date\=2010 \\|publisher\=\[\[ABC\-CLIO]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-59884\-188\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} homosexuality, divorce, education, and worker participation in company management were introduced,{{cite book \\|last1\=Biesinger \\|first1\=Joseph A. \\|title\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present \\|date\=2006 \\|publisher\=Infobase Publishing \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8160\-7471\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} whilst social security benefits were significantly increased. Increases were made in unemployment benefits,{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} while substantial improvements in benefits were made for farmers, students, war invalids, the sick, families with many children, women, and pensioners between 1970 and 1975, which led to a doubling of benefit and social security payments during that period.{{cite book \\|last1\=Weber \\|first1\=Jürgen \\|title\=Germany, 1945\-1990: A Parallel History \\|date\=2004 \\|publisher\=\[\[Central European University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-963\-9241\-70\-1}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} By 1979, old age and survivors' benefits were 53% higher in real terms than in 1970, while family benefits were 95% higher. The Second Sickness Insurance Modification Law linked the indexation of the income\-limit for compulsory employee coverage to the development of the pension insurance contribution ceiling (75% of the ceiling), obliged employers to pay half of the contributions in the case of voluntary membership, extended the criteria for voluntary membership of employees, and introduced preventive medical check\-ups for certain groups. The Law on Sickness Insurance for Farmers (1972\) included the self\-employed, their dependants and people who receive old age assistance in sickness insurance. The Law on the Social Insurance of Disabled Persons (1975\) included in sickness and pension insurance disabled persons employed in workshops and institutions under certain conditions, while a law was passed in June that year to include all students in statutory sickness insurance. Social protection against the risks of an occupational accident, death, disability, and old age was newly regulated in 1974 through a Civil Servant Provisioning Law that was standard throughout the country.{{cite book \\|last1\=Zacher \\|first1\=Hans F. \\|title\=Social Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany: The Constitution of the Social \\|date\=2012 \\|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-22525\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Educational reforms were introduced which led to the setting up of new colleges and universities, much greater access for young people to the universities, increased provision for pre\-school education, and a limited number of comprehensive schools.{{cite book \\|last1\=Edwards \\|first1\=G. E. \\|title\=German Political Parties: A Documentary Guide \\|date\=1998 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of Wales Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7083\-1417\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} An educational law of 1971 providing postgraduate support provided highly qualified graduates with the opportunity "to earn their doctorates or undertake research studies."{{cite book \\|last1\=Winkler \\|first1\=Heinrich August \\|title\=Germany: The Long Road West: Volume 2: 1933\-1990 \\|date\=2007 \\|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]] \\|location\=Oxford \\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-150061\-9 \\|page\=182 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=r4al47QG2uYC\&pg\=PT182 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} A more active regional and industrial policy was pursued, tighter rules against dismissal were introduced,{{cite journal \\|last1\=Ostner \\|first1\=Ilona \\|title\=Farewell to the Family as We Know it: Family Policy Change in Germany \\|journal\=German Policy Studies \\|date\=2010 \\|volume\=6 \\|issue\=1 \\|pages\=211–244 \\|url\=https://spaef.org/article/1191/Farewell\-to\-the\-Family\-as\-We\-Know\-it\-Family\-Policy\-Change\-in\-Germany}} day care was introduced for children between the ages of three and six,{{cite journal \\|last1\=Köppen \\|first1\=Katja \\|title\=Second births in western Germany and France \\|journal\=Demographic Research \\|date\=28 April 2006 \\|volume\=14 \\|pages\=295–330 \\|doi\=10\.4054/DemRes.2006\.14\.14 \\|doi\-access\=free}} spending on dental services, drugs, and appliances was increased,{{cite book \\|last1\=Gill \\|first1\=Sonya \\|last2\=Kavadi \\|first2\=Shirish N. \\|title\=Health Financing and Costs: A Comparative Study of Trends in Eighteen Countries with Special Reference to India \\|date\=1999 \\|publisher\=Foundation for Research in Community Health \\|isbn\=978\-81\-87078\-23\-4}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} environmental protection legislation was passed,{{cite book \\|last1\=Joppke \\|first1\=Christian \\|title\=Mobilizing Against Nuclear Energy: A Comparison of Germany and the United States \\|date\=1993 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of California Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-520\-91252\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} expenditure on education at all levels was increased,{{cite book \\|last1\=Childs \\|first1\=David \\|title\=Germany Since 1918 \\|date\=1971 \\|publisher\=Harper \& Row \\|isbn\=978\-0\-06\-010759\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} a tax reform bill was passed, lowering the tax burden for low\-income and middle\-income groups,{{cite book \\|last1\=Drath \\|first1\=Viola Herms \\|title\=Willy Brandt: Prisoner of His Past \\|date\=2005 \\|publisher\=Hamilton Books \\|isbn\=978\-1\-4616\-2711\-1}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} the average age of entry into the workforce was increased, working time was reduced, social assistance and unemployment compensation were made more generous, early\-retirement options were introduced, and municipalities received more generous federal grants to expand social infrastructure such as conference halls, sports facilities and public swimming pools. Various measures were introduced to improve environmental conditions and to safeguard the environment,{{cite report \\|last1\=Weidner \\|first1\=Helmut \\|title\=25 years of modern environmental policy in Germany: Treading a well\-worn path to the top of the international field \\|website\=EconStor \\|date\=1995 \\|hdl\=10419/48980 \\|hdl\-access\=free}} the Federal Emission Control Law established the basis for taking of legal action against those responsible for [excessive noise](/wiki/Noise_pollution "Noise pollution") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Germany "Air pollution in Germany"), the Works' Constitution Act and Personnel Representation Act strengthened the position of individual employees in offices and factories, and the Works' Safety Law required firms to employ safety specialists and doctors.{{cite book \\|last1\=Hanrieder \\|first1\=Wolfram F. \\|title\=Helmut Schmidt: Perspectives On Politics \\|date\=2019 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-429\-72453\-4}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} An amendment to the Labour Management Act (1971\) granted workers co\-determination on the shop floorMy Life in Politics by Willy Brandt while the new Factory Management Law (1972\) extended co\-determination at the factory level. This Act acknowledged for the first time the presence of trade unions in the workplace, expanded the means of action of the works councils, and improved their work basics as well as those of the [youth councils](/wiki/Youth_council "Youth council").{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\_zur\_politischen \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103061114/http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\_zur\_politischen \\|archive\-date\=3 January 2015 \\|title\=IZPB \\| bpb \\|language\=de \\|publisher\=Bpb.de \\|access\-date\=2012\-11\-14}} A law was passed in 1974 allowing for worker representation on the boards of large firms, although this change was not enacted until 1976, after alterations were made. In 1974, redundancy allowances in cases of bankruptcies were introduced.{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} The Federal Law on Personnel Representation, which came into force in April 1974, gave increased co\-management rights to those employed in factories and offices in the public sector. The staff councils were given an increased say in social and personal matters, together with a wider operational basis for their activities in connection with day release and training opportunities. The arrangements governing cooperation between the staff councils and the trade union were also improved. Young workers were given increased rights of representation, while foreign workers received voting rights and thus achieved equality in this respect with German employees. A new federal scale of charges for hospital treatment and a law on hospital financing were introduced to improve hospital treatment, the Hire Purchase Act entitled purchasers to withdraw from their contracts within a certain time limit, compensation for victims of violent acts became guaranteed by law, the Federal Criminal Investigation Office became a modern crime\-fighting organisation, and the Federal Education Promotion Act was extended to include large groups of pupils attending vocational schools. In 1973, the minimum statutory retirement age was reduced from 65 to 63, while "flexible" retirement was provided for those between the ages of 63 and 67\.{{cite journal \\|first1\=Max \\|last1\=Horlick \\|title\=New Private Pension Law in the Federal Republic of Germany \\|journal\=\[\[Social Security Bulletin]] \\|volume\=38 \\|issue\=7 \\|pages\=38–39, 56 \\|url\=https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v38n7/v38n7p38\.pdf}} In 1974, a federal law was passed that obliged television stations to spend certain amounts of money each year to sponsor productions by independent film companies.Germany and the Germans by [John Ardagh](/wiki/John_Ardagh "John Ardagh") A law to improve the system of sickness benefits provided that those insured would receive compensation when obliged to stay at home to care for a sick child and thereby incurring a loss of income. An insured person could request unpaid leave of absence on such occasions. The same law established the right to a home help, to be paid for by the health service, where the parents are in hospital or undergoing treatment, provided that the household included a child under 8 or a handicapped child required special care.{{cite book \\|last1\=Shaffer \\|first1\=Harry G. \\|title\=Women in the Two Germanies: A Comparative Study of A Socialist and a Non\-Socialist Society \\|date\=2013 \\|publisher\=\[\[Elsevier]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-4831\-5336\-0 \\|page\=17 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0eFsBQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA17 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} The SPD\-FDP coalition's time in office also saw a considerable expansion in the number of childcare places for three\- to six\-year\-old children, with the number of facilities rising from 17,493 in 1970 to 23,938 in 1980, and the number of places from 1,160,700 to 1,392,500 during that same period.{{cite book \\|last1\=Allemann\-Ghionda \\|first1\=Cristina \\|last2\=Hagemann \\|first2\=Karen \\|last3\=Jarausch \\|first3\=Konrad H. \\|title\=Children, Families, and States: Time Policies of Childcare, Preschool, and Primary Education in Europe \\|date\=2011 \\|publisher\=\[\[Berghahn Books]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-85745\-097\-5 \\|page\=280 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PUxFAAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA280 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} Subsidies for day care rose between 1970 and 1980, but fell between 1980 and 1983\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Baker \\|first1\=Maureen \\|title\=Canadian Family Policies: Cross\-national Comparisons \\|date\=1995 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of Toronto Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8020\-7786\-8 \\|page\=215 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eWF56\_J\-6aEC\&pg\=PA215 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In the field of housing, Brandt stated that the aims of the SPD\-FDP government were improving housing benefit, developing a long\-term programme of social housing construction, and to increase owner\-occupation. As noted by Mark Kleinman, this led to a boom in housing construction, with output peaking at 714,000 in 1973 before falling to under 400,000 in 1976\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Kleinman \\|first1\=Mark \\|title\=Housing, Welfare, and the State in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Britain, France, and Germany \\|date\=1996 \\|publisher\=E. Elgar \\|isbn\=978\-1\-85898\-451\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} A Federal Education Grants Act was also introduced, which opened up better chances of higher education for low\-income children. In addition, labor\-protection and anti\-trust laws were significantly strengthened, while from 1969 to 1975 alone some 140 laws were passed that entitled various socially disadvantaged groups to tax subsidies.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/rae5\_2\_4\.pdf \\|title\=De\-Socialization in a United Germany \\|date\=18 August 2014 \\|publisher\=\[\[Mises Institute]]}} During the mid\-Seventies recession, eligibility for short\-term unemployment benefits was extended from 6 to 12 months, and to 24 months in some cases.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Levitan \\|first1\=Sar A. \\|last2\=Belous \\|first2\=Richard S. \\|title\=Work\-sharing initiatives at home and abroad \\|journal\=\[\[Monthly Labor Review]] \\|date\=1977 \\|volume\=100 \\|issue\=9 \\|pages\=16–20 \\|jstor\=41840582}} Active Labour Market Policies were substantially expanded, with the number of people benefiting from such schemes increasing from 1,600 in 1970 to 648,000 by 1975\.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Bonoli \\|first1\=Giuliano \\|title\=The Political Economy of Active Labor\-Market Policy \\|journal\=\[\[Politics \& Society]] \\|date\=December 2010 \\|volume\=38 \\|issue\=4 \\|pages\=435–457 \\|doi\=10\.1177/0032329210381235 \\|s2cid\=153689545 \\|url\=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/document/19812/1/ssoar\-2010\-bonoli\-the\_political\_economy\_of\_active.pdf}} In addition, the SPD\-FDP government gave more priority to raising minimum housing standards.{{cite book \\|last1\=George \\|first1\=Victor \\|last2\=Lawson \\|first2\=Roger \\|title\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\|date\=1980\-01\-01 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \& Kegan Paul \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7100\-0517\-5 \\|page\=223 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=R5g9AAAAIAAJ\&pg\=PA223 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} The Law on Nursing Homes and Homes for the Elderly (1974\) sought to guarantee minimum standards in an important area of social services, while the Beratungshilfegesetz (Legal Advice Act) of 1980{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.gesetze\-im\-internet.de/bundesrecht/berathig/gesamt.pdf\\|title\=BerHG \- nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis}} strengthened the position of the indigent in need of out of court legal advice and representation.{{cite web\\|url\=http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/schrank.shtml\#fn91sym\\|publisher\=ouclf.iuscomp.org\\|title\=OUCLF: articles: Tobias Schrank (2011\)\\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} The Maternity Leave Act of 1979 permitted mothers in work to take leave of 6 months after the birth of a child, granted a maternity allowance, and safeguarded jobs for 8 months.{{cite book \\|editor1\-last\=Kolinsky \\|editor1\-first\=Eva \\|title\=The Federal Republic of Germany: The End of an Era \\|date\=1991 \\|publisher\=\[\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-85496\-287\-7}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Wage rates also rose significantly under the coalition, as characterised by a 60% real increase in the hourly wages of manufacturing sector employees between 1970 and 1980\. In addition, educational opportunities were significantly widened as a result of policies such as the introduction of free [higher education](/wiki/Higher_education_in_Germany "Higher education in Germany"), the raising of the [school\-leaving age](/wiki/School-leaving_age "School-leaving age") to 16, increased expenditure on education at all levels, and the introduction of a generous student stipend system. Although the coalition failed to restructure the education system along comprehensive lines, the cumulative impact of its educational reforms was such that according to Helmut Becker (an authoritative commentator on German education), there was greater achievement at all levels and the chances of a twenty\-year\-old working\-class child born in 1958 going to college or university was approximately six times greater than a similar child born ten years earlier. In summarising the domestic reforms introduced by the SPD\-FDP coalition, historian [Reiner Pommerin](/wiki/Reiner_Pommerin "Reiner Pommerin") noted that "There were few difficulties with the wave of domestic reforms, which the SPD\-led coalitions initiated. In fact, the SPD's domestic reform program was often compared with contemporary American developments, like such as [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement") and the [Great Society](/wiki/Great_Society "Great Society")".{{cite book \\|last1\=Reiner \\|first1\=Pommerin \\|title\=The American Impact on Postwar Germany \\|date\=1995 \\|publisher\=\[\[Berghahn Books]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-57181\-004\-5}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} As noted further by [Henrich Potthoff](/wiki/Henrich_Potthoff "Henrich Potthoff") and [Susanne Miller](/wiki/Susanne_Miller "Susanne Miller"), in their evaluation of the record of the SPD\-FDP coalition, "Ostpolitik and detente, the extension of the welfare safety net, and a greater degree of social liberality were the fruits of Social Democratic government during this period which served as a pointer to the future and increased the respect in which the federal republic was held, both in Europe and throughout the world." ### Opposition (1982–1998\) In 1982, the SPD, after governing the Federal Republic of Germany almost 16 years, lost power to the new CDU/CSU\-FDP coalition under CDU Chancellor [Helmut Kohl](/wiki/Helmut_Kohl "Helmut Kohl") who subsequently won four terms as chancellor.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Conradt \\|first1\=David P. \\|title\=The End of an Era in West Germany \\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45317459 \\|journal\=Current History \\|pages\=405–438 \\|date\=1982\\|volume\=81 \\|issue\=479 \\|doi\=10\.1525/curh.1982\.81\.479\.405 \\|jstor\=45317459 }} The Social Democrats were unanimous about the armament and environmental questions of that time, and the new party [The Greens](/wiki/Alliance_%2790/The_Greens "Alliance '90/The Greens") was not ready for a coalition government then. ### Gerhard Schröder and the consequences (1998–2005\) Kohl lost his last re\-election bid in 1998 to his SPD challenger [Gerhard Schröder](/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der "Gerhard Schröder"), as the SPD formed a [red\-green coalition](/wiki/Red-green_alliance "Red-green alliance") with The Greens to take control of the German federal government for the first time in 16 years.{{cite web \\|title\=New Government in Germany \\|url\=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/RP98\-94/RP98\-94\.pdf \\|website\=Researchbriefings.parliament.uk}} Running on a platform emphasizing the need to reduce unemployment, the SPD emerged as the strongest party in the [September 1998 elections](/wiki/1998_German_federal_election "1998 German federal election") with 40\.9% of the votes cast. Crucial for this success was the SPD's strong base in big cities and {{lang\\|de\\|Bundesländer}} with traditional industries. Forming a [coalition government](/wiki/Coalition_government "Coalition government") with the [Green Party](/wiki/Alliance_%2790/The_Greens "Alliance '90/The Greens"), the SPD thus returned to power for the first time since 1982\. In so doing, it formed the first left\-wing government in the Federal Republic. [thumb\\|left\\|Chancellor Gerhard Schröder on a election campaign event in [Esslingen](/wiki/Esslingen_am_Neckar "Esslingen am Neckar") on 24 August 2005](/wiki/File:Gerhardschroeder.jpg "Gerhardschroeder.jpg") [Oskar Lafontaine](/wiki/Oskar_Lafontaine "Oskar Lafontaine"), elected SPD chairman in November 1996 had in the run\-up to the election forgone a bid for the SPD nomination for the chancellor candidacy, after Gerhard Schröder won a sweeping re\-election victory as prime minister of his state of [Lower Saxony](/wiki/Lower_Saxony "Lower Saxony") and was widely believed to be the best chance for Social Democrats to regain the Chancellorship after 16 years in opposition. From the beginning of this teaming up between Party chair Lafontaine and chancellor candidate Schröder during the election campaign 1998, rumors in the media about their internal rivalry persisted, albeit always being disputed by the two. After the election victory Lafontaine joined the government as finance minister. The rivalry between the two party leaders escalated in March 1999 leading to the overnight resignation of Lafontaine from all his party and government positions. After staying initially mum about the reasons for his resignation, Lafontaine later cited strong disagreement with the alleged [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism "Neoliberalism") and anti\-social course Schröder had taken the government on. Schröder himself has never commented on the row with Lafontaine. It is known however, that they haven't spoken to each other ever since. Schröder succeeded Lafontaine as party chairman. [thumb\\|Gerhard Schröder before the federal elections in 2002](/wiki/File:Schroeder2002.jpg "Schroeder2002.jpg") A number of progressive measures were introduced by the Schröder Administration during its first term in office. The parental leave scheme was improved, with full\-time working parents legally entitled to reduce their working hours from 2001 onwards, while the child allowance was considerably increased, from €112 per month in 1998 to €154 in 2002\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Martin \\|first1\=Powell \\|title\=Modernising the Welfare State: The Blair Legacy \\|date\=2008 \\|publisher\=Policy Press \\|isbn\=978\-1\-84742\-039\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Housing allowances were also increased, while a number of decisions by the Kohl Government concerning social policy and the labour market were overturned, as characterised by the reversal of retrenchments in health policy and pension policy.{{cite book \\|last1\=Merkel \\|first1\=Wolfgang \\|last2\=Petring \\|first2\=Alexander \\|last3\=Henkes \\|first3\=Christian \\|last4\=Egle \\|first4\=Christoph \\|title\=Social Democracy in Power: The Capacity to Reform \\|date\=2008 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-07179\-1}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Changes introduced by the Kohl government on pensions, the continued payment of wages in the case of sickness, and wrongful dismissal were all rescinded. In 1999, for instance, the wage replacement rate for sick pay (which was reduced from 100% to 80% of earnings under the previous Kohl Government) was restored to 100%.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://econ.tau.ac.il/papers/labor/Puhani\_Sonderhof\_TA.pdf \\|title\=Switch\-On and Switch\-Off Effects of Sick Pay Reform on Absence from Work and on Health\-Related Outcomes \\|website\=Tel Aviv University \\|first1\=Patrick A. \\|last1\=Puhani \\|first2\=Katja \\|last2\=Sonderhof \\|access\-date\=2011\-03\-12 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133754/http://econ.tau.ac.il/papers/labor/Puhani\_Sonderhof\_TA.pdf \\|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-21 }} A programme on combating [youth unemployment](/wiki/Youth_unemployment "Youth unemployment") was introduced, together new measures designed to out a stop to those designating themselves as "self\-employed" for tax purposes, and new regulations on 630\-DM jobs, which were subject for the first time to national insurance contributions. Tax reforms brought relief to people on low\-incomes and benefited families, while a second pillar was added to the pension system which relied on self\-provision for retirement. In the [September 2002 elections](/wiki/2002_German_federal_election "2002 German federal election"), the SPD reached 38\.5% of the national vote, barely ahead of the [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Germany)")/[CSU](/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_of_Bavaria "Christian Social Union of Bavaria"), and was again able to form a government with the help of The Greens. The European elections of 2004 were a disaster for the SPD, marking its worst result in a nationwide election after World War II with only 21\.5% of the vote. Earlier the same year, leadership of the SPD had changed from chancellor Gerhard Schröder to [Franz Müntefering](/wiki/Franz_M%C3%BCntefering "Franz Müntefering"), in what was widely regarded as an attempt to deal with internal party opposition to the economic reform programs set in motion by the federal government.{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} While the SPD was founded in the 19th century to defend the interests of the [working class](/wiki/Working_class "Working class"), its commitment to these goals has been disputed by some since 1918, when its leaders supported the suppression of more radical socialist and communist factions during the [Spartacist Uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_Uprising "Spartacist Uprising"). But never before has the party moved so far away from its traditional [socialist](/wiki/Democratic_socialism "Democratic socialism") stance as it did under the Schröder government. Its ever\-increasing tendency towards liberal economic policies and cutbacks in government spending on social welfare programs led to a dramatic decline in voter support. The Schroeder Administration presided over a significant rise in poverty and inequality, with the percentage of Germans living in poverty, according to one measure, rising from 12% in 2000 to 16\.5% in 2006\.{{cite report \\|last1\=Biewen \\|first1\=Martin \\|last2\=Juhasz \\|first2\=Andos \\|title\=Understanding rising income inequality in Germany \\|website\=EconStor \\|date\=2010 \\|hdl\=10419/44186 \\|hdl\-access\=free \\|ssrn\=1648347}} Welfare cuts, which affected mainly the SPD's clientele, led to disillusionment amongst supporters and precipitated a fall in party membership. For many years, membership in the SPD had been declining. Down from a high of over 1 million in 1976, there were about 775,000 members at the time of the 1998 election victory, and by February 2008, the figure had dropped to 537,995\. By early 2009, membership figures had fallen behind the ones of the CDU for the first time ever.{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} [thumb\\|right\\|"For nuclear phase\-out, against new nuclear plants." Election placard of the Social Democratic Party of Germany for the German federal election, 2005\.](/wiki/Image:SPDposter200508.jpg "SPDposter200508.jpg") In January 2005, some SPD members left the party to found the [Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative](/wiki/Labour_and_Social_Justice_%E2%80%93_The_Electoral_Alternative "Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative") (WASG) in opposition to what they consider to be neoliberal leanings displayed by the SPD. Former SPD chairman Oskar Lafontaine also joined this new party. (Later, to contest the early federal election called by Schröder after the SPD lost heavily in a state election in their traditional stronghold of North Rhine\-Westphalia, the western\-based WASG and the eastern\-based post\-communist [Party of Democratic Socialism](/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_%28Germany%29 "Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)") would merge to form [The Left](/wiki/The_Left_%28Germany%29 "The Left (Germany)") ({{lang\\|de\\|Die Linke}}) party. These developments put pressure on the SPD to do something about its social image. In April 2005, party chairman [Franz Müntefering](/wiki/Franz_M%C3%BCntefering "Franz Müntefering") publicly criticized excessive profiteering in Germany's [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy "Market economy") and proposed stronger involvement of the federal state in order to promote economic justice. This triggered a debate that dominated the national news for several weeks. Müntefering's suggestions have been met with both popular support harsh criticism. Political opponents claimed that Müntefering's choice of words, especially his reference to [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity "Private equity") funds as locusts, were bordering on Nazi language.{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} In the [2005 German federal election](/wiki/2005_German_federal_election "2005 German federal election"), the SPD ended up trailing its rivals by less than 1%, a much closer margin than had been expected. Although the party had presented a program that included some more traditional left themes, such as an additional 3% tax on the highest tax bracket, this did not prevent the Left Party from making a strong showing, largely at the SPD's expense. Nevertheless, the overall result was sufficient to deny the opposition camp a majority.{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} ### Merkel\-led grand coalitions and the decline of the SPD (2005–2021\) From 2005 to 2009 and again since 2013 until 2021, the SPD was the junior partner in a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition "Grand coalition") with the [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Germany)")/[CSU](/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria "Christian Social Union in Bavaria") under the leadership of Chancellor [Angela Merkel](/wiki/Angela_Merkel "Angela Merkel"), with [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz "Olaf Scholz") as [Vice\-Chancellor](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany "Vice-Chancellor of Germany") from 2018 to 2021\. After the 2005 federal [election](/wiki/2005_German_federal_election "2005 German federal election"), Müntefering resigned as party chairman and was succeeded as chairman by [Matthias Platzeck](/wiki/Matthias_Platzeck "Matthias Platzeck"), [minister\-president](/wiki/Minister-president "Minister-president") of [Brandenburg](/wiki/Brandenburg "Brandenburg"). Müntefering's decision came after the party's steering committee chose [Andrea Nahles](/wiki/Andrea_Nahles "Andrea Nahles"), a woman from the left\-wing of the party, as secretary general over Müntefering's choice, his long\-time aide Kajo Wasserhövel. After Müntefering said her election indicated that he had lost the confidence of the party and he would therefore resign, Nahles turned down the post of secretary general to prevent the party splitting, and [Hubertus Heil](/wiki/Hubertus_Heil "Hubertus Heil") was elected in her place. On 10 April 2006, Matthias Platzeck announced his resignation of the Chair because he suffered a major [hearing loss](/wiki/Hearing_loss "Hearing loss") in March 2006\. The interim chairman from 10 April to 14 May was [Kurt Beck](/wiki/Kurt_Beck "Kurt Beck"). He won the full leadership on a small party convention on 14 May. He resigned on 7 September 2008; on 8 September 2008 the party's executive committee nominated Müntefering to be elected as chairman at an extraordinary party conference on 18 October 2008\. In the meantime, [Frank\-Walter Steinmeier](/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier "Frank-Walter Steinmeier") serves as provisional chairman. During the Schröder administration, Schröder and Lafontaine disliked each other, because Lafontaine quit as Finance Minister in 1999\. After his resignation there was a huge distrust of Lafontaine in the SPD which lasts to today. Due to the rise of Merkel and Guido Westerwelle on the national stage of politics in 2005 and a belief in the German public of the failed social policies of the SPD on labour issues ([Hartz IV](/wiki/Hartz_IV "Hartz IV")), the SPD lost heavily in opinion polls and lost a couple of statewide elections. There was the urgency to form new coalitions with the Left, a party with a similar political agenda, than the weakened Green Party or the other conservative parties in Germany; however, the leader of the Left was the lost child of the SPD, Oskar Lafontaine, who had fallen out with the SPD. There is a common oath in the SPD not to form coalitions with the Left, because of Lafontaine.{{Citation needed\\|date\=June 2011}} [thumb\\|Candidate for chancellorship in 2009: Frank\-Walter Steinmeier, minister of the exterior from 2005 to 2009 and again from 2013 to 2017](/wiki/File:Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_08.jpg "Frank-Walter Steinmeier 08.jpg") SPD state leader [Andrea Ypsilanti](/wiki/Andrea_Ypsilanti "Andrea Ypsilanti") choose to form a minority coalition with the Left in [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse "Hesse") after a lost state election in January 2008; this decision was heavily criticized by national leaders of the SPD, as Buck, the leader at that time was for the coalition in Hesse and supported Ypsilanti. Beck, who was a popular minister\-president, has lost a lot reputation on a national level because of the support. At an emergency session of leaders of the SPD, Beck resigned the chairmanship of the SPD, because after 8 months there was no coalition and Beck was criticized for supporting Ypsilanti. In November 2008, the Landtag in Hesse was dissolved and new elections were held in [January 2009](/wiki/2009_Hessian_state_election "2009 Hessian state election"). Several other state leaders of SPD have started flirting with The Left and there is a huge struggle in the SPD on how to treat the Left in order to gain Bundesrat seats to be once again a true national party. In November 2008, the SPD was at 25% in national opinion polls, one of the lowest values in recent memory, and there remained rift between two internal factions of the party. One side of the party, the right\-wing [Seeheimer Kreis](/wiki/Seeheimer_Kreis "Seeheimer Kreis"), refuses to do coalitions with the Left Party. Members of the right\-wing include Frank\-Walter Steinmeier and Gerhard Schröder. The other side of the party, the political left of the SPD, whose members include Andrea Ypsilanti and Andrea Nahles, embraces coalitions with the Left. A reason for such struggle with the Left is that the SPD is in a national coalition with the conservative coalition and is in a dual struggle, at first the struggle for not endangering the national coalition with Merkel and endangering a national political crisis that maybe result in further losses for the SPD, and secondly the struggle for not forgetting the roots where the SPD came from because the SPD is left\-leaning party, whose political positions have been eaten by the Left party. Social Democrats lost Germany's federal [elections](/wiki/2009_German_federal_election "2009 German federal election") in 2009, meaning the SPD ended up into the opposition for the first time in 11 years.{{cite news \\|title\=Disaster at the polls – DW – 09/29/2009 \\|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/heads\-start\-rolling\-in\-germanys\-spd\-after\-brutal\-loss\-at\-the\-polls/a\-4740846 \\|work\=dw.com \\|language\=en}} After the 2013 German federal [elections](/wiki/2013_German_federal_election "2013 German federal election"), Chancellor Angela Merkel's CDU party formed a new coalition government with the SPD.{{cite news \\|last1\=Oltermann \\|first1\=Philip \\|title\=Angela Merkel agrees to form German coalition with Social Democrats \\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/27/angela\-merkel\-german\-coalition\-social\-democrats \\|work\=The Guardian \\|date\=27 November 2013}} After the 2017 federal [elections](/wiki/2017_German_federal_election "2017 German federal election"), coalition talks completed in February 2018 and the party held a [vote](/wiki/SPD_party_member_vote_on_the_2018_coalition_agreement_of_Germany "SPD party member vote on the 2018 coalition agreement of Germany") to let its members decide about the new coalition treaty with the CDU and CSU parties.[Factbox: What happens if Germany's SPD votes against coalition with Merkel?](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-politics-spd-vote-factbox/factbox-what-happens-if-germanys-spd-votes-against-coalition-with-merkel-idUSKCN1GE26C), Reuters.com Of all 378\.437 members that took part in the vote, 66,02 % (239\.604\) of members voted for the new coalition treaty while 33,98 % (123\.329\) of members voted against it, resulting in another grand coalition with the [CDU/CSU](/wiki/CDU/CSU "CDU/CSU").{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.spd.berlin/aktuell/news/maerz\-2018/ergebnis\-mitgliedervotum\-2018/ \\|title\=Ergebnis Mitgliedervotum 2018 \\|last\=rpaeche \\|website\=SPD Berlin \\|language\=de\-DE \\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-04}}{{Cite news \\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/04/germany\-social\-democrats\-spd\-vote\-in\-favour\-of\-coalition\-angela\-merkel \\|title\=Merkel secures fourth term in power after SPD backs coalition deal \\|last\=Oltermann \\|first\=Philip \\|date\=2018\-03\-04 \\|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-04 \\|language\=en\-GB \\|issn\=0261\-3077}} Following the decision to confirm the Grand Coalition, the SPD further declined in polls, suffering heavy defeats in all local elections. In mid\-2019, the party was scoring 12% in polls, being surpassed by [The Union](/wiki/CDU/CSU "CDU/CSU"), [Alliance 90/The Greens](/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens "Alliance 90/The Greens") and even far\-right [Alternative for Germany](/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany "Alternative for Germany"). During the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), the SPD returned to polling between 14% and 18%, closing the gaps with the Greens for the second place (in some cases, beating them for the second place) and overcoming the far\-right. Earlier in December 2019, progressive candidates [Norbert Walter\-Borjans](/wiki/Norbert_Walter-Borjans "Norbert Walter-Borjans") and [Saskia Esken](/wiki/Saskia_Esken "Saskia Esken") defeated more moderate candidates and were elected co\-leaders by the party's membership. Their election raised prospects of the coalition government collapsing and early elections being called, although [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters") reported that the duo would seek to achieve agreement from the CDU/CSU on increasing public spending rather than collapse the government.{{cite news \\|last\=Hansen \\|first\=Holger \\|date\=20 January 2020 \\|url\=https://reuters.com/article/us\-germany\-politics\-spd/new\-spd\-leaders\-pull\-back\-from\-sinking\-german\-coalition\-idUSKBN1Y722P \\|title\=New SPD leaders pull back from sinking German coalition \\|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \\|location\=Berlin \\|access\-date\=2 May 2020}} ### Comeback with Olaf Scholz (2021\-) By August 2021, just one month ahead of the [2021 German federal election](/wiki/2021_German_federal_election "2021 German federal election"), the SPD surged to first place in polls.{{cite news \\|url\=https://www.economist.com/europe/the\-social\-democrats\-surge\-upends\-germanys\-election\-campaign/21803922 \\|title\=The Social Democrats' surge upends Germany's election campaign \\|newspaper\=\[\[The Economist]] \\|date\=2 August 2021 \\|access\-date\=5 September 2021 \\|issn\=0013\-0613}}{{cite news \\|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/german\-election\-spd\-sees\-poll\-surge\-ahead\-of\-tv\-debate/a\-59017732 \\|title\=German election: SPD sees poll surge ahead of TV debate \\|agency\=\[\[Deustche Welle]] \\|date\=29 August 2021 \\|access\-date\=5 September 2021}}{{cite news \\|last\=Cliffe \\|first\=Jeremy \\|date\=1 September 2021 \\|url\=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/2021/09/spd\-s\-surge\-reveals\-essence\-german\-election\-search\-merkel\-20\\|title\=The SPD's surge reveals the essence of the German election: the search for Merkel 2\.0 \\|work\=\[\[New Statesman]] \\|access\-date\=5 September 2021}} They won a plurality of seats at the [2021 German federal election](/wiki/2021_German_federal_election "2021 German federal election").{{Cite web \\|title\=German election: Social Democrats narrowly beat Angela Merkel's party as Germany faces prolonged coalition talks \\|url\=https://news.sky.com/story/german\-election\-social\-democrats\-beat\-angela\-merkels\-party\-as\-germany\-faces\-prolonged\-coalition\-talks\-12419407 \\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-30 \\|website\=\[\[Sky News]] \\|language\=en}} Social Democrat [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz "Olaf Scholz") became the new chancellor in December 2021\. Chancellor Scholz formed a coalition government with the Green Party and the Free Democrats (FDP).{{cite news \\|last1\=Welle\\|first1\=Deutsche \\|title\=Olaf Scholz: Germany's new chancellor is level\-headed and pragmatic \\|date\=8 December 2021 \\|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/olaf\-scholz\-germanys\-new\-chancellor\-is\-level\-headed\-and\-pragmatic/a\-59936379 \\|work\=\[\[Deutsche Welle]]}}	[ "German Republic\n---------------", "### From occupation to the Federal Republic (1946–1966\\)", "[thumb\\\|World War I volunteer and concentration camp inmate [Kurt Schumacher](/wiki/Kurt_Schumacher \"Kurt Schumacher\"), SPD chairman after the war](/wiki/File:Kurt_Schumacher.jpg \"Kurt Schumacher.jpg\")\nThe SPD was recreated after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in 1946 and admitted in all four [occupation zones](/wiki/Allied_Occupation_Zones_in_Germany \"Allied Occupation Zones in Germany\"). In [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\"), it was initially in opposition from the first election of the newly founded Federal Republic in 1949 until 1966\\. The party had a leftist period and opposed the republic's integration into Western structures, believing that this might diminish the chances for [German reunification](/wiki/German_reunification \"German reunification\").", "The SPD was somewhat hampered for much of the early history of the Federal Republic, in part because the bulk of its former heartland was now in the Soviet occupation sector, which later became [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\"). In the latter area, the SPD was forced to merge with the [Communist Party of Germany](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany \"Communist Party of Germany\") to form the [Socialist Unity Party of Germany](/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany \"Socialist Unity Party of Germany\") (SED) in 1946\\. The few recalcitrant SPD members were quickly pushed out, leaving the SED as essentially a renamed and enlarged KPD. In the British Occupation Zone, the SPD held a referendum on the issue of merging with the KPD, with 80% of party members rejecting such a fusion. This referendum was ignored by the newly formed SED.{{Cite book \\\|title\\=A History of Germany: 1815\\-1990 \\\|last\\=Carr \\\|first\\=William \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hodder \\& Stoughton]] \\\|year\\=1991 \\\|edition\\=4th \\\|location\\=United Kingdom \\\|pages\\=369–370}}", "Nonetheless, a few former SPD members held high posts in the [East German government](/wiki/Politics_of_East_Germany \"Politics of East Germany\"). [Otto Grotewohl](/wiki/Otto_Grotewohl \"Otto Grotewohl\") served as East Germany's first prime minister from 1949 to 1964\\. For much of that time he retained some vestiges of his SPD roots. For instance, he publicly advocated a less repressive approach to governing, especially during the crackdown on the [East German uprising of 1953](/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953 \"East German uprising of 1953\"). [Friedrich Ebert, Jr.](/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert%2C_Jr. \"Friedrich Ebert, Jr.\"), son of former president Ebert, served as mayor of [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin \"East Berlin\") from 1949 to 1967; he'd reportedly been blackmailed into supporting the merger by using his father's role in the schism of 1918 against him.", "During the [fall of Communist rule](/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany \"Monday demonstrations in East Germany\") in 1989, the SPD (first called SDP) was re\\-established as a separate party in East Germany ([Social Democratic Party in the GDR](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_in_the_GDR \"Social Democratic Party in the GDR\")), independent of the rump SED, and then merged with its West German counterpart upon reunification.", "Despite remaining out of office for much of the postwar period, the SPD were able to gain control of a number of local governments and implement progressive social reforms. As noted by [Manfred Schmidt](/wiki/Manfred_G._Schmidt \"Manfred G. Schmidt\"), SPD\\-controlled Lander governments were more active in the social sphere and transferred more funds to public employment and education than CDU/CSU\\-controlled Lander.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Braunthal \\\|first1\\=Gerard \\\|title\\=The German Social Democrats Since 1969: A Party In Power And Opposition \\\|date\\=1994 \\\|publisher\\=Avalon Publishing \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8133\\-1535\\-5}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} During the mid\\-sixties, mainly SPD\\-governed Lander such as Hesse and the three city\\-states launched the first experiments with comprehensive schools as a means of as expanding educational opportunities.The German education system since 1945 by Ivan Christoph Führ SPD local governments were also active in encouraging the post\\-war housing boom in West Germany, with some of the best results in housing construction during this period achieved by SPD\\-controlled Lander authorities such as West Berlin, Hamburg, and Bremen. In the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag \"Bundestag\"), the SPD opposition were partly responsible for the establishment of the postwar [welfare state](/wiki/Welfare_state \"Welfare state\") under the [Adenauer](/wiki/Adenauer \"Adenauer\") Administration, having put parliamentary pressure on the CDU to carry out more progressive social policies during its time in office.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Childs \\\|first1\\=David \\\|title\\=The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy and Soviet Communism Since 1945 \\\|date\\=2000 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Psychology Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-22195\\-5}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "In the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag \"Bundestag\"), The SPD aspired to be a \"constructive opposition,\" which expressed itself not only in the role it played in framing the significant amount of new legislation introduced in the first parliamentary terms of the Bundestag, but also in the fact that by far the biggest proportion of all laws were passed with the votes of SPD members. The SPD played a notable part in legislation on reforms to the national pensions scheme, the integration of refugees, and the building of public\\-sector housing. The SPD also had a high\\-profile \"in judicial policy with the Public Prosecutor Adolf Arndt, in the parliamentary decision on the Federal Constitutional Court, and reparations for the victims of National Socialism.\" In 1951, the law on the right of \"co\\-determination\" for employees in the steel, iron, and mining industries was passed with the combined votes of the SPD and CDU, and against those of the FDP.", "### Governing party (1966–1982\\)", "[thumbnail\\\|right\\\|Logo of the Social Democratic Party during the 1960s and 1970s](/wiki/File:Sozialdemokratische_Partei_Deutschlands%2C_Logo_1969-1982.png \"Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, Logo 1969-1982.png\")\nIn 1966 the coalition of the [Christian Democratic Union](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Germany)\") (CDU) and the liberal [Free Democratic Party](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Free Democratic Party (Germany)\") (FDP) fell and a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition \"Grand coalition\") between CDU/CSU and SPD was formed under the leadership of CDU Chancellor [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger \"Kurt Georg Kiesinger\"), with SPD leader [Willy Brandt](/wiki/Willy_Brandt \"Willy Brandt\") as [Vice\\-Chancellor](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany \"Vice-Chancellor of Germany\"). The welfare state was considerably expanded,{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\\_35\\.pdf \\\|title\\=Labor Parties and Labor Movements in a Post\\-Fordist Political Economy: The British, French, and German Cases \\\|first1\\=Anthony \\\|last1\\=Daley \\\|first2\\=Chris \\\|last2\\=Howell \\\|first3\\=Stephen J. \\\|last3\\=Silvia \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harvard University]] \\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2014 \\\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2014 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322135253/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\\_35\\.pdf }} while social spending was almost doubled between 1969 and 1975\\.{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.country\\-data.com/cgi\\-bin/query/r\\-4975\\.html \\\|publisher\\=country\\-data.com \\\|title\\=Germany \\- Social Democratic Party of Germany \\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} Changes were made to income maintenance schemes which met some of the SPD's long\\-standing demands,Growth to Limits: Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy by Peter Flora and many other social reforms were introduced, including the equalising of wages and salaries between white\\-collar and blue\\-collar employees, the continuation of wage and salary payments, a law to promote employment, and a vocational training law. Although these measures were largely due to the efforts of the CDU minister [Hans Katzer](/wiki/Hans_Katzer \"Hans Katzer\"), it is arguable that he would never have been able to push his programme through the cabinet (let alone envisage it) without the SPD.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Dönhoff \\\|first1\\=Marion \\\|title\\=Foe Into Friend: The Makers of the New Germany from Konrad Adenauer to Helmut Schmidt \\\|date\\=1982 \\\|publisher\\=Weidenfeld and Nicolson \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-297\\-78058\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "The 1969 Employment Promotion Act, which was based largely on a proposal prepared by the SPD in 1966, established active labour market intervention measures such as employment research,The German economy by E. Owen Smith and offered \"substantial state assistance to employees with educational aspirations.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Jobert \\\|first1\\=Annette \\\|last2\\=Marry \\\|first2\\=Catherine \\\|last3\\=Rainbird \\\|first3\\=Helen \\\|last4\\=Tanguy \\\|first4\\=Lucie \\\|title\\=Education and Work in Great Britain, Germany and Italy \\\|date\\=2013 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-68733\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Under the direction of the SPD [Minister of Economics](/wiki/Minister_of_Economics \"Minister of Economics\") [Karl Schiller](/wiki/Karl_Schiller \"Karl Schiller\"), the federal government adopted [Keynesian](/wiki/Keynesian_economics \"Keynesian economics\") [demand management](/wiki/Demand_management \"Demand management\") for the first time ever. Schiller called for legislation that would provide both his ministry and the federal government with greater authority to guide economic policy.{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://countrystudies.us/germany/137\\.htm\\\|publisher\\=countrystudies.us \\\|title\\=Germany \\- The Economic Miracle and Beyond \\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} In 1967, Schiller introduced the Law for Promoting Stability and Growth,Germany in Our Time: A Political History of the Postwar Years by [Alfred Grosser](/wiki/Alfred_Grosser \"Alfred Grosser\") which was subsequently passed by the Bundestag. Regarded as the Magna Carta of medium\\-term economic management, the legislation provided for coordination of federal, Lander, and local budget plans in order to give fiscal policy a stronger impact. It also set a number of optimistic targets for four basic standards by which West German economic success would henceforth be measured, which included trade balance, employment levels, economic growth, and currency stability.", "One of the rare German Keynesians of that era, Schiller believed that government had both \"the obligation and the capacity to shape economic trends and to smooth out and even eliminate the business cycle,\" and his adopted policy of Keynesian demand management helped West Germany to overcome the economic recession of 1966/67\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Cooper \\\|first1\\=Alice Holmes \\\|title\\=Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements Since 1945 \\\|date\\=1996 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Michigan Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-472\\-10624\\-0}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Unemployment was quickly reduced (standing at just under 1% by Autumn 1968\\), while industrial output rose by almost 12% in 1968\\. The successful economic and financial policies pursued by the Grand Coalition under the direction of Schiller was also helped by the persuasion of entrepreneurs and trade unions to accept a programme of \"concerted action.\" According to Lisanne Radice and Giles Radice, \"concerted action\" was not a formal [incomes policy](/wiki/Incomes_policy \"Incomes policy\"), but it did nevertheless ensure that collective bargaining took place \"within a broadly agreed view of the direction of the economy and the relationships between full employment, output and inflation.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Radice \\\|first1\\=Giles \\\|last2\\=Radice \\\|first2\\=Lisanne \\\|title\\=Socialists in the Recession: The Search for Solidarity \\\|date\\=1986 \\\|publisher\\=Macmillan \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-333\\-38846\\-4}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} In addition, Schiller's economic policies were not only successful in restoring West Germany's economic growth, but they also demonstrated the SPD's economic competence, and this undoubtedly played a major role in the victory of the SPD in the [federal election of 1969](/wiki/1969_West_German_federal_election \"1969 West German federal election\").", "[thumb\\\|Party convention of 1982: SPD chairman Willy Brandt and chancellor Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F062768-0008%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_SPD-Parteitag%2C_Schmidt%2C_Brandt.jpg \"Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F062768-0008, München, SPD-Parteitag, Schmidt, Brandt.jpg\")\nIn 1969 the SPD won a majority for the first time since 1928 by forming a [social\\-liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition \"Social-liberal coalition\") with the FDP and led the federal government under Chancellors Willy Brandt and [Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/Helmut_Schmidt \"Helmut Schmidt\") from 1969 until 1982\\. In its 1959 [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program \"Godesberg Program\"), the SPD officially abandoned the concept of a workers' party and Marxist principles, while continuing to stress [social welfare provision](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision \"Social welfare provision\"). Although the SPD originally opposed West Germany's 1955 rearmament and entry into [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") while it favoured neutrality and reunification with East Germany, it now strongly supports German ties with the alliance.", "A wide range of reforms were carried out under the [Social\\-Liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition \"Social-liberal coalition\"), including, as summarised by one historical study", "'improved health and accident insurance, better [unemployment compensation](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits \"Unemployment benefits\"), [rent control](/wiki/Rent_regulation \"Rent regulation\"), payments to families with children, subsidies to encourage savings and investments, and measures to \"humanize the world of work\" such as better medical care for on\\-the\\-job illnesses or injuries and mandated improvements in the work environment.'A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress", "Under the SDP\\-FDP coalition, social policies in West Germany took on a more egalitarian character and a number of important reforms were carried out to improve the prospects of previously neglected and underprivileged groups.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Walker \\\|first1\\=Robert \\\|last2\\=Lawson \\\|first2\\=Roger \\\|last3\\=Townsend \\\|first3\\=Peter \\\|title\\=Responses to Poverty: Lessons from Europe \\\|date\\=1984 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8386\\-3222\\-2}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Greater emphasis was placed on policies favouring single parents, larger families, and the lower paid, and further improvements were made in social benefits for pensioners and disabled persons. Rates of [social assistance](/wiki/Social_assistance \"Social assistance\") (excluding rent) as a percentage of average gross earnings of men in manufacturing industries rose during the Social\\-Liberal coalition's time in office,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=George \\\|first1\\=Victor \\\|last2\\=Lawson \\\|first2\\=Roger \\\|title\\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\\|date\\=1980 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\& Kegan Paul \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7100\\-0424\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} while social welfare provision was greatly extended, with pensions and health care opened up to large sections of the population.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Lewis \\\|first1\\=Derek R. \\\|last2\\=Schwitalla \\\|first2\\=Johannes \\\|last3\\=Zitzlsperger \\\|first3\\=Ulrike \\\|title\\=Contemporary Germany: A Handbook \\\|date\\=2001 \\\|publisher\\=Arnold \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-340\\-74040\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} This in turn substantially increased the size and cost of the social budget, as social program costs grew by over 10% a year during much of the 1970s. Government spending as a percentage of GDP rose significantly under the SPD\\-FDP coalition, from 39% in 1969 to around 50% by 1982\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Sinn \\\|first1\\=Hans\\-Werner \\\|title\\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\\|date\\=2007 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MIT Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-19558\\-4}} Between 1970 and 1981, social spending as a proportion of GNP rose by 21\\.4%, and in terms of percentage of GNP went up from 25,7% in 1970 to 31\\.2% in 1981\\. Much was accomplished in the way of social reform during the SDP\\-FDP coalition's first five years on office, with one study noting that \"\"the years 1969 to 1974 represent a phase of social policy in which the state introduced new minimum benefits and extended existing ones.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Leisering \\\|first1\\=Lutz \\\|last2\\=Leibfried \\\|first2\\=Stephan \\\|title\\=Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective \\\|date\\=2001 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-00352\\-0 \\\|page\\=185 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KScADiSdelIC\\&pg\\=PA185 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "In April 1970, the government drew up an Action Programme for the Promotion of the Rehabilitation of Handicapped Persons.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Schewe \\\|first1\\=Dieter \\\|last2\\=Nordhorn \\\|first2\\=Karlhugo \\\|last3\\=Schenke \\\|first3\\=Klaus \\\|title\\=Survey of social security in the Federal Republic of Germany \\\|date\\=1972 \\\|publisher\\=Federal Minister for Labour and Social Affairs \\\|oclc\\=643574180}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} During that same year, bills were tabled to extend and increase housing allowances (passed in 1970\\), to extend and standardise the promotion of vocational training (passed in 1971\\), to automatically index pensions for war victims (passed in 1970\\), to increase family allowances (passed in 1970\\), and to reform \"shop rules\" (which came into force in 1972\\). In 1974, a bankruptcy allowance was introduced for employed persons when their employers became insolvent. Developments in [accident insurance](/wiki/Accident_insurance \"Accident insurance\") led to the inclusion of schoolchildren, students and children at kindergarten and thus to more widespread measures for [accident prevention](/wiki/Accident_Prevention \"Accident Prevention\"). In addition, farm and household assistance was introduced as a new service in agricultural accident insurance. A major pension reform law extended the accessibility of pension insurance by providing generous possibilities for backpayments of contributions, while adjustment of currently paid out pensions was brought forward by 6 months. The Rehabilitation and Assimilation Law of 1974 improved and standardised [benefits for the disabled](/wiki/Disability_benefits \"Disability benefits\"), while a law was passed that same year on the establishment of an additional relief fund for persons employed in agriculture and forestry. The Law on the Improvement of Works' Old Age Schemes of 1974 brought conditional non\\-forfeiture of qualifying periods for works pensions as well as the prohibition of cuts in works pensions due to increases in social insurance pensions. In addition, a number of reforms in areas such as civil and consumer rights{{cite news \\\|title\\=Dreizehn Jahre geliehene Macht \\\|trans\\-title\\=Thirteen years of borrowed power \\\|language\\=de \\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/dreizehn\\-jahre\\-geliehene\\-macht\\-a\\-4dd36291\\-0002\\-0001\\-0000\\-000014348240 \\\|work\\=\\[\\[Der Spiegel]] \\\|date\\=10 March 1982}} the environment, [education](/wiki/Education \"Education\"), and [urban renewal](/wiki/Urban_renewal \"Urban renewal\"){{cite book \\\|last1\\=Flüchter \\\|first1\\=Winfried \\\|title\\=Japan and Central Europe Restructuring: Geographical Aspects of Socio\\-economic, Urban, and Regional Development \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|publisher\\=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag \\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-447\\-03531\\-6 \\\|page\\=150 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=C8J1pypuORUC\\&pg\\=PA150 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}{{cite book \\\|editor1\\-last\\=Burgers \\\|editor1\\-first\\=Jack \\\|editor2\\-last\\=Vranken \\\|editor2\\-first\\=Jan \\\|title\\=How to Make Successful Urban Development Programme: Experience from Nine European Countries \\\|date\\=2004 \\\|publisher\\=Garant \\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-441\\-1393\\-8 \\\|page\\=100 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TdAM2GS0t3kC\\&pg\\=PA100 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} were carried out. in 1972, a pension reform act was passed which, according to one historical study, ensured that workers \"would not suffer financial hardship and could maintain an adequate standard of living after retirement.\"A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress. In 1973, sickness benefits became available in cases where a parent had to care for a sick child.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Companje \\\|first1\\=Karel\\-Peter \\\|last2\\=Veraghtert \\\|first2\\=Karel \\\|last3\\=Widdershoven \\\|first3\\=Brigitte \\\|title\\=Two Centuries of Solidarity: German, Belgian, and Dutch Social Health Care Insurance 1770\\-2008 \\\|date\\=2009 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Amsterdam University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-5260\\-344\\-5 \\\|page\\=210 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=64U\\_dlAI6g0C\\&pg\\=PA210 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} In March 1974, Social Assistance (SA) was expanded, \"concerning family supplements, means test, and certain additional payments.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Picot \\\|first1\\=Georg \\\|title\\=Politics of Segmentation: Party Competition and Social Protection in Europe \\\|date\\=2013\\-06\\-17 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-136\\-47682\\-2 \\\|page\\=58 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=e8gYDKWOM\\_wC\\&pg\\=PA58 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "Under a law of April 1974, the protection hitherto granted to the victims of war or industrial accidents for the purpose of their occupational and social reintegration was extended to all handicapped persons, whatever the cause of their handicap, provided that their capacity to work has been reduced by at least 50%. Another law, passed in August that same year, supplemented this protection by providing that henceforth the benefits for the purposes of medical and occupational rehabilitation would be the same for all the categories of persons concerned: war victims, the sick, the victims of industrial accidents, congenitally handicapped persons, representing a total of about 4 million persons in all. In addition, a new benefit was introduced to help such people in all branches of social security, taking the form of an adaptation benefit equivalent to 80% of the previous gross salary and to be granted over the period between the time when the person in question is forced to stop work and the time when he resumes work. A law on home\\-based workers, passed by the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag \"Bundestag\") in June 1974, sought to modernise the working conditions of approximately 300 000 people who work at home by means of the following measures:{{cite web \\\|title\\=Report on the development of the social situation in the Community in 1973 \\\|website\\=Archive of European Integration \\\|date\\=1974 \\\|url\\=http://aei.pitt.edu/9801/}}\n* Employers were obliged to inform their home\\-based workers concerning the method of calculation and the composition of their pay.\n* In order to increase safety at work the employer was obliged to explain accident risks and dangers to health.\n* Home\\-based workers were now given the opportunity of making contributions towards asset formation.\n* Protection from dismissal was extended. The periods of notice, which are graduated according to the length of time the worker has been employed, were considerably increased. In addition, the guarantee of payment during the period of notice was consolidated.\n* The agreed wage for the same or equivalent work in industry would be used more than previously as the standard for wage increases for home\\-based workers.\n* The Law also applied to office work at home, which was becoming increasingly important and substantial.", "Children's allowances for students up to the age of twenty\\-seven were introduced, together with a flexible retirement age, new married couples' and families' legislation, an extension of co\\-determination, rehabilitation and special employment rights for the severely handicapped, adjustments and increases in the pensions of war victims, a revision of child benefit, a new youth employment protection law, health insurance for farmers, pension schemes for the self\\-employed, and guaranteed works' pensions. Although the principle of the social welfare state was enshrined in the constitution of West Germany, and laws and measures taken (often jointly by the CDU/CSU coalition partners and the SPD) to meet this commitment, it was only when the SPD came to power in Bonn that the provisions of the social welfare system \"reached a level which few other countries could equal.\" In 1975, three tax levels were introduced that removed many lower\\-income persons from the tax rolls and raised child benefit payments.", "Various improvements were also made to health care provision and coverage during the social\\-liberal coalition's time in office. In 1974, domestic aid during in\\-patient or in\\-patient cures was established, sick pay to compensate for wages lost while caring for a child was introduced, and the time\\-limit to in\\-patient care was removed. That same year, the cover of rehabilitation services was increased, together with the cover of dental and orthodontic services.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Bärnighausen \\\|first1\\=Till \\\|last2\\=Sauerborn \\\|first2\\=Rainer \\\|title\\=One hundred and eighteen years of the German health insurance system: are there any lessons for middle\\- and low\\-income countries? \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Social Science \\& Medicine]] \\\|date\\=May 2002 \\\|volume\\=54 \\\|issue\\=10 \\\|pages\\=1559–1587 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0277\\-9536(01\\)00137\\-X \\\|pmid\\=12061488}} Health insurance coverage was extended to self\\-employed agricultural workers in 1972, and to students and the disabled in 1975\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl\\_health\\_care\\_develop.htm\\\|publisher\\=germanculture.com.ua\\\|title\\=Development of the Health Care System in Germany\\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} in 1971, an International Transactions Tax Law was passed.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Campbell \\\|first1\\=Dennis \\\|title\\=International Handbook on Comparative Business Law \\\|date\\=2013 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-94\\-017\\-4399\\-0 \\\|page\\=79 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fMSfBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT79 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "In 1974, a number of amendments were made to the Federal Social Assistance Act. \"Help for [the vulnerable](/wiki/Social_vulnerability \"Social vulnerability\")\" was renamed \"help for overcoming particular social difficulties,\" and the number of people eligible for assistance was greatly extended to include all those \"whose own capabilities cannot meet the increasing demands of modern industrial society.\" The intention of these amendments was to include especially such groups as discharged prisoners, drug and narcotic addicts, alcoholics, and the homeless.Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective by Lutz Leisering and Stephan Leibfried Under the SPD, people who formerly had to be supported by their relatives became entitled to social assistance.{{cite book \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0KnP2KKdzyAC\\&q\\=malaise\\+first\\+welfare\\+state\\+brandt\\+1972\\+and\\+1974\\&pg\\=PA182 \\\|title\\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-14 \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-19558\\-4 \\\|year\\=2007 \\\|last1\\=Sinn \\\|first1\\=Hans\\-Werner \\\|publisher\\=MIT Press \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} In addition, the recreational and residential value of towns (building schools, training institutions, baths, sports facilities, Kindegarten etc.) was increased from 1970 with the help of a new programme.{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/WahlprogrammDerSpdMitWillyBrandtFrFriedenSicherheitUndEine \\\|title\\=Wahlprogramm der SPD : mit Willy Brandt fur Frieden, Sicherheit und eine bessere Qualitat des Lebens: Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands \\\|language\\=de \\\|trans\\-title\\=Election program of the SPD: with Willy Brandt for peace, security and a better quality of life: Social Democratic Party of Germany \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Internet Archive]] \\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}}", "A number of liberal social reforms in areas like censorship,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Pavelec \\\|first1\\=S. Mike \\\|title\\=The Military\\-Industrial Complex and American Society \\\|date\\=2010 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ABC\\-CLIO]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59884\\-188\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} homosexuality, divorce, education, and worker participation in company management were introduced,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Biesinger \\\|first1\\=Joseph A. \\\|title\\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present \\\|date\\=2006 \\\|publisher\\=Infobase Publishing \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8160\\-7471\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} whilst social security benefits were significantly increased. Increases were made in unemployment benefits,{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} while substantial improvements in benefits were made for farmers, students, war invalids, the sick, families with many children, women, and pensioners between 1970 and 1975, which led to a doubling of benefit and social security payments during that period.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Weber \\\|first1\\=Jürgen \\\|title\\=Germany, 1945\\-1990: A Parallel History \\\|date\\=2004 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central European University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-963\\-9241\\-70\\-1}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} By 1979, old age and survivors' benefits were 53% higher in real terms than in 1970, while family benefits were 95% higher.\nThe Second Sickness Insurance Modification Law linked the indexation of the income\\-limit for compulsory employee coverage to the development of the pension insurance contribution ceiling (75% of the ceiling), obliged employers to pay half of the contributions in the case of voluntary membership, extended the criteria for voluntary membership of employees, and introduced preventive medical check\\-ups for certain groups. The Law on Sickness Insurance for Farmers (1972\\) included the self\\-employed, their dependants and people who receive old age assistance in sickness insurance. The Law on the Social Insurance of Disabled Persons (1975\\) included in sickness and pension insurance disabled persons employed in workshops and institutions under certain conditions, while a law was passed in June that year to include all students in statutory sickness insurance. Social protection against the risks of an occupational accident, death, disability, and old age was newly regulated in 1974 through a Civil Servant Provisioning Law that was standard throughout the country.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Zacher \\\|first1\\=Hans F. \\\|title\\=Social Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany: The Constitution of the Social \\\|date\\=2012 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-22525\\-3}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "Educational reforms were introduced which led to the setting up of new colleges and universities, much greater access for young people to the universities, increased provision for pre\\-school education, and a limited number of comprehensive schools.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Edwards \\\|first1\\=G. E. \\\|title\\=German Political Parties: A Documentary Guide \\\|date\\=1998 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Wales Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7083\\-1417\\-3}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} An educational law of 1971 providing postgraduate support provided highly qualified graduates with the opportunity \"to earn their doctorates or undertake research studies.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Winkler \\\|first1\\=Heinrich August \\\|title\\=Germany: The Long Road West: Volume 2: 1933\\-1990 \\\|date\\=2007 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\\|location\\=Oxford \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-150061\\-9 \\\|page\\=182 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=r4al47QG2uYC\\&pg\\=PT182 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "A more active regional and industrial policy was pursued, tighter rules against dismissal were introduced,{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Ostner \\\|first1\\=Ilona \\\|title\\=Farewell to the Family as We Know it: Family Policy Change in Germany \\\|journal\\=German Policy Studies \\\|date\\=2010 \\\|volume\\=6 \\\|issue\\=1 \\\|pages\\=211–244 \\\|url\\=https://spaef.org/article/1191/Farewell\\-to\\-the\\-Family\\-as\\-We\\-Know\\-it\\-Family\\-Policy\\-Change\\-in\\-Germany}} day care was introduced for children between the ages of three and six,{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Köppen \\\|first1\\=Katja \\\|title\\=Second births in western Germany and France \\\|journal\\=Demographic Research \\\|date\\=28 April 2006 \\\|volume\\=14 \\\|pages\\=295–330 \\\|doi\\=10\\.4054/DemRes.2006\\.14\\.14 \\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} spending on dental services, drugs, and appliances was increased,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Gill \\\|first1\\=Sonya \\\|last2\\=Kavadi \\\|first2\\=Shirish N. \\\|title\\=Health Financing and Costs: A Comparative Study of Trends in Eighteen Countries with Special Reference to India \\\|date\\=1999 \\\|publisher\\=Foundation for Research in Community Health \\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-87078\\-23\\-4}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} environmental protection legislation was passed,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Joppke \\\|first1\\=Christian \\\|title\\=Mobilizing Against Nuclear Energy: A Comparison of Germany and the United States \\\|date\\=1993 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of California Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-520\\-91252\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} expenditure on education at all levels was increased,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Childs \\\|first1\\=David \\\|title\\=Germany Since 1918 \\\|date\\=1971 \\\|publisher\\=Harper \\& Row \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-06\\-010759\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} a tax reform bill was passed, lowering the tax burden for low\\-income and middle\\-income groups,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Drath \\\|first1\\=Viola Herms \\\|title\\=Willy Brandt: Prisoner of His Past \\\|date\\=2005 \\\|publisher\\=Hamilton Books \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4616\\-2711\\-1}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} the average age of entry into the workforce was increased, working time was reduced, social assistance and unemployment compensation were made more generous, early\\-retirement options were introduced, and municipalities received more generous federal grants to expand social infrastructure such as conference halls, sports facilities and public swimming pools.", "Various measures were introduced to improve environmental conditions and to safeguard the environment,{{cite report \\\|last1\\=Weidner \\\|first1\\=Helmut \\\|title\\=25 years of modern environmental policy in Germany: Treading a well\\-worn path to the top of the international field \\\|website\\=EconStor \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|hdl\\=10419/48980 \\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} the Federal Emission Control Law established the basis for taking of legal action against those responsible for [excessive noise](/wiki/Noise_pollution \"Noise pollution\") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Germany \"Air pollution in Germany\"), the Works' Constitution Act and Personnel Representation Act strengthened the position of individual employees in offices and factories, and the Works' Safety Law required firms to employ safety specialists and doctors.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Hanrieder \\\|first1\\=Wolfram F. \\\|title\\=Helmut Schmidt: Perspectives On Politics \\\|date\\=2019 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-429\\-72453\\-4}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} An amendment to the Labour Management Act (1971\\) granted workers co\\-determination on the shop floorMy Life in Politics by Willy Brandt while the new Factory Management Law (1972\\) extended co\\-determination at the factory level. This Act acknowledged for the first time the presence of trade unions in the workplace, expanded the means of action of the works councils, and improved their work basics as well as those of the [youth councils](/wiki/Youth_council \"Youth council\").{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\\_zur\\_politischen \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103061114/http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\\_zur\\_politischen \\\|archive\\-date\\=3 January 2015 \\\|title\\=IZPB \\\| bpb \\\|language\\=de \\\|publisher\\=Bpb.de \\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-14}} A law was passed in 1974 allowing for worker representation on the boards of large firms, although this change was not enacted until 1976, after alterations were made. In 1974, redundancy allowances in cases of bankruptcies were introduced.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} The Federal Law on Personnel Representation, which came into force in April 1974, gave increased co\\-management rights to those employed in factories and offices in the public sector. The staff councils were given an increased say in social and personal matters, together with a wider operational basis for their activities in connection with day release and training opportunities. The arrangements governing cooperation between the staff councils and the trade union were also improved. Young workers were given increased rights of representation, while foreign workers received voting rights and thus achieved equality in this respect with German employees.", "A new federal scale of charges for hospital treatment and a law on hospital financing were introduced to improve hospital treatment, the Hire Purchase Act entitled purchasers to withdraw from their contracts within a certain time limit, compensation for victims of violent acts became guaranteed by law, the Federal Criminal Investigation Office became a modern crime\\-fighting organisation, and the Federal Education Promotion Act was extended to include large groups of pupils attending vocational schools. In 1973, the minimum statutory retirement age was reduced from 65 to 63, while \"flexible\" retirement was provided for those between the ages of 63 and 67\\.{{cite journal \\\|first1\\=Max \\\|last1\\=Horlick \\\|title\\=New Private Pension Law in the Federal Republic of Germany \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Social Security Bulletin]] \\\|volume\\=38 \\\|issue\\=7 \\\|pages\\=38–39, 56 \\\|url\\=https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v38n7/v38n7p38\\.pdf}} In 1974, a federal law was passed that obliged television stations to spend certain amounts of money each year to sponsor productions by independent film companies.Germany and the Germans by [John Ardagh](/wiki/John_Ardagh \"John Ardagh\")", "A law to improve the system of sickness benefits provided that those insured would receive compensation when obliged to stay at home to care for a sick child and thereby incurring a loss of income. An insured person could request unpaid leave of absence on such occasions. The same law established the right to a home help, to be paid for by the health service, where the parents are in hospital or undergoing treatment, provided that the household included a child under 8 or a handicapped child required special care.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Shaffer \\\|first1\\=Harry G. \\\|title\\=Women in the Two Germanies: A Comparative Study of A Socialist and a Non\\-Socialist Society \\\|date\\=2013 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Elsevier]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4831\\-5336\\-0 \\\|page\\=17 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0eFsBQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA17 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} The SPD\\-FDP coalition's time in office also saw a considerable expansion in the number of childcare places for three\\- to six\\-year\\-old children, with the number of facilities rising from 17,493 in 1970 to 23,938 in 1980, and the number of places from 1,160,700 to 1,392,500 during that same period.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Allemann\\-Ghionda \\\|first1\\=Cristina \\\|last2\\=Hagemann \\\|first2\\=Karen \\\|last3\\=Jarausch \\\|first3\\=Konrad H. \\\|title\\=Children, Families, and States: Time Policies of Childcare, Preschool, and Primary Education in Europe \\\|date\\=2011 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Berghahn Books]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85745\\-097\\-5 \\\|page\\=280 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PUxFAAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA280 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} Subsidies for day care rose between 1970 and 1980, but fell between 1980 and 1983\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Baker \\\|first1\\=Maureen \\\|title\\=Canadian Family Policies: Cross\\-national Comparisons \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Toronto Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8020\\-7786\\-8 \\\|page\\=215 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eWF56\\_J\\-6aEC\\&pg\\=PA215 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "In the field of housing, Brandt stated that the aims of the SPD\\-FDP government were improving housing benefit, developing a long\\-term programme of social housing construction, and to increase owner\\-occupation. As noted by Mark Kleinman, this led to a boom in housing construction, with output peaking at 714,000 in 1973 before falling to under 400,000 in 1976\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Kleinman \\\|first1\\=Mark \\\|title\\=Housing, Welfare, and the State in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Britain, France, and Germany \\\|date\\=1996 \\\|publisher\\=E. Elgar \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85898\\-451\\-3}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "A Federal Education Grants Act was also introduced, which opened up better chances of higher education for low\\-income children. In addition, labor\\-protection and anti\\-trust laws were significantly strengthened, while from 1969 to 1975 alone some 140 laws were passed that entitled various socially disadvantaged groups to tax subsidies.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/rae5\\_2\\_4\\.pdf \\\|title\\=De\\-Socialization in a United Germany \\\|date\\=18 August 2014 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Mises Institute]]}} During the mid\\-Seventies recession, eligibility for short\\-term unemployment benefits was extended from 6 to 12 months, and to 24 months in some cases.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Levitan \\\|first1\\=Sar A. \\\|last2\\=Belous \\\|first2\\=Richard S. \\\|title\\=Work\\-sharing initiatives at home and abroad \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Monthly Labor Review]] \\\|date\\=1977 \\\|volume\\=100 \\\|issue\\=9 \\\|pages\\=16–20 \\\|jstor\\=41840582}} Active Labour Market Policies were substantially expanded, with the number of people benefiting from such schemes increasing from 1,600 in 1970 to 648,000 by 1975\\.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Bonoli \\\|first1\\=Giuliano \\\|title\\=The Political Economy of Active Labor\\-Market Policy \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Politics \\& Society]] \\\|date\\=December 2010 \\\|volume\\=38 \\\|issue\\=4 \\\|pages\\=435–457 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0032329210381235 \\\|s2cid\\=153689545 \\\|url\\=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/document/19812/1/ssoar\\-2010\\-bonoli\\-the\\_political\\_economy\\_of\\_active.pdf}} In addition, the SPD\\-FDP government gave more priority to raising minimum housing standards.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=George \\\|first1\\=Victor \\\|last2\\=Lawson \\\|first2\\=Roger \\\|title\\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\\|date\\=1980\\-01\\-01 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\& Kegan Paul \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7100\\-0517\\-5 \\\|page\\=223 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=R5g9AAAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=PA223 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} The Law on Nursing Homes and Homes for the Elderly (1974\\) sought to guarantee minimum standards in an important area of social services, while the Beratungshilfegesetz (Legal Advice Act) of 1980{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.gesetze\\-im\\-internet.de/bundesrecht/berathig/gesamt.pdf\\\|title\\=BerHG \\- nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis}} strengthened the position of the indigent in need of out of court legal advice and representation.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/schrank.shtml\\#fn91sym\\\|publisher\\=ouclf.iuscomp.org\\\|title\\=OUCLF: articles: Tobias Schrank (2011\\)\\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} The Maternity Leave Act of 1979 permitted mothers in work to take leave of 6 months after the birth of a child, granted a maternity allowance, and safeguarded jobs for 8 months.{{cite book \\\|editor1\\-last\\=Kolinsky \\\|editor1\\-first\\=Eva \\\|title\\=The Federal Republic of Germany: The End of an Era \\\|date\\=1991 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85496\\-287\\-7}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "Wage rates also rose significantly under the coalition, as characterised by a 60% real increase in the hourly wages of manufacturing sector employees between 1970 and 1980\\. In addition, educational opportunities were significantly widened as a result of policies such as the introduction of free [higher education](/wiki/Higher_education_in_Germany \"Higher education in Germany\"), the raising of the [school\\-leaving age](/wiki/School-leaving_age \"School-leaving age\") to 16, increased expenditure on education at all levels, and the introduction of a generous student stipend system. Although the coalition failed to restructure the education system along comprehensive lines, the cumulative impact of its educational reforms was such that according to Helmut Becker (an authoritative commentator on German education), there was greater achievement at all levels and the chances of a twenty\\-year\\-old working\\-class child born in 1958 going to college or university was approximately six times greater than a similar child born ten years earlier.", "In summarising the domestic reforms introduced by the SPD\\-FDP coalition, historian [Reiner Pommerin](/wiki/Reiner_Pommerin \"Reiner Pommerin\") noted that", "\"There were few difficulties with the wave of domestic reforms, which the SPD\\-led coalitions initiated. In fact, the SPD's domestic reform program was often compared with contemporary American developments, like such as [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\") and the [Great Society](/wiki/Great_Society \"Great Society\")\".{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Reiner \\\|first1\\=Pommerin \\\|title\\=The American Impact on Postwar Germany \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Berghahn Books]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57181\\-004\\-5}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "As noted further by [Henrich Potthoff](/wiki/Henrich_Potthoff \"Henrich Potthoff\") and [Susanne Miller](/wiki/Susanne_Miller \"Susanne Miller\"), in their evaluation of the record of the SPD\\-FDP coalition,", "\"Ostpolitik and detente, the extension of the welfare safety net, and a greater degree of social liberality were the fruits of Social Democratic government during this period which served as a pointer to the future and increased the respect in which the federal republic was held, both in Europe and throughout the world.\"", "### Opposition (1982–1998\\)", "In 1982, the SPD, after governing the Federal Republic of Germany almost 16 years, lost power to the new CDU/CSU\\-FDP coalition under CDU Chancellor [Helmut Kohl](/wiki/Helmut_Kohl \"Helmut Kohl\") who subsequently won four terms as chancellor.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Conradt \\\|first1\\=David P. \\\|title\\=The End of an Era in West Germany \\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45317459 \\\|journal\\=Current History \\\|pages\\=405–438 \\\|date\\=1982\\\|volume\\=81 \\\|issue\\=479 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1525/curh.1982\\.81\\.479\\.405 \\\|jstor\\=45317459 }} The Social Democrats were unanimous about the armament and environmental questions of that time, and the new party [The Greens](/wiki/Alliance_%2790/The_Greens \"Alliance '90/The Greens\") was not ready for a coalition government then.", "### Gerhard Schröder and the consequences (1998–2005\\)", "Kohl lost his last re\\-election bid in 1998 to his SPD challenger [Gerhard Schröder](/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der \"Gerhard Schröder\"), as the SPD formed a [red\\-green coalition](/wiki/Red-green_alliance \"Red-green alliance\") with The Greens to take control of the German federal government for the first time in 16 years.{{cite web \\\|title\\=New Government in Germany \\\|url\\=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/RP98\\-94/RP98\\-94\\.pdf \\\|website\\=Researchbriefings.parliament.uk}}", "Running on a platform emphasizing the need to reduce unemployment, the SPD emerged as the strongest party in the [September 1998 elections](/wiki/1998_German_federal_election \"1998 German federal election\") with 40\\.9% of the votes cast. Crucial for this success was the SPD's strong base in big cities and {{lang\\\|de\\\|Bundesländer}} with traditional industries. Forming a [coalition government](/wiki/Coalition_government \"Coalition government\") with the [Green Party](/wiki/Alliance_%2790/The_Greens \"Alliance '90/The Greens\"), the SPD thus returned to power for the first time since 1982\\. In so doing, it formed the first left\\-wing government in the Federal Republic.", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|Chancellor Gerhard Schröder on a election campaign event in [Esslingen](/wiki/Esslingen_am_Neckar \"Esslingen am Neckar\") on 24 August 2005](/wiki/File:Gerhardschroeder.jpg \"Gerhardschroeder.jpg\")\n[Oskar Lafontaine](/wiki/Oskar_Lafontaine \"Oskar Lafontaine\"), elected SPD chairman in November 1996 had in the run\\-up to the election forgone a bid for the SPD nomination for the chancellor candidacy, after Gerhard Schröder won a sweeping re\\-election victory as prime minister of his state of [Lower Saxony](/wiki/Lower_Saxony \"Lower Saxony\") and was widely believed to be the best chance for Social Democrats to regain the Chancellorship after 16 years in opposition. From the beginning of this teaming up between Party chair Lafontaine and chancellor candidate Schröder during the election campaign 1998, rumors in the media about their internal rivalry persisted, albeit always being disputed by the two. After the election victory Lafontaine joined the government as finance minister. The rivalry between the two party leaders escalated in March 1999 leading to the overnight resignation of Lafontaine from all his party and government positions. After staying initially mum about the reasons for his resignation, Lafontaine later cited strong disagreement with the alleged [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism \"Neoliberalism\") and anti\\-social course Schröder had taken the government on. Schröder himself has never commented on the row with Lafontaine. It is known however, that they haven't spoken to each other ever since. Schröder succeeded Lafontaine as party chairman.", "[thumb\\\|Gerhard Schröder before the federal elections in 2002](/wiki/File:Schroeder2002.jpg \"Schroeder2002.jpg\")\nA number of progressive measures were introduced by the Schröder Administration during its first term in office. The parental leave scheme was improved, with full\\-time working parents legally entitled to reduce their working hours from 2001 onwards, while the child allowance was considerably increased, from €112 per month in 1998 to €154 in 2002\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Martin \\\|first1\\=Powell \\\|title\\=Modernising the Welfare State: The Blair Legacy \\\|date\\=2008 \\\|publisher\\=Policy Press \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84742\\-039\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Housing allowances were also increased, while a number of decisions by the Kohl Government concerning social policy and the labour market were overturned, as characterised by the reversal of retrenchments in health policy and pension policy.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Merkel \\\|first1\\=Wolfgang \\\|last2\\=Petring \\\|first2\\=Alexander \\\|last3\\=Henkes \\\|first3\\=Christian \\\|last4\\=Egle \\\|first4\\=Christoph \\\|title\\=Social Democracy in Power: The Capacity to Reform \\\|date\\=2008 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-07179\\-1}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "Changes introduced by the Kohl government on pensions, the continued payment of wages in the case of sickness, and wrongful dismissal were all rescinded. In 1999, for instance, the wage replacement rate for sick pay (which was reduced from 100% to 80% of earnings under the previous Kohl Government) was restored to 100%.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://econ.tau.ac.il/papers/labor/Puhani\\_Sonderhof\\_TA.pdf \\\|title\\=Switch\\-On and Switch\\-Off Effects of Sick Pay Reform on Absence from Work and on Health\\-Related Outcomes \\\|website\\=Tel Aviv University \\\|first1\\=Patrick A. \\\|last1\\=Puhani \\\|first2\\=Katja \\\|last2\\=Sonderhof \\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-03\\-12 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133754/http://econ.tau.ac.il/papers/labor/Puhani\\_Sonderhof\\_TA.pdf \\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-21 }} A programme on combating [youth unemployment](/wiki/Youth_unemployment \"Youth unemployment\") was introduced, together new measures designed to out a stop to those designating themselves as \"self\\-employed\" for tax purposes, and new regulations on 630\\-DM jobs, which were subject for the first time to national insurance contributions. Tax reforms brought relief to people on low\\-incomes and benefited families, while a second pillar was added to the pension system which relied on self\\-provision for retirement.", "In the [September 2002 elections](/wiki/2002_German_federal_election \"2002 German federal election\"), the SPD reached 38\\.5% of the national vote, barely ahead of the [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Germany)\")/[CSU](/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_of_Bavaria \"Christian Social Union of Bavaria\"), and was again able to form a government with the help of The Greens. The European elections of 2004 were a disaster for the SPD, marking its worst result in a nationwide election after World War II with only 21\\.5% of the vote. Earlier the same year, leadership of the SPD had changed from chancellor Gerhard Schröder to [Franz Müntefering](/wiki/Franz_M%C3%BCntefering \"Franz Müntefering\"), in what was widely regarded as an attempt to deal with internal party opposition to the economic reform programs set in motion by the federal government.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "While the SPD was founded in the 19th century to defend the interests of the [working class](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\"), its commitment to these goals has been disputed by some since 1918, when its leaders supported the suppression of more radical socialist and communist factions during the [Spartacist Uprising](/wiki/Spartacist_Uprising \"Spartacist Uprising\"). But never before has the party moved so far away from its traditional [socialist](/wiki/Democratic_socialism \"Democratic socialism\") stance as it did under the Schröder government. Its ever\\-increasing tendency towards liberal economic policies and cutbacks in government spending on social welfare programs led to a dramatic decline in voter support. The Schroeder Administration presided over a significant rise in poverty and inequality, with the percentage of Germans living in poverty, according to one measure, rising from 12% in 2000 to 16\\.5% in 2006\\.{{cite report \\\|last1\\=Biewen \\\|first1\\=Martin \\\|last2\\=Juhasz \\\|first2\\=Andos \\\|title\\=Understanding rising income inequality in Germany \\\|website\\=EconStor \\\|date\\=2010 \\\|hdl\\=10419/44186 \\\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\\|ssrn\\=1648347}}", "Welfare cuts, which affected mainly the SPD's clientele, led to disillusionment amongst supporters and precipitated a fall in party membership. For many years, membership in the SPD had been declining. Down from a high of over 1 million in 1976, there were about 775,000 members at the time of the 1998 election victory, and by February 2008, the figure had dropped to 537,995\\. By early 2009, membership figures had fallen behind the ones of the CDU for the first time ever.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "[thumb\\\|right\\\|\"For nuclear phase\\-out, against new nuclear plants.\" Election placard of the Social Democratic Party of Germany for the German federal election, 2005\\.](/wiki/Image:SPDposter200508.jpg \"SPDposter200508.jpg\")", "In January 2005, some SPD members left the party to found the [Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative](/wiki/Labour_and_Social_Justice_%E2%80%93_The_Electoral_Alternative \"Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative\") (WASG) in opposition to what they consider to be neoliberal leanings displayed by the SPD. Former SPD chairman Oskar Lafontaine also joined this new party. (Later, to contest the early federal election called by Schröder after the SPD lost heavily in a state election in their traditional stronghold of North Rhine\\-Westphalia, the western\\-based WASG and the eastern\\-based post\\-communist [Party of Democratic Socialism](/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_%28Germany%29 \"Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)\") would merge to form [The Left](/wiki/The_Left_%28Germany%29 \"The Left (Germany)\") ({{lang\\\|de\\\|Die Linke}}) party. These developments put pressure on the SPD to do something about its social image.", "In April 2005, party chairman [Franz Müntefering](/wiki/Franz_M%C3%BCntefering \"Franz Müntefering\") publicly criticized excessive profiteering in Germany's [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy \"Market economy\") and proposed stronger involvement of the federal state in order to promote economic justice. This triggered a debate that dominated the national news for several weeks. Müntefering's suggestions have been met with both popular support harsh criticism. Political opponents claimed that Müntefering's choice of words, especially his reference to [private equity](/wiki/Private_equity \"Private equity\") funds as locusts, were bordering on Nazi language.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "In the [2005 German federal election](/wiki/2005_German_federal_election \"2005 German federal election\"), the SPD ended up trailing its rivals by less than 1%, a much closer margin than had been expected. Although the party had presented a program that included some more traditional left themes, such as an additional 3% tax on the highest tax bracket, this did not prevent the Left Party from making a strong showing, largely at the SPD's expense. Nevertheless, the overall result was sufficient to deny the opposition camp a majority.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "### Merkel\\-led grand coalitions and the decline of the SPD (2005–2021\\)", "From 2005 to 2009 and again since 2013 until 2021, the SPD was the junior partner in a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition \"Grand coalition\") with the [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Germany)\")/[CSU](/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria \"Christian Social Union in Bavaria\") under the leadership of Chancellor [Angela Merkel](/wiki/Angela_Merkel \"Angela Merkel\"), with [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz \"Olaf Scholz\") as [Vice\\-Chancellor](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany \"Vice-Chancellor of Germany\") from 2018 to 2021\\.", "After the 2005 federal [election](/wiki/2005_German_federal_election \"2005 German federal election\"), Müntefering resigned as party chairman and was succeeded as chairman by [Matthias Platzeck](/wiki/Matthias_Platzeck \"Matthias Platzeck\"), [minister\\-president](/wiki/Minister-president \"Minister-president\") of [Brandenburg](/wiki/Brandenburg \"Brandenburg\"). Müntefering's decision came after the party's steering committee chose [Andrea Nahles](/wiki/Andrea_Nahles \"Andrea Nahles\"), a woman from the left\\-wing of the party, as secretary general over Müntefering's choice, his long\\-time aide Kajo Wasserhövel. After Müntefering said her election indicated that he had lost the confidence of the party and he would therefore resign, Nahles turned down the post of secretary general to prevent the party splitting, and [Hubertus Heil](/wiki/Hubertus_Heil \"Hubertus Heil\") was elected in her place.", "On 10 April 2006, Matthias Platzeck announced his resignation of the Chair because he suffered a major [hearing loss](/wiki/Hearing_loss \"Hearing loss\") in March 2006\\. The interim chairman from 10 April to 14 May was [Kurt Beck](/wiki/Kurt_Beck \"Kurt Beck\"). He won the full leadership on a small party convention on 14 May. He resigned on 7 September 2008; on 8 September 2008 the party's executive committee nominated Müntefering to be elected as chairman at an extraordinary party conference on 18 October 2008\\. In the meantime, [Frank\\-Walter Steinmeier](/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier \"Frank-Walter Steinmeier\") serves as provisional chairman. During the Schröder administration, Schröder and Lafontaine disliked each other, because Lafontaine quit as Finance Minister in 1999\\. After his resignation there was a huge distrust of Lafontaine in the SPD which lasts to today. Due to the rise of Merkel and Guido Westerwelle on the national stage of politics in 2005 and a belief in the German public of the failed social policies of the SPD on labour issues ([Hartz IV](/wiki/Hartz_IV \"Hartz IV\")), the SPD lost heavily in opinion polls and lost a couple of statewide elections. There was the urgency to form new coalitions with the Left, a party with a similar political agenda, than the weakened Green Party or the other conservative parties in Germany; however, the leader of the Left was the lost child of the SPD, Oskar Lafontaine, who had fallen out with the SPD. There is a common oath in the SPD not to form coalitions with the Left, because of Lafontaine.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2011}}", "[thumb\\\|Candidate for chancellorship in 2009: Frank\\-Walter Steinmeier, minister of the exterior from 2005 to 2009 and again from 2013 to 2017](/wiki/File:Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_08.jpg \"Frank-Walter Steinmeier 08.jpg\")\nSPD state leader [Andrea Ypsilanti](/wiki/Andrea_Ypsilanti \"Andrea Ypsilanti\") choose to form a minority coalition with the Left in [Hesse](/wiki/Hesse \"Hesse\") after a lost state election in January 2008; this decision was heavily criticized by national leaders of the SPD, as Buck, the leader at that time was for the coalition in Hesse and supported Ypsilanti. Beck, who was a popular minister\\-president, has lost a lot reputation on a national level because of the support. At an emergency session of leaders of the SPD, Beck resigned the chairmanship of the SPD, because after 8 months there was no coalition and Beck was criticized for supporting Ypsilanti. In November 2008, the Landtag in Hesse was dissolved and new elections were held in [January 2009](/wiki/2009_Hessian_state_election \"2009 Hessian state election\"). Several other state leaders of SPD have started flirting with The Left and there is a huge struggle in the SPD on how to treat the Left in order to gain Bundesrat seats to be once again a true national party. In November 2008, the SPD was at 25% in national opinion polls, one of the lowest values in recent memory, and there remained rift between two internal factions of the party. One side of the party, the right\\-wing [Seeheimer Kreis](/wiki/Seeheimer_Kreis \"Seeheimer Kreis\"), refuses to do coalitions with the Left Party. Members of the right\\-wing include Frank\\-Walter Steinmeier and Gerhard Schröder. The other side of the party, the political left of the SPD, whose members include Andrea Ypsilanti and Andrea Nahles, embraces coalitions with the Left. A reason for such struggle with the Left is that the SPD is in a national coalition with the conservative coalition and is in a dual struggle, at first the struggle for not endangering the national coalition with Merkel and endangering a national political crisis that maybe result in further losses for the SPD, and secondly the struggle for not forgetting the roots where the SPD came from because the SPD is left\\-leaning party, whose political positions have been eaten by the Left party.", "Social Democrats lost Germany's federal [elections](/wiki/2009_German_federal_election \"2009 German federal election\") in 2009, meaning the SPD ended up into the opposition for the first time in 11 years.{{cite news \\\|title\\=Disaster at the polls – DW – 09/29/2009 \\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/heads\\-start\\-rolling\\-in\\-germanys\\-spd\\-after\\-brutal\\-loss\\-at\\-the\\-polls/a\\-4740846 \\\|work\\=dw.com \\\|language\\=en}} After the 2013 German federal [elections](/wiki/2013_German_federal_election \"2013 German federal election\"), Chancellor Angela Merkel's CDU party formed a new coalition government with the SPD.{{cite news \\\|last1\\=Oltermann \\\|first1\\=Philip \\\|title\\=Angela Merkel agrees to form German coalition with Social Democrats \\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/27/angela\\-merkel\\-german\\-coalition\\-social\\-democrats \\\|work\\=The Guardian \\\|date\\=27 November 2013}}", "After the 2017 federal [elections](/wiki/2017_German_federal_election \"2017 German federal election\"), coalition talks completed in February 2018 and the party held a [vote](/wiki/SPD_party_member_vote_on_the_2018_coalition_agreement_of_Germany \"SPD party member vote on the 2018 coalition agreement of Germany\") to let its members decide about the new coalition treaty with the CDU and CSU parties.[Factbox: What happens if Germany's SPD votes against coalition with Merkel?](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-politics-spd-vote-factbox/factbox-what-happens-if-germanys-spd-votes-against-coalition-with-merkel-idUSKCN1GE26C), Reuters.com Of all 378\\.437 members that took part in the vote, 66,02 % (239\\.604\\) of members voted for the new coalition treaty while 33,98 % (123\\.329\\) of members voted against it, resulting in another grand coalition with the [CDU/CSU](/wiki/CDU/CSU \"CDU/CSU\").{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.spd.berlin/aktuell/news/maerz\\-2018/ergebnis\\-mitgliedervotum\\-2018/ \\\|title\\=Ergebnis Mitgliedervotum 2018 \\\|last\\=rpaeche \\\|website\\=SPD Berlin \\\|language\\=de\\-DE \\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-04}}{{Cite news \\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/04/germany\\-social\\-democrats\\-spd\\-vote\\-in\\-favour\\-of\\-coalition\\-angela\\-merkel \\\|title\\=Merkel secures fourth term in power after SPD backs coalition deal \\\|last\\=Oltermann \\\|first\\=Philip \\\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-04 \\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-04 \\\|language\\=en\\-GB \\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} Following the decision to confirm the Grand Coalition, the SPD further declined in polls, suffering heavy defeats in all local elections. In mid\\-2019, the party was scoring 12% in polls, being surpassed by [The Union](/wiki/CDU/CSU \"CDU/CSU\"), [Alliance 90/The Greens](/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens \"Alliance 90/The Greens\") and even far\\-right [Alternative for Germany](/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany \"Alternative for Germany\"). During the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), the SPD returned to polling between 14% and 18%, closing the gaps with the Greens for the second place (in some cases, beating them for the second place) and overcoming the far\\-right. Earlier in December 2019, progressive candidates [Norbert Walter\\-Borjans](/wiki/Norbert_Walter-Borjans \"Norbert Walter-Borjans\") and [Saskia Esken](/wiki/Saskia_Esken \"Saskia Esken\") defeated more moderate candidates and were elected co\\-leaders by the party's membership. Their election raised prospects of the coalition government collapsing and early elections being called, although [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\") reported that the duo would seek to achieve agreement from the CDU/CSU on increasing public spending rather than collapse the government.{{cite news \\\|last\\=Hansen \\\|first\\=Holger \\\|date\\=20 January 2020 \\\|url\\=https://reuters.com/article/us\\-germany\\-politics\\-spd/new\\-spd\\-leaders\\-pull\\-back\\-from\\-sinking\\-german\\-coalition\\-idUSKBN1Y722P \\\|title\\=New SPD leaders pull back from sinking German coalition \\\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\\|location\\=Berlin \\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2020}}", "### Comeback with Olaf Scholz (2021\\-)", "By August 2021, just one month ahead of the [2021 German federal election](/wiki/2021_German_federal_election \"2021 German federal election\"), the SPD surged to first place in polls.{{cite news \\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/europe/the\\-social\\-democrats\\-surge\\-upends\\-germanys\\-election\\-campaign/21803922 \\\|title\\=The Social Democrats' surge upends Germany's election campaign \\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Economist]] \\\|date\\=2 August 2021 \\\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2021 \\\|issn\\=0013\\-0613}}{{cite news \\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/german\\-election\\-spd\\-sees\\-poll\\-surge\\-ahead\\-of\\-tv\\-debate/a\\-59017732 \\\|title\\=German election: SPD sees poll surge ahead of TV debate \\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Deustche Welle]] \\\|date\\=29 August 2021 \\\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2021}}{{cite news \\\|last\\=Cliffe \\\|first\\=Jeremy \\\|date\\=1 September 2021 \\\|url\\=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/2021/09/spd\\-s\\-surge\\-reveals\\-essence\\-german\\-election\\-search\\-merkel\\-20\\\|title\\=The SPD's surge reveals the essence of the German election: the search for Merkel 2\\.0 \\\|work\\=\\[\\[New Statesman]] \\\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2021}} They won a plurality of seats at the [2021 German federal election](/wiki/2021_German_federal_election \"2021 German federal election\").{{Cite web \\\|title\\=German election: Social Democrats narrowly beat Angela Merkel's party as Germany faces prolonged coalition talks \\\|url\\=https://news.sky.com/story/german\\-election\\-social\\-democrats\\-beat\\-angela\\-merkels\\-party\\-as\\-germany\\-faces\\-prolonged\\-coalition\\-talks\\-12419407 \\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-30 \\\|website\\=\\[\\[Sky News]] \\\|language\\=en}} Social Democrat [Olaf Scholz](/wiki/Olaf_Scholz \"Olaf Scholz\") became the new chancellor in December 2021\\. Chancellor Scholz formed a coalition government with the Green Party and the Free Democrats (FDP).{{cite news \\\|last1\\=Welle\\\|first1\\=Deutsche \\\|title\\=Olaf Scholz: Germany's new chancellor is level\\-headed and pragmatic \\\|date\\=8 December 2021 \\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/olaf\\-scholz\\-germanys\\-new\\-chancellor\\-is\\-level\\-headed\\-and\\-pragmatic/a\\-59936379 \\\|work\\=\\[\\[Deutsche Welle]]}}", "" ]
### Governing party (1966–1982\) [thumbnail\\|right\\|Logo of the Social Democratic Party during the 1960s and 1970s](/wiki/File:Sozialdemokratische_Partei_Deutschlands%2C_Logo_1969-1982.png "Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, Logo 1969-1982.png") In 1966 the coalition of the [Christian Democratic Union](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Germany)") (CDU) and the liberal [Free Democratic Party](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 "Free Democratic Party (Germany)") (FDP) fell and a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition "Grand coalition") between CDU/CSU and SPD was formed under the leadership of CDU Chancellor [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger "Kurt Georg Kiesinger"), with SPD leader [Willy Brandt](/wiki/Willy_Brandt "Willy Brandt") as [Vice\-Chancellor](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany "Vice-Chancellor of Germany"). The welfare state was considerably expanded,{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\_35\.pdf \\|title\=Labor Parties and Labor Movements in a Post\-Fordist Political Economy: The British, French, and German Cases \\|first1\=Anthony \\|last1\=Daley \\|first2\=Chris \\|last2\=Howell \\|first3\=Stephen J. \\|last3\=Silvia \\|publisher\=\[\[Harvard University]] \\|access\-date\=22 March 2014 \\|archive\-date\=22 March 2014 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322135253/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\_35\.pdf }} while social spending was almost doubled between 1969 and 1975\.{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.country\-data.com/cgi\-bin/query/r\-4975\.html \\|publisher\=country\-data.com \\|title\=Germany \- Social Democratic Party of Germany \\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} Changes were made to income maintenance schemes which met some of the SPD's long\-standing demands,Growth to Limits: Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy by Peter Flora and many other social reforms were introduced, including the equalising of wages and salaries between white\-collar and blue\-collar employees, the continuation of wage and salary payments, a law to promote employment, and a vocational training law. Although these measures were largely due to the efforts of the CDU minister [Hans Katzer](/wiki/Hans_Katzer "Hans Katzer"), it is arguable that he would never have been able to push his programme through the cabinet (let alone envisage it) without the SPD.{{cite book \\|last1\=Dönhoff \\|first1\=Marion \\|title\=Foe Into Friend: The Makers of the New Germany from Konrad Adenauer to Helmut Schmidt \\|date\=1982 \\|publisher\=Weidenfeld and Nicolson \\|isbn\=978\-0\-297\-78058\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} The 1969 Employment Promotion Act, which was based largely on a proposal prepared by the SPD in 1966, established active labour market intervention measures such as employment research,The German economy by E. Owen Smith and offered "substantial state assistance to employees with educational aspirations."{{cite book \\|last1\=Jobert \\|first1\=Annette \\|last2\=Marry \\|first2\=Catherine \\|last3\=Rainbird \\|first3\=Helen \\|last4\=Tanguy \\|first4\=Lucie \\|title\=Education and Work in Great Britain, Germany and Italy \\|date\=2013 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-68733\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Under the direction of the SPD [Minister of Economics](/wiki/Minister_of_Economics "Minister of Economics") [Karl Schiller](/wiki/Karl_Schiller "Karl Schiller"), the federal government adopted [Keynesian](/wiki/Keynesian_economics "Keynesian economics") [demand management](/wiki/Demand_management "Demand management") for the first time ever. Schiller called for legislation that would provide both his ministry and the federal government with greater authority to guide economic policy.{{cite web \\|url\=http://countrystudies.us/germany/137\.htm\\|publisher\=countrystudies.us \\|title\=Germany \- The Economic Miracle and Beyond \\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} In 1967, Schiller introduced the Law for Promoting Stability and Growth,Germany in Our Time: A Political History of the Postwar Years by [Alfred Grosser](/wiki/Alfred_Grosser "Alfred Grosser") which was subsequently passed by the Bundestag. Regarded as the Magna Carta of medium\-term economic management, the legislation provided for coordination of federal, Lander, and local budget plans in order to give fiscal policy a stronger impact. It also set a number of optimistic targets for four basic standards by which West German economic success would henceforth be measured, which included trade balance, employment levels, economic growth, and currency stability. One of the rare German Keynesians of that era, Schiller believed that government had both "the obligation and the capacity to shape economic trends and to smooth out and even eliminate the business cycle," and his adopted policy of Keynesian demand management helped West Germany to overcome the economic recession of 1966/67\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Cooper \\|first1\=Alice Holmes \\|title\=Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements Since 1945 \\|date\=1996 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of Michigan Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-472\-10624\-0}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Unemployment was quickly reduced (standing at just under 1% by Autumn 1968\), while industrial output rose by almost 12% in 1968\. The successful economic and financial policies pursued by the Grand Coalition under the direction of Schiller was also helped by the persuasion of entrepreneurs and trade unions to accept a programme of "concerted action." According to Lisanne Radice and Giles Radice, "concerted action" was not a formal [incomes policy](/wiki/Incomes_policy "Incomes policy"), but it did nevertheless ensure that collective bargaining took place "within a broadly agreed view of the direction of the economy and the relationships between full employment, output and inflation."{{cite book \\|last1\=Radice \\|first1\=Giles \\|last2\=Radice \\|first2\=Lisanne \\|title\=Socialists in the Recession: The Search for Solidarity \\|date\=1986 \\|publisher\=Macmillan \\|isbn\=978\-0\-333\-38846\-4}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} In addition, Schiller's economic policies were not only successful in restoring West Germany's economic growth, but they also demonstrated the SPD's economic competence, and this undoubtedly played a major role in the victory of the SPD in the [federal election of 1969](/wiki/1969_West_German_federal_election "1969 West German federal election"). [thumb\\|Party convention of 1982: SPD chairman Willy Brandt and chancellor Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F062768-0008%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_SPD-Parteitag%2C_Schmidt%2C_Brandt.jpg "Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F062768-0008, München, SPD-Parteitag, Schmidt, Brandt.jpg") In 1969 the SPD won a majority for the first time since 1928 by forming a [social\-liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition "Social-liberal coalition") with the FDP and led the federal government under Chancellors Willy Brandt and [Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/Helmut_Schmidt "Helmut Schmidt") from 1969 until 1982\. In its 1959 [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program "Godesberg Program"), the SPD officially abandoned the concept of a workers' party and Marxist principles, while continuing to stress [social welfare provision](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision "Social welfare provision"). Although the SPD originally opposed West Germany's 1955 rearmament and entry into [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") while it favoured neutrality and reunification with East Germany, it now strongly supports German ties with the alliance. A wide range of reforms were carried out under the [Social\-Liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition "Social-liberal coalition"), including, as summarised by one historical study 'improved health and accident insurance, better [unemployment compensation](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits "Unemployment benefits"), [rent control](/wiki/Rent_regulation "Rent regulation"), payments to families with children, subsidies to encourage savings and investments, and measures to "humanize the world of work" such as better medical care for on\-the\-job illnesses or injuries and mandated improvements in the work environment.'A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress Under the SDP\-FDP coalition, social policies in West Germany took on a more egalitarian character and a number of important reforms were carried out to improve the prospects of previously neglected and underprivileged groups.{{cite book \\|last1\=Walker \\|first1\=Robert \\|last2\=Lawson \\|first2\=Roger \\|last3\=Townsend \\|first3\=Peter \\|title\=Responses to Poverty: Lessons from Europe \\|date\=1984 \\|publisher\=\[\[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8386\-3222\-2}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Greater emphasis was placed on policies favouring single parents, larger families, and the lower paid, and further improvements were made in social benefits for pensioners and disabled persons. Rates of [social assistance](/wiki/Social_assistance "Social assistance") (excluding rent) as a percentage of average gross earnings of men in manufacturing industries rose during the Social\-Liberal coalition's time in office,{{cite book \\|last1\=George \\|first1\=Victor \\|last2\=Lawson \\|first2\=Roger \\|title\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\|date\=1980 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \& Kegan Paul \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7100\-0424\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} while social welfare provision was greatly extended, with pensions and health care opened up to large sections of the population.{{cite book \\|last1\=Lewis \\|first1\=Derek R. \\|last2\=Schwitalla \\|first2\=Johannes \\|last3\=Zitzlsperger \\|first3\=Ulrike \\|title\=Contemporary Germany: A Handbook \\|date\=2001 \\|publisher\=Arnold \\|isbn\=978\-0\-340\-74040\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} This in turn substantially increased the size and cost of the social budget, as social program costs grew by over 10% a year during much of the 1970s. Government spending as a percentage of GDP rose significantly under the SPD\-FDP coalition, from 39% in 1969 to around 50% by 1982\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Sinn \\|first1\=Hans\-Werner \\|title\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\|date\=2007 \\|publisher\=\[\[MIT Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-19558\-4}} Between 1970 and 1981, social spending as a proportion of GNP rose by 21\.4%, and in terms of percentage of GNP went up from 25,7% in 1970 to 31\.2% in 1981\. Much was accomplished in the way of social reform during the SDP\-FDP coalition's first five years on office, with one study noting that ""the years 1969 to 1974 represent a phase of social policy in which the state introduced new minimum benefits and extended existing ones."{{cite book \\|last1\=Leisering \\|first1\=Lutz \\|last2\=Leibfried \\|first2\=Stephan \\|title\=Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective \\|date\=2001 \\|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-00352\-0 \\|page\=185 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KScADiSdelIC\&pg\=PA185 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In April 1970, the government drew up an Action Programme for the Promotion of the Rehabilitation of Handicapped Persons.{{cite book \\|last1\=Schewe \\|first1\=Dieter \\|last2\=Nordhorn \\|first2\=Karlhugo \\|last3\=Schenke \\|first3\=Klaus \\|title\=Survey of social security in the Federal Republic of Germany \\|date\=1972 \\|publisher\=Federal Minister for Labour and Social Affairs \\|oclc\=643574180}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} During that same year, bills were tabled to extend and increase housing allowances (passed in 1970\), to extend and standardise the promotion of vocational training (passed in 1971\), to automatically index pensions for war victims (passed in 1970\), to increase family allowances (passed in 1970\), and to reform "shop rules" (which came into force in 1972\). In 1974, a bankruptcy allowance was introduced for employed persons when their employers became insolvent. Developments in [accident insurance](/wiki/Accident_insurance "Accident insurance") led to the inclusion of schoolchildren, students and children at kindergarten and thus to more widespread measures for [accident prevention](/wiki/Accident_Prevention "Accident Prevention"). In addition, farm and household assistance was introduced as a new service in agricultural accident insurance. A major pension reform law extended the accessibility of pension insurance by providing generous possibilities for backpayments of contributions, while adjustment of currently paid out pensions was brought forward by 6 months. The Rehabilitation and Assimilation Law of 1974 improved and standardised [benefits for the disabled](/wiki/Disability_benefits "Disability benefits"), while a law was passed that same year on the establishment of an additional relief fund for persons employed in agriculture and forestry. The Law on the Improvement of Works' Old Age Schemes of 1974 brought conditional non\-forfeiture of qualifying periods for works pensions as well as the prohibition of cuts in works pensions due to increases in social insurance pensions. In addition, a number of reforms in areas such as civil and consumer rights{{cite news \\|title\=Dreizehn Jahre geliehene Macht \\|trans\-title\=Thirteen years of borrowed power \\|language\=de \\|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/dreizehn\-jahre\-geliehene\-macht\-a\-4dd36291\-0002\-0001\-0000\-000014348240 \\|work\=\[\[Der Spiegel]] \\|date\=10 March 1982}} the environment, [education](/wiki/Education "Education"), and [urban renewal](/wiki/Urban_renewal "Urban renewal"){{cite book \\|last1\=Flüchter \\|first1\=Winfried \\|title\=Japan and Central Europe Restructuring: Geographical Aspects of Socio\-economic, Urban, and Regional Development \\|date\=1995 \\|publisher\=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag \\|isbn\=978\-3\-447\-03531\-6 \\|page\=150 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=C8J1pypuORUC\&pg\=PA150 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}}{{cite book \\|editor1\-last\=Burgers \\|editor1\-first\=Jack \\|editor2\-last\=Vranken \\|editor2\-first\=Jan \\|title\=How to Make Successful Urban Development Programme: Experience from Nine European Countries \\|date\=2004 \\|publisher\=Garant \\|isbn\=978\-90\-441\-1393\-8 \\|page\=100 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TdAM2GS0t3kC\&pg\=PA100 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} were carried out. in 1972, a pension reform act was passed which, according to one historical study, ensured that workers "would not suffer financial hardship and could maintain an adequate standard of living after retirement."A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress. In 1973, sickness benefits became available in cases where a parent had to care for a sick child.{{cite book \\|last1\=Companje \\|first1\=Karel\-Peter \\|last2\=Veraghtert \\|first2\=Karel \\|last3\=Widdershoven \\|first3\=Brigitte \\|title\=Two Centuries of Solidarity: German, Belgian, and Dutch Social Health Care Insurance 1770\-2008 \\|date\=2009 \\|publisher\=\[\[Amsterdam University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-90\-5260\-344\-5 \\|page\=210 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=64U\_dlAI6g0C\&pg\=PA210 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In March 1974, Social Assistance (SA) was expanded, "concerning family supplements, means test, and certain additional payments."{{cite book \\|last1\=Picot \\|first1\=Georg \\|title\=Politics of Segmentation: Party Competition and Social Protection in Europe \\|date\=2013\-06\-17 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-136\-47682\-2 \\|page\=58 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=e8gYDKWOM\_wC\&pg\=PA58 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} Under a law of April 1974, the protection hitherto granted to the victims of war or industrial accidents for the purpose of their occupational and social reintegration was extended to all handicapped persons, whatever the cause of their handicap, provided that their capacity to work has been reduced by at least 50%. Another law, passed in August that same year, supplemented this protection by providing that henceforth the benefits for the purposes of medical and occupational rehabilitation would be the same for all the categories of persons concerned: war victims, the sick, the victims of industrial accidents, congenitally handicapped persons, representing a total of about 4 million persons in all. In addition, a new benefit was introduced to help such people in all branches of social security, taking the form of an adaptation benefit equivalent to 80% of the previous gross salary and to be granted over the period between the time when the person in question is forced to stop work and the time when he resumes work. A law on home\-based workers, passed by the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag "Bundestag") in June 1974, sought to modernise the working conditions of approximately 300 000 people who work at home by means of the following measures:{{cite web \\|title\=Report on the development of the social situation in the Community in 1973 \\|website\=Archive of European Integration \\|date\=1974 \\|url\=http://aei.pitt.edu/9801/}} * Employers were obliged to inform their home\-based workers concerning the method of calculation and the composition of their pay. * In order to increase safety at work the employer was obliged to explain accident risks and dangers to health. * Home\-based workers were now given the opportunity of making contributions towards asset formation. * Protection from dismissal was extended. The periods of notice, which are graduated according to the length of time the worker has been employed, were considerably increased. In addition, the guarantee of payment during the period of notice was consolidated. * The agreed wage for the same or equivalent work in industry would be used more than previously as the standard for wage increases for home\-based workers. * The Law also applied to office work at home, which was becoming increasingly important and substantial. Children's allowances for students up to the age of twenty\-seven were introduced, together with a flexible retirement age, new married couples' and families' legislation, an extension of co\-determination, rehabilitation and special employment rights for the severely handicapped, adjustments and increases in the pensions of war victims, a revision of child benefit, a new youth employment protection law, health insurance for farmers, pension schemes for the self\-employed, and guaranteed works' pensions. Although the principle of the social welfare state was enshrined in the constitution of West Germany, and laws and measures taken (often jointly by the CDU/CSU coalition partners and the SPD) to meet this commitment, it was only when the SPD came to power in Bonn that the provisions of the social welfare system "reached a level which few other countries could equal." In 1975, three tax levels were introduced that removed many lower\-income persons from the tax rolls and raised child benefit payments. Various improvements were also made to health care provision and coverage during the social\-liberal coalition's time in office. In 1974, domestic aid during in\-patient or in\-patient cures was established, sick pay to compensate for wages lost while caring for a child was introduced, and the time\-limit to in\-patient care was removed. That same year, the cover of rehabilitation services was increased, together with the cover of dental and orthodontic services.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Bärnighausen \\|first1\=Till \\|last2\=Sauerborn \\|first2\=Rainer \\|title\=One hundred and eighteen years of the German health insurance system: are there any lessons for middle\- and low\-income countries? \\|journal\=\[\[Social Science \& Medicine]] \\|date\=May 2002 \\|volume\=54 \\|issue\=10 \\|pages\=1559–1587 \\|doi\=10\.1016/S0277\-9536(01\)00137\-X \\|pmid\=12061488}} Health insurance coverage was extended to self\-employed agricultural workers in 1972, and to students and the disabled in 1975\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl\_health\_care\_develop.htm\\|publisher\=germanculture.com.ua\\|title\=Development of the Health Care System in Germany\\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} in 1971, an International Transactions Tax Law was passed.{{cite book \\|last1\=Campbell \\|first1\=Dennis \\|title\=International Handbook on Comparative Business Law \\|date\=2013 \\|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \\|isbn\=978\-94\-017\-4399\-0 \\|page\=79 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fMSfBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT79 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In 1974, a number of amendments were made to the Federal Social Assistance Act. "Help for [the vulnerable](/wiki/Social_vulnerability "Social vulnerability")" was renamed "help for overcoming particular social difficulties," and the number of people eligible for assistance was greatly extended to include all those "whose own capabilities cannot meet the increasing demands of modern industrial society." The intention of these amendments was to include especially such groups as discharged prisoners, drug and narcotic addicts, alcoholics, and the homeless.Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective by Lutz Leisering and Stephan Leibfried Under the SPD, people who formerly had to be supported by their relatives became entitled to social assistance.{{cite book \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0KnP2KKdzyAC\&q\=malaise\+first\+welfare\+state\+brandt\+1972\+and\+1974\&pg\=PA182 \\|title\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\|access\-date\=2012\-11\-14 \\|isbn\=978\-0\-262\-19558\-4 \\|year\=2007 \\|last1\=Sinn \\|first1\=Hans\-Werner \\|publisher\=MIT Press \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In addition, the recreational and residential value of towns (building schools, training institutions, baths, sports facilities, Kindegarten etc.) was increased from 1970 with the help of a new programme.{{cite web \\|url\=https://archive.org/details/WahlprogrammDerSpdMitWillyBrandtFrFriedenSicherheitUndEine \\|title\=Wahlprogramm der SPD : mit Willy Brandt fur Frieden, Sicherheit und eine bessere Qualitat des Lebens: Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands \\|language\=de \\|trans\-title\=Election program of the SPD: with Willy Brandt for peace, security and a better quality of life: Social Democratic Party of Germany \\|via\=\[\[Internet Archive]] \\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} A number of liberal social reforms in areas like censorship,{{cite book \\|last1\=Pavelec \\|first1\=S. Mike \\|title\=The Military\-Industrial Complex and American Society \\|date\=2010 \\|publisher\=\[\[ABC\-CLIO]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-59884\-188\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} homosexuality, divorce, education, and worker participation in company management were introduced,{{cite book \\|last1\=Biesinger \\|first1\=Joseph A. \\|title\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present \\|date\=2006 \\|publisher\=Infobase Publishing \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8160\-7471\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} whilst social security benefits were significantly increased. Increases were made in unemployment benefits,{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} while substantial improvements in benefits were made for farmers, students, war invalids, the sick, families with many children, women, and pensioners between 1970 and 1975, which led to a doubling of benefit and social security payments during that period.{{cite book \\|last1\=Weber \\|first1\=Jürgen \\|title\=Germany, 1945\-1990: A Parallel History \\|date\=2004 \\|publisher\=\[\[Central European University Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-963\-9241\-70\-1}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} By 1979, old age and survivors' benefits were 53% higher in real terms than in 1970, while family benefits were 95% higher. The Second Sickness Insurance Modification Law linked the indexation of the income\-limit for compulsory employee coverage to the development of the pension insurance contribution ceiling (75% of the ceiling), obliged employers to pay half of the contributions in the case of voluntary membership, extended the criteria for voluntary membership of employees, and introduced preventive medical check\-ups for certain groups. The Law on Sickness Insurance for Farmers (1972\) included the self\-employed, their dependants and people who receive old age assistance in sickness insurance. The Law on the Social Insurance of Disabled Persons (1975\) included in sickness and pension insurance disabled persons employed in workshops and institutions under certain conditions, while a law was passed in June that year to include all students in statutory sickness insurance. Social protection against the risks of an occupational accident, death, disability, and old age was newly regulated in 1974 through a Civil Servant Provisioning Law that was standard throughout the country.{{cite book \\|last1\=Zacher \\|first1\=Hans F. \\|title\=Social Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany: The Constitution of the Social \\|date\=2012 \\|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-22525\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Educational reforms were introduced which led to the setting up of new colleges and universities, much greater access for young people to the universities, increased provision for pre\-school education, and a limited number of comprehensive schools.{{cite book \\|last1\=Edwards \\|first1\=G. E. \\|title\=German Political Parties: A Documentary Guide \\|date\=1998 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of Wales Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7083\-1417\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} An educational law of 1971 providing postgraduate support provided highly qualified graduates with the opportunity "to earn their doctorates or undertake research studies."{{cite book \\|last1\=Winkler \\|first1\=Heinrich August \\|title\=Germany: The Long Road West: Volume 2: 1933\-1990 \\|date\=2007 \\|publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]] \\|location\=Oxford \\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-150061\-9 \\|page\=182 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=r4al47QG2uYC\&pg\=PT182 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} A more active regional and industrial policy was pursued, tighter rules against dismissal were introduced,{{cite journal \\|last1\=Ostner \\|first1\=Ilona \\|title\=Farewell to the Family as We Know it: Family Policy Change in Germany \\|journal\=German Policy Studies \\|date\=2010 \\|volume\=6 \\|issue\=1 \\|pages\=211–244 \\|url\=https://spaef.org/article/1191/Farewell\-to\-the\-Family\-as\-We\-Know\-it\-Family\-Policy\-Change\-in\-Germany}} day care was introduced for children between the ages of three and six,{{cite journal \\|last1\=Köppen \\|first1\=Katja \\|title\=Second births in western Germany and France \\|journal\=Demographic Research \\|date\=28 April 2006 \\|volume\=14 \\|pages\=295–330 \\|doi\=10\.4054/DemRes.2006\.14\.14 \\|doi\-access\=free}} spending on dental services, drugs, and appliances was increased,{{cite book \\|last1\=Gill \\|first1\=Sonya \\|last2\=Kavadi \\|first2\=Shirish N. \\|title\=Health Financing and Costs: A Comparative Study of Trends in Eighteen Countries with Special Reference to India \\|date\=1999 \\|publisher\=Foundation for Research in Community Health \\|isbn\=978\-81\-87078\-23\-4}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} environmental protection legislation was passed,{{cite book \\|last1\=Joppke \\|first1\=Christian \\|title\=Mobilizing Against Nuclear Energy: A Comparison of Germany and the United States \\|date\=1993 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of California Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-520\-91252\-6}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} expenditure on education at all levels was increased,{{cite book \\|last1\=Childs \\|first1\=David \\|title\=Germany Since 1918 \\|date\=1971 \\|publisher\=Harper \& Row \\|isbn\=978\-0\-06\-010759\-8}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} a tax reform bill was passed, lowering the tax burden for low\-income and middle\-income groups,{{cite book \\|last1\=Drath \\|first1\=Viola Herms \\|title\=Willy Brandt: Prisoner of His Past \\|date\=2005 \\|publisher\=Hamilton Books \\|isbn\=978\-1\-4616\-2711\-1}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} the average age of entry into the workforce was increased, working time was reduced, social assistance and unemployment compensation were made more generous, early\-retirement options were introduced, and municipalities received more generous federal grants to expand social infrastructure such as conference halls, sports facilities and public swimming pools. Various measures were introduced to improve environmental conditions and to safeguard the environment,{{cite report \\|last1\=Weidner \\|first1\=Helmut \\|title\=25 years of modern environmental policy in Germany: Treading a well\-worn path to the top of the international field \\|website\=EconStor \\|date\=1995 \\|hdl\=10419/48980 \\|hdl\-access\=free}} the Federal Emission Control Law established the basis for taking of legal action against those responsible for [excessive noise](/wiki/Noise_pollution "Noise pollution") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Germany "Air pollution in Germany"), the Works' Constitution Act and Personnel Representation Act strengthened the position of individual employees in offices and factories, and the Works' Safety Law required firms to employ safety specialists and doctors.{{cite book \\|last1\=Hanrieder \\|first1\=Wolfram F. \\|title\=Helmut Schmidt: Perspectives On Politics \\|date\=2019 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-429\-72453\-4}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} An amendment to the Labour Management Act (1971\) granted workers co\-determination on the shop floorMy Life in Politics by Willy Brandt while the new Factory Management Law (1972\) extended co\-determination at the factory level. This Act acknowledged for the first time the presence of trade unions in the workplace, expanded the means of action of the works councils, and improved their work basics as well as those of the [youth councils](/wiki/Youth_council "Youth council").{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\_zur\_politischen \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103061114/http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\_zur\_politischen \\|archive\-date\=3 January 2015 \\|title\=IZPB \\| bpb \\|language\=de \\|publisher\=Bpb.de \\|access\-date\=2012\-11\-14}} A law was passed in 1974 allowing for worker representation on the boards of large firms, although this change was not enacted until 1976, after alterations were made. In 1974, redundancy allowances in cases of bankruptcies were introduced.{{citation needed\\|date\=June 2021}} The Federal Law on Personnel Representation, which came into force in April 1974, gave increased co\-management rights to those employed in factories and offices in the public sector. The staff councils were given an increased say in social and personal matters, together with a wider operational basis for their activities in connection with day release and training opportunities. The arrangements governing cooperation between the staff councils and the trade union were also improved. Young workers were given increased rights of representation, while foreign workers received voting rights and thus achieved equality in this respect with German employees. A new federal scale of charges for hospital treatment and a law on hospital financing were introduced to improve hospital treatment, the Hire Purchase Act entitled purchasers to withdraw from their contracts within a certain time limit, compensation for victims of violent acts became guaranteed by law, the Federal Criminal Investigation Office became a modern crime\-fighting organisation, and the Federal Education Promotion Act was extended to include large groups of pupils attending vocational schools. In 1973, the minimum statutory retirement age was reduced from 65 to 63, while "flexible" retirement was provided for those between the ages of 63 and 67\.{{cite journal \\|first1\=Max \\|last1\=Horlick \\|title\=New Private Pension Law in the Federal Republic of Germany \\|journal\=\[\[Social Security Bulletin]] \\|volume\=38 \\|issue\=7 \\|pages\=38–39, 56 \\|url\=https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v38n7/v38n7p38\.pdf}} In 1974, a federal law was passed that obliged television stations to spend certain amounts of money each year to sponsor productions by independent film companies.Germany and the Germans by [John Ardagh](/wiki/John_Ardagh "John Ardagh") A law to improve the system of sickness benefits provided that those insured would receive compensation when obliged to stay at home to care for a sick child and thereby incurring a loss of income. An insured person could request unpaid leave of absence on such occasions. The same law established the right to a home help, to be paid for by the health service, where the parents are in hospital or undergoing treatment, provided that the household included a child under 8 or a handicapped child required special care.{{cite book \\|last1\=Shaffer \\|first1\=Harry G. \\|title\=Women in the Two Germanies: A Comparative Study of A Socialist and a Non\-Socialist Society \\|date\=2013 \\|publisher\=\[\[Elsevier]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-4831\-5336\-0 \\|page\=17 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0eFsBQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA17 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} The SPD\-FDP coalition's time in office also saw a considerable expansion in the number of childcare places for three\- to six\-year\-old children, with the number of facilities rising from 17,493 in 1970 to 23,938 in 1980, and the number of places from 1,160,700 to 1,392,500 during that same period.{{cite book \\|last1\=Allemann\-Ghionda \\|first1\=Cristina \\|last2\=Hagemann \\|first2\=Karen \\|last3\=Jarausch \\|first3\=Konrad H. \\|title\=Children, Families, and States: Time Policies of Childcare, Preschool, and Primary Education in Europe \\|date\=2011 \\|publisher\=\[\[Berghahn Books]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-85745\-097\-5 \\|page\=280 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PUxFAAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA280 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} Subsidies for day care rose between 1970 and 1980, but fell between 1980 and 1983\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Baker \\|first1\=Maureen \\|title\=Canadian Family Policies: Cross\-national Comparisons \\|date\=1995 \\|publisher\=\[\[University of Toronto Press]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-8020\-7786\-8 \\|page\=215 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eWF56\_J\-6aEC\&pg\=PA215 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} In the field of housing, Brandt stated that the aims of the SPD\-FDP government were improving housing benefit, developing a long\-term programme of social housing construction, and to increase owner\-occupation. As noted by Mark Kleinman, this led to a boom in housing construction, with output peaking at 714,000 in 1973 before falling to under 400,000 in 1976\.{{cite book \\|last1\=Kleinman \\|first1\=Mark \\|title\=Housing, Welfare, and the State in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Britain, France, and Germany \\|date\=1996 \\|publisher\=E. Elgar \\|isbn\=978\-1\-85898\-451\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} A Federal Education Grants Act was also introduced, which opened up better chances of higher education for low\-income children. In addition, labor\-protection and anti\-trust laws were significantly strengthened, while from 1969 to 1975 alone some 140 laws were passed that entitled various socially disadvantaged groups to tax subsidies.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/rae5\_2\_4\.pdf \\|title\=De\-Socialization in a United Germany \\|date\=18 August 2014 \\|publisher\=\[\[Mises Institute]]}} During the mid\-Seventies recession, eligibility for short\-term unemployment benefits was extended from 6 to 12 months, and to 24 months in some cases.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Levitan \\|first1\=Sar A. \\|last2\=Belous \\|first2\=Richard S. \\|title\=Work\-sharing initiatives at home and abroad \\|journal\=\[\[Monthly Labor Review]] \\|date\=1977 \\|volume\=100 \\|issue\=9 \\|pages\=16–20 \\|jstor\=41840582}} Active Labour Market Policies were substantially expanded, with the number of people benefiting from such schemes increasing from 1,600 in 1970 to 648,000 by 1975\.{{cite journal \\|last1\=Bonoli \\|first1\=Giuliano \\|title\=The Political Economy of Active Labor\-Market Policy \\|journal\=\[\[Politics \& Society]] \\|date\=December 2010 \\|volume\=38 \\|issue\=4 \\|pages\=435–457 \\|doi\=10\.1177/0032329210381235 \\|s2cid\=153689545 \\|url\=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/document/19812/1/ssoar\-2010\-bonoli\-the\_political\_economy\_of\_active.pdf}} In addition, the SPD\-FDP government gave more priority to raising minimum housing standards.{{cite book \\|last1\=George \\|first1\=Victor \\|last2\=Lawson \\|first2\=Roger \\|title\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\|date\=1980\-01\-01 \\|publisher\=\[\[Routledge]] \& Kegan Paul \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7100\-0517\-5 \\|page\=223 \\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=R5g9AAAAIAAJ\&pg\=PA223 \\|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}} The Law on Nursing Homes and Homes for the Elderly (1974\) sought to guarantee minimum standards in an important area of social services, while the Beratungshilfegesetz (Legal Advice Act) of 1980{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.gesetze\-im\-internet.de/bundesrecht/berathig/gesamt.pdf\\|title\=BerHG \- nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis}} strengthened the position of the indigent in need of out of court legal advice and representation.{{cite web\\|url\=http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/schrank.shtml\#fn91sym\\|publisher\=ouclf.iuscomp.org\\|title\=OUCLF: articles: Tobias Schrank (2011\)\\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-03}} The Maternity Leave Act of 1979 permitted mothers in work to take leave of 6 months after the birth of a child, granted a maternity allowance, and safeguarded jobs for 8 months.{{cite book \\|editor1\-last\=Kolinsky \\|editor1\-first\=Eva \\|title\=The Federal Republic of Germany: The End of an Era \\|date\=1991 \\|publisher\=\[\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \\|isbn\=978\-0\-85496\-287\-7}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} Wage rates also rose significantly under the coalition, as characterised by a 60% real increase in the hourly wages of manufacturing sector employees between 1970 and 1980\. In addition, educational opportunities were significantly widened as a result of policies such as the introduction of free [higher education](/wiki/Higher_education_in_Germany "Higher education in Germany"), the raising of the [school\-leaving age](/wiki/School-leaving_age "School-leaving age") to 16, increased expenditure on education at all levels, and the introduction of a generous student stipend system. Although the coalition failed to restructure the education system along comprehensive lines, the cumulative impact of its educational reforms was such that according to Helmut Becker (an authoritative commentator on German education), there was greater achievement at all levels and the chances of a twenty\-year\-old working\-class child born in 1958 going to college or university was approximately six times greater than a similar child born ten years earlier. In summarising the domestic reforms introduced by the SPD\-FDP coalition, historian [Reiner Pommerin](/wiki/Reiner_Pommerin "Reiner Pommerin") noted that "There were few difficulties with the wave of domestic reforms, which the SPD\-led coalitions initiated. In fact, the SPD's domestic reform program was often compared with contemporary American developments, like such as [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement") and the [Great Society](/wiki/Great_Society "Great Society")".{{cite book \\|last1\=Reiner \\|first1\=Pommerin \\|title\=The American Impact on Postwar Germany \\|date\=1995 \\|publisher\=\[\[Berghahn Books]] \\|isbn\=978\-1\-57181\-004\-5}}{{page needed\\|date\=June 2021}} As noted further by [Henrich Potthoff](/wiki/Henrich_Potthoff "Henrich Potthoff") and [Susanne Miller](/wiki/Susanne_Miller "Susanne Miller"), in their evaluation of the record of the SPD\-FDP coalition, "Ostpolitik and detente, the extension of the welfare safety net, and a greater degree of social liberality were the fruits of Social Democratic government during this period which served as a pointer to the future and increased the respect in which the federal republic was held, both in Europe and throughout the world."	[ "### Governing party (1966–1982\\)", "[thumbnail\\\|right\\\|Logo of the Social Democratic Party during the 1960s and 1970s](/wiki/File:Sozialdemokratische_Partei_Deutschlands%2C_Logo_1969-1982.png \"Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, Logo 1969-1982.png\")\nIn 1966 the coalition of the [Christian Democratic Union](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Germany)\") (CDU) and the liberal [Free Democratic Party](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Free Democratic Party (Germany)\") (FDP) fell and a [grand coalition](/wiki/Grand_coalition \"Grand coalition\") between CDU/CSU and SPD was formed under the leadership of CDU Chancellor [Kurt Georg Kiesinger](/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger \"Kurt Georg Kiesinger\"), with SPD leader [Willy Brandt](/wiki/Willy_Brandt \"Willy Brandt\") as [Vice\\-Chancellor](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany \"Vice-Chancellor of Germany\"). The welfare state was considerably expanded,{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\\_35\\.pdf \\\|title\\=Labor Parties and Labor Movements in a Post\\-Fordist Political Economy: The British, French, and German Cases \\\|first1\\=Anthony \\\|last1\\=Daley \\\|first2\\=Chris \\\|last2\\=Howell \\\|first3\\=Stephen J. \\\|last3\\=Silvia \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harvard University]] \\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2014 \\\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2014 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322135253/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/\\~ces/publications/docs/pdfs/CES\\_35\\.pdf }} while social spending was almost doubled between 1969 and 1975\\.{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.country\\-data.com/cgi\\-bin/query/r\\-4975\\.html \\\|publisher\\=country\\-data.com \\\|title\\=Germany \\- Social Democratic Party of Germany \\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} Changes were made to income maintenance schemes which met some of the SPD's long\\-standing demands,Growth to Limits: Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy by Peter Flora and many other social reforms were introduced, including the equalising of wages and salaries between white\\-collar and blue\\-collar employees, the continuation of wage and salary payments, a law to promote employment, and a vocational training law. Although these measures were largely due to the efforts of the CDU minister [Hans Katzer](/wiki/Hans_Katzer \"Hans Katzer\"), it is arguable that he would never have been able to push his programme through the cabinet (let alone envisage it) without the SPD.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Dönhoff \\\|first1\\=Marion \\\|title\\=Foe Into Friend: The Makers of the New Germany from Konrad Adenauer to Helmut Schmidt \\\|date\\=1982 \\\|publisher\\=Weidenfeld and Nicolson \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-297\\-78058\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "The 1969 Employment Promotion Act, which was based largely on a proposal prepared by the SPD in 1966, established active labour market intervention measures such as employment research,The German economy by E. Owen Smith and offered \"substantial state assistance to employees with educational aspirations.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Jobert \\\|first1\\=Annette \\\|last2\\=Marry \\\|first2\\=Catherine \\\|last3\\=Rainbird \\\|first3\\=Helen \\\|last4\\=Tanguy \\\|first4\\=Lucie \\\|title\\=Education and Work in Great Britain, Germany and Italy \\\|date\\=2013 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-68733\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Under the direction of the SPD [Minister of Economics](/wiki/Minister_of_Economics \"Minister of Economics\") [Karl Schiller](/wiki/Karl_Schiller \"Karl Schiller\"), the federal government adopted [Keynesian](/wiki/Keynesian_economics \"Keynesian economics\") [demand management](/wiki/Demand_management \"Demand management\") for the first time ever. Schiller called for legislation that would provide both his ministry and the federal government with greater authority to guide economic policy.{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://countrystudies.us/germany/137\\.htm\\\|publisher\\=countrystudies.us \\\|title\\=Germany \\- The Economic Miracle and Beyond \\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} In 1967, Schiller introduced the Law for Promoting Stability and Growth,Germany in Our Time: A Political History of the Postwar Years by [Alfred Grosser](/wiki/Alfred_Grosser \"Alfred Grosser\") which was subsequently passed by the Bundestag. Regarded as the Magna Carta of medium\\-term economic management, the legislation provided for coordination of federal, Lander, and local budget plans in order to give fiscal policy a stronger impact. It also set a number of optimistic targets for four basic standards by which West German economic success would henceforth be measured, which included trade balance, employment levels, economic growth, and currency stability.", "One of the rare German Keynesians of that era, Schiller believed that government had both \"the obligation and the capacity to shape economic trends and to smooth out and even eliminate the business cycle,\" and his adopted policy of Keynesian demand management helped West Germany to overcome the economic recession of 1966/67\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Cooper \\\|first1\\=Alice Holmes \\\|title\\=Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements Since 1945 \\\|date\\=1996 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Michigan Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-472\\-10624\\-0}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Unemployment was quickly reduced (standing at just under 1% by Autumn 1968\\), while industrial output rose by almost 12% in 1968\\. The successful economic and financial policies pursued by the Grand Coalition under the direction of Schiller was also helped by the persuasion of entrepreneurs and trade unions to accept a programme of \"concerted action.\" According to Lisanne Radice and Giles Radice, \"concerted action\" was not a formal [incomes policy](/wiki/Incomes_policy \"Incomes policy\"), but it did nevertheless ensure that collective bargaining took place \"within a broadly agreed view of the direction of the economy and the relationships between full employment, output and inflation.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Radice \\\|first1\\=Giles \\\|last2\\=Radice \\\|first2\\=Lisanne \\\|title\\=Socialists in the Recession: The Search for Solidarity \\\|date\\=1986 \\\|publisher\\=Macmillan \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-333\\-38846\\-4}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} In addition, Schiller's economic policies were not only successful in restoring West Germany's economic growth, but they also demonstrated the SPD's economic competence, and this undoubtedly played a major role in the victory of the SPD in the [federal election of 1969](/wiki/1969_West_German_federal_election \"1969 West German federal election\").", "[thumb\\\|Party convention of 1982: SPD chairman Willy Brandt and chancellor Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F062768-0008%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_SPD-Parteitag%2C_Schmidt%2C_Brandt.jpg \"Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F062768-0008, München, SPD-Parteitag, Schmidt, Brandt.jpg\")\nIn 1969 the SPD won a majority for the first time since 1928 by forming a [social\\-liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition \"Social-liberal coalition\") with the FDP and led the federal government under Chancellors Willy Brandt and [Helmut Schmidt](/wiki/Helmut_Schmidt \"Helmut Schmidt\") from 1969 until 1982\\. In its 1959 [Godesberg Program](/wiki/Godesberg_Program \"Godesberg Program\"), the SPD officially abandoned the concept of a workers' party and Marxist principles, while continuing to stress [social welfare provision](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision \"Social welfare provision\"). Although the SPD originally opposed West Germany's 1955 rearmament and entry into [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") while it favoured neutrality and reunification with East Germany, it now strongly supports German ties with the alliance.", "A wide range of reforms were carried out under the [Social\\-Liberal coalition](/wiki/Social-liberal_coalition \"Social-liberal coalition\"), including, as summarised by one historical study", "'improved health and accident insurance, better [unemployment compensation](/wiki/Unemployment_benefits \"Unemployment benefits\"), [rent control](/wiki/Rent_regulation \"Rent regulation\"), payments to families with children, subsidies to encourage savings and investments, and measures to \"humanize the world of work\" such as better medical care for on\\-the\\-job illnesses or injuries and mandated improvements in the work environment.'A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress", "Under the SDP\\-FDP coalition, social policies in West Germany took on a more egalitarian character and a number of important reforms were carried out to improve the prospects of previously neglected and underprivileged groups.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Walker \\\|first1\\=Robert \\\|last2\\=Lawson \\\|first2\\=Roger \\\|last3\\=Townsend \\\|first3\\=Peter \\\|title\\=Responses to Poverty: Lessons from Europe \\\|date\\=1984 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8386\\-3222\\-2}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} Greater emphasis was placed on policies favouring single parents, larger families, and the lower paid, and further improvements were made in social benefits for pensioners and disabled persons. Rates of [social assistance](/wiki/Social_assistance \"Social assistance\") (excluding rent) as a percentage of average gross earnings of men in manufacturing industries rose during the Social\\-Liberal coalition's time in office,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=George \\\|first1\\=Victor \\\|last2\\=Lawson \\\|first2\\=Roger \\\|title\\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\\|date\\=1980 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\& Kegan Paul \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7100\\-0424\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} while social welfare provision was greatly extended, with pensions and health care opened up to large sections of the population.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Lewis \\\|first1\\=Derek R. \\\|last2\\=Schwitalla \\\|first2\\=Johannes \\\|last3\\=Zitzlsperger \\\|first3\\=Ulrike \\\|title\\=Contemporary Germany: A Handbook \\\|date\\=2001 \\\|publisher\\=Arnold \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-340\\-74040\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} This in turn substantially increased the size and cost of the social budget, as social program costs grew by over 10% a year during much of the 1970s. Government spending as a percentage of GDP rose significantly under the SPD\\-FDP coalition, from 39% in 1969 to around 50% by 1982\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Sinn \\\|first1\\=Hans\\-Werner \\\|title\\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\\|date\\=2007 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MIT Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-19558\\-4}} Between 1970 and 1981, social spending as a proportion of GNP rose by 21\\.4%, and in terms of percentage of GNP went up from 25,7% in 1970 to 31\\.2% in 1981\\. Much was accomplished in the way of social reform during the SDP\\-FDP coalition's first five years on office, with one study noting that \"\"the years 1969 to 1974 represent a phase of social policy in which the state introduced new minimum benefits and extended existing ones.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Leisering \\\|first1\\=Lutz \\\|last2\\=Leibfried \\\|first2\\=Stephan \\\|title\\=Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective \\\|date\\=2001 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-00352\\-0 \\\|page\\=185 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KScADiSdelIC\\&pg\\=PA185 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "In April 1970, the government drew up an Action Programme for the Promotion of the Rehabilitation of Handicapped Persons.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Schewe \\\|first1\\=Dieter \\\|last2\\=Nordhorn \\\|first2\\=Karlhugo \\\|last3\\=Schenke \\\|first3\\=Klaus \\\|title\\=Survey of social security in the Federal Republic of Germany \\\|date\\=1972 \\\|publisher\\=Federal Minister for Labour and Social Affairs \\\|oclc\\=643574180}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} During that same year, bills were tabled to extend and increase housing allowances (passed in 1970\\), to extend and standardise the promotion of vocational training (passed in 1971\\), to automatically index pensions for war victims (passed in 1970\\), to increase family allowances (passed in 1970\\), and to reform \"shop rules\" (which came into force in 1972\\). In 1974, a bankruptcy allowance was introduced for employed persons when their employers became insolvent. Developments in [accident insurance](/wiki/Accident_insurance \"Accident insurance\") led to the inclusion of schoolchildren, students and children at kindergarten and thus to more widespread measures for [accident prevention](/wiki/Accident_Prevention \"Accident Prevention\"). In addition, farm and household assistance was introduced as a new service in agricultural accident insurance. A major pension reform law extended the accessibility of pension insurance by providing generous possibilities for backpayments of contributions, while adjustment of currently paid out pensions was brought forward by 6 months. The Rehabilitation and Assimilation Law of 1974 improved and standardised [benefits for the disabled](/wiki/Disability_benefits \"Disability benefits\"), while a law was passed that same year on the establishment of an additional relief fund for persons employed in agriculture and forestry. The Law on the Improvement of Works' Old Age Schemes of 1974 brought conditional non\\-forfeiture of qualifying periods for works pensions as well as the prohibition of cuts in works pensions due to increases in social insurance pensions. In addition, a number of reforms in areas such as civil and consumer rights{{cite news \\\|title\\=Dreizehn Jahre geliehene Macht \\\|trans\\-title\\=Thirteen years of borrowed power \\\|language\\=de \\\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/dreizehn\\-jahre\\-geliehene\\-macht\\-a\\-4dd36291\\-0002\\-0001\\-0000\\-000014348240 \\\|work\\=\\[\\[Der Spiegel]] \\\|date\\=10 March 1982}} the environment, [education](/wiki/Education \"Education\"), and [urban renewal](/wiki/Urban_renewal \"Urban renewal\"){{cite book \\\|last1\\=Flüchter \\\|first1\\=Winfried \\\|title\\=Japan and Central Europe Restructuring: Geographical Aspects of Socio\\-economic, Urban, and Regional Development \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|publisher\\=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag \\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-447\\-03531\\-6 \\\|page\\=150 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=C8J1pypuORUC\\&pg\\=PA150 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}{{cite book \\\|editor1\\-last\\=Burgers \\\|editor1\\-first\\=Jack \\\|editor2\\-last\\=Vranken \\\|editor2\\-first\\=Jan \\\|title\\=How to Make Successful Urban Development Programme: Experience from Nine European Countries \\\|date\\=2004 \\\|publisher\\=Garant \\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-441\\-1393\\-8 \\\|page\\=100 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TdAM2GS0t3kC\\&pg\\=PA100 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} were carried out. in 1972, a pension reform act was passed which, according to one historical study, ensured that workers \"would not suffer financial hardship and could maintain an adequate standard of living after retirement.\"A History of West Germany Volume 2: Democracy and its discontents 1963–1988 by Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress. In 1973, sickness benefits became available in cases where a parent had to care for a sick child.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Companje \\\|first1\\=Karel\\-Peter \\\|last2\\=Veraghtert \\\|first2\\=Karel \\\|last3\\=Widdershoven \\\|first3\\=Brigitte \\\|title\\=Two Centuries of Solidarity: German, Belgian, and Dutch Social Health Care Insurance 1770\\-2008 \\\|date\\=2009 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Amsterdam University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-5260\\-344\\-5 \\\|page\\=210 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=64U\\_dlAI6g0C\\&pg\\=PA210 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} In March 1974, Social Assistance (SA) was expanded, \"concerning family supplements, means test, and certain additional payments.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Picot \\\|first1\\=Georg \\\|title\\=Politics of Segmentation: Party Competition and Social Protection in Europe \\\|date\\=2013\\-06\\-17 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-136\\-47682\\-2 \\\|page\\=58 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=e8gYDKWOM\\_wC\\&pg\\=PA58 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "Under a law of April 1974, the protection hitherto granted to the victims of war or industrial accidents for the purpose of their occupational and social reintegration was extended to all handicapped persons, whatever the cause of their handicap, provided that their capacity to work has been reduced by at least 50%. Another law, passed in August that same year, supplemented this protection by providing that henceforth the benefits for the purposes of medical and occupational rehabilitation would be the same for all the categories of persons concerned: war victims, the sick, the victims of industrial accidents, congenitally handicapped persons, representing a total of about 4 million persons in all. In addition, a new benefit was introduced to help such people in all branches of social security, taking the form of an adaptation benefit equivalent to 80% of the previous gross salary and to be granted over the period between the time when the person in question is forced to stop work and the time when he resumes work. A law on home\\-based workers, passed by the [Bundestag](/wiki/Bundestag \"Bundestag\") in June 1974, sought to modernise the working conditions of approximately 300 000 people who work at home by means of the following measures:{{cite web \\\|title\\=Report on the development of the social situation in the Community in 1973 \\\|website\\=Archive of European Integration \\\|date\\=1974 \\\|url\\=http://aei.pitt.edu/9801/}}\n* Employers were obliged to inform their home\\-based workers concerning the method of calculation and the composition of their pay.\n* In order to increase safety at work the employer was obliged to explain accident risks and dangers to health.\n* Home\\-based workers were now given the opportunity of making contributions towards asset formation.\n* Protection from dismissal was extended. The periods of notice, which are graduated according to the length of time the worker has been employed, were considerably increased. In addition, the guarantee of payment during the period of notice was consolidated.\n* The agreed wage for the same or equivalent work in industry would be used more than previously as the standard for wage increases for home\\-based workers.\n* The Law also applied to office work at home, which was becoming increasingly important and substantial.", "Children's allowances for students up to the age of twenty\\-seven were introduced, together with a flexible retirement age, new married couples' and families' legislation, an extension of co\\-determination, rehabilitation and special employment rights for the severely handicapped, adjustments and increases in the pensions of war victims, a revision of child benefit, a new youth employment protection law, health insurance for farmers, pension schemes for the self\\-employed, and guaranteed works' pensions. Although the principle of the social welfare state was enshrined in the constitution of West Germany, and laws and measures taken (often jointly by the CDU/CSU coalition partners and the SPD) to meet this commitment, it was only when the SPD came to power in Bonn that the provisions of the social welfare system \"reached a level which few other countries could equal.\" In 1975, three tax levels were introduced that removed many lower\\-income persons from the tax rolls and raised child benefit payments.", "Various improvements were also made to health care provision and coverage during the social\\-liberal coalition's time in office. In 1974, domestic aid during in\\-patient or in\\-patient cures was established, sick pay to compensate for wages lost while caring for a child was introduced, and the time\\-limit to in\\-patient care was removed. That same year, the cover of rehabilitation services was increased, together with the cover of dental and orthodontic services.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Bärnighausen \\\|first1\\=Till \\\|last2\\=Sauerborn \\\|first2\\=Rainer \\\|title\\=One hundred and eighteen years of the German health insurance system: are there any lessons for middle\\- and low\\-income countries? \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Social Science \\& Medicine]] \\\|date\\=May 2002 \\\|volume\\=54 \\\|issue\\=10 \\\|pages\\=1559–1587 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0277\\-9536(01\\)00137\\-X \\\|pmid\\=12061488}} Health insurance coverage was extended to self\\-employed agricultural workers in 1972, and to students and the disabled in 1975\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl\\_health\\_care\\_develop.htm\\\|publisher\\=germanculture.com.ua\\\|title\\=Development of the Health Care System in Germany\\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} in 1971, an International Transactions Tax Law was passed.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Campbell \\\|first1\\=Dennis \\\|title\\=International Handbook on Comparative Business Law \\\|date\\=2013 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-94\\-017\\-4399\\-0 \\\|page\\=79 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fMSfBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT79 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "In 1974, a number of amendments were made to the Federal Social Assistance Act. \"Help for [the vulnerable](/wiki/Social_vulnerability \"Social vulnerability\")\" was renamed \"help for overcoming particular social difficulties,\" and the number of people eligible for assistance was greatly extended to include all those \"whose own capabilities cannot meet the increasing demands of modern industrial society.\" The intention of these amendments was to include especially such groups as discharged prisoners, drug and narcotic addicts, alcoholics, and the homeless.Time and Poverty in Western Welfare States: United Germany in Perspective by Lutz Leisering and Stephan Leibfried Under the SPD, people who formerly had to be supported by their relatives became entitled to social assistance.{{cite book \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0KnP2KKdzyAC\\&q\\=malaise\\+first\\+welfare\\+state\\+brandt\\+1972\\+and\\+1974\\&pg\\=PA182 \\\|title\\=Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World's First Welfare State \\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-14 \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-262\\-19558\\-4 \\\|year\\=2007 \\\|last1\\=Sinn \\\|first1\\=Hans\\-Werner \\\|publisher\\=MIT Press \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} In addition, the recreational and residential value of towns (building schools, training institutions, baths, sports facilities, Kindegarten etc.) was increased from 1970 with the help of a new programme.{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/WahlprogrammDerSpdMitWillyBrandtFrFriedenSicherheitUndEine \\\|title\\=Wahlprogramm der SPD : mit Willy Brandt fur Frieden, Sicherheit und eine bessere Qualitat des Lebens: Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands \\\|language\\=de \\\|trans\\-title\\=Election program of the SPD: with Willy Brandt for peace, security and a better quality of life: Social Democratic Party of Germany \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Internet Archive]] \\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}}", "A number of liberal social reforms in areas like censorship,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Pavelec \\\|first1\\=S. Mike \\\|title\\=The Military\\-Industrial Complex and American Society \\\|date\\=2010 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ABC\\-CLIO]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59884\\-188\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} homosexuality, divorce, education, and worker participation in company management were introduced,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Biesinger \\\|first1\\=Joseph A. \\\|title\\=Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present \\\|date\\=2006 \\\|publisher\\=Infobase Publishing \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8160\\-7471\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} whilst social security benefits were significantly increased. Increases were made in unemployment benefits,{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} while substantial improvements in benefits were made for farmers, students, war invalids, the sick, families with many children, women, and pensioners between 1970 and 1975, which led to a doubling of benefit and social security payments during that period.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Weber \\\|first1\\=Jürgen \\\|title\\=Germany, 1945\\-1990: A Parallel History \\\|date\\=2004 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central European University Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-963\\-9241\\-70\\-1}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} By 1979, old age and survivors' benefits were 53% higher in real terms than in 1970, while family benefits were 95% higher.\nThe Second Sickness Insurance Modification Law linked the indexation of the income\\-limit for compulsory employee coverage to the development of the pension insurance contribution ceiling (75% of the ceiling), obliged employers to pay half of the contributions in the case of voluntary membership, extended the criteria for voluntary membership of employees, and introduced preventive medical check\\-ups for certain groups. The Law on Sickness Insurance for Farmers (1972\\) included the self\\-employed, their dependants and people who receive old age assistance in sickness insurance. The Law on the Social Insurance of Disabled Persons (1975\\) included in sickness and pension insurance disabled persons employed in workshops and institutions under certain conditions, while a law was passed in June that year to include all students in statutory sickness insurance. Social protection against the risks of an occupational accident, death, disability, and old age was newly regulated in 1974 through a Civil Servant Provisioning Law that was standard throughout the country.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Zacher \\\|first1\\=Hans F. \\\|title\\=Social Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany: The Constitution of the Social \\\|date\\=2012 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-22525\\-3}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "Educational reforms were introduced which led to the setting up of new colleges and universities, much greater access for young people to the universities, increased provision for pre\\-school education, and a limited number of comprehensive schools.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Edwards \\\|first1\\=G. E. \\\|title\\=German Political Parties: A Documentary Guide \\\|date\\=1998 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Wales Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7083\\-1417\\-3}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} An educational law of 1971 providing postgraduate support provided highly qualified graduates with the opportunity \"to earn their doctorates or undertake research studies.\"{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Winkler \\\|first1\\=Heinrich August \\\|title\\=Germany: The Long Road West: Volume 2: 1933\\-1990 \\\|date\\=2007 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]] \\\|location\\=Oxford \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-150061\\-9 \\\|page\\=182 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=r4al47QG2uYC\\&pg\\=PT182 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "A more active regional and industrial policy was pursued, tighter rules against dismissal were introduced,{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Ostner \\\|first1\\=Ilona \\\|title\\=Farewell to the Family as We Know it: Family Policy Change in Germany \\\|journal\\=German Policy Studies \\\|date\\=2010 \\\|volume\\=6 \\\|issue\\=1 \\\|pages\\=211–244 \\\|url\\=https://spaef.org/article/1191/Farewell\\-to\\-the\\-Family\\-as\\-We\\-Know\\-it\\-Family\\-Policy\\-Change\\-in\\-Germany}} day care was introduced for children between the ages of three and six,{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Köppen \\\|first1\\=Katja \\\|title\\=Second births in western Germany and France \\\|journal\\=Demographic Research \\\|date\\=28 April 2006 \\\|volume\\=14 \\\|pages\\=295–330 \\\|doi\\=10\\.4054/DemRes.2006\\.14\\.14 \\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} spending on dental services, drugs, and appliances was increased,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Gill \\\|first1\\=Sonya \\\|last2\\=Kavadi \\\|first2\\=Shirish N. \\\|title\\=Health Financing and Costs: A Comparative Study of Trends in Eighteen Countries with Special Reference to India \\\|date\\=1999 \\\|publisher\\=Foundation for Research in Community Health \\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-87078\\-23\\-4}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} environmental protection legislation was passed,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Joppke \\\|first1\\=Christian \\\|title\\=Mobilizing Against Nuclear Energy: A Comparison of Germany and the United States \\\|date\\=1993 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of California Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-520\\-91252\\-6}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} expenditure on education at all levels was increased,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Childs \\\|first1\\=David \\\|title\\=Germany Since 1918 \\\|date\\=1971 \\\|publisher\\=Harper \\& Row \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-06\\-010759\\-8}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} a tax reform bill was passed, lowering the tax burden for low\\-income and middle\\-income groups,{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Drath \\\|first1\\=Viola Herms \\\|title\\=Willy Brandt: Prisoner of His Past \\\|date\\=2005 \\\|publisher\\=Hamilton Books \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4616\\-2711\\-1}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} the average age of entry into the workforce was increased, working time was reduced, social assistance and unemployment compensation were made more generous, early\\-retirement options were introduced, and municipalities received more generous federal grants to expand social infrastructure such as conference halls, sports facilities and public swimming pools.", "Various measures were introduced to improve environmental conditions and to safeguard the environment,{{cite report \\\|last1\\=Weidner \\\|first1\\=Helmut \\\|title\\=25 years of modern environmental policy in Germany: Treading a well\\-worn path to the top of the international field \\\|website\\=EconStor \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|hdl\\=10419/48980 \\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} the Federal Emission Control Law established the basis for taking of legal action against those responsible for [excessive noise](/wiki/Noise_pollution \"Noise pollution\") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution_in_Germany \"Air pollution in Germany\"), the Works' Constitution Act and Personnel Representation Act strengthened the position of individual employees in offices and factories, and the Works' Safety Law required firms to employ safety specialists and doctors.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Hanrieder \\\|first1\\=Wolfram F. \\\|title\\=Helmut Schmidt: Perspectives On Politics \\\|date\\=2019 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-429\\-72453\\-4}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} An amendment to the Labour Management Act (1971\\) granted workers co\\-determination on the shop floorMy Life in Politics by Willy Brandt while the new Factory Management Law (1972\\) extended co\\-determination at the factory level. This Act acknowledged for the first time the presence of trade unions in the workplace, expanded the means of action of the works councils, and improved their work basics as well as those of the [youth councils](/wiki/Youth_council \"Youth council\").{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\\_zur\\_politischen \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103061114/http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MXQU1P,0,0,Informationen\\_zur\\_politischen \\\|archive\\-date\\=3 January 2015 \\\|title\\=IZPB \\\| bpb \\\|language\\=de \\\|publisher\\=Bpb.de \\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-14}} A law was passed in 1974 allowing for worker representation on the boards of large firms, although this change was not enacted until 1976, after alterations were made. In 1974, redundancy allowances in cases of bankruptcies were introduced.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}} The Federal Law on Personnel Representation, which came into force in April 1974, gave increased co\\-management rights to those employed in factories and offices in the public sector. The staff councils were given an increased say in social and personal matters, together with a wider operational basis for their activities in connection with day release and training opportunities. The arrangements governing cooperation between the staff councils and the trade union were also improved. Young workers were given increased rights of representation, while foreign workers received voting rights and thus achieved equality in this respect with German employees.", "A new federal scale of charges for hospital treatment and a law on hospital financing were introduced to improve hospital treatment, the Hire Purchase Act entitled purchasers to withdraw from their contracts within a certain time limit, compensation for victims of violent acts became guaranteed by law, the Federal Criminal Investigation Office became a modern crime\\-fighting organisation, and the Federal Education Promotion Act was extended to include large groups of pupils attending vocational schools. In 1973, the minimum statutory retirement age was reduced from 65 to 63, while \"flexible\" retirement was provided for those between the ages of 63 and 67\\.{{cite journal \\\|first1\\=Max \\\|last1\\=Horlick \\\|title\\=New Private Pension Law in the Federal Republic of Germany \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Social Security Bulletin]] \\\|volume\\=38 \\\|issue\\=7 \\\|pages\\=38–39, 56 \\\|url\\=https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v38n7/v38n7p38\\.pdf}} In 1974, a federal law was passed that obliged television stations to spend certain amounts of money each year to sponsor productions by independent film companies.Germany and the Germans by [John Ardagh](/wiki/John_Ardagh \"John Ardagh\")", "A law to improve the system of sickness benefits provided that those insured would receive compensation when obliged to stay at home to care for a sick child and thereby incurring a loss of income. An insured person could request unpaid leave of absence on such occasions. The same law established the right to a home help, to be paid for by the health service, where the parents are in hospital or undergoing treatment, provided that the household included a child under 8 or a handicapped child required special care.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Shaffer \\\|first1\\=Harry G. \\\|title\\=Women in the Two Germanies: A Comparative Study of A Socialist and a Non\\-Socialist Society \\\|date\\=2013 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Elsevier]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4831\\-5336\\-0 \\\|page\\=17 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0eFsBQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA17 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} The SPD\\-FDP coalition's time in office also saw a considerable expansion in the number of childcare places for three\\- to six\\-year\\-old children, with the number of facilities rising from 17,493 in 1970 to 23,938 in 1980, and the number of places from 1,160,700 to 1,392,500 during that same period.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Allemann\\-Ghionda \\\|first1\\=Cristina \\\|last2\\=Hagemann \\\|first2\\=Karen \\\|last3\\=Jarausch \\\|first3\\=Konrad H. \\\|title\\=Children, Families, and States: Time Policies of Childcare, Preschool, and Primary Education in Europe \\\|date\\=2011 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Berghahn Books]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85745\\-097\\-5 \\\|page\\=280 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PUxFAAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA280 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} Subsidies for day care rose between 1970 and 1980, but fell between 1980 and 1983\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Baker \\\|first1\\=Maureen \\\|title\\=Canadian Family Policies: Cross\\-national Comparisons \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Toronto Press]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8020\\-7786\\-8 \\\|page\\=215 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eWF56\\_J\\-6aEC\\&pg\\=PA215 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}", "In the field of housing, Brandt stated that the aims of the SPD\\-FDP government were improving housing benefit, developing a long\\-term programme of social housing construction, and to increase owner\\-occupation. As noted by Mark Kleinman, this led to a boom in housing construction, with output peaking at 714,000 in 1973 before falling to under 400,000 in 1976\\.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Kleinman \\\|first1\\=Mark \\\|title\\=Housing, Welfare, and the State in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Britain, France, and Germany \\\|date\\=1996 \\\|publisher\\=E. Elgar \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85898\\-451\\-3}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "A Federal Education Grants Act was also introduced, which opened up better chances of higher education for low\\-income children. In addition, labor\\-protection and anti\\-trust laws were significantly strengthened, while from 1969 to 1975 alone some 140 laws were passed that entitled various socially disadvantaged groups to tax subsidies.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/rae5\\_2\\_4\\.pdf \\\|title\\=De\\-Socialization in a United Germany \\\|date\\=18 August 2014 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Mises Institute]]}} During the mid\\-Seventies recession, eligibility for short\\-term unemployment benefits was extended from 6 to 12 months, and to 24 months in some cases.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Levitan \\\|first1\\=Sar A. \\\|last2\\=Belous \\\|first2\\=Richard S. \\\|title\\=Work\\-sharing initiatives at home and abroad \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Monthly Labor Review]] \\\|date\\=1977 \\\|volume\\=100 \\\|issue\\=9 \\\|pages\\=16–20 \\\|jstor\\=41840582}} Active Labour Market Policies were substantially expanded, with the number of people benefiting from such schemes increasing from 1,600 in 1970 to 648,000 by 1975\\.{{cite journal \\\|last1\\=Bonoli \\\|first1\\=Giuliano \\\|title\\=The Political Economy of Active Labor\\-Market Policy \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Politics \\& Society]] \\\|date\\=December 2010 \\\|volume\\=38 \\\|issue\\=4 \\\|pages\\=435–457 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0032329210381235 \\\|s2cid\\=153689545 \\\|url\\=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/document/19812/1/ssoar\\-2010\\-bonoli\\-the\\_political\\_economy\\_of\\_active.pdf}} In addition, the SPD\\-FDP government gave more priority to raising minimum housing standards.{{cite book \\\|last1\\=George \\\|first1\\=Victor \\\|last2\\=Lawson \\\|first2\\=Roger \\\|title\\=Poverty and Inequality in Common Market Countries \\\|date\\=1980\\-01\\-01 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Routledge]] \\& Kegan Paul \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7100\\-0517\\-5 \\\|page\\=223 \\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=R5g9AAAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=PA223 \\\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}} The Law on Nursing Homes and Homes for the Elderly (1974\\) sought to guarantee minimum standards in an important area of social services, while the Beratungshilfegesetz (Legal Advice Act) of 1980{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.gesetze\\-im\\-internet.de/bundesrecht/berathig/gesamt.pdf\\\|title\\=BerHG \\- nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis}} strengthened the position of the indigent in need of out of court legal advice and representation.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/schrank.shtml\\#fn91sym\\\|publisher\\=ouclf.iuscomp.org\\\|title\\=OUCLF: articles: Tobias Schrank (2011\\)\\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-03}} The Maternity Leave Act of 1979 permitted mothers in work to take leave of 6 months after the birth of a child, granted a maternity allowance, and safeguarded jobs for 8 months.{{cite book \\\|editor1\\-last\\=Kolinsky \\\|editor1\\-first\\=Eva \\\|title\\=The Federal Republic of Germany: The End of an Era \\\|date\\=1991 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomsbury Academic]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85496\\-287\\-7}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "Wage rates also rose significantly under the coalition, as characterised by a 60% real increase in the hourly wages of manufacturing sector employees between 1970 and 1980\\. In addition, educational opportunities were significantly widened as a result of policies such as the introduction of free [higher education](/wiki/Higher_education_in_Germany \"Higher education in Germany\"), the raising of the [school\\-leaving age](/wiki/School-leaving_age \"School-leaving age\") to 16, increased expenditure on education at all levels, and the introduction of a generous student stipend system. Although the coalition failed to restructure the education system along comprehensive lines, the cumulative impact of its educational reforms was such that according to Helmut Becker (an authoritative commentator on German education), there was greater achievement at all levels and the chances of a twenty\\-year\\-old working\\-class child born in 1958 going to college or university was approximately six times greater than a similar child born ten years earlier.", "In summarising the domestic reforms introduced by the SPD\\-FDP coalition, historian [Reiner Pommerin](/wiki/Reiner_Pommerin \"Reiner Pommerin\") noted that", "\"There were few difficulties with the wave of domestic reforms, which the SPD\\-led coalitions initiated. In fact, the SPD's domestic reform program was often compared with contemporary American developments, like such as [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\") and the [Great Society](/wiki/Great_Society \"Great Society\")\".{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Reiner \\\|first1\\=Pommerin \\\|title\\=The American Impact on Postwar Germany \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Berghahn Books]] \\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57181\\-004\\-5}}{{page needed\\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "As noted further by [Henrich Potthoff](/wiki/Henrich_Potthoff \"Henrich Potthoff\") and [Susanne Miller](/wiki/Susanne_Miller \"Susanne Miller\"), in their evaluation of the record of the SPD\\-FDP coalition,", "\"Ostpolitik and detente, the extension of the welfare safety net, and a greater degree of social liberality were the fruits of Social Democratic government during this period which served as a pointer to the future and increased the respect in which the federal republic was held, both in Europe and throughout the world.\"", "" ]
History and significant technological achievements -------------------------------------------------- [thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|CBS Labs in Stamford, CT](/wiki/Image:CBS_labs.jpg "CBS labs.jpg") CBS Laboratories was established in 1936 in New York City to conduct technological research for CBS and outside clients. In October 1957 CBS President Dr. Frank Stanton, speaking at ground\-breaking ceremonies for a new CBS Laboratories building in Stamford , Conn. said: "Our objective in establishing the Laboratories is to continue CBS leadership in communications and electronics and provide broader research and development services." One year later, a group of 60 engineers and scientists, led by Dr. Peter Goldmark, left New York City and moved into the new 30,000 square\-foot facility. The results of their efforts over the next 20 years resulted in a steady growth in facilities, personnel, sales, product development and technological leadership. Laboratory facilities grew to include five well\-equipped buildings totaling more than 200,000 square feet. Six major departments were engaged in a wide range of research and development programs for government, industry, education, medicine and the broadcasting field. The total staff grew to more than 600 people, one\-third of whom were professionals. Many of these professionals were internationally renowned in their respective fields and helped establish CBS Laboratories as a leader in electronics and communications research and development. [Dr. Peter Goldmark](/wiki/Peter_Carl_Goldmark "Peter Carl Goldmark") joined CBS Laboratories in 1936\. On September 4, 1940, while working at the lab, he demonstrated the [Field\-Sequential Color TV system](/wiki/Field-sequential_color_system "Field-sequential color system"). {{cite news \\| title \= Color Television Achieves Realism \\| newspaper \= New York Times \\| date \= 1940\-09\-05 \\| page \= 18 }} It utilized a mechanical color wheel on both the camera and on the television home receiver, but was not compatible with the existing post\-war NTSC, 525\-line, 60\-field/second black and white TV sets as it was a 405\-line, 144\-field scanning system.{{cite news \\|last\=O'Neil \\|first\=James E. \\|title\=Equipping Apollo for Color Television \\|newspaper\=TV Technology \\|url\=http://www.tvtechnology.com/feature\-box/0124/equipping\-apollo\-for\-color\-television/202793 \\|date\=2009\-07\-21 \\|year\=2009b \\|publisher\=NewBay Media \\|location\=New York \\|accessdate\=2013\-10\-18 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019101734/http://www.tvtechnology.com/feature\-box/0124/equipping\-apollo\-for\-color\-television/202793 \\|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-19 \\|url\-status\=dead }} It was the first color broadcasting system that received FCC approval in 1950, and the CBS Television Network began broadcasting in color on November 20, 1950\. {{cite book \\| title \= Radio and Television Regulation: Broadcast Technology in the United States 1920–1960 \\| author \= Hugh Richard Slotten \\| publisher \= Johns Hopkins University Press \\| location \= Baltimore \\| year \= 2000 \\| isbn \= 978\-0\-8018\-6450\-6 \\| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=cZLQ9R5GKfsC\&dq\=%22Field\+sequential\+color\+system%22\&pg\=PR11 \\| pages \= 189–197 }} However, no other TV set manufacturers made the sets, and CBS stopped broadcasting in field\-sequential color on October 21, 1951\. Nevertheless, the Field Sequential Color System was selected to televise the real\-time broadcasts from the Moon during the Apollo 14 Moon landing, since it uses far less bandwidth than the NTSC system. Goldmark’s interest in recorded music led to the development of the [long\-playing (LP) 33\-1/3 rpm vinyl record](/wiki/LP_record "LP record"), which became the standard for incorporating multiple or lengthy recorded works on a single audio disc for two generations. The LP was introduced to the market place by Columbia Records in 1948\. In 1959 the CBS Audimax I Audio Gain Controller was introduced. It was the first of its kind in the broadcasting industry, and updated versions (Audimax 4440\) continued to be manufactured by Thompson\-CSF, which acquired the technology after the Labs were closed.{{Cite web \\|last\=Vernon \\|first\=Tom \\|date\=January 25, 2018 \\|title\=Recalling the CBS Audimax 4440 \\|url\=https://www.radioworld.com/tech\-and\-gear/recalling\-the\-cbs\-audimax\-4440 \\|access\-date\=September 27, 2024 \\|website\=RadioWorld}} In the 1960s the CBS VoluMax Audio FM Peak Limiter was introduced, also the first of its kind in the broadcasting industry. Both the Audimax and VoluMax were considered the “gold standard” for audio processing used in the AM/FM and Television Broadcasting industry.[Hank Mahler, developer of the SMPTE color bars, passes away](https://www.tvtechnology.com/news/hank-mahler-developer-of-the-smpte-color-bars-passes-away) from TVTechnology.com, 10/13/21 At the same time, CBS Laboratories developed a solid\-state character generator, a crucial component of the VIDIAC (Visual Information Display and Control) system built for the Air Force by a collaboration of several companies. Known as the "magnetic memory character generator," this component was responsible for storing and retrieving high quality alphanumeric characters, which was essential for the high\-speed data display.{{Cite journal \\|last\=Moore, J.K., Kronenberg, M. \\|date\=June 10, 1960 \\|title\=Generating High Quality Characters and Symbols \\|url\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\-Electronics/60s/60/Electronics\-1960\-06\-10\.pdf \\|journal\=Electronics \\|pages\=55 \- 59 \\|via\=World Radio History}} [Electronic Video Recording](/wiki/Electronic_Video_Recording "Electronic Video Recording") was announced in 1967\. In 1966, the CBS Vidifont was invented. It was the first electronic graphics generator used in television production. Brought to the marketplace at the NAB in 1970, it revolutionized television production.S. Baron, “Inventing the Vidifont: the first electronic graphics generator used in television production,” IEEE History Center (www.ieeeghn.org), 11 December 2008\. The [minicam](/wiki/Minicam "Minicam") was developed for use in national political conventions in 1968\. In 1971, a backwards\-compatible 4\-channel encoding technique was developed for vinyl records, called [SQ Quadraphonic](/wiki/Stereo_quadraphonic "Stereo quadraphonic"), based on work by musician [Peter Scheiber](/wiki/Peter_Scheiber "Peter Scheiber") and Labs engineer [Benjamin B. Bauer](/wiki/Benjamin_B._Bauer "Benjamin B. Bauer"). That same year, CBS Labs Staff Scientist [Dennis Gabor](/wiki/Dennis_Gabor "Dennis Gabor") received the [Nobel Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize "Nobel Prize") in Physics for earlier work on [holography](/wiki/Holography "Holography"). Upon Peter Goldmark's retirement, also in 1971, Senior Vice President [Renville H. McMann](/wiki/Renville_H._McMann "Renville H. McMann") assumed the role of Labs President. [thumb\\|298x298px\\|Called the "Photograph of the Century" by space scientists, this first close\-up picture of the crater Copernicus taken by the Lunar Orbiter was scanned and digitized by The CBS Laboratories film scanning system and transmitted back to Earth.](/wiki/File:Copernicus.gif "Copernicus.gif") At the same time that CBS Laboratories developed technologies for the CBS Television Network, it also took on similar work for the Government. CBS Laboratories was selected by NASA Manned Spacecraft Center to provide the voice recorder for the Gemini space program (1964 \- 1966\). The Labs designed and built a very small (2\.5 in square x .415 in thick) and reliable onboard voice recorder.{{Cite journal \\|last1\=Sharpe \\|first1\=Mitchell R. \\|last2\=Hacker \\|first2\=Barton C. \\|last3\=Grimwood \\|first3\=James M. \\|date\=January 1979 \\|title\=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini \\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.2307/3103142 \\|journal\=Technology and Culture \\|volume\=20 \\|issue\=1 \\|pages\=238 \\|doi\=10\.2307/3103142 \\|jstor\=3103142 \\|issn\=0040\-165X}} An aerospace qualified film scanning system, consisting of a CBS Laboratories Line Scan Tube was developed for the Lunar Orbiter program to read out the processed film images taken by the Orbiter for transmission back to Earth.{{Cite report \\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.21236/ada599956 \\|title\=SAMOS to the Moon: The Clandestine Transfer of Reconnaissance Technology Between Federal Agencies \\|last\=Hall \\|first\=R. C. \\|date\=2001\-10\-01 \\|publisher\=Defense Technical Information Center \\|location\=Fort Belvoir, VA\\|doi\=10\.21236/ada599956 }} The CBS Laboratories Reconotron all\-electrostatic image dissector tube was developed for the 1964 Mariner IV Mars mission as an azimuth star tracker, then was modified for the 1967 Mariner V Venus mission in order to withstand the intense planetary illumination. The sensor was further modified for the 1969 Mariner mission to Mars to survive the more severe launch environment and to provide greater capability for automatic search, identification, and tracking.{{Cite journal \\|last\=Goss \\|first\=W. C. \\|date\=1970\-05\-01 \\|title\=The Mariner Spacecraft Star Sensors \\|url\=https://opg.optica.org/ao/abstract.cfm?URI\=ao\-9\-5\-1056 \\|journal\=Applied Optics \\|language\=EN \\|volume\=9 \\|issue\=5 \\|pages\=1056–1067 \\|doi\=10\.1364/AO.9\.001056 \\|pmid\=20076329 \\|bibcode\=1970ApOpt...9\.1056G \\|issn\=2155\-3165}} In 1964 the Mergenthaler Co. and CBS Laboratories won a GPO contract to build a machine called the Linotron. The Linotron took a computer magnetic tape from the publishing agency that had been programmed through GPO’s computers, and composed the data in 6\-point type at the rate of a page every 10 to 12 seconds, up to 1,000 characters per second, justified including upper and lower case letters, resulting in a page negative made up and ready to be plated and printed. This was accomplished using a highly\-specialized Cathode Ray Tube developed by CBS Laboratories which had unequaled geometric fidelity and resolution. The introduction of the Linotron was characterized as “the most important development in composition since the introduction of the Linotype machine at the turn of the century.”{{cite web \\|title\=Keeping America Informed: The United States Government Printing Office: 150 Years of Service to the Nation \\|url\=https://www.gpo.gov/docs/default\-source/history\-pdf\-files/gpo\-keepingamericainformed.pdf \\|publisher\=US Government Printing Office \\|access\-date\=8 September 2024 \\|date\=June 2011\\|page\=97}}{{source\-attribution}} The first Linotron went into operation in October 1967 and the second a year later. The dean of the Senate and Chair of the JCP, Senator Carl Hayden of Arizona, pressed the key starting the Linotron 1010 on its first job, the Federal Supply Catalog. The Linotrons cost $2\.3 million to develop and install, but in the first 13 months of operation the savings were estimated at $900,000\. With it, “it can truly be said that in 1968 the Government Printing Office entered the electronic printing age.” A detailed discussion and description of the Linotron system can be found here.{{Cite journal \\|date\=April 3, 1967 \\|title\=A Picture worth a Thousand Words \\|url\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\-Electronics/60s/67/Electronics\-1967\-04\-03\.pdf \\|journal\=Electronics Magazine \\|pages\=113–128}} CBS Laboratories was a leader in the development of Electron Beam Recorders, (EBR), which use a finely focused beam of electrons to record information onto film. Because the electron beam has no inertia, it can be electromagnetically scanned over the film at a very high speed. Also, because it is focused using a magnetic field, instead of glass lenses, the electron beam can be focused to a much smaller spot than laser or other optical methods, on the order of a half\-millionth of an inch. One of the applications of the Electron Beam Recorder was in the ERTS\-Landsat system, whose mission was to capture images of the Earth's surface in different spectral bands to provide data for Earth resource management and environmental monitoring. ThE ERTS satellites generated an immense amount of data, which was transmitted to dedicated ground stations to be recorded and processed for analysis. The ERTS EBR was a crucial part of the ground\-station\-based image data recording system,{{Cite web \\|date\=September 15, 2021 \\|title\=Landsat 1 The World's First Earth Observing Satellite \\|url\=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/101f79f4723840098b396c1f85d8187f \\|access\-date\=September 27, 2024 \\|website\=ArcGIS StoryMaps}} capable of producing a thousand 70mm archival quality film images per day, from which all the other ERTS photographic products were produced. During the Vietnam War, CBS Laboratories developed and produced the scanning and recording equipment for the Compass Link system, which provided one\-way, near\-real\-time secure transmission of photographic and other battlefield imagery via satellite relays from Vietnam to Hawai'i and Washington, DC. Using available equipment, in many cases at the breadboard stage, it was developed, deployed and operational in the field and on shipboard 73 days after approval to proceed. Philco\-Ford provided the satellite communications systems.{{Cite report \\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.21236/ada490469 \\|title\=Project CHECO Southeast Asia Report. USAF Tactical Reconnaissance in Southeast Asia, July 69\-June 71\. Part 3 \\|last\=Colwell \\|first\=Robert F. \\|date\=1971\-11\-23 \\|publisher\=Defense Technical Information Center \\|location\=Fort Belvoir, VA\\|doi\=10\.21236/ada490469 }} In 1969, CBS Laboratories developed an advanced, state\-of\-the\-art, MIL\-Spec In\-Flight Photo\-Processor Scanner (IPPS) for JIFDATS (the Joint Services In\-Flight Data Transmission System). Mounted in an external pod on a Mach\-2, RF\-4C reconnaissance aircraft, the target images from a KS\-87 airborne film camera were processed, scanned and transmitted within 12 minutes of acquisition to a ground\-based Image Interpretation Facility.{{Cite journal \\|last\=Leiboff \\|first\=T. N. \\|date\=October 1972 \\|year\=1972 \\|title\=Automatic Acquisition and Tracking Methods Employed in JIFDATS \\|url\=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/AD0758977\.pdf \\|journal\=AGARD Conference Technical Meeting \\|issue\=4–1}}	[ "History and significant technological achievements\n--------------------------------------------------", "[thumb\\\|right\\\|300px\\\|CBS Labs in Stamford, CT](/wiki/Image:CBS_labs.jpg \"CBS labs.jpg\")\nCBS Laboratories was established in 1936 in New York City to conduct technological research for CBS and outside clients. In October 1957 CBS President Dr. Frank Stanton, speaking at ground\\-breaking ceremonies for a new CBS Laboratories building in Stamford , Conn. said: \"Our objective in establishing the Laboratories is to continue CBS leadership in communications and electronics and provide broader research and development services.\"", "One year later, a group of 60 engineers and scientists, led by Dr. Peter Goldmark, left New York City and moved into the new 30,000 square\\-foot facility. The results of their efforts over the next 20 years resulted in a steady growth in facilities, personnel, sales, product development and technological leadership.", "Laboratory facilities grew to include five well\\-equipped buildings totaling more than 200,000 square feet. Six major departments were engaged in a wide range of research and development programs for government, industry, education, medicine and the broadcasting field.", "The total staff grew to more than 600 people, one\\-third of whom were professionals. Many of these professionals were internationally renowned in their respective fields and helped establish CBS Laboratories as a leader in electronics and communications research and development.", "[Dr. Peter Goldmark](/wiki/Peter_Carl_Goldmark \"Peter Carl Goldmark\") joined CBS Laboratories in 1936\\. On September 4, 1940, while working at the lab, he demonstrated the [Field\\-Sequential Color TV system](/wiki/Field-sequential_color_system \"Field-sequential color system\").\n{{cite news\n \\\| title \\= Color Television Achieves Realism\n \\\| newspaper \\= New York Times\n \\\| date \\= 1940\\-09\\-05\n \\\| page \\= 18\n}}\n It utilized a mechanical color wheel on both the camera and on the television home receiver, but was not compatible with the existing post\\-war NTSC, 525\\-line, 60\\-field/second black and white TV sets as it was a 405\\-line, 144\\-field scanning system.{{cite news \n \\\|last\\=O'Neil \n \\\|first\\=James E. \n \\\|title\\=Equipping Apollo for Color Television \n \\\|newspaper\\=TV Technology \n \\\|url\\=http://www.tvtechnology.com/feature\\-box/0124/equipping\\-apollo\\-for\\-color\\-television/202793 \n \\\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-21 \n \\\|year\\=2009b \n \\\|publisher\\=NewBay Media \n \\\|location\\=New York \n \\\|accessdate\\=2013\\-10\\-18 \n \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019101734/http://www.tvtechnology.com/feature\\-box/0124/equipping\\-apollo\\-for\\-color\\-television/202793\n \\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-19\n \\\|url\\-status\\=dead\n }} It was the first color broadcasting system that received FCC approval in 1950, and the CBS Television Network began broadcasting in color on November 20, 1950\\.\n{{cite book\n \\\| title \\= Radio and Television Regulation: Broadcast Technology in the United States 1920–1960\n \\\| author \\= Hugh Richard Slotten\n \\\| publisher \\= Johns Hopkins University Press\n \\\| location \\= Baltimore\n \\\| year \\= 2000\n \\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8018\\-6450\\-6\n \\\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cZLQ9R5GKfsC\\&dq\\=%22Field\\+sequential\\+color\\+system%22\\&pg\\=PR11 \n \\\| pages \\= 189–197\n}}\n However, no other TV set manufacturers made the sets, and CBS stopped broadcasting in field\\-sequential color on October 21, 1951\\.", "Nevertheless, the Field Sequential Color System was selected to televise the real\\-time broadcasts from the Moon during the Apollo 14 Moon landing, since it uses far less bandwidth than the NTSC system.", "Goldmark’s interest in recorded music led to the development of the [long\\-playing (LP) 33\\-1/3 rpm vinyl record](/wiki/LP_record \"LP record\"), which became the standard for incorporating multiple or lengthy recorded works on a single audio disc for two generations. The LP was introduced to the market place by Columbia Records in 1948\\.", "In 1959 the CBS Audimax I Audio Gain Controller was introduced. It was the first of its kind in the broadcasting industry, and updated versions (Audimax 4440\\) continued to be manufactured by Thompson\\-CSF, which acquired the technology after the Labs were closed.{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Vernon \\\|first\\=Tom \\\|date\\=January 25, 2018 \\\|title\\=Recalling the CBS Audimax 4440 \\\|url\\=https://www.radioworld.com/tech\\-and\\-gear/recalling\\-the\\-cbs\\-audimax\\-4440 \\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2024 \\\|website\\=RadioWorld}} In the 1960s the CBS VoluMax Audio FM Peak Limiter was introduced, also the first of its kind in the broadcasting industry. Both the Audimax and VoluMax were considered the “gold standard” for audio processing used in the AM/FM and Television Broadcasting industry.[Hank Mahler, developer of the SMPTE color bars, passes away](https://www.tvtechnology.com/news/hank-mahler-developer-of-the-smpte-color-bars-passes-away) from TVTechnology.com, 10/13/21", "At the same time, CBS Laboratories developed a solid\\-state character generator, a crucial component of the VIDIAC (Visual Information Display and Control) system built for the Air Force by a collaboration of several companies. Known as the \"magnetic memory character generator,\" this component was responsible for storing and retrieving high quality alphanumeric characters, which was essential for the high\\-speed data display.{{Cite journal \\\|last\\=Moore, J.K., Kronenberg, M. \\\|date\\=June 10, 1960 \\\|title\\=Generating High Quality Characters and Symbols \\\|url\\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\\-Electronics/60s/60/Electronics\\-1960\\-06\\-10\\.pdf \\\|journal\\=Electronics \\\|pages\\=55 \\- 59 \\\|via\\=World Radio History}}", "[Electronic Video Recording](/wiki/Electronic_Video_Recording \"Electronic Video Recording\") was announced in 1967\\.\nIn 1966, the CBS Vidifont was invented. It was the first electronic graphics generator used in television production. Brought to the marketplace at the NAB in 1970, it revolutionized television production.S. Baron, “Inventing the Vidifont: the first electronic graphics generator used in television production,” IEEE History Center (www.ieeeghn.org), 11 December 2008\\.\nThe [minicam](/wiki/Minicam \"Minicam\") was developed for use in national political conventions in 1968\\.\nIn 1971, a backwards\\-compatible 4\\-channel encoding technique was developed for vinyl records, called [SQ Quadraphonic](/wiki/Stereo_quadraphonic \"Stereo quadraphonic\"), based on work by musician [Peter Scheiber](/wiki/Peter_Scheiber \"Peter Scheiber\") and Labs engineer [Benjamin B. Bauer](/wiki/Benjamin_B._Bauer \"Benjamin B. Bauer\").", "That same year, CBS Labs Staff Scientist [Dennis Gabor](/wiki/Dennis_Gabor \"Dennis Gabor\") received the [Nobel Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize \"Nobel Prize\") in Physics for earlier work on [holography](/wiki/Holography \"Holography\"). Upon Peter Goldmark's retirement, also in 1971, Senior Vice President [Renville H. McMann](/wiki/Renville_H._McMann \"Renville H. McMann\") assumed the role of Labs President.\n[thumb\\\|298x298px\\\|Called the \"Photograph of the Century\" by space scientists, this first close\\-up picture of the crater Copernicus taken by the Lunar Orbiter was scanned and digitized by The CBS Laboratories film scanning system and transmitted back to Earth.](/wiki/File:Copernicus.gif \"Copernicus.gif\")\nAt the same time that CBS Laboratories developed technologies for the CBS Television Network, it also took on similar work for the Government. CBS Laboratories was selected by NASA Manned Spacecraft Center to provide the voice recorder for the Gemini space program (1964 \\- 1966\\). The Labs designed and built a very small (2\\.5 in square x .415 in thick) and reliable onboard voice recorder.{{Cite journal \\\|last1\\=Sharpe \\\|first1\\=Mitchell R. \\\|last2\\=Hacker \\\|first2\\=Barton C. \\\|last3\\=Grimwood \\\|first3\\=James M. \\\|date\\=January 1979 \\\|title\\=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini \\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.2307/3103142 \\\|journal\\=Technology and Culture \\\|volume\\=20 \\\|issue\\=1 \\\|pages\\=238 \\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3103142 \\\|jstor\\=3103142 \\\|issn\\=0040\\-165X}}", "An aerospace qualified film scanning system, consisting of a CBS Laboratories Line Scan Tube was developed for the Lunar Orbiter program to read out the processed film images taken by the Orbiter for transmission back to Earth.{{Cite report \\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.21236/ada599956 \\\|title\\=SAMOS to the Moon: The Clandestine Transfer of Reconnaissance Technology Between Federal Agencies \\\|last\\=Hall \\\|first\\=R. C. \\\|date\\=2001\\-10\\-01 \\\|publisher\\=Defense Technical Information Center \\\|location\\=Fort Belvoir, VA\\\|doi\\=10\\.21236/ada599956 }}", "The CBS Laboratories Reconotron all\\-electrostatic image dissector tube was developed for the 1964 Mariner IV Mars mission as an azimuth star tracker, then was modified for the 1967 Mariner V Venus mission in order to withstand the intense planetary illumination. The sensor was further modified for the 1969 Mariner mission to Mars to survive the more severe launch environment and to provide greater capability for automatic search, identification, and tracking.{{Cite journal \\\|last\\=Goss \\\|first\\=W. C. \\\|date\\=1970\\-05\\-01 \\\|title\\=The Mariner Spacecraft Star Sensors \\\|url\\=https://opg.optica.org/ao/abstract.cfm?URI\\=ao\\-9\\-5\\-1056 \\\|journal\\=Applied Optics \\\|language\\=EN \\\|volume\\=9 \\\|issue\\=5 \\\|pages\\=1056–1067 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1364/AO.9\\.001056 \\\|pmid\\=20076329 \\\|bibcode\\=1970ApOpt...9\\.1056G \\\|issn\\=2155\\-3165}}", "In 1964 the Mergenthaler Co. and CBS Laboratories won a GPO contract to build a machine called the Linotron. The Linotron took a computer magnetic tape from the publishing agency that had been programmed through GPO’s computers, and composed the data in 6\\-point type at the rate of a page every 10 to 12 seconds, up to 1,000 characters per second, justified including upper and lower case letters, resulting in a page negative made up and ready to be plated and printed. This was accomplished using a highly\\-specialized Cathode Ray Tube developed by CBS Laboratories which had unequaled geometric fidelity and resolution. The introduction of the Linotron was characterized as “the most important development in composition since the introduction of the Linotype machine at the turn of the century.”{{cite web \\\|title\\=Keeping America Informed: The United States Government Printing Office: 150 Years of Service to the Nation \\\|url\\=https://www.gpo.gov/docs/default\\-source/history\\-pdf\\-files/gpo\\-keepingamericainformed.pdf \\\|publisher\\=US Government Printing Office \\\|access\\-date\\=8 September 2024 \\\|date\\=June 2011\\\|page\\=97}}{{source\\-attribution}}", "The first Linotron went into operation in October 1967 and the second a year later. The dean of the Senate and Chair of the JCP, Senator Carl Hayden of Arizona, pressed the key starting the Linotron 1010 on its first job, the Federal Supply Catalog. The Linotrons cost $2\\.3 million to develop and install, but in the first 13 months of operation the savings were estimated at $900,000\\. With it, “it can truly be said that in 1968 the Government Printing Office entered the electronic printing age.”", "A detailed discussion and description of the Linotron system can be found here.{{Cite journal \\\|date\\=April 3, 1967 \\\|title\\=A Picture worth a Thousand Words \\\|url\\=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive\\-Electronics/60s/67/Electronics\\-1967\\-04\\-03\\.pdf \\\|journal\\=Electronics Magazine \\\|pages\\=113–128}}", "CBS Laboratories was a leader in the development of Electron Beam Recorders, (EBR), which use a finely focused beam of electrons to record information onto film. Because the electron beam has no inertia, it can be electromagnetically scanned over the film at a very high speed. Also, because it is focused using a magnetic field, instead of glass lenses, the electron beam can be focused to a much smaller spot than laser or other optical methods, on the order of a half\\-millionth of an inch.", "One of the applications of the Electron Beam Recorder was in the ERTS\\-Landsat system, whose mission was to capture images of the Earth's surface in different spectral bands to provide data for Earth resource management and environmental monitoring. ThE ERTS satellites generated an immense amount of data, which was transmitted to dedicated ground stations to be recorded and processed for analysis. The ERTS EBR was a crucial part of the ground\\-station\\-based image data recording system,{{Cite web \\\|date\\=September 15, 2021 \\\|title\\=Landsat 1 The World's First Earth Observing Satellite \\\|url\\=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/101f79f4723840098b396c1f85d8187f \\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2024 \\\|website\\=ArcGIS StoryMaps}} capable of producing a thousand 70mm archival quality film images per day, from which all the other ERTS photographic products were produced.", "During the Vietnam War, CBS Laboratories developed and produced the scanning and recording equipment for the Compass Link system, which provided one\\-way, near\\-real\\-time secure transmission of photographic and other battlefield imagery via satellite relays from Vietnam to Hawai'i and Washington, DC. Using available equipment, in many cases at the breadboard stage, it was developed, deployed and operational in the field and on shipboard 73 days after approval to proceed. Philco\\-Ford provided the satellite communications systems.{{Cite report \\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.21236/ada490469 \\\|title\\=Project CHECO Southeast Asia Report. USAF Tactical Reconnaissance in Southeast Asia, July 69\\-June 71\\. Part 3 \\\|last\\=Colwell \\\|first\\=Robert F. \\\|date\\=1971\\-11\\-23 \\\|publisher\\=Defense Technical Information Center \\\|location\\=Fort Belvoir, VA\\\|doi\\=10\\.21236/ada490469 }}", "In 1969, CBS Laboratories developed an advanced, state\\-of\\-the\\-art, MIL\\-Spec In\\-Flight Photo\\-Processor Scanner (IPPS) for JIFDATS (the Joint Services In\\-Flight Data Transmission System). Mounted in an external pod on a Mach\\-2, RF\\-4C reconnaissance aircraft, the target images from a KS\\-87 airborne film camera were processed, scanned and transmitted within 12 minutes of acquisition to a ground\\-based Image Interpretation Facility.{{Cite journal \\\|last\\=Leiboff \\\|first\\=T. N. \\\|date\\=October 1972 \\\|year\\=1972 \\\|title\\=Automatic Acquisition and Tracking Methods Employed in JIFDATS \\\|url\\=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/AD0758977\\.pdf \\\|journal\\=AGARD Conference Technical Meeting \\\|issue\\=4–1}}", "" ]
Episodes -------- ### Season 1 {{Episode table \\|background\=\#FF5C7D \\|overall\= \\|title\= \\|airdate\= \\|episodes\= {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=1 \\|Title\=Herstory in the Making \\|OriginalAirDate\= {{Start date\\|1992\\|03\\|23}} \\|ShortSummary\=Alice lacks the confidence to write a story for a school assignment, so she enlists the help of her friends in Wonderland. Thinking that she's gotten them to do her homework for her, she quickly discovers that, when other people do your work, it doesn't always turn out the way you'd like. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=2 \\|Title\=Lip\-Sunk \\|OriginalAirDate\= {{Start date\\|1992\\|03\\|24}} \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen is slated to give a speech at a royalty convention when she suddenly loses her voice. While the Wonderland characters literally scramble to look for her lost voice, Alice tries to convince them that it's just an idiom and there's no need to search. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=3 \\|Title\=Red Queen for a Day \\|OriginalAirDate\= {{Start date\\|1992\\|03\\|25}} \\|ShortSummary\=When Alice becomes Queen for a day, her royal decisions alienate her Wonderland friends, and she learns that being in charge also carries responsibility. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=4 \\|Title\=Objects d'Heart \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen decides to take up sculpture as a hobby. Thinking that everyone loves her creations, she gives them away as gifts. In the end, though, the work ends up in a pile of quicksand, and the Wonderland gang decides to say what they mean from that point on. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=5 \\|Title\=Arrivederci Aroma \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen orders perfume from The Royal Catalog at the same time the Hatter orders spray paint, but there is a mix\-up of parcels. Alice and her friends learn a lesson about the value of reading directions. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=6 \\|Title\=The Bunny Flop \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen and the White Rabbit appear on "Lifestyles of the Royal and Famous", but the live interview goes awry when the Rabbit, who was awake all night, has trouble keeping his eyes open and his mouth shut. ''Note:'' The White Rabbit starts wearing a bowtie as of this episode. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=7 \\|Title\=Pop Goes the Easel \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=On the day the Queen's official portrait is to be unveiled, the White Rabbit trips and puts his head through the canvas. All in Wonderland attempt to restore the painting. ''Note'': This episode was released on the "Helping Hands" VHS. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=8 \\|Title\=Through the Looking Glasses \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Cheshire Cat gives Rabbit a pair of rose\-colored glasses and convinces him that they magically make everything beautiful. Eventually, everyone (but the Queen) realizes that the glasses were a hoax. They learn that it's not how they look at things, but how they think about them that counts. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=9 \\|Title\=That's All, Jokes! \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=A practical\-joke marathon sweeps through Wonderland, and soon everyone is obsessed with getting even. The potpourri of pranks finally stops when the Queen falls victim to a trick. As a result, Alice learns that, by "getting even", a person sometimes gets more than they expected. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=10 \\|Title\=Forget Me Knot \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen goes to "Professor Memory" to improve her memory, while the Rabbit goes all over Wonderland in search of the book in which he put the Queen's theater tickets. Rabbit, Alice, and the Queen learn some new memory skills. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=11 \\|Title\=Boo, Who? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen thinks the palace is haunted when she spies a ghost wandering the halls. It appears the famished phantom is gobbling up the jellybeans meant for the Royal Jellybean Counting Contest. The Queen orders the Rabbit to stand guard, but actually there is merely a sleepwalking White Rabbit. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=12 \\|Title\=Double Your Bunny \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit's identical cousin comes to Wonderland to look at vacation property. But Rabbit is unable to meet his cousin's train, forcing this White Rabbit look\-alike to wander Wonderland alone. Confusion and crabbiness abound when Wonderland's residents don't realize there's a new bunny on the block. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=13 \\|Title\=Diary of a Mad Hatter/Keep It Under Your Hat \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter finds his great\-grandhatter's diary, which contains clues to a hidden treasure. The ensuing treasure hunt leads Wonderland's residents on a merry chase, but eventually the treasure is found. To everyone's surprise, the treasure is a collection of hats. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=14 \\|Title\=How the West Was Wonderland \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=A rodeo is coming to Wonderland, and the Queen resolves to be "Queen of the Rodeo", except she is required a ride a horse, which scares her. Her pride keeps her from admitting her fear, but Alice and the White Rabbit figure out her problem and provide her with a way to save face. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=15 \\|Title\=The Rules of the Game \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Alice gets a lesson in playing by the rules after several frustrating rounds of Meewalk, a game in which the rules can be changed at any moment. The final straw comes when the Queen changes the rules after the game is over so that she, instead of the Tweedles, is declared the winner. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=16 \\|Title\=Something to Sneeze At \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter suddenly becomes allergic to his best friend, the March Hare. But the March Hare is determined not to allow the Hatter's sneeze to put the freeze on their friendship. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=17 \\|Title\=Off the Cuffs \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The March Hare's magic act goes awry when his "Magic Handcuffs" fail to open. First the Queen, then half of Wonderland, get "tied up", until the Hare finds the missing key. ''Note'': This episode was released on the "Hare\-Raising Magic" VHS. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=18 \\|Title\=Tooth or Consequences \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit has a toothache that just won't quit, but his fear of going to the dentist causes him to procrastinate. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=19 \\|Title\=The Wonderland Enquirer \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen, annoyed with dull stories in the Wonderland daily paper, orders the editors (Tweedle Dum and Tweedle Dee) to print every juicy rumor they hear, whether the stories can be verified or not. The Queen loves the newspaper, until she becomes a victim of the rumor mill herself. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=20 \\|Title\=The Hatter Who Came to Dinner \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Mad Hatter's back is thrown out in the line of duty, the Queen and the White Rabbit feel obliged to put him up until he's better. The Hatter proceeds to take advantage of "the royal treatment", until they find out he's faking and call his bluff. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=21 \\|Title\=The Mirth of a Nation \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=While attending her "Mirthday" party, the Queen bumps her funny bone and loses her sense of humor. When she subsequently decides to ban all laughter from Wonderland, her subjects get serious and plot to restore mirth to Her Majesty. ''Note:'' Reece Holland is absent as the March Hare in this episode. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=22 \\|Title\=For Better or Verse \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Rabbit gets rhymitis and is banned by the Queen until he gets rid of it. The irritating condition is passed all around Wonderland, until it hits the Queen, right when she needs the rhyming disease in order to beat the Duchess in a contest. ''Note'': This episode was released on the "Hare\-Raising Magic" VHS. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=23 \\|Title\=TechnoBunny \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=With the White Rabbit on vacation, the Queen gets a temporary robot replacement to do his work. The robot is so efficient that it looks as if the White Rabbit may be out of work permanently, until the Queen's failure to follow directions causes a surprising malfunction. ''Note'': This episode was released on the "Helping Hands" VHS. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=24 \\|Title\=Party\-Pooped \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter is annoyed with the March Hare's chronic tardiness to the tea party. The resulting quarrel splits up the friends, and, in a fit of pique, the Hare throws his own party at exactly the Hatter's teatime. When Wonderland's residents find this two\-party system too tiring (and too filling), they resolve to get the Hatter and the Hare back together. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=25 \\|Title\=Up and Anthem \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Wonderland national anthem is deemed unsingable, the Queen decrees an anthem\-writing contest to choose a new one. The White Rabbit, who authored the original anthem refuses to write a new anthem. But the competition makes him realize that his song could stand a little improvement, so he decides to "change his tune". \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=26 \\|Title\=Pretzelmania \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=It appears that the Rabbit has dropped the Queen's diamond ring into the Hatter's new pretzel machine, thereby baking it into one of the 100 pretzels. The Rabbit's friends pig out on pretzels, hoping to find the ring before the Queen finds out about the whole silly mishap. ''Note'': This episode was released on the "Missing Ring Mystery" VHS. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=27 \\|Title\=White Elephant Sale \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=At a royal garage sale, the Queen unloads a (real) white elephant. In the hands of its new owners, however, the useless item is recycled into a whirlpool bath, a barbecue, and, finally, a prized art deco lamp sought after by none other than the Queen. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=28 \\|Title\=Rip\-Roaring Rabbit Tales/Rabbit Without a Cause \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit, who has become convinced his life lacks excitement, imagines himself in a series of storybook adventures. But, when he narrowly averts disaster with the Queen's flower\-vase collection, he decides that sometimes it's best when excitement is only found in the pages of a book. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=29 \\|Title\=Happy Boo Boo Day \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen tells the Rabbit she doesn't want a birthday party this year, because her subjects always manage to goof it up. Despite the Queen's wishes, Rabbit sets into motion plans for a surprise party, to prove that they can throw a successful party. Of course, the party gets goofed\-up big time, but the Queen learns that "it's the thought that counts". \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=30 \\|Title\=What Makes Rabbit Run \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=To prove how popular she is, the Queen decides to run for office in a Wonderland\-wide election. She orders the reluctant White Rabbit to be her opponent, assuming it will just be for appearances, but the Rabbit's popularity grows, and the Queen is forced to rethink her way of ruling Wonderland. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=31 \\|Title\=Friday the Umpteenth \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When Alice tells the Hatter and Hare about the superstition that Friday the 13th is bad luck, she unknowingly sets off a Wonderland panic. Fear of bad luck keeps Wonderland's residents from enjoying themselves, until they realize that good luck is sometimes a matter of perspective. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=32 \\|Title\=Pizza De Resistance \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Disgusted with the quality of take\-out pizza in Wonderland, the Queen dubs the White Rabbit "Royal Pizza Chef". He doesn't want the job, so he convinces the Queen to hold a contest instead and choose the Royal Pizza Chef from the entrants. Everyone's happy to participate\-but in the end, the best pizza is made by none other than the Queen herself. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=33 \\|Title\=A Litter Help From My Friends \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When keeping Wonderland litter\-free becomes a bigger job than one bunny can handle, the White Rabbit enlists the help of all of Wonderland's residents. The blustery weather seems for a moment to be helpful in blowing away trash\-until all the loose litter lands right in the middle of the Wonderland picnic site. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=34 \\|Title\=Busy as a Spelling Bee \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen is appalled at the bad spelling in thank\-you notes from her subjects. When Alice explains that her school holds spelling bees every year as a way to help children improve their spelling, the Queen decides it is time to schedule Wonderland's first spelling bee. Her homonym word choices, though, ensure that everyone loses\-but Alice and her friends discover that everyone losing can be more fun than one person winning. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=35 \\|Title\=Hic\-Hic Hooray \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After volunteering to transport boxes of the Queen's fragile new dinnerware, Tweedle Dum develops a severe and tremulous case of the hiccups. En route back to the palace, he solicits a wide and weird variety of Wonderland cures. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=36 \\|Title\=He's Not Heavy, He's My Hatter \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After indulging in too many of his grandmother's cookies, the Mad Hatter is forced to go on a diet and exercise program. He tells the Hare to hide the offending cookies. When his resolve weakens, and he tries to find them again, Hatter unknowingly burns up the calories as he searches all over Wonderland for the hidden cookies. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=37 \\|Title\=Invasion of the Tweedle Snatchers \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Cheshire Cat commandeers a remote\-controlled toy flying saucer, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare think that Wonderland is being invaded from outer space. The Hatter and Hare manage to get most of Wonderland in a panic, until finally, everyone discovers that there are no little green space invaders, just a big, purple, mischievous cat. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=38 \\|Title\=Bubble Trouble \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Queen cuts costs at the palace by canceling the bottled water delivery and tapping Wonderland's own underground spring. Armed with a book from the Caterpillar, the White Rabbit, newly appointed water monitor, keeps the Wonderland residents from polluting the spring. But eventually, the Queen ignores her own example and pollutes the spring herself, learning a lesson about practicing what you preach. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=39 \\|Title\=The Bunny Who Would Be King \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Movie star Rabbit DeNiro is coming to Wonderland to see his brother, the White Rabbit, whom he thinks is the King. The White Rabbit's friends help him ascend to the throne, and the charade seems to work, until the Queen returns. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=40 \\|Title\=Welcome Back Hatter \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Hatter wins what appears to be a huge castle via a mail\-order sweepstakes and prepares to move out of Wonderland. The Hare is sad that his best friend is leaving but decides to hide his true feelings to avoid upsetting the Hatter. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} }} ### Season 2 {{Episode table \\|background\=\#FF5C7D \\|overall\= \\|title\= \\|airdate\= \\|episodes\= {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=41 \\|Title\=Noses Off \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=While trying to help Her Majesty come up with an original costume for an upcoming masquerade ball, the Hatter and Hare accidentally attach a ridiculous rubber nose to the Queen's face, then can't get it off. The Queen and Alice uses sneezing powder and bouquet of flowers to remove her predicament and The White Rabbit will go get The Tweedles to showing the reporter for the cover of "Palace Beautiful" magazine around. Note: This episode was released on the "Missing Ring Mystery" VHS. Richard Kuhlman, the voice of The Cheshire Cat, is seen on screen as the reporter, Dirk Deadline.\<ref\>Disney's Adventures in Wonderland VHS "The Missing Ring Mystery" Copyright 1993\</ref\> This episode also marks a permanent outfit change for Tweedles. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=42 \\|Title\=This Bunny for Hire \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit breaks one of the Queen's vases, which he assumes is valuable crystal. Rather than tell the Queen what happened, he works nonstop, moonlighting to make enough money to buy a replacement\-only to discover, too late, that the original vase was merely inexpensive glass. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=43 \\|Title\=All That Glitters/Forbidden Fruit \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Tweedle Dum ignores Caterpillar's warnings and eats a dangerous new fruit that can make him stronger but may also make him very sick. A bellyache results, and Tweedle Dum learns to heed future warnings. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=44 \\|Title\=Whose Carrots Are They, Anyway? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Rabbit is proud of his carrot crop and would like to invite his friends from Wonderland to a simple carrot\-tasting party. However, many of the Rabbit's friends proceed to turn his simple party into the biggest, glitziest event of the season. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=45 \\|Title\=Say It Again, Ma'am! \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Rabbit misunderstands a royal edict but is too intimidated by the Queen to ask her to repeat herself. He enlists help from Wonderland's other residents to deduce what the Queen meant but comes to a conclusion that only adds to the confusion. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=46 \\|Title\=Lady and the Camp \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit buys flowers for the Queen, only to find out that the blossoms are full of bugs. While the Hatter and the Hare de\-bug the palace, the Queen camps out in the woods for the night and discovers that it's too tough to rough it when you're used to the soft life. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=47 \\|Title\=Gowns and Roses \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen hears there is money to be made by putting her name on a clothing label, so she designs her own fashion line. When the model fails to arrive for the fashion show, the Queen is shocked to see Rabbit on the runway. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=48 \\|Title\=Dinner Fit for a Queen \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Tweedles submit a tape to "Wonderland's Silliest Home Videos", the Red Queen's dignity is destroyed. She attempts to reclaim it with a staged dinner party for "Royalty's Favorite Home Videos". \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=49 \\|Title\=Toot\-Toot\-Tootsies, Goodbye \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Cheshire Cat hoaxes the existence of the legendary monster "Big Tootsies", fooling everybody but the Red Queen. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=50 \\|Title\=The Red Queen Crown Affair \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen's crown disappears, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare set out as private investigators to find it…which they do, underneath the Mad Hatter's own hat. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=51 \\|Title\=Copy\-Catter Hatter \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter's reputation is at stake after his royal hat designs are copied by the rascally Copy\-Catter Hatter. The Mad Hatter foils his plagiarizing cousin by leaving out a design that the Red Queen is sure to dislike. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=52 \\|Title\=Queen of the Beasts/The Greatest Story Never Sold \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen decides her life lacks excitement, she becomes a wild wobear tamer. The Wonderland inhabitants are impressed, until they discover that the ferocious wild animal is a cute, cuddly wobear cub. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=53 \\|Title\=Vanity Hare \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the March Hare inadvertently helps the Queen solve her crossword puzzle, she bestows upon him the Smarty Pants Medal. Soon, the Hare gets too high an opinion of his own intelligence, until he finds out that being a smarty pants sometimes means being too big for your boots. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=54 \\|Title\=The Best Ears of Our Lives \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When White Rabbit tires of being ignored, he tries to get attention by yelling and then by being silent. However, he discovers that the best way to make people curious about what you have to say is simply to speak softly. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=55 \\|Title\=Fiesta Time \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen is invited to King Ricardo's Fiesta, she balks because she can't speak Spanish. The others put together a Wonderland Fiesta to teach Spanish to the Red Queen. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=56 \\|Title\=Hair'em Scare'em/The Girl With Green Hair \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After the Mad Hatter send a bottle of his new shampoo to the Red Queen, he discovers that the shampoo has turned Alice's hair green. The March Hare tries to retrieve the shampoo before the Red Queen uses it, while the Mad Hatter tries to restore Alice's true hair color. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=57 \\|Title\=A Change of Heart \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=It's Valentine's Day, and Alice is dismayed to discover the Red Queen has ordered her subjects to show their affection. Since this is her first time celebrating in Wonderland, she decides to show the Queen the true meaning of the holiday. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=58 \\|Title\=On a Roll \\|OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\\|1992\\|09\\|03}} \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter prepares for a visit from his cousin Hedda Hatter, who uses a wheelchair. When she writes that the only drawback is "stairs," the Wonderland gang thinks she means "stares," so no one will look at poor Hedda. Once the confusion is cleared up, Hedda teaches everyone that people in wheelchairs can do the same things as anyone else. Special guest appearance by \[\[Christopher Anne Templeton]] as Hedda Hatter. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=59 \\|Title\=The Grape Juice of Wrath \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit spills grape juice on the Queen's throne and enlists Wonderland's other residents to help him remove the spot before the Queen returns from a day of picking blueberries. Their efforts are unsuccessful, to put it mildly. Finally, Rabbit tries to admit his mistake to the Queen, only to find that she doesn't care, since she had planned to get the throne reupholstered anyway. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=60 \\|Title\=Homing Pigeons \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After losing his house key for the umpteenth time, Hatter invents a house key homing device. Hoping to cash in on his invention, he stages a demonstration. He collects everyone's house key on a key ring, and then has Alice hide it. Before Hatter can track it down, the Cheshire Cat finds it, fancies it as a necklace, and disappears with it, leading all on a merry chase. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} }} ### Season 3 {{Episode table \\|background\=\#FF5C7D \\|overall\= \\|title\= \\|airdate\= \\|episodes\= {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=61 \\|Title\=From Hare to Eternity \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen saves the March Hare from quicksand, the March Hare carries out an annoying vow to protect her from all danger, until the Red Queen tricks the March Hare into "saving" her. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=62 \\|Title\=ChAlice in Wonderland \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Hatter and Hare go on an archaeological dig and uncover a beautiful, ancient chalice. Rabbit intercepts the treasure on behalf of the Queen, only to discover a curse written on the bottom of the cup. The Chalice exchanges hands, as one coincidental accident after another occurs…until, finally, the curse is revealed to be not a curse at all. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=63 \\|Title\=Hippity Hoppity Hypnotist \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The March Hare accidentally hypnotizes the Red Queen into acting like a chicken when the word "red" is spoken. The White Rabbit isn't aware of this, until the Red Queen is about to go on Wonderland TV. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=64 \\|Title\=Christmas in Wonderland \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Christmas is nearly ruined when the Red Queen hears about Alice's "white" Christmas and decides she won't be happy until she gets her own snowfall\-which is impossible, as it never snows in Wonderland. It turns out that her happiest Christmas memories stemmed from the one holiday when she and her parents vacationed in a snowy cabin. Moved, the Wonderland gang tries to bring the Queen snow. It does not work, of course, but the Queen learns that the real meaning of Christmas is the joy of people being kind to each other. As soon as this lesson is learned, Wonderland's first\-ever snowfall begins. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=65 \\|Title\=The Day of the Iguana \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen banishes a fortune teller from the palace, the White Rabbit fears a retaliatory curse has turned Her Majesty into an iguana. However, the iguana is actually Chuck, one of the fortune teller's critters. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=66 \\|Title\=I Am the Walrus \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=News of a walrus is moving panics Wonderland, because they heard that walruses are rude, smelly, and liars. When they can't get the Queen to tell the Walrus to leave, they decide to exclude and ignore him. Alice is the first to meet the Walrus and learns the rumors are completely false. When her friends refuse to believe and leave the Queen's party to not associate with him, the Queen treats them the same way and teaches them that it is wrong to exclude someone without getting to know them first. In the end, the residents of Wonderland, except for the Queen, all collectively decide to stop being racist. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=67 \\|Title\=Weed Shall Overcome \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen's plans for a new royal tennis court are delayed when the Walrus discovers a rare plant growing on the site. Wonderland's residents band together to convince the reluctant Queen to save the poor plant from extinction. Their words fail to move her, until the Walrus reveals that the weed is actually a crucial part in a biological chain that protects the Queen's roses. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=68 \\|Title\=Deface in the Crowd \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=All of Wonderland's residents are alarmed when a mysterious vandal begins defacing every available surface with graffiti. Attempts to catch the vandal fail, but, finally, he turns himself in when he realizes his attention\-getting ploy is actually costing him dearly in lost friendships. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=69 \\|Title\=TV or Not TV? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Prospects for good attendance at the annual Wonderland spring picnic look bad when the Mad Hatter, the March Hare, Tweedle Dum, and Tweedle Dee all begin watching television. They seem in danger of becoming true couch potatoes, until a cautionary nightmare jolts them off the sofa. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=70 \\|Title\=The Days of Vine and Roses \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen's chances for having her palace make the cover of "Better Palaces and Gardens" magazine are jeopardized when some of Wonderland's residents fail to follow the care instructions for an exotic plant. Soon the palace is completely overgrown by a massive tangle of vines. Special guest appearance by \[\[David Ruprecht]] as Bobby Shutterbug \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=71 \\|Title\=The Clan of the Cavebunny \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=A simple spelunking expedition turns up the discovery of the year: a bunny frozen in a block of ice, apparently to be a prehistoric cavebunny. All of Wonderland will soon find out, because it suddenly comes to life. Special guest appearance by \[\[Patrick Bristow]] as the Cavebunny \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=72 \\|Title\=Metaphor Monday \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=As all of Wonderland celebrates Metaphor Monday by preparing for the Metaphor Ball, a grand event in which everyone comes dressed as their favorite metaphor, the Tweedles become so consumed by sibling rivalry that they nearly let their inter\-Tweedle competition ruin both of their chances to win the metaphor costume contest. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=73 \\|Title\=Game Shows People Play \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After the Duchess ridicules the Red Queen's use of adverbs, the Queen goes on the TV game show "Name That Adverb". She does fine, until she takes a bath in the bonus round. Special guest appearance by \[\[Pat Sajak]] as himself Guest starring Kim Christianson as Vanna White Rabbit \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=74 \\|Title\=The Adventures of Spectacular Man \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When a falling star gives the Mad Hatter superpowers, he takes to the air as Spectacular Man, protector of Wonderland. The Red Queen is jealous of her new media rival, until he travels north by northwest to save her at the dedication of Mt. Wonderland. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=75 \\|Title\=For Hare Eyes Only \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Mad Hatter gets caught peeking at the March Hare's mail, Hare sets a trap by asking Hatter to pick up a tempting\-to\-open, but booby\-trapped box. Two packages arrive, and Mad Hatter succumbs to temptation and opens one\-but not the rigged parcel. Even so, the package turns out to be just as good at teaching Hatter a lesson about respecting people's private property. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=76 \\|Title\=To Tear Is Human \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When Alice rips her pants during a game of charades, the others kid her good\-naturedly, then apologize when they realize that she doesn't see the humor in the situation. All tip\-toe around the crabby girl, until an even sillier mishap teaches Alice that the only way to get over being embarrassed is not to take herself so seriously. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=77 \\|Title\=Odd Woman Out \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When Alice is prohibited from joining a Wonderland guys\-only club called the Oddballs, she conspires with the Red Queen to fool the lodge brothers into changing their antiquated rules and admitting their first female member. Her manly disguise works, but Alice wants to be accepted as she is. The guys soon realize their mistake and vow to form a new club for everyone in Wonderland. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=78 \\|Title\=Time Warped \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter and the March Hare believe they have invented a real time machine and resolve to use the goofy gadget to "go back in time" to prevent the Red Queen from doing something they know "she'll later regret". \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=79 \\|Title\=Give Ants a Chance \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Due to his extreme fear of ants, the Walrus seems destined to go through life avoiding picnics. Wonderland's other residents attempt to help him overcome his fear, but he finally realizes that, if he doesn't want to lose out, he'll have to decide on his own to stop letting ants bug him. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=80 \\|Title\=Card 54, Where Are You? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen becomes obsessed with collecting "Famous Bunnies of Filmland" trading cards, particularly when card 54 eludes her and ends up in the hands of the Mad Hatter. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=81 \\|Title\=Your Cheatin' Red Heart \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen, tired of losing every Boffo\-Bingo tournament to her rival, the Duchess, gets desperate and cheats. Much to her surprise, her conscience kicks in, and she's unable to savor her victory. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=82 \\|Title\=Wonderland: The Movie \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Wonderland's residents watch a documentary on the subject of friendship, featuring the rather rocky royal relationship between the Red Queen and the Duchess. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=83 \\|Title\=Bunny, Can You Spare a Dime? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen thinks her royal savings have bottomed out, she is forced to auction off some royal possessions, including the fabulous Hop Diamond. However, she outbids everyone at her own auction, forcing her to borrow money from her royal rival, the Duchess. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=84 \\|Title\=The Royalty Trap \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=On the day the Red Queen is to be feted by the Royalty Hall of Fame, she accidentally locks herself in the royal tool shed. The Duchess seizes her chance to "help" the Queen by standing in for her at the ceremony\-in hopes of grabbing all the attention that was meant for Her Majesty. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=85 \\|Title\=Just the Fax, Ma'am/Duchess Treat \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=With the annual fund\-raiser for the Wonderland library on deck, the Red Queen is intent on upstaging the Duchess in the fashion department and finally getting her picture on the society page. In her eagerness to get the fashion scoop, the Red Queen learns that sometimes the fax can be confusing. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=86 \\|Title\=Take the Bunny and Run/Other People's Bunny \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen learns just how nice it is to have a bunny around the house after recklessly losing White Rabbit in a bet to the Duchess. When she finds Rabbit is just as unhappy about the change of employers, the Queen makes plans to get the bunny back. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=87 \\|Title\=Gratitude Adjustment \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen cancels "Thanks\-a\-lot Day", a day dedicated to gratitude, because she doesn't see the point of the holiday. Wonderland's residents try to help her understand what it means to be thankful, but it takes a call from her mom to finally get the ungrateful Queen to realize that even royal folks need to say "thank you" sometimes. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=88 \\|Title\=Pie Noon \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the pie\-throwing bully from the March Hare's high school day arrives at the Wonderland train station at high noon, the Hare panics, because none of his friends will stand with him against the bully. Special guest appearances by \[\[Willie Nelson]] as The Troubadour and \[\[Gilbert Gottfried]] as Mike McNasty \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=89 \\|Title\=Untwist of Fate \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The denizens of Wonderland are worried that Alice won't be able to play Juliet in Shakespaw's "Rabbit and Juliet" because she has come down with a bad case of "tongue twisters" and can only speak in silly phrases. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=90 \\|Title\=Queen's Best Friend \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Cheshire Cat plays a trick on the Red Queen and leads her to believe that the stray dog she found can talk and is named Charles Chumley Cogswell Jones III (Jonesy for short). The Queen, sure that a talking dog will bring her fame and fortune, books a spot on a TV program to showcase her talented terrier. To the Queen's chagrin, the previously garrulous dog is as quiet as a mouse once it's on the air. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=91 \\|Title\=Purple Potato Eaters \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When Wonderland's residents get a whiff of a batch of purple potato pancakes the Walrus is eating, they want to try them. The complicated recipe, however, makes them reluctant to help make more batter. After the Cheshire Cat tricks them into helping prepare the pancakes in spite of themselves, they learn that working for something helps one to appreciate it. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=92 \\|Title\=The Queen Who Came in From the Cold \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen, crabby about all the anonymous letters in the paper complaining about her rash of newly imposed taxes, dons a disguise and goes undercover as Lorraine Quiche to root out the letter writers. To her surprise, she ends up agreeing with the writers' gripes, and must face the difficult task of admitting she is wrong. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=93 \\|Title\=The Color of Wobucks \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the White Rabbit gets bamboozled by a con man named Scalawag Jones into spending the Red Queen's money on a seed for a phony money tree, his friends try to help out by "planting" one of their own. When this scheme backfires, the Queen herself comes up with a plan to bamboozle the bamboozler. Special guest appearance by \[\[Stuart Pankin]] as Scalawag Jones Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=94 \\|Title\=Take My Tonsils, Please \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter has a sore throat. Because of his reluctance to seek treatment, the Dormouse takes the liberty in phone calling a doctor. Special guest appearances by \[\[Judge Reinhold]] as Dr. Busby and \[\[Shadoe Stevens]] as Hat TV Host Guest starring Kim Christianson as Nurse \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=95 \\|Title\=The Sound and The Furry \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After the crabby Red Queen orders an afternoon of silence, the March Hare's hearing\-impaired cousin, April Hare, visits to teach everyone sign language. Miscommunication results in the Queen banishing the cousin from Wonderland and nearly turning a deaf ear to her own mistake. Special guest appearance by \[\[Marlee Matlin]] as April Hare \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=96 \\|Title\=Hats Off to the King \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After hearing the Mad Hatter perform a simple, down\-to\-earth song, the Tweedles arrange for him to compete on "Wonderland Star Hunt", where \[\[Ed McMahon]] hosts the Best Male Singer Contest. Alas, the Hatter succumbs to all things "flashy, glitzy, and showbizzy", and he makes a fool of himself on the show. Special guest appearance by Ed McMahon as Himself and \[\[Sam Harris (singer)\\|Sam Harris]] as Joe Belter \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=97 \\|Title\=Those Tusks, Those Eyes \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Walrus gets roped into performing his old precision creampuff\-throwing act, with the Red Queen as his assistant. He has become very nearsighted, however, since he last did his act. At first his vanity keeps him from wearing glasses, but when it becomes clear that his choice is either to wear the glasses or make a spectacle of himself, and Her Majesty, he finally visits the eye doctor. Special guest appearance by \[\[Edie McClurg]] as The Eye Doctor Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=98 \\|Title\=Bah, Hamburger \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=In this parody of \[\[A Christmas Carol]], Tweedle Dum learns about good eating habits and the consequences of his obsession with eating junk food, when he is visited by the spirits of Nutrition Past, Present, and Future (respectively played by the Hatter, the Queen, and the Rabbit). \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=99 \\|Title\=White Rabbits Can't Jump' \\|OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\\|Unaired}} \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit gets some help from his hero \[\[O. J. Simpson]] when the residents of Wonderland hold an annual athletics competition and he's afraid he will lose. '''NOTE:''' This episode never aired due to the \[\[O. J. Simpson murder case]]. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=100 \\|Title\=A Wonderland Howl\-oween \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=At the traditional nighttime Halloween picnic, the Wonderland residents try to outspook each other with scary stories. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} }} Home media ---------- [Buena Vista Home Video](/wiki/Buena_Vista_Home_Video "Buena Vista Home Video") released three volumes of certain episodes on [VHS](/wiki/VHS "VHS") in 1993\. ### Streaming The series was made available for streaming on [Disney\+](/wiki/Disney%2B "Disney+") on April 30, 2021\.{{Cite web\\|first\=Zac\\|last\=Johnson\\|date\=March 16, 2021\\|title\=EVERYTHING NEW YOU CAN STREAM ON DISNEY\+ IN APRIL 2021\\|url\=https://d23\.com/everything\-new\-you\-can\-stream\-on\-disney\-in\-april\-2021/\\|website\=d23\.com}} Awards ------ [Daytime Emmy Awards](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Awards "Daytime Emmy Awards") [1992](/wiki/19th_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "19th Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Hairstyling – Richard Sabre and Tish Simpson (won) [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "21st Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Makeup – Ron Wild and Karen Stephens (won) [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "21st Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Writing in a Children's Series – Daryl Busby and Tom J. Astle (won) (tied with [Sesame Street](/wiki/Sesame_Street "Sesame Street")) [1995](/wiki/22nd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "22nd Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Costume Design – Lois DeArmond (won) [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "23rd Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Makeup – Karen Stephens and Ron Wild (won) [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "23rd Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Directing in a Children's Series'' – Shelley Jensen, David Grossman and Gary Halvorson (won)	[ "Episodes\n--------", "### Season 1", "{{Episode table \\\|background\\=\\#FF5C7D \\\|overall\\= \\\|title\\= \\\|airdate\\= \\\|episodes\\=", "{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=1\n\\\|Title\\=Herstory in the Making\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\= {{Start date\\\|1992\\\|03\\\|23}}\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Alice lacks the confidence to write a story for a school assignment, so she enlists the help of her friends in Wonderland. Thinking that she's gotten them to do her homework for her, she quickly discovers that, when other people do your work, it doesn't always turn out the way you'd like.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=2\n\\\|Title\\=Lip\\-Sunk\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\= {{Start date\\\|1992\\\|03\\\|24}}\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen is slated to give a speech at a royalty convention when she suddenly loses her voice. While the Wonderland characters literally scramble to look for her lost voice, Alice tries to convince them that it's just an idiom and there's no need to search.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=3\n\\\|Title\\=Red Queen for a Day\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\= {{Start date\\\|1992\\\|03\\\|25}}\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Alice becomes Queen for a day, her royal decisions alienate her Wonderland friends, and she learns that being in charge also carries responsibility.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=4\n\\\|Title\\=Objects d'Heart\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen decides to take up sculpture as a hobby. Thinking that everyone loves her creations, she gives them away as gifts. In the end, though, the work ends up in a pile of quicksand, and the Wonderland gang decides to say what they mean from that point on.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=5\n\\\|Title\\=Arrivederci Aroma\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen orders perfume from The Royal Catalog at the same time the Hatter orders spray paint, but there is a mix\\-up of parcels. Alice and her friends learn a lesson about the value of reading directions.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=6\n\\\|Title\\=The Bunny Flop\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen and the White Rabbit appear on \"Lifestyles of the Royal and Famous\", but the live interview goes awry when the Rabbit, who was awake all night, has trouble keeping his eyes open and his mouth shut.", "''Note:'' The White Rabbit starts wearing a bowtie as of this episode.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=7\n\\\|Title\\=Pop Goes the Easel\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=On the day the Queen's official portrait is to be unveiled, the White Rabbit trips and puts his head through the canvas. All in Wonderland attempt to restore the painting.", "''Note'': This episode was released on the \"Helping Hands\" VHS.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=8\n\\\|Title\\=Through the Looking Glasses\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Cheshire Cat gives Rabbit a pair of rose\\-colored glasses and convinces him that they magically make everything beautiful. Eventually, everyone (but the Queen) realizes that the glasses were a hoax. They learn that it's not how they look at things, but how they think about them that counts.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=9\n\\\|Title\\=That's All, Jokes!\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=A practical\\-joke marathon sweeps through Wonderland, and soon everyone is obsessed with getting even. The potpourri of pranks finally stops when the Queen falls victim to a trick. As a result, Alice learns that, by \"getting even\", a person sometimes gets more than they expected.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=10\n\\\|Title\\=Forget Me Knot\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen goes to \"Professor Memory\" to improve her memory, while the Rabbit goes all over Wonderland in search of the book in which he put the Queen's theater tickets. Rabbit, Alice, and the Queen learn some new memory skills.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=11\n\\\|Title\\=Boo, Who?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen thinks the palace is haunted when she spies a ghost wandering the halls. It appears the famished phantom is gobbling up the jellybeans meant for the Royal Jellybean Counting Contest. The Queen orders the Rabbit to stand guard, but actually there is merely a sleepwalking White Rabbit.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=12\n\\\|Title\\=Double Your Bunny\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit's identical cousin comes to Wonderland to look at vacation property. But Rabbit is unable to meet his cousin's train, forcing this White Rabbit look\\-alike to wander Wonderland alone. Confusion and crabbiness abound when Wonderland's residents don't realize there's a new bunny on the block.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=13\n\\\|Title\\=Diary of a Mad Hatter/Keep It Under Your Hat\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter finds his great\\-grandhatter's diary, which contains clues to a hidden treasure. The ensuing treasure hunt leads Wonderland's residents on a merry chase, but eventually the treasure is found. To everyone's surprise, the treasure is a collection of hats.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=14\n\\\|Title\\=How the West Was Wonderland\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=A rodeo is coming to Wonderland, and the Queen resolves to be \"Queen of the Rodeo\", except she is required a ride a horse, which scares her. Her pride keeps her from admitting her fear, but Alice and the White Rabbit figure out her problem and provide her with a way to save face.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=15\n\\\|Title\\=The Rules of the Game\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Alice gets a lesson in playing by the rules after several frustrating rounds of Meewalk, a game in which the rules can be changed at any moment. The final straw comes when the Queen changes the rules after the game is over so that she, instead of the Tweedles, is declared the winner.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=16\n\\\|Title\\=Something to Sneeze At\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter suddenly becomes allergic to his best friend, the March Hare. But the March Hare is determined not to allow the Hatter's sneeze to put the freeze on their friendship.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=17\n\\\|Title\\=Off the Cuffs\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The March Hare's magic act goes awry when his \"Magic Handcuffs\" fail to open. First the Queen, then half of Wonderland, get \"tied up\", until the Hare finds the missing key.", "''Note'': This episode was released on the \"Hare\\-Raising Magic\" VHS.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=18\n\\\|Title\\=Tooth or Consequences\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit has a toothache that just won't quit, but his fear of going to the dentist causes him to procrastinate.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=19\n\\\|Title\\=The Wonderland Enquirer\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen, annoyed with dull stories in the Wonderland daily paper, orders the editors (Tweedle Dum and Tweedle Dee) to print every juicy rumor they hear, whether the stories can be verified or not. The Queen loves the newspaper, until she becomes a victim of the rumor mill herself.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=20\n\\\|Title\\=The Hatter Who Came to Dinner\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Mad Hatter's back is thrown out in the line of duty, the Queen and the White Rabbit feel obliged to put him up until he's better. The Hatter proceeds to take advantage of \"the royal treatment\", until they find out he's faking and call his bluff.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=21\n\\\|Title\\=The Mirth of a Nation\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=While attending her \"Mirthday\" party, the Queen bumps her funny bone and loses her sense of humor. When she subsequently decides to ban all laughter from Wonderland, her subjects get serious and plot to restore mirth to Her Majesty.", "''Note:'' Reece Holland is absent as the March Hare in this episode.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=22\n\\\|Title\\=For Better or Verse\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Rabbit gets rhymitis and is banned by the Queen until he gets rid of it. The irritating condition is passed all around Wonderland, until it hits the Queen, right when she needs the rhyming disease in order to beat the Duchess in a contest.", "''Note'': This episode was released on the \"Hare\\-Raising Magic\" VHS.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=23\n\\\|Title\\=TechnoBunny\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=With the White Rabbit on vacation, the Queen gets a temporary robot replacement to do his work. The robot is so efficient that it looks as if the White Rabbit may be out of work permanently, until the Queen's failure to follow directions causes a surprising malfunction.", "''Note'': This episode was released on the \"Helping Hands\" VHS.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=24\n\\\|Title\\=Party\\-Pooped\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter is annoyed with the March Hare's chronic tardiness to the tea party. The resulting quarrel splits up the friends, and, in a fit of pique, the Hare throws his own party at exactly the Hatter's teatime. When Wonderland's residents find this two\\-party system too tiring (and too filling), they resolve to get the Hatter and the Hare back together.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=25\n\\\|Title\\=Up and Anthem\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Wonderland national anthem is deemed unsingable, the Queen decrees an anthem\\-writing contest to choose a new one. The White Rabbit, who authored the original anthem refuses to write a new anthem. But the competition makes him realize that his song could stand a little improvement, so he decides to \"change his tune\".\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=26\n\\\|Title\\=Pretzelmania\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=It appears that the Rabbit has dropped the Queen's diamond ring into the Hatter's new pretzel machine, thereby baking it into one of the 100 pretzels. The Rabbit's friends pig out on pretzels, hoping to find the ring before the Queen finds out about the whole silly mishap.", "''Note'': This episode was released on the \"Missing Ring Mystery\" VHS.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=27\n\\\|Title\\=White Elephant Sale\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=At a royal garage sale, the Queen unloads a (real) white elephant. In the hands of its new owners, however, the useless item is recycled into a whirlpool bath, a barbecue, and, finally, a prized art deco lamp sought after by none other than the Queen.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=28\n\\\|Title\\=Rip\\-Roaring Rabbit Tales/Rabbit Without a Cause\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit, who has become convinced his life lacks excitement, imagines himself in a series of storybook adventures. But, when he narrowly averts disaster with the Queen's flower\\-vase collection, he decides that sometimes it's best when excitement is only found in the pages of a book.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=29\n\\\|Title\\=Happy Boo Boo Day\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen tells the Rabbit she doesn't want a birthday party this year, because her subjects always manage to goof it up. Despite the Queen's wishes, Rabbit sets into motion plans for a surprise party, to prove that they can throw a successful party. Of course, the party gets goofed\\-up big time, but the Queen learns that \"it's the thought that counts\".\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=30\n\\\|Title\\=What Makes Rabbit Run\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=To prove how popular she is, the Queen decides to run for office in a Wonderland\\-wide election. She orders the reluctant White Rabbit to be her opponent, assuming it will just be for appearances, but the Rabbit's popularity grows, and the Queen is forced to rethink her way of ruling Wonderland.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=31\n\\\|Title\\=Friday the Umpteenth\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Alice tells the Hatter and Hare about the superstition that Friday the 13th is bad luck, she unknowingly sets off a Wonderland panic. Fear of bad luck keeps Wonderland's residents from enjoying themselves, until they realize that good luck is sometimes a matter of perspective.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=32\n\\\|Title\\=Pizza De Resistance\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Disgusted with the quality of take\\-out pizza in Wonderland, the Queen dubs the White Rabbit \"Royal Pizza Chef\". He doesn't want the job, so he convinces the Queen to hold a contest instead and choose the Royal Pizza Chef from the entrants. Everyone's happy to participate\\-but in the end, the best pizza is made by none other than the Queen herself.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=33\n\\\|Title\\=A Litter Help From My Friends\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When keeping Wonderland litter\\-free becomes a bigger job than one bunny can handle, the White Rabbit enlists the help of all of Wonderland's residents. The blustery weather seems for a moment to be helpful in blowing away trash\\-until all the loose litter lands right in the middle of the Wonderland picnic site.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=34\n\\\|Title\\=Busy as a Spelling Bee\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen is appalled at the bad spelling in thank\\-you notes from her subjects. When Alice explains that her school holds spelling bees every year as a way to help children improve their spelling, the Queen decides it is time to schedule Wonderland's first spelling bee. Her homonym word choices, though, ensure that everyone loses\\-but Alice and her friends discover that everyone losing can be more fun than one person winning.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=35\n\\\|Title\\=Hic\\-Hic Hooray\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After volunteering to transport boxes of the Queen's fragile new dinnerware, Tweedle Dum develops a severe and tremulous case of the hiccups. En route back to the palace, he solicits a wide and weird variety of Wonderland cures.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=36\n\\\|Title\\=He's Not Heavy, He's My Hatter\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After indulging in too many of his grandmother's cookies, the Mad Hatter is forced to go on a diet and exercise program. He tells the Hare to hide the offending cookies. When his resolve weakens, and he tries to find them again, Hatter unknowingly burns up the calories as he searches all over Wonderland for the hidden cookies.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=37\n\\\|Title\\=Invasion of the Tweedle Snatchers\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Cheshire Cat commandeers a remote\\-controlled toy flying saucer, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare think that Wonderland is being invaded from outer space. The Hatter and Hare manage to get most of Wonderland in a panic, until finally, everyone discovers that there are no little green space invaders, just a big, purple, mischievous cat.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=38\n\\\|Title\\=Bubble Trouble\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Queen cuts costs at the palace by canceling the bottled water delivery and tapping Wonderland's own underground spring. Armed with a book from the Caterpillar, the White Rabbit, newly appointed water monitor, keeps the Wonderland residents from polluting the spring. But eventually, the Queen ignores her own example and pollutes the spring herself, learning a lesson about practicing what you preach.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=39\n\\\|Title\\=The Bunny Who Would Be King\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Movie star Rabbit DeNiro is coming to Wonderland to see his brother, the White Rabbit, whom he thinks is the King. The White Rabbit's friends help him ascend to the throne, and the charade seems to work, until the Queen returns.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=40\n\\\|Title\\=Welcome Back Hatter\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Hatter wins what appears to be a huge castle via a mail\\-order sweepstakes and prepares to move out of Wonderland. The Hare is sad that his best friend is leaving but decides to hide his true feelings to avoid upsetting the Hatter.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n}}", "### Season 2", "{{Episode table \\\|background\\=\\#FF5C7D \\\|overall\\= \\\|title\\= \\\|airdate\\= \\\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=41\n\\\|Title\\=Noses Off\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=While trying to help Her Majesty come up with an original costume for an upcoming masquerade ball, the Hatter and Hare accidentally attach a ridiculous rubber nose to the Queen's face, then can't get it off. The Queen and Alice uses sneezing powder and bouquet of flowers to remove her predicament and The White Rabbit will go get The Tweedles to showing the reporter for the cover of \"Palace Beautiful\" magazine around.", "Note: This episode was released on the \"Missing Ring Mystery\" VHS. Richard Kuhlman, the voice of The Cheshire Cat, is seen on screen as the reporter, Dirk Deadline.\\<ref\\>Disney's Adventures in Wonderland VHS \"The Missing Ring Mystery\" Copyright 1993\\</ref\\> This episode also marks a permanent outfit change for Tweedles.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=42\n\\\|Title\\=This Bunny for Hire\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit breaks one of the Queen's vases, which he assumes is valuable crystal. Rather than tell the Queen what happened, he works nonstop, moonlighting to make enough money to buy a replacement\\-only to discover, too late, that the original vase was merely inexpensive glass.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=43\n\\\|Title\\=All That Glitters/Forbidden Fruit\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Tweedle Dum ignores Caterpillar's warnings and eats a dangerous new fruit that can make him stronger but may also make him very sick. A bellyache results, and Tweedle Dum learns to heed future warnings.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=44\n\\\|Title\\=Whose Carrots Are They, Anyway?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Rabbit is proud of his carrot crop and would like to invite his friends from Wonderland to a simple carrot\\-tasting party. However, many of the Rabbit's friends proceed to turn his simple party into the biggest, glitziest event of the season.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=45\n\\\|Title\\=Say It Again, Ma'am!\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Rabbit misunderstands a royal edict but is too intimidated by the Queen to ask her to repeat herself. He enlists help from Wonderland's other residents to deduce what the Queen meant but comes to a conclusion that only adds to the confusion.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=46\n\\\|Title\\=Lady and the Camp\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit buys flowers for the Queen, only to find out that the blossoms are full of bugs. While the Hatter and the Hare de\\-bug the palace, the Queen camps out in the woods for the night and discovers that it's too tough to rough it when you're used to the soft life.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=47\n\\\|Title\\=Gowns and Roses\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen hears there is money to be made by putting her name on a clothing label, so she designs her own fashion line. When the model fails to arrive for the fashion show, the Queen is shocked to see Rabbit on the runway.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=48\n\\\|Title\\=Dinner Fit for a Queen\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Tweedles submit a tape to \"Wonderland's Silliest Home Videos\", the Red Queen's dignity is destroyed. She attempts to reclaim it with a staged dinner party for \"Royalty's Favorite Home Videos\".\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=49\n\\\|Title\\=Toot\\-Toot\\-Tootsies, Goodbye\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Cheshire Cat hoaxes the existence of the legendary monster \"Big Tootsies\", fooling everybody but the Red Queen.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=50\n\\\|Title\\=The Red Queen Crown Affair\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen's crown disappears, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare set out as private investigators to find it…which they do, underneath the Mad Hatter's own hat.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=51\n\\\|Title\\=Copy\\-Catter Hatter\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter's reputation is at stake after his royal hat designs are copied by the rascally Copy\\-Catter Hatter. The Mad Hatter foils his plagiarizing cousin by leaving out a design that the Red Queen is sure to dislike.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=52\n\\\|Title\\=Queen of the Beasts/The Greatest Story Never Sold\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen decides her life lacks excitement, she becomes a wild wobear tamer. The Wonderland inhabitants are impressed, until they discover that the ferocious wild animal is a cute, cuddly wobear cub.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=53\n\\\|Title\\=Vanity Hare\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the March Hare inadvertently helps the Queen solve her crossword puzzle, she bestows upon him the Smarty Pants Medal. Soon, the Hare gets too high an opinion of his own intelligence, until he finds out that being a smarty pants sometimes means being too big for your boots.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=54\n\\\|Title\\=The Best Ears of Our Lives\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When White Rabbit tires of being ignored, he tries to get attention by yelling and then by being silent. However, he discovers that the best way to make people curious about what you have to say is simply to speak softly.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=55\n\\\|Title\\=Fiesta Time\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen is invited to King Ricardo's Fiesta, she balks because she can't speak Spanish. The others put together a Wonderland Fiesta to teach Spanish to the Red Queen.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=56\n\\\|Title\\=Hair'em Scare'em/The Girl With Green Hair\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After the Mad Hatter send a bottle of his new shampoo to the Red Queen, he discovers that the shampoo has turned Alice's hair green. The March Hare tries to retrieve the shampoo before the Red Queen uses it, while the Mad Hatter tries to restore Alice's true hair color.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=57\n\\\|Title\\=A Change of Heart\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=It's Valentine's Day, and Alice is dismayed to discover the Red Queen has ordered her subjects to show their affection. Since this is her first time celebrating in Wonderland, she decides to show the Queen the true meaning of the holiday.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=58\n\\\|Title\\=On a Roll\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\\|1992\\\|09\\\|03}}\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter prepares for a visit from his cousin Hedda Hatter, who uses a wheelchair. When she writes that the only drawback is \"stairs,\" the Wonderland gang thinks she means \"stares,\" so no one will look at poor Hedda. Once the confusion is cleared up, Hedda teaches everyone that people in wheelchairs can do the same things as anyone else.\nSpecial guest appearance by \\[\\[Christopher Anne Templeton]] as Hedda Hatter.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=59\n\\\|Title\\=The Grape Juice of Wrath\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit spills grape juice on the Queen's throne and enlists Wonderland's other residents to help him remove the spot before the Queen returns from a day of picking blueberries. Their efforts are unsuccessful, to put it mildly. Finally, Rabbit tries to admit his mistake to the Queen, only to find that she doesn't care, since she had planned to get the throne reupholstered anyway.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=60\n\\\|Title\\=Homing Pigeons\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After losing his house key for the umpteenth time, Hatter invents a house key homing device. Hoping to cash in on his invention, he stages a demonstration. He collects everyone's house key on a key ring, and then has Alice hide it. Before Hatter can track it down, the Cheshire Cat finds it, fancies it as a necklace, and disappears with it, leading all on a merry chase.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n}}", "### Season 3", "{{Episode table \\\|background\\=\\#FF5C7D \\\|overall\\= \\\|title\\= \\\|airdate\\= \\\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=61\n\\\|Title\\=From Hare to Eternity\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen saves the March Hare from quicksand, the March Hare carries out an annoying vow to protect her from all danger, until the Red Queen tricks the March Hare into \"saving\" her.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=62\n\\\|Title\\=ChAlice in Wonderland\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Hatter and Hare go on an archaeological dig and uncover a beautiful, ancient chalice. Rabbit intercepts the treasure on behalf of the Queen, only to discover a curse written on the bottom of the cup. The Chalice exchanges hands, as one coincidental accident after another occurs…until, finally, the curse is revealed to be not a curse at all.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=63\n\\\|Title\\=Hippity Hoppity Hypnotist\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The March Hare accidentally hypnotizes the Red Queen into acting like a chicken when the word \"red\" is spoken. The White Rabbit isn't aware of this, until the Red Queen is about to go on Wonderland TV.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=64\n\\\|Title\\=Christmas in Wonderland\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Christmas is nearly ruined when the Red Queen hears about Alice's \"white\" Christmas and decides she won't be happy until she gets her own snowfall\\-which is impossible, as it never snows in Wonderland. It turns out that her happiest Christmas memories stemmed from the one holiday when she and her parents vacationed in a snowy cabin. Moved, the Wonderland gang tries to bring the Queen snow. It does not work, of course, but the Queen learns that the real meaning of Christmas is the joy of people being kind to each other. As soon as this lesson is learned, Wonderland's first\\-ever snowfall begins.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=65\n\\\|Title\\=The Day of the Iguana\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen banishes a fortune teller from the palace, the White Rabbit fears a retaliatory curse has turned Her Majesty into an iguana. However, the iguana is actually Chuck, one of the fortune teller's critters.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=66\n\\\|Title\\=I Am the Walrus\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=News of a walrus is moving panics Wonderland, because they heard that walruses are rude, smelly, and liars. When they can't get the Queen to tell the Walrus to leave, they decide to exclude and ignore him. Alice is the first to meet the Walrus and learns the rumors are completely false. When her friends refuse to believe and leave the Queen's party to not associate with him, the Queen treats them the same way and teaches them that it is wrong to exclude someone without getting to know them first. In the end, the residents of Wonderland, except for the Queen, all collectively decide to stop being racist.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=67\n\\\|Title\\=Weed Shall Overcome\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen's plans for a new royal tennis court are delayed when the Walrus discovers a rare plant growing on the site. Wonderland's residents band together to convince the reluctant Queen to save the poor plant from extinction. Their words fail to move her, until the Walrus reveals that the weed is actually a crucial part in a biological chain that protects the Queen's roses.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=68\n\\\|Title\\=Deface in the Crowd\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=All of Wonderland's residents are alarmed when a mysterious vandal begins defacing every available surface with graffiti. Attempts to catch the vandal fail, but, finally, he turns himself in when he realizes his attention\\-getting ploy is actually costing him dearly in lost friendships.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=69\n\\\|Title\\=TV or Not TV?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Prospects for good attendance at the annual Wonderland spring picnic look bad when the Mad Hatter, the March Hare, Tweedle Dum, and Tweedle Dee all begin watching television. They seem in danger of becoming true couch potatoes, until a cautionary nightmare jolts them off the sofa.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=70\n\\\|Title\\=The Days of Vine and Roses\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen's chances for having her palace make the cover of \"Better Palaces and Gardens\" magazine are jeopardized when some of Wonderland's residents fail to follow the care instructions for an exotic plant. Soon the palace is completely overgrown by a massive tangle of vines.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[David Ruprecht]] as Bobby Shutterbug\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=71\n\\\|Title\\=The Clan of the Cavebunny\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=A simple spelunking expedition turns up the discovery of the year: a bunny frozen in a block of ice, apparently to be a prehistoric cavebunny. All of Wonderland will soon find out, because it suddenly comes to life.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Patrick Bristow]] as the Cavebunny\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=72\n\\\|Title\\=Metaphor Monday\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=As all of Wonderland celebrates Metaphor Monday by preparing for the Metaphor Ball, a grand event in which everyone comes dressed as their favorite metaphor, the Tweedles become so consumed by sibling rivalry that they nearly let their inter\\-Tweedle competition ruin both of their chances to win the metaphor costume contest.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=73\n\\\|Title\\=Game Shows People Play\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After the Duchess ridicules the Red Queen's use of adverbs, the Queen goes on the TV game show \"Name That Adverb\". She does fine, until she takes a bath in the bonus round.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Pat Sajak]] as himself\nGuest starring Kim Christianson as Vanna White Rabbit\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=74\n\\\|Title\\=The Adventures of Spectacular Man\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When a falling star gives the Mad Hatter superpowers, he takes to the air as Spectacular Man, protector of Wonderland. The Red Queen is jealous of her new media rival, until he travels north by northwest to save her at the dedication of Mt. Wonderland.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=75\n\\\|Title\\=For Hare Eyes Only\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Mad Hatter gets caught peeking at the March Hare's mail, Hare sets a trap by asking Hatter to pick up a tempting\\-to\\-open, but booby\\-trapped box. Two packages arrive, and Mad Hatter succumbs to temptation and opens one\\-but not the rigged parcel. Even so, the package turns out to be just as good at teaching Hatter a lesson about respecting people's private property.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=76\n\\\|Title\\=To Tear Is Human\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Alice rips her pants during a game of charades, the others kid her good\\-naturedly, then apologize when they realize that she doesn't see the humor in the situation. All tip\\-toe around the crabby girl, until an even sillier mishap teaches Alice that the only way to get over being embarrassed is not to take herself so seriously.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=77\n\\\|Title\\=Odd Woman Out\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Alice is prohibited from joining a Wonderland guys\\-only club called the Oddballs, she conspires with the Red Queen to fool the lodge brothers into changing their antiquated rules and admitting their first female member. Her manly disguise works, but Alice wants to be accepted as she is. The guys soon realize their mistake and vow to form a new club for everyone in Wonderland.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=78\n\\\|Title\\=Time Warped\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter and the March Hare believe they have invented a real time machine and resolve to use the goofy gadget to \"go back in time\" to prevent the Red Queen from doing something they know \"she'll later regret\".\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=79\n\\\|Title\\=Give Ants a Chance\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Due to his extreme fear of ants, the Walrus seems destined to go through life avoiding picnics. Wonderland's other residents attempt to help him overcome his fear, but he finally realizes that, if he doesn't want to lose out, he'll have to decide on his own to stop letting ants bug him.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=80\n\\\|Title\\=Card 54, Where Are You?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen becomes obsessed with collecting \"Famous Bunnies of Filmland\" trading cards, particularly when card 54 eludes her and ends up in the hands of the Mad Hatter.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=81\n\\\|Title\\=Your Cheatin' Red Heart\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen, tired of losing every Boffo\\-Bingo tournament to her rival, the Duchess, gets desperate and cheats. Much to her surprise, her conscience kicks in, and she's unable to savor her victory.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=82\n\\\|Title\\=Wonderland: The Movie\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Wonderland's residents watch a documentary on the subject of friendship, featuring the rather rocky royal relationship between the Red Queen and the Duchess.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=83\n\\\|Title\\=Bunny, Can You Spare a Dime?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen thinks her royal savings have bottomed out, she is forced to auction off some royal possessions, including the fabulous Hop Diamond. However, she outbids everyone at her own auction, forcing her to borrow money from her royal rival, the Duchess.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=84\n\\\|Title\\=The Royalty Trap\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=On the day the Red Queen is to be feted by the Royalty Hall of Fame, she accidentally locks herself in the royal tool shed. The Duchess seizes her chance to \"help\" the Queen by standing in for her at the ceremony\\-in hopes of grabbing all the attention that was meant for Her Majesty.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=85\n\\\|Title\\=Just the Fax, Ma'am/Duchess Treat\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=With the annual fund\\-raiser for the Wonderland library on deck, the Red Queen is intent on upstaging the Duchess in the fashion department and finally getting her picture on the society page. In her eagerness to get the fashion scoop, the Red Queen learns that sometimes the fax can be confusing.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=86\n\\\|Title\\=Take the Bunny and Run/Other People's Bunny\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen learns just how nice it is to have a bunny around the house after recklessly losing White Rabbit in a bet to the Duchess. When she finds Rabbit is just as unhappy about the change of employers, the Queen makes plans to get the bunny back.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=87\n\\\|Title\\=Gratitude Adjustment\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen cancels \"Thanks\\-a\\-lot Day\", a day dedicated to gratitude, because she doesn't see the point of the holiday. Wonderland's residents try to help her understand what it means to be thankful, but it takes a call from her mom to finally get the ungrateful Queen to realize that even royal folks need to say \"thank you\" sometimes.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=88\n\\\|Title\\=Pie Noon\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the pie\\-throwing bully from the March Hare's high school day arrives at the Wonderland train station at high noon, the Hare panics, because none of his friends will stand with him against the bully.", "Special guest appearances by \\[\\[Willie Nelson]] as The Troubadour and \\[\\[Gilbert Gottfried]] as Mike McNasty\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=89\n\\\|Title\\=Untwist of Fate\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The denizens of Wonderland are worried that Alice won't be able to play Juliet in Shakespaw's \"Rabbit and Juliet\" because she has come down with a bad case of \"tongue twisters\" and can only speak in silly phrases.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=90\n\\\|Title\\=Queen's Best Friend\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Cheshire Cat plays a trick on the Red Queen and leads her to believe that the stray dog she found can talk and is named Charles Chumley Cogswell Jones III (Jonesy for short). The Queen, sure that a talking dog will bring her fame and fortune, books a spot on a TV program to showcase her talented terrier. To the Queen's chagrin, the previously garrulous dog is as quiet as a mouse once it's on the air.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=91\n\\\|Title\\=Purple Potato Eaters\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Wonderland's residents get a whiff of a batch of purple potato pancakes the Walrus is eating, they want to try them. The complicated recipe, however, makes them reluctant to help make more batter. After the Cheshire Cat tricks them into helping prepare the pancakes in spite of themselves, they learn that working for something helps one to appreciate it.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=92\n\\\|Title\\=The Queen Who Came in From the Cold\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen, crabby about all the anonymous letters in the paper complaining about her rash of newly imposed taxes, dons a disguise and goes undercover as Lorraine Quiche to root out the letter writers. To her surprise, she ends up agreeing with the writers' gripes, and must face the difficult task of admitting she is wrong.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=93\n\\\|Title\\=The Color of Wobucks\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the White Rabbit gets bamboozled by a con man named Scalawag Jones into spending the Red Queen's money on a seed for a phony money tree, his friends try to help out by \"planting\" one of their own. When this scheme backfires, the Queen herself comes up with a plan to bamboozle the bamboozler.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Stuart Pankin]] as Scalawag Jones\nGuest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=94\n\\\|Title\\=Take My Tonsils, Please\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter has a sore throat. Because of his reluctance to seek treatment, the Dormouse takes the liberty in phone calling a doctor.", "Special guest appearances by \\[\\[Judge Reinhold]] as Dr. Busby and \\[\\[Shadoe Stevens]] as Hat TV Host\nGuest starring Kim Christianson as Nurse\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=95\n\\\|Title\\=The Sound and The Furry\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After the crabby Red Queen orders an afternoon of silence, the March Hare's hearing\\-impaired cousin, April Hare, visits to teach everyone sign language. Miscommunication results in the Queen banishing the cousin from Wonderland and nearly turning a deaf ear to her own mistake.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Marlee Matlin]] as April Hare\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=96\n\\\|Title\\=Hats Off to the King\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After hearing the Mad Hatter perform a simple, down\\-to\\-earth song, the Tweedles arrange for him to compete on \"Wonderland Star Hunt\", where \\[\\[Ed McMahon]] hosts the Best Male Singer Contest. Alas, the Hatter succumbs to all things \"flashy, glitzy, and showbizzy\", and he makes a fool of himself on the show.", "Special guest appearance by Ed McMahon as Himself and \\[\\[Sam Harris (singer)\\\|Sam Harris]] as Joe Belter\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=97\n\\\|Title\\=Those Tusks, Those Eyes\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Walrus gets roped into performing his old precision creampuff\\-throwing act, with the Red Queen as his assistant. He has become very nearsighted, however, since he last did his act. At first his vanity keeps him from wearing glasses, but when it becomes clear that his choice is either to wear the glasses or make a spectacle of himself, and Her Majesty, he finally visits the eye doctor.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Edie McClurg]] as The Eye Doctor\nGuest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=98\n\\\|Title\\=Bah, Hamburger\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=In this parody of \\[\\[A Christmas Carol]], Tweedle Dum learns about good eating habits and the consequences of his obsession with eating junk food, when he is visited by the spirits of Nutrition Past, Present, and Future (respectively played by the Hatter, the Queen, and the Rabbit).\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=99\n\\\|Title\\=White Rabbits Can't Jump'\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\\|Unaired}}\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit gets some help from his hero \\[\\[O. J. Simpson]] when the residents of Wonderland hold an annual athletics competition and he's afraid he will lose.", "'''NOTE:''' This episode never aired due to the \\[\\[O. J. Simpson murder case]].\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=100\n\\\|Title\\=A Wonderland Howl\\-oween\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=At the traditional nighttime Halloween picnic, the Wonderland residents try to outspook each other with scary stories.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n}}\nHome media\n----------", "[Buena Vista Home Video](/wiki/Buena_Vista_Home_Video \"Buena Vista Home Video\") released three volumes of certain episodes on [VHS](/wiki/VHS \"VHS\") in 1993\\.\n### Streaming", "The series was made available for streaming on [Disney\\+](/wiki/Disney%2B \"Disney+\") on April 30, 2021\\.{{Cite web\\\|first\\=Zac\\\|last\\=Johnson\\\|date\\=March 16, 2021\\\|title\\=EVERYTHING NEW YOU CAN STREAM ON DISNEY\\+ IN APRIL 2021\\\|url\\=https://d23\\.com/everything\\-new\\-you\\-can\\-stream\\-on\\-disney\\-in\\-april\\-2021/\\\|website\\=d23\\.com}}\nAwards\n------", "[Daytime Emmy Awards](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"Daytime Emmy Awards\")\n[1992](/wiki/19th_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"19th Daytime Emmy Awards\") – * Outstanding Hairstyling – Richard Sabre and Tish Simpson (won)\n [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"21st Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Makeup – Ron Wild and Karen Stephens (won) \n [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"21st Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Writing in a Children's Series – Daryl Busby and Tom J. Astle (won) (tied with [Sesame Street](/wiki/Sesame_Street \"Sesame Street\")) \n [1995](/wiki/22nd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"22nd Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Costume Design – Lois DeArmond (won)\n [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"23rd Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Makeup – Karen Stephens and Ron Wild (won)\n [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"23rd Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Directing in a Children's Series'' – Shelley Jensen, David Grossman and Gary Halvorson (won)" ]
### Season 2 {{Episode table \\|background\=\#FF5C7D \\|overall\= \\|title\= \\|airdate\= \\|episodes\= {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=41 \\|Title\=Noses Off \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=While trying to help Her Majesty come up with an original costume for an upcoming masquerade ball, the Hatter and Hare accidentally attach a ridiculous rubber nose to the Queen's face, then can't get it off. The Queen and Alice uses sneezing powder and bouquet of flowers to remove her predicament and The White Rabbit will go get The Tweedles to showing the reporter for the cover of "Palace Beautiful" magazine around. Note: This episode was released on the "Missing Ring Mystery" VHS. Richard Kuhlman, the voice of The Cheshire Cat, is seen on screen as the reporter, Dirk Deadline.\<ref\>Disney's Adventures in Wonderland VHS "The Missing Ring Mystery" Copyright 1993\</ref\> This episode also marks a permanent outfit change for Tweedles. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=42 \\|Title\=This Bunny for Hire \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit breaks one of the Queen's vases, which he assumes is valuable crystal. Rather than tell the Queen what happened, he works nonstop, moonlighting to make enough money to buy a replacement\-only to discover, too late, that the original vase was merely inexpensive glass. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=43 \\|Title\=All That Glitters/Forbidden Fruit \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Tweedle Dum ignores Caterpillar's warnings and eats a dangerous new fruit that can make him stronger but may also make him very sick. A bellyache results, and Tweedle Dum learns to heed future warnings. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=44 \\|Title\=Whose Carrots Are They, Anyway? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Rabbit is proud of his carrot crop and would like to invite his friends from Wonderland to a simple carrot\-tasting party. However, many of the Rabbit's friends proceed to turn his simple party into the biggest, glitziest event of the season. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=45 \\|Title\=Say It Again, Ma'am! \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Rabbit misunderstands a royal edict but is too intimidated by the Queen to ask her to repeat herself. He enlists help from Wonderland's other residents to deduce what the Queen meant but comes to a conclusion that only adds to the confusion. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=46 \\|Title\=Lady and the Camp \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit buys flowers for the Queen, only to find out that the blossoms are full of bugs. While the Hatter and the Hare de\-bug the palace, the Queen camps out in the woods for the night and discovers that it's too tough to rough it when you're used to the soft life. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=47 \\|Title\=Gowns and Roses \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen hears there is money to be made by putting her name on a clothing label, so she designs her own fashion line. When the model fails to arrive for the fashion show, the Queen is shocked to see Rabbit on the runway. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=48 \\|Title\=Dinner Fit for a Queen \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Tweedles submit a tape to "Wonderland's Silliest Home Videos", the Red Queen's dignity is destroyed. She attempts to reclaim it with a staged dinner party for "Royalty's Favorite Home Videos". \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=49 \\|Title\=Toot\-Toot\-Tootsies, Goodbye \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Cheshire Cat hoaxes the existence of the legendary monster "Big Tootsies", fooling everybody but the Red Queen. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=50 \\|Title\=The Red Queen Crown Affair \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen's crown disappears, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare set out as private investigators to find it…which they do, underneath the Mad Hatter's own hat. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=51 \\|Title\=Copy\-Catter Hatter \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter's reputation is at stake after his royal hat designs are copied by the rascally Copy\-Catter Hatter. The Mad Hatter foils his plagiarizing cousin by leaving out a design that the Red Queen is sure to dislike. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=52 \\|Title\=Queen of the Beasts/The Greatest Story Never Sold \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen decides her life lacks excitement, she becomes a wild wobear tamer. The Wonderland inhabitants are impressed, until they discover that the ferocious wild animal is a cute, cuddly wobear cub. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=53 \\|Title\=Vanity Hare \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the March Hare inadvertently helps the Queen solve her crossword puzzle, she bestows upon him the Smarty Pants Medal. Soon, the Hare gets too high an opinion of his own intelligence, until he finds out that being a smarty pants sometimes means being too big for your boots. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=54 \\|Title\=The Best Ears of Our Lives \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When White Rabbit tires of being ignored, he tries to get attention by yelling and then by being silent. However, he discovers that the best way to make people curious about what you have to say is simply to speak softly. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=55 \\|Title\=Fiesta Time \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen is invited to King Ricardo's Fiesta, she balks because she can't speak Spanish. The others put together a Wonderland Fiesta to teach Spanish to the Red Queen. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=56 \\|Title\=Hair'em Scare'em/The Girl With Green Hair \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After the Mad Hatter send a bottle of his new shampoo to the Red Queen, he discovers that the shampoo has turned Alice's hair green. The March Hare tries to retrieve the shampoo before the Red Queen uses it, while the Mad Hatter tries to restore Alice's true hair color. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=57 \\|Title\=A Change of Heart \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=It's Valentine's Day, and Alice is dismayed to discover the Red Queen has ordered her subjects to show their affection. Since this is her first time celebrating in Wonderland, she decides to show the Queen the true meaning of the holiday. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=58 \\|Title\=On a Roll \\|OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\\|1992\\|09\\|03}} \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter prepares for a visit from his cousin Hedda Hatter, who uses a wheelchair. When she writes that the only drawback is "stairs," the Wonderland gang thinks she means "stares," so no one will look at poor Hedda. Once the confusion is cleared up, Hedda teaches everyone that people in wheelchairs can do the same things as anyone else. Special guest appearance by \[\[Christopher Anne Templeton]] as Hedda Hatter. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=59 \\|Title\=The Grape Juice of Wrath \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit spills grape juice on the Queen's throne and enlists Wonderland's other residents to help him remove the spot before the Queen returns from a day of picking blueberries. Their efforts are unsuccessful, to put it mildly. Finally, Rabbit tries to admit his mistake to the Queen, only to find that she doesn't care, since she had planned to get the throne reupholstered anyway. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=60 \\|Title\=Homing Pigeons \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After losing his house key for the umpteenth time, Hatter invents a house key homing device. Hoping to cash in on his invention, he stages a demonstration. He collects everyone's house key on a key ring, and then has Alice hide it. Before Hatter can track it down, the Cheshire Cat finds it, fancies it as a necklace, and disappears with it, leading all on a merry chase. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} }} ### Season 3 {{Episode table \\|background\=\#FF5C7D \\|overall\= \\|title\= \\|airdate\= \\|episodes\= {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=61 \\|Title\=From Hare to Eternity \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen saves the March Hare from quicksand, the March Hare carries out an annoying vow to protect her from all danger, until the Red Queen tricks the March Hare into "saving" her. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=62 \\|Title\=ChAlice in Wonderland \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Hatter and Hare go on an archaeological dig and uncover a beautiful, ancient chalice. Rabbit intercepts the treasure on behalf of the Queen, only to discover a curse written on the bottom of the cup. The Chalice exchanges hands, as one coincidental accident after another occurs…until, finally, the curse is revealed to be not a curse at all. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=63 \\|Title\=Hippity Hoppity Hypnotist \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The March Hare accidentally hypnotizes the Red Queen into acting like a chicken when the word "red" is spoken. The White Rabbit isn't aware of this, until the Red Queen is about to go on Wonderland TV. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=64 \\|Title\=Christmas in Wonderland \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Christmas is nearly ruined when the Red Queen hears about Alice's "white" Christmas and decides she won't be happy until she gets her own snowfall\-which is impossible, as it never snows in Wonderland. It turns out that her happiest Christmas memories stemmed from the one holiday when she and her parents vacationed in a snowy cabin. Moved, the Wonderland gang tries to bring the Queen snow. It does not work, of course, but the Queen learns that the real meaning of Christmas is the joy of people being kind to each other. As soon as this lesson is learned, Wonderland's first\-ever snowfall begins. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=65 \\|Title\=The Day of the Iguana \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen banishes a fortune teller from the palace, the White Rabbit fears a retaliatory curse has turned Her Majesty into an iguana. However, the iguana is actually Chuck, one of the fortune teller's critters. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=66 \\|Title\=I Am the Walrus \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=News of a walrus is moving panics Wonderland, because they heard that walruses are rude, smelly, and liars. When they can't get the Queen to tell the Walrus to leave, they decide to exclude and ignore him. Alice is the first to meet the Walrus and learns the rumors are completely false. When her friends refuse to believe and leave the Queen's party to not associate with him, the Queen treats them the same way and teaches them that it is wrong to exclude someone without getting to know them first. In the end, the residents of Wonderland, except for the Queen, all collectively decide to stop being racist. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=67 \\|Title\=Weed Shall Overcome \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen's plans for a new royal tennis court are delayed when the Walrus discovers a rare plant growing on the site. Wonderland's residents band together to convince the reluctant Queen to save the poor plant from extinction. Their words fail to move her, until the Walrus reveals that the weed is actually a crucial part in a biological chain that protects the Queen's roses. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=68 \\|Title\=Deface in the Crowd \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=All of Wonderland's residents are alarmed when a mysterious vandal begins defacing every available surface with graffiti. Attempts to catch the vandal fail, but, finally, he turns himself in when he realizes his attention\-getting ploy is actually costing him dearly in lost friendships. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=69 \\|Title\=TV or Not TV? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Prospects for good attendance at the annual Wonderland spring picnic look bad when the Mad Hatter, the March Hare, Tweedle Dum, and Tweedle Dee all begin watching television. They seem in danger of becoming true couch potatoes, until a cautionary nightmare jolts them off the sofa. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=70 \\|Title\=The Days of Vine and Roses \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen's chances for having her palace make the cover of "Better Palaces and Gardens" magazine are jeopardized when some of Wonderland's residents fail to follow the care instructions for an exotic plant. Soon the palace is completely overgrown by a massive tangle of vines. Special guest appearance by \[\[David Ruprecht]] as Bobby Shutterbug \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=71 \\|Title\=The Clan of the Cavebunny \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=A simple spelunking expedition turns up the discovery of the year: a bunny frozen in a block of ice, apparently to be a prehistoric cavebunny. All of Wonderland will soon find out, because it suddenly comes to life. Special guest appearance by \[\[Patrick Bristow]] as the Cavebunny \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=72 \\|Title\=Metaphor Monday \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=As all of Wonderland celebrates Metaphor Monday by preparing for the Metaphor Ball, a grand event in which everyone comes dressed as their favorite metaphor, the Tweedles become so consumed by sibling rivalry that they nearly let their inter\-Tweedle competition ruin both of their chances to win the metaphor costume contest. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=73 \\|Title\=Game Shows People Play \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After the Duchess ridicules the Red Queen's use of adverbs, the Queen goes on the TV game show "Name That Adverb". She does fine, until she takes a bath in the bonus round. Special guest appearance by \[\[Pat Sajak]] as himself Guest starring Kim Christianson as Vanna White Rabbit \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=74 \\|Title\=The Adventures of Spectacular Man \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When a falling star gives the Mad Hatter superpowers, he takes to the air as Spectacular Man, protector of Wonderland. The Red Queen is jealous of her new media rival, until he travels north by northwest to save her at the dedication of Mt. Wonderland. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=75 \\|Title\=For Hare Eyes Only \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Mad Hatter gets caught peeking at the March Hare's mail, Hare sets a trap by asking Hatter to pick up a tempting\-to\-open, but booby\-trapped box. Two packages arrive, and Mad Hatter succumbs to temptation and opens one\-but not the rigged parcel. Even so, the package turns out to be just as good at teaching Hatter a lesson about respecting people's private property. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=76 \\|Title\=To Tear Is Human \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When Alice rips her pants during a game of charades, the others kid her good\-naturedly, then apologize when they realize that she doesn't see the humor in the situation. All tip\-toe around the crabby girl, until an even sillier mishap teaches Alice that the only way to get over being embarrassed is not to take herself so seriously. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=77 \\|Title\=Odd Woman Out \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When Alice is prohibited from joining a Wonderland guys\-only club called the Oddballs, she conspires with the Red Queen to fool the lodge brothers into changing their antiquated rules and admitting their first female member. Her manly disguise works, but Alice wants to be accepted as she is. The guys soon realize their mistake and vow to form a new club for everyone in Wonderland. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=78 \\|Title\=Time Warped \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter and the March Hare believe they have invented a real time machine and resolve to use the goofy gadget to "go back in time" to prevent the Red Queen from doing something they know "she'll later regret". \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=79 \\|Title\=Give Ants a Chance \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Due to his extreme fear of ants, the Walrus seems destined to go through life avoiding picnics. Wonderland's other residents attempt to help him overcome his fear, but he finally realizes that, if he doesn't want to lose out, he'll have to decide on his own to stop letting ants bug him. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=80 \\|Title\=Card 54, Where Are You? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen becomes obsessed with collecting "Famous Bunnies of Filmland" trading cards, particularly when card 54 eludes her and ends up in the hands of the Mad Hatter. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=81 \\|Title\=Your Cheatin' Red Heart \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen, tired of losing every Boffo\-Bingo tournament to her rival, the Duchess, gets desperate and cheats. Much to her surprise, her conscience kicks in, and she's unable to savor her victory. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=82 \\|Title\=Wonderland: The Movie \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=Wonderland's residents watch a documentary on the subject of friendship, featuring the rather rocky royal relationship between the Red Queen and the Duchess. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=83 \\|Title\=Bunny, Can You Spare a Dime? \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the Red Queen thinks her royal savings have bottomed out, she is forced to auction off some royal possessions, including the fabulous Hop Diamond. However, she outbids everyone at her own auction, forcing her to borrow money from her royal rival, the Duchess. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=84 \\|Title\=The Royalty Trap \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=On the day the Red Queen is to be feted by the Royalty Hall of Fame, she accidentally locks herself in the royal tool shed. The Duchess seizes her chance to "help" the Queen by standing in for her at the ceremony\-in hopes of grabbing all the attention that was meant for Her Majesty. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=85 \\|Title\=Just the Fax, Ma'am/Duchess Treat \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=With the annual fund\-raiser for the Wonderland library on deck, the Red Queen is intent on upstaging the Duchess in the fashion department and finally getting her picture on the society page. In her eagerness to get the fashion scoop, the Red Queen learns that sometimes the fax can be confusing. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=86 \\|Title\=Take the Bunny and Run/Other People's Bunny \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen learns just how nice it is to have a bunny around the house after recklessly losing White Rabbit in a bet to the Duchess. When she finds Rabbit is just as unhappy about the change of employers, the Queen makes plans to get the bunny back. Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=87 \\|Title\=Gratitude Adjustment \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen cancels "Thanks\-a\-lot Day", a day dedicated to gratitude, because she doesn't see the point of the holiday. Wonderland's residents try to help her understand what it means to be thankful, but it takes a call from her mom to finally get the ungrateful Queen to realize that even royal folks need to say "thank you" sometimes. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=88 \\|Title\=Pie Noon \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the pie\-throwing bully from the March Hare's high school day arrives at the Wonderland train station at high noon, the Hare panics, because none of his friends will stand with him against the bully. Special guest appearances by \[\[Willie Nelson]] as The Troubadour and \[\[Gilbert Gottfried]] as Mike McNasty \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=89 \\|Title\=Untwist of Fate \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The denizens of Wonderland are worried that Alice won't be able to play Juliet in Shakespaw's "Rabbit and Juliet" because she has come down with a bad case of "tongue twisters" and can only speak in silly phrases. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=90 \\|Title\=Queen's Best Friend \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Cheshire Cat plays a trick on the Red Queen and leads her to believe that the stray dog she found can talk and is named Charles Chumley Cogswell Jones III (Jonesy for short). The Queen, sure that a talking dog will bring her fame and fortune, books a spot on a TV program to showcase her talented terrier. To the Queen's chagrin, the previously garrulous dog is as quiet as a mouse once it's on the air. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=91 \\|Title\=Purple Potato Eaters \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When Wonderland's residents get a whiff of a batch of purple potato pancakes the Walrus is eating, they want to try them. The complicated recipe, however, makes them reluctant to help make more batter. After the Cheshire Cat tricks them into helping prepare the pancakes in spite of themselves, they learn that working for something helps one to appreciate it. Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=92 \\|Title\=The Queen Who Came in From the Cold \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Red Queen, crabby about all the anonymous letters in the paper complaining about her rash of newly imposed taxes, dons a disguise and goes undercover as Lorraine Quiche to root out the letter writers. To her surprise, she ends up agreeing with the writers' gripes, and must face the difficult task of admitting she is wrong. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=93 \\|Title\=The Color of Wobucks \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=When the White Rabbit gets bamboozled by a con man named Scalawag Jones into spending the Red Queen's money on a seed for a phony money tree, his friends try to help out by "planting" one of their own. When this scheme backfires, the Queen herself comes up with a plan to bamboozle the bamboozler. Special guest appearance by \[\[Stuart Pankin]] as Scalawag Jones Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=94 \\|Title\=Take My Tonsils, Please \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Mad Hatter has a sore throat. Because of his reluctance to seek treatment, the Dormouse takes the liberty in phone calling a doctor. Special guest appearances by \[\[Judge Reinhold]] as Dr. Busby and \[\[Shadoe Stevens]] as Hat TV Host Guest starring Kim Christianson as Nurse \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=95 \\|Title\=The Sound and The Furry \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After the crabby Red Queen orders an afternoon of silence, the March Hare's hearing\-impaired cousin, April Hare, visits to teach everyone sign language. Miscommunication results in the Queen banishing the cousin from Wonderland and nearly turning a deaf ear to her own mistake. Special guest appearance by \[\[Marlee Matlin]] as April Hare \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=96 \\|Title\=Hats Off to the King \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=After hearing the Mad Hatter perform a simple, down\-to\-earth song, the Tweedles arrange for him to compete on "Wonderland Star Hunt", where \[\[Ed McMahon]] hosts the Best Male Singer Contest. Alas, the Hatter succumbs to all things "flashy, glitzy, and showbizzy", and he makes a fool of himself on the show. Special guest appearance by Ed McMahon as Himself and \[\[Sam Harris (singer)\\|Sam Harris]] as Joe Belter \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=97 \\|Title\=Those Tusks, Those Eyes \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=The Walrus gets roped into performing his old precision creampuff\-throwing act, with the Red Queen as his assistant. He has become very nearsighted, however, since he last did his act. At first his vanity keeps him from wearing glasses, but when it becomes clear that his choice is either to wear the glasses or make a spectacle of himself, and Her Majesty, he finally visits the eye doctor. Special guest appearance by \[\[Edie McClurg]] as The Eye Doctor Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=98 \\|Title\=Bah, Hamburger \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=In this parody of \[\[A Christmas Carol]], Tweedle Dum learns about good eating habits and the consequences of his obsession with eating junk food, when he is visited by the spirits of Nutrition Past, Present, and Future (respectively played by the Hatter, the Queen, and the Rabbit). \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=99 \\|Title\=White Rabbits Can't Jump' \\|OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\\|Unaired}} \\|ShortSummary\=The White Rabbit gets some help from his hero \[\[O. J. Simpson]] when the residents of Wonderland hold an annual athletics competition and he's afraid he will lose. '''NOTE:''' This episode never aired due to the \[\[O. J. Simpson murder case]]. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} {{Episode list \\|EpisodeNumber\=100 \\|Title\=A Wonderland Howl\-oween \\|OriginalAirDate\= \\|ShortSummary\=At the traditional nighttime Halloween picnic, the Wonderland residents try to outspook each other with scary stories. \\|LineColor\=FF5C7D }} }} Home media ---------- [Buena Vista Home Video](/wiki/Buena_Vista_Home_Video "Buena Vista Home Video") released three volumes of certain episodes on [VHS](/wiki/VHS "VHS") in 1993\. ### Streaming The series was made available for streaming on [Disney\+](/wiki/Disney%2B "Disney+") on April 30, 2021\.{{Cite web\\|first\=Zac\\|last\=Johnson\\|date\=March 16, 2021\\|title\=EVERYTHING NEW YOU CAN STREAM ON DISNEY\+ IN APRIL 2021\\|url\=https://d23\.com/everything\-new\-you\-can\-stream\-on\-disney\-in\-april\-2021/\\|website\=d23\.com}} Awards ------ [Daytime Emmy Awards](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Awards "Daytime Emmy Awards") [1992](/wiki/19th_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "19th Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Hairstyling – Richard Sabre and Tish Simpson (won) [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "21st Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Makeup – Ron Wild and Karen Stephens (won) [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "21st Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Writing in a Children's Series – Daryl Busby and Tom J. Astle (won) (tied with [Sesame Street](/wiki/Sesame_Street "Sesame Street")) [1995](/wiki/22nd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "22nd Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Costume Design – Lois DeArmond (won) [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "23rd Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Makeup – Karen Stephens and Ron Wild (won) [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards "23rd Daytime Emmy Awards") – * Outstanding Directing in a Children's Series'' – Shelley Jensen, David Grossman and Gary Halvorson (won)	[ "### Season 2", "{{Episode table \\\|background\\=\\#FF5C7D \\\|overall\\= \\\|title\\= \\\|airdate\\= \\\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=41\n\\\|Title\\=Noses Off\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=While trying to help Her Majesty come up with an original costume for an upcoming masquerade ball, the Hatter and Hare accidentally attach a ridiculous rubber nose to the Queen's face, then can't get it off. The Queen and Alice uses sneezing powder and bouquet of flowers to remove her predicament and The White Rabbit will go get The Tweedles to showing the reporter for the cover of \"Palace Beautiful\" magazine around.", "Note: This episode was released on the \"Missing Ring Mystery\" VHS. Richard Kuhlman, the voice of The Cheshire Cat, is seen on screen as the reporter, Dirk Deadline.\\<ref\\>Disney's Adventures in Wonderland VHS \"The Missing Ring Mystery\" Copyright 1993\\</ref\\> This episode also marks a permanent outfit change for Tweedles.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=42\n\\\|Title\\=This Bunny for Hire\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit breaks one of the Queen's vases, which he assumes is valuable crystal. Rather than tell the Queen what happened, he works nonstop, moonlighting to make enough money to buy a replacement\\-only to discover, too late, that the original vase was merely inexpensive glass.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=43\n\\\|Title\\=All That Glitters/Forbidden Fruit\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Tweedle Dum ignores Caterpillar's warnings and eats a dangerous new fruit that can make him stronger but may also make him very sick. A bellyache results, and Tweedle Dum learns to heed future warnings.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=44\n\\\|Title\\=Whose Carrots Are They, Anyway?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Rabbit is proud of his carrot crop and would like to invite his friends from Wonderland to a simple carrot\\-tasting party. However, many of the Rabbit's friends proceed to turn his simple party into the biggest, glitziest event of the season.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=45\n\\\|Title\\=Say It Again, Ma'am!\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Rabbit misunderstands a royal edict but is too intimidated by the Queen to ask her to repeat herself. He enlists help from Wonderland's other residents to deduce what the Queen meant but comes to a conclusion that only adds to the confusion.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=46\n\\\|Title\\=Lady and the Camp\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit buys flowers for the Queen, only to find out that the blossoms are full of bugs. While the Hatter and the Hare de\\-bug the palace, the Queen camps out in the woods for the night and discovers that it's too tough to rough it when you're used to the soft life.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=47\n\\\|Title\\=Gowns and Roses\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen hears there is money to be made by putting her name on a clothing label, so she designs her own fashion line. When the model fails to arrive for the fashion show, the Queen is shocked to see Rabbit on the runway.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=48\n\\\|Title\\=Dinner Fit for a Queen\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Tweedles submit a tape to \"Wonderland's Silliest Home Videos\", the Red Queen's dignity is destroyed. She attempts to reclaim it with a staged dinner party for \"Royalty's Favorite Home Videos\".\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=49\n\\\|Title\\=Toot\\-Toot\\-Tootsies, Goodbye\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Cheshire Cat hoaxes the existence of the legendary monster \"Big Tootsies\", fooling everybody but the Red Queen.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=50\n\\\|Title\\=The Red Queen Crown Affair\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen's crown disappears, the Mad Hatter and the March Hare set out as private investigators to find it…which they do, underneath the Mad Hatter's own hat.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=51\n\\\|Title\\=Copy\\-Catter Hatter\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter's reputation is at stake after his royal hat designs are copied by the rascally Copy\\-Catter Hatter. The Mad Hatter foils his plagiarizing cousin by leaving out a design that the Red Queen is sure to dislike.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=52\n\\\|Title\\=Queen of the Beasts/The Greatest Story Never Sold\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen decides her life lacks excitement, she becomes a wild wobear tamer. The Wonderland inhabitants are impressed, until they discover that the ferocious wild animal is a cute, cuddly wobear cub.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=53\n\\\|Title\\=Vanity Hare\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the March Hare inadvertently helps the Queen solve her crossword puzzle, she bestows upon him the Smarty Pants Medal. Soon, the Hare gets too high an opinion of his own intelligence, until he finds out that being a smarty pants sometimes means being too big for your boots.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=54\n\\\|Title\\=The Best Ears of Our Lives\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When White Rabbit tires of being ignored, he tries to get attention by yelling and then by being silent. However, he discovers that the best way to make people curious about what you have to say is simply to speak softly.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=55\n\\\|Title\\=Fiesta Time\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen is invited to King Ricardo's Fiesta, she balks because she can't speak Spanish. The others put together a Wonderland Fiesta to teach Spanish to the Red Queen.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=56\n\\\|Title\\=Hair'em Scare'em/The Girl With Green Hair\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After the Mad Hatter send a bottle of his new shampoo to the Red Queen, he discovers that the shampoo has turned Alice's hair green. The March Hare tries to retrieve the shampoo before the Red Queen uses it, while the Mad Hatter tries to restore Alice's true hair color.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=57\n\\\|Title\\=A Change of Heart\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=It's Valentine's Day, and Alice is dismayed to discover the Red Queen has ordered her subjects to show their affection. Since this is her first time celebrating in Wonderland, she decides to show the Queen the true meaning of the holiday.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=58\n\\\|Title\\=On a Roll\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\\|1992\\\|09\\\|03}}\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter prepares for a visit from his cousin Hedda Hatter, who uses a wheelchair. When she writes that the only drawback is \"stairs,\" the Wonderland gang thinks she means \"stares,\" so no one will look at poor Hedda. Once the confusion is cleared up, Hedda teaches everyone that people in wheelchairs can do the same things as anyone else.\nSpecial guest appearance by \\[\\[Christopher Anne Templeton]] as Hedda Hatter.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=59\n\\\|Title\\=The Grape Juice of Wrath\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit spills grape juice on the Queen's throne and enlists Wonderland's other residents to help him remove the spot before the Queen returns from a day of picking blueberries. Their efforts are unsuccessful, to put it mildly. Finally, Rabbit tries to admit his mistake to the Queen, only to find that she doesn't care, since she had planned to get the throne reupholstered anyway.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=60\n\\\|Title\\=Homing Pigeons\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After losing his house key for the umpteenth time, Hatter invents a house key homing device. Hoping to cash in on his invention, he stages a demonstration. He collects everyone's house key on a key ring, and then has Alice hide it. Before Hatter can track it down, the Cheshire Cat finds it, fancies it as a necklace, and disappears with it, leading all on a merry chase.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n}}", "### Season 3", "{{Episode table \\\|background\\=\\#FF5C7D \\\|overall\\= \\\|title\\= \\\|airdate\\= \\\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=61\n\\\|Title\\=From Hare to Eternity\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen saves the March Hare from quicksand, the March Hare carries out an annoying vow to protect her from all danger, until the Red Queen tricks the March Hare into \"saving\" her.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=62\n\\\|Title\\=ChAlice in Wonderland\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Hatter and Hare go on an archaeological dig and uncover a beautiful, ancient chalice. Rabbit intercepts the treasure on behalf of the Queen, only to discover a curse written on the bottom of the cup. The Chalice exchanges hands, as one coincidental accident after another occurs…until, finally, the curse is revealed to be not a curse at all.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=63\n\\\|Title\\=Hippity Hoppity Hypnotist\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The March Hare accidentally hypnotizes the Red Queen into acting like a chicken when the word \"red\" is spoken. The White Rabbit isn't aware of this, until the Red Queen is about to go on Wonderland TV.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=64\n\\\|Title\\=Christmas in Wonderland\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Christmas is nearly ruined when the Red Queen hears about Alice's \"white\" Christmas and decides she won't be happy until she gets her own snowfall\\-which is impossible, as it never snows in Wonderland. It turns out that her happiest Christmas memories stemmed from the one holiday when she and her parents vacationed in a snowy cabin. Moved, the Wonderland gang tries to bring the Queen snow. It does not work, of course, but the Queen learns that the real meaning of Christmas is the joy of people being kind to each other. As soon as this lesson is learned, Wonderland's first\\-ever snowfall begins.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=65\n\\\|Title\\=The Day of the Iguana\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen banishes a fortune teller from the palace, the White Rabbit fears a retaliatory curse has turned Her Majesty into an iguana. However, the iguana is actually Chuck, one of the fortune teller's critters.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=66\n\\\|Title\\=I Am the Walrus\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=News of a walrus is moving panics Wonderland, because they heard that walruses are rude, smelly, and liars. When they can't get the Queen to tell the Walrus to leave, they decide to exclude and ignore him. Alice is the first to meet the Walrus and learns the rumors are completely false. When her friends refuse to believe and leave the Queen's party to not associate with him, the Queen treats them the same way and teaches them that it is wrong to exclude someone without getting to know them first. In the end, the residents of Wonderland, except for the Queen, all collectively decide to stop being racist.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=67\n\\\|Title\\=Weed Shall Overcome\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen's plans for a new royal tennis court are delayed when the Walrus discovers a rare plant growing on the site. Wonderland's residents band together to convince the reluctant Queen to save the poor plant from extinction. Their words fail to move her, until the Walrus reveals that the weed is actually a crucial part in a biological chain that protects the Queen's roses.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=68\n\\\|Title\\=Deface in the Crowd\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=All of Wonderland's residents are alarmed when a mysterious vandal begins defacing every available surface with graffiti. Attempts to catch the vandal fail, but, finally, he turns himself in when he realizes his attention\\-getting ploy is actually costing him dearly in lost friendships.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=69\n\\\|Title\\=TV or Not TV?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Prospects for good attendance at the annual Wonderland spring picnic look bad when the Mad Hatter, the March Hare, Tweedle Dum, and Tweedle Dee all begin watching television. They seem in danger of becoming true couch potatoes, until a cautionary nightmare jolts them off the sofa.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=70\n\\\|Title\\=The Days of Vine and Roses\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen's chances for having her palace make the cover of \"Better Palaces and Gardens\" magazine are jeopardized when some of Wonderland's residents fail to follow the care instructions for an exotic plant. Soon the palace is completely overgrown by a massive tangle of vines.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[David Ruprecht]] as Bobby Shutterbug\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=71\n\\\|Title\\=The Clan of the Cavebunny\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=A simple spelunking expedition turns up the discovery of the year: a bunny frozen in a block of ice, apparently to be a prehistoric cavebunny. All of Wonderland will soon find out, because it suddenly comes to life.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Patrick Bristow]] as the Cavebunny\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=72\n\\\|Title\\=Metaphor Monday\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=As all of Wonderland celebrates Metaphor Monday by preparing for the Metaphor Ball, a grand event in which everyone comes dressed as their favorite metaphor, the Tweedles become so consumed by sibling rivalry that they nearly let their inter\\-Tweedle competition ruin both of their chances to win the metaphor costume contest.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=73\n\\\|Title\\=Game Shows People Play\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After the Duchess ridicules the Red Queen's use of adverbs, the Queen goes on the TV game show \"Name That Adverb\". She does fine, until she takes a bath in the bonus round.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Pat Sajak]] as himself\nGuest starring Kim Christianson as Vanna White Rabbit\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=74\n\\\|Title\\=The Adventures of Spectacular Man\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When a falling star gives the Mad Hatter superpowers, he takes to the air as Spectacular Man, protector of Wonderland. The Red Queen is jealous of her new media rival, until he travels north by northwest to save her at the dedication of Mt. Wonderland.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=75\n\\\|Title\\=For Hare Eyes Only\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Mad Hatter gets caught peeking at the March Hare's mail, Hare sets a trap by asking Hatter to pick up a tempting\\-to\\-open, but booby\\-trapped box. Two packages arrive, and Mad Hatter succumbs to temptation and opens one\\-but not the rigged parcel. Even so, the package turns out to be just as good at teaching Hatter a lesson about respecting people's private property.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=76\n\\\|Title\\=To Tear Is Human\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Alice rips her pants during a game of charades, the others kid her good\\-naturedly, then apologize when they realize that she doesn't see the humor in the situation. All tip\\-toe around the crabby girl, until an even sillier mishap teaches Alice that the only way to get over being embarrassed is not to take herself so seriously.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=77\n\\\|Title\\=Odd Woman Out\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Alice is prohibited from joining a Wonderland guys\\-only club called the Oddballs, she conspires with the Red Queen to fool the lodge brothers into changing their antiquated rules and admitting their first female member. Her manly disguise works, but Alice wants to be accepted as she is. The guys soon realize their mistake and vow to form a new club for everyone in Wonderland.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=78\n\\\|Title\\=Time Warped\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter and the March Hare believe they have invented a real time machine and resolve to use the goofy gadget to \"go back in time\" to prevent the Red Queen from doing something they know \"she'll later regret\".\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=79\n\\\|Title\\=Give Ants a Chance\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Due to his extreme fear of ants, the Walrus seems destined to go through life avoiding picnics. Wonderland's other residents attempt to help him overcome his fear, but he finally realizes that, if he doesn't want to lose out, he'll have to decide on his own to stop letting ants bug him.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=80\n\\\|Title\\=Card 54, Where Are You?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen becomes obsessed with collecting \"Famous Bunnies of Filmland\" trading cards, particularly when card 54 eludes her and ends up in the hands of the Mad Hatter.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=81\n\\\|Title\\=Your Cheatin' Red Heart\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen, tired of losing every Boffo\\-Bingo tournament to her rival, the Duchess, gets desperate and cheats. Much to her surprise, her conscience kicks in, and she's unable to savor her victory.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=82\n\\\|Title\\=Wonderland: The Movie\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=Wonderland's residents watch a documentary on the subject of friendship, featuring the rather rocky royal relationship between the Red Queen and the Duchess.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=83\n\\\|Title\\=Bunny, Can You Spare a Dime?\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the Red Queen thinks her royal savings have bottomed out, she is forced to auction off some royal possessions, including the fabulous Hop Diamond. However, she outbids everyone at her own auction, forcing her to borrow money from her royal rival, the Duchess.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=84\n\\\|Title\\=The Royalty Trap\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=On the day the Red Queen is to be feted by the Royalty Hall of Fame, she accidentally locks herself in the royal tool shed. The Duchess seizes her chance to \"help\" the Queen by standing in for her at the ceremony\\-in hopes of grabbing all the attention that was meant for Her Majesty.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=85\n\\\|Title\\=Just the Fax, Ma'am/Duchess Treat\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=With the annual fund\\-raiser for the Wonderland library on deck, the Red Queen is intent on upstaging the Duchess in the fashion department and finally getting her picture on the society page. In her eagerness to get the fashion scoop, the Red Queen learns that sometimes the fax can be confusing.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=86\n\\\|Title\\=Take the Bunny and Run/Other People's Bunny\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen learns just how nice it is to have a bunny around the house after recklessly losing White Rabbit in a bet to the Duchess. When she finds Rabbit is just as unhappy about the change of employers, the Queen makes plans to get the bunny back.", "Special guest appearance by Teri Garr as The Duchess\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=87\n\\\|Title\\=Gratitude Adjustment\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen cancels \"Thanks\\-a\\-lot Day\", a day dedicated to gratitude, because she doesn't see the point of the holiday. Wonderland's residents try to help her understand what it means to be thankful, but it takes a call from her mom to finally get the ungrateful Queen to realize that even royal folks need to say \"thank you\" sometimes.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=88\n\\\|Title\\=Pie Noon\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the pie\\-throwing bully from the March Hare's high school day arrives at the Wonderland train station at high noon, the Hare panics, because none of his friends will stand with him against the bully.", "Special guest appearances by \\[\\[Willie Nelson]] as The Troubadour and \\[\\[Gilbert Gottfried]] as Mike McNasty\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=89\n\\\|Title\\=Untwist of Fate\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The denizens of Wonderland are worried that Alice won't be able to play Juliet in Shakespaw's \"Rabbit and Juliet\" because she has come down with a bad case of \"tongue twisters\" and can only speak in silly phrases.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=90\n\\\|Title\\=Queen's Best Friend\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Cheshire Cat plays a trick on the Red Queen and leads her to believe that the stray dog she found can talk and is named Charles Chumley Cogswell Jones III (Jonesy for short). The Queen, sure that a talking dog will bring her fame and fortune, books a spot on a TV program to showcase her talented terrier. To the Queen's chagrin, the previously garrulous dog is as quiet as a mouse once it's on the air.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=91\n\\\|Title\\=Purple Potato Eaters\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When Wonderland's residents get a whiff of a batch of purple potato pancakes the Walrus is eating, they want to try them. The complicated recipe, however, makes them reluctant to help make more batter. After the Cheshire Cat tricks them into helping prepare the pancakes in spite of themselves, they learn that working for something helps one to appreciate it.", "Guest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=92\n\\\|Title\\=The Queen Who Came in From the Cold\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Red Queen, crabby about all the anonymous letters in the paper complaining about her rash of newly imposed taxes, dons a disguise and goes undercover as Lorraine Quiche to root out the letter writers. To her surprise, she ends up agreeing with the writers' gripes, and must face the difficult task of admitting she is wrong.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=93\n\\\|Title\\=The Color of Wobucks\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=When the White Rabbit gets bamboozled by a con man named Scalawag Jones into spending the Red Queen's money on a seed for a phony money tree, his friends try to help out by \"planting\" one of their own. When this scheme backfires, the Queen herself comes up with a plan to bamboozle the bamboozler.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Stuart Pankin]] as Scalawag Jones\nGuest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=94\n\\\|Title\\=Take My Tonsils, Please\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Mad Hatter has a sore throat. Because of his reluctance to seek treatment, the Dormouse takes the liberty in phone calling a doctor.", "Special guest appearances by \\[\\[Judge Reinhold]] as Dr. Busby and \\[\\[Shadoe Stevens]] as Hat TV Host\nGuest starring Kim Christianson as Nurse\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=95\n\\\|Title\\=The Sound and The Furry\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After the crabby Red Queen orders an afternoon of silence, the March Hare's hearing\\-impaired cousin, April Hare, visits to teach everyone sign language. Miscommunication results in the Queen banishing the cousin from Wonderland and nearly turning a deaf ear to her own mistake.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Marlee Matlin]] as April Hare\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=96\n\\\|Title\\=Hats Off to the King\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=After hearing the Mad Hatter perform a simple, down\\-to\\-earth song, the Tweedles arrange for him to compete on \"Wonderland Star Hunt\", where \\[\\[Ed McMahon]] hosts the Best Male Singer Contest. Alas, the Hatter succumbs to all things \"flashy, glitzy, and showbizzy\", and he makes a fool of himself on the show.", "Special guest appearance by Ed McMahon as Himself and \\[\\[Sam Harris (singer)\\\|Sam Harris]] as Joe Belter\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=97\n\\\|Title\\=Those Tusks, Those Eyes\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The Walrus gets roped into performing his old precision creampuff\\-throwing act, with the Red Queen as his assistant. He has become very nearsighted, however, since he last did his act. At first his vanity keeps him from wearing glasses, but when it becomes clear that his choice is either to wear the glasses or make a spectacle of himself, and Her Majesty, he finally visits the eye doctor.", "Special guest appearance by \\[\\[Edie McClurg]] as The Eye Doctor\nGuest starring Ken Page as Walrus\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=98\n\\\|Title\\=Bah, Hamburger\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=In this parody of \\[\\[A Christmas Carol]], Tweedle Dum learns about good eating habits and the consequences of his obsession with eating junk food, when he is visited by the spirits of Nutrition Past, Present, and Future (respectively played by the Hatter, the Queen, and the Rabbit).\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=99\n\\\|Title\\=White Rabbits Can't Jump'\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\\|Unaired}}\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=The White Rabbit gets some help from his hero \\[\\[O. J. Simpson]] when the residents of Wonderland hold an annual athletics competition and he's afraid he will lose.", "'''NOTE:''' This episode never aired due to the \\[\\[O. J. Simpson murder case]].\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\\|EpisodeNumber\\=100\n\\\|Title\\=A Wonderland Howl\\-oween\n\\\|OriginalAirDate\\=\n\\\|ShortSummary\\=At the traditional nighttime Halloween picnic, the Wonderland residents try to outspook each other with scary stories.\n\\\|LineColor\\=FF5C7D\n}}\n}}\nHome media\n----------", "[Buena Vista Home Video](/wiki/Buena_Vista_Home_Video \"Buena Vista Home Video\") released three volumes of certain episodes on [VHS](/wiki/VHS \"VHS\") in 1993\\.\n### Streaming", "The series was made available for streaming on [Disney\\+](/wiki/Disney%2B \"Disney+\") on April 30, 2021\\.{{Cite web\\\|first\\=Zac\\\|last\\=Johnson\\\|date\\=March 16, 2021\\\|title\\=EVERYTHING NEW YOU CAN STREAM ON DISNEY\\+ IN APRIL 2021\\\|url\\=https://d23\\.com/everything\\-new\\-you\\-can\\-stream\\-on\\-disney\\-in\\-april\\-2021/\\\|website\\=d23\\.com}}\nAwards\n------", "[Daytime Emmy Awards](/wiki/Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"Daytime Emmy Awards\")\n[1992](/wiki/19th_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"19th Daytime Emmy Awards\") – * Outstanding Hairstyling – Richard Sabre and Tish Simpson (won)\n [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"21st Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Makeup – Ron Wild and Karen Stephens (won) \n [1994](/wiki/21st_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"21st Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Writing in a Children's Series – Daryl Busby and Tom J. Astle (won) (tied with [Sesame Street](/wiki/Sesame_Street \"Sesame Street\")) \n [1995](/wiki/22nd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"22nd Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Costume Design – Lois DeArmond (won)\n [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"23rd Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Makeup – Karen Stephens and Ron Wild (won)\n [1996](/wiki/23rd_Daytime_Emmy_Awards \"23rd Daytime Emmy Awards\") –\n* Outstanding Directing in a Children's Series'' – Shelley Jensen, David Grossman and Gary Halvorson (won)" ]
Encoding of Subscript Consonants -------------------------------- Base and subscript consonants have different encodings because words such as {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨲᩥ᩠ᨠ}} and {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨲᩥᨠ}} are different in both appearance and sound. Subscript consonants are encoded as a sequence of 2 characters. The second is the base character and the first is the special character U\+1A60 TAI THAM SIGN SAKOT.{{rp\\|at\=Section 2}} If a consonant has two subscript forms and the choice affects the meaning, the form typically used for syllable\-final consonants will be encoded with SAKOT, and the other form will have its own code point. There are 7 consonants which have different subscript forms in this way, namely {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩁ}} RA, {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩃ}} LA, {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨷ}} BA, {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩈ}} HIGH SA, {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨾ}} MA, {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨳ}} HIGH RATA, and {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨻ}} LOW PA. {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨣᩕᩪ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|k'''ʰ'''uː}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A23 LOW KA, U\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\+1A6A SIGN UU\> but {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨠᩣ᩠ᩁ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|kaː'''n'''\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A41 RA\>{{rp\\|at\=Section 4}} {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩆᩦ᩠ᩃ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|siː'''n'''\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A46 HIGH SHA, U\+1A66 SIGN II, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A43 LA\>{{rp\\|at\=Section 14\.5}} but {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨸᩖᩦ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|piː\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A38 HIGH PA, U\+1A56 MEDIAL LA, U\+1A66 SIGN II\>.{{rp\\|at\=Section 4}} (For the use of LA as a syllable final letter, compare {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩁᨭᩛᨷᩣ᩠ᩃ}}{{rp\\|at\=Section 4}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|lat tha baːn}}). U\+1A57 SIGN LA TANG LAI looks like \<U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A43 LA\> but is in origin a ligature of it with \<U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A26 NGA\>. Tai Lue uses it to write the word {{lang\\|khb\\|ᨴᩢ᩵ᩗᩣ}} ({{IPA\\|khb\\|taŋ laːi\\|IPA}}). {{cite web\\|url\=http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tai/TaiLue/graphic%20blends.htm \\|language\=English \\|title\=Tai Lue: Complex Orthographic Rules: Graphic Blends(I) \\|last\=Khotsimeuang \\|first\=Veomany \\|website\=SEAsite \\|access\-date\=10 June 2018 }} {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨣᩝᩴ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|kɔː '''b'''ɔː\\|IPA}})is encoded as \<U\+1A23 LOW KA, U\+1A5D SIGN BA, U\+1A74 MAI KANG\>, but {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨠᩢ᩠ᨷ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|ka'''p'''\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A37 BA\> and {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨠᩢᨷ᩠ᨷ᩺}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|kap\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A37 BA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A37 BA, U\+1A7A RA HAAM\> In the final proposal, {{cite web\\|url\=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2007/07007r\-n3207r\-lanna.pdf \\|language\=en \\|title\=Revised proposal for encoding the Lanna script in the BMP of the UCS \\|last1\=Everson \\|first1\=Michael \\|authorlink1\=Michael\_Everson \\|last2\=Hosken \\|first2\=Martin \\|last3\=Constable \\|first3\=Peter \\|date\=21 March 2007 \\|website\=Unicode }} {{rp\\|page\=1}} which the [Unicode Consortium](/wiki/Unicode_Consortium "Unicode Consortium") accepted that what is now SIGN BA (as in {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨣᩝᩴ}}) would be encoded as \<SAKOT, BA\> and what is now \<SAKOT, BA\> (as in {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨠᩢ᩠ᨷ}}) should be encoded as \<SAKOT, HIGH PA\>, but during the ISO process the meaning of \<SAKOT, BA\> changed {{cite web\\|url\=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08073\-subjoin\-tham.pdf \\|language\=English \\|title\=Tai Tham Subjoined Variants \\|last\=Hosken \\|first\=Martin \\|date\=28 January 2008 \\|website\=Unicode }} and SIGN BA was added. However, the original meaning of \<SAKOT, HIGH PA\> remains for words from Thai that have ป as a syllable\-final consonant. (This proposal mistakenly calls \<SAKOT, HIGH PA\> \<SAKOT, HIGH PHA\>.) Pali uses HIGH PA instead of BA in Laos and northeast Thailand. One should therefore be prepared to find \<SAKOT, BA\> encoded as \<U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A38 HIGH PA\> in Pali. Tai Khuen has two ways of writing subscript HIGH SA. They are not interchangeable. In Tai Khuen, to write {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᩃᩮᩞ}} is correct and to write {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᩃᩮ᩠ᩈ}} is wrong, but to write {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᩈᨶ᩠ᨶᩥᩅᩤ᩠ᩈ}} is correct while to write {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᩈᨶ᩠ᨶᩥᩅᩤᩞ}} is wrong! {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᩃᩮᩞ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A43 LA, U\+1A6E SIGN E, U\+1A5E SIGN SA\> while the incorrect {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᩃᩮ᩠ᩈ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A43 LA, U\+1A6E SIGN E, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A48 HIGH SA\>. Tai Khuen has an additional way of writing subscript MA. There is a special codepoint for this additional method {{cite web\\|url\=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08037\-n3379\.pdf \\|language\=en \\|title\=Tai Tham Ad\-hoc Meeting Report (WG2 N3379\) \\|date\=22 January 2008 \\|website\=Unicode }}{{rp\\|at\=Item 9}} The word which Northern Thai writes as {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺}} is written in Tai Khuen both as {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼}} encoded as \<U\+1A35 LOW THA, U\+1A3E MA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3E MA, U\+1A7C KARAN\> and as {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᨵᨾᩜ᩼}} encoded as \<U\+1A35 LOW THA, U\+1A3E MA, U\+1A5C SIGN MA, U\+1A7C KARAN\>. There are two ways of writing the subscript for both HIGH RATHA and LOW PA. {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨶᩥᨣᨱᩛ}} {{cite book \\| script\-title\= th:พจนานุกรมล้านนา \~ ไทย: ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง \\| title \= Lanna\-Thai Dictionary: Maefahluang Edition \\| last \= Rungruengsi \\| first \= Udom \\| date \= January 2004 \\| publisher\= Chiang Mai University \\| isbn \= 974\-685\-175\-6 \\| language \= Thai \\| location\= Chiang Mai }}{{rp\\|page\=368}} is encoded as \<U\+1A36 NA, U\+1A65 SIGN I, U\+1A23 LOW KA, U\+1A31 RANA, U\+1A5B SIGN HIGH RATHA OR LOW PA\>: {{lang\\|nod\\|\[\[Rajabhat University system\\|ᩁᩣᨩᨽᩢ᩠ᨮ]]}}{{rp\\|page\=3}} is encoded \<U\+1A41 RA, U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A29 LOW CA, U\+1A3D LOW PHA, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A2E HIGH RATHA\>. {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨶᩥᨻᩛᩣᨶ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A36 NA, U\+1A65 SIGN I, U\+1A3B LOW PA, U\+1A5B SIGN HIGH RATHA OR LOW PA, U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A36 NA\>: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨴᩮ᩠ᨻ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A34 LOW TA, U\+1A6E SIGN E, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3B LOW PA\>. The latter word is also written as {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨴᩮ᩠ᨷ}}. The Lao\-style consonant conjunct {{lang\\|lo\\|ᨲ᩠ᨳ}} (encoded as \<U\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A33 HIGH THA\>) looks as though it is {{lang\\|lo\\|ᨲᩛ}} encoded as \<U\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\+1A5B SIGN HIGH RATHA OR LOW PA\>. The shape of U\+1A5B depends upon the consonant it is subscript to. The dependent vowel of words like {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨯᩬᨠ}} 'flower' is encoded by the special vowel \<U\+1A6C SIGN OA BELOW\>; one should not use the sequence \<U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A4B LETTER A\> There is also an encoded dependent vowel for words like Tai Khuen, Tai Lue and Lao words such as {{lang\\|kkh\\|ᨶ᩶ᩭ}}, namely U\+1A6D SIGN OY. This vowel is not encoded as \<U\+1A6C SIGN OA BELOW, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3F LOW YA\> (which is what Northern Thai uses for the corresponding words; nor is it the sequence \<U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A40 HIGH YA\>⁠{{rp\\|at\=Section 5}}	[ "Encoding of Subscript Consonants\n--------------------------------", "Base and subscript consonants have different encodings because words such as {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨲᩥ᩠ᨠ}} and\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨲᩥᨠ}} are different in both appearance and sound. \nSubscript consonants are encoded as a sequence of 2 characters. The second is the base character and the first is the special character U\\+1A60 TAI THAM SIGN SAKOT.{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 2}}", "If a consonant has two subscript forms and the choice affects the meaning, the form typically used for syllable\\-final consonants will be encoded with SAKOT, and the other form will have its own code point. There are 7 consonants which have different subscript forms in this way, namely {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩁ}} RA, {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩃ}} LA, {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨷ}} BA, {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩈ}} HIGH SA, {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨾ}} MA, {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨳ}} HIGH RATA, and {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨻ}} LOW PA.", "{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨣᩕᩪ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|k'''ʰ'''uː}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A23 LOW KA, U\\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\\+1A6A SIGN UU\\> but\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨠᩣ᩠ᩁ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|kaː'''n'''\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA,\nU\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A41 RA\\>{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 4}}", "{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩆᩦ᩠ᩃ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|siː'''n'''\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A46 HIGH SHA, U\\+1A66 SIGN II,\nU\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A43 LA\\>{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 14\\.5}} but {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨸᩖᩦ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|piː\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A38 HIGH PA, U\\+1A56 MEDIAL LA, U\\+1A66 SIGN II\\>.{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 4}} (For the use of LA as a syllable final letter, compare {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩁᨭᩛᨷᩣ᩠ᩃ}}{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 4}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|lat tha baːn}}).", "U\\+1A57 SIGN LA TANG LAI looks like \\<U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A43 LA\\> but is in origin a ligature of it with \\<U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A26 NGA\\>. Tai Lue uses it to write the word {{lang\\\|khb\\\|ᨴᩢ᩵ᩗᩣ}} ({{IPA\\\|khb\\\|taŋ laːi\\\|IPA}}).\n{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tai/TaiLue/graphic%20blends.htm\n\\\|language\\=English\n\\\|title\\=Tai Lue: Complex Orthographic Rules: Graphic Blends(I)\n\\\|last\\=Khotsimeuang\n\\\|first\\=Veomany\n\\\|website\\=SEAsite\n\\\|access\\-date\\=10 June 2018\n}}", "{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨣᩝᩴ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|kɔː '''b'''ɔː\\\|IPA}})is encoded as \\<U\\+1A23 LOW KA, U\\+1A5D SIGN BA, U\\+1A74 MAI KANG\\>, but {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨠᩢ᩠ᨷ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|ka'''p'''\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A37 BA\\> and \n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨠᩢᨷ᩠ᨷ᩺}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|kap\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A37 BA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A37 BA, U\\+1A7A RA HAAM\\>", "In the final proposal,\n{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2007/07007r\\-n3207r\\-lanna.pdf\n\\\|language\\=en\n\\\|title\\=Revised proposal for encoding the Lanna script in the BMP of the UCS\n\\\|last1\\=Everson\n\\\|first1\\=Michael\n\\\|authorlink1\\=Michael\\_Everson\n\\\|last2\\=Hosken\n\\\|first2\\=Martin\n\\\|last3\\=Constable\n\\\|first3\\=Peter\n\\\|date\\=21 March 2007\n\\\|website\\=Unicode\n}}\n{{rp\\\|page\\=1}} which the [Unicode Consortium](/wiki/Unicode_Consortium \"Unicode Consortium\") accepted that what is now SIGN BA (as in {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨣᩝᩴ}}) would be encoded as \\<SAKOT, BA\\> and what is now \\<SAKOT, BA\\> (as in {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨠᩢ᩠ᨷ}}) should be encoded as \\<SAKOT, HIGH PA\\>, but during the ISO process the meaning of \\<SAKOT, BA\\> changed\n{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08073\\-subjoin\\-tham.pdf\n\\\|language\\=English\n\\\|title\\=Tai Tham Subjoined Variants\n\\\|last\\=Hosken\n\\\|first\\=Martin\n\\\|date\\=28 January 2008\n\\\|website\\=Unicode\n}} and SIGN BA was added. However, the original meaning of \\<SAKOT, HIGH PA\\> remains for words from Thai that have ป as a syllable\\-final consonant. (This proposal mistakenly calls \\<SAKOT, HIGH PA\\> \\<SAKOT, HIGH PHA\\>.)\nPali uses HIGH PA instead of BA in Laos and northeast Thailand. One should therefore be prepared to find \\<SAKOT, BA\\> encoded as \\<U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A38 HIGH PA\\> in Pali.", "Tai Khuen has two ways of writing subscript HIGH SA. They are not interchangeable.\nIn Tai Khuen, to write {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᩃᩮᩞ}} is correct and to write {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᩃᩮ᩠ᩈ}} is wrong,\nbut to write {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᩈᨶ᩠ᨶᩥᩅᩤ᩠ᩈ}} is correct while to write {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᩈᨶ᩠ᨶᩥᩅᩤᩞ}} is wrong!\n{{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᩃᩮᩞ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A43 LA, U\\+1A6E SIGN E, U\\+1A5E SIGN SA\\>\nwhile the incorrect {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᩃᩮ᩠ᩈ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A43 LA, U\\+1A6E SIGN E, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A48 HIGH SA\\>.", "Tai Khuen has an additional way of writing subscript MA. There is a special codepoint for this additional method\n{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08037\\-n3379\\.pdf\n\\\|language\\=en\n\\\|title\\=Tai Tham Ad\\-hoc Meeting Report (WG2 N3379\\)\n\\\|date\\=22 January 2008\n\\\|website\\=Unicode\n}}{{rp\\\|at\\=Item 9}}\nThe word which Northern Thai writes as {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺}} is written in Tai Khuen both as {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼}} encoded as \\<U\\+1A35 LOW THA, U\\+1A3E MA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3E MA, U\\+1A7C KARAN\\> and as {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᨵᨾᩜ᩼}} encoded as\n\\<U\\+1A35 LOW THA, U\\+1A3E MA, U\\+1A5C SIGN MA, U\\+1A7C KARAN\\>.", "There are two ways of writing the subscript for both HIGH RATHA and LOW PA.\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨶᩥᨣᨱᩛ}}\n{{cite book\n\\\| script\\-title\\= th:พจนานุกรมล้านนา \\~ ไทย: ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง\n\\\| title \\= Lanna\\-Thai Dictionary: Maefahluang Edition\n\\\| last \\= Rungruengsi\n\\\| first \\= Udom\n\\\| date \\= January 2004 \n\\\| publisher\\= Chiang Mai University \n\\\| isbn \\= 974\\-685\\-175\\-6 \n\\\| language \\= Thai\n\\\| location\\= Chiang Mai\n}}{{rp\\\|page\\=368}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A36 NA, U\\+1A65 SIGN I, U\\+1A23 LOW KA,\nU\\+1A31 RANA, U\\+1A5B SIGN HIGH RATHA OR LOW PA\\>:\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|\\[\\[Rajabhat University system\\\|ᩁᩣᨩᨽᩢ᩠ᨮ]]}}{{rp\\\|page\\=3}} is encoded\n\\<U\\+1A41 RA, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\\+1A29 LOW CA, U\\+1A3D LOW PHA, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A2E HIGH RATHA\\>.\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨶᩥᨻᩛᩣᨶ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A36 NA, U\\+1A65 SIGN I, U\\+1A3B LOW PA, U\\+1A5B SIGN HIGH RATHA OR LOW PA, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\\+1A36 NA\\>:\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨴᩮ᩠ᨻ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A34 LOW TA, U\\+1A6E SIGN E, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3B LOW PA\\>.\nThe latter word is also written as {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨴᩮ᩠ᨷ}}.\nThe Lao\\-style consonant conjunct {{lang\\\|lo\\\|ᨲ᩠ᨳ}} (encoded as \\<U\\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A33 HIGH THA\\>) looks as though it is {{lang\\\|lo\\\|ᨲᩛ}} encoded as \\<U\\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\\+1A5B SIGN HIGH RATHA OR LOW PA\\>. The shape of U\\+1A5B depends upon the consonant it is subscript to.", "The dependent vowel of words like {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨯᩬᨠ}} 'flower' is encoded by the special vowel \\<U\\+1A6C SIGN OA BELOW\\>; one should not use the sequence \\<U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A4B LETTER A\\> There is also an encoded dependent vowel for words like Tai Khuen, Tai Lue and Lao words such as {{lang\\\|kkh\\\|ᨶ᩶ᩭ}}, namely U\\+1A6D SIGN OY. This vowel is not encoded as \\<U\\+1A6C SIGN OA BELOW, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3F LOW YA\\> (which is what Northern Thai uses for the corresponding words; nor is it the sequence \\<U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A40 HIGH YA\\>⁠{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 5}}", "" ]
Character Order within Text --------------------------- The encoding proposal defined the ordering of Unicode characters. Like the way of writing Burmese, Khmer, and Indian languages, Unicode characters are ordered according to the order of the sounds except in special cases{{refn\\|name\=aside\\|"The encoding model for Lanna is similar to that for Myanmar and Khmer, using a CEONG{{refn\\|Read as COENG i.e. U\+17D2 KHMER SIGN COENG}}\-like character plus some combining medial\-consonant characters."{{rp\\|at\=Section 14}}}} or if 2 sounds combine into a single sound and then one uses the old order. This order is usually as in Siamese. If the sound does not have an order then one uses the visual order or a special alternative order. There are special rules for: (a) The ordering of vowels (b) The writing of mai kia in all its variants (c) Th writing of mai kua in all its variants (d) The writing of mai kam (e) The writing of tone marks The ordering of Unicode characters for consonants and vowels is: onset letters, true vowel marks, coda consonants, onset letters, true vowel marks, coda consonants.{{rp\\|at\=Section 14}} For convenience, one reckons that symbols killing vowels are vowels. The 'onset letters' are consonants, independent vowels or special symbols. The consonants in a group are ordered according to the order in which they are sounded or used to be sounded. Example: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨻᩩᨴ᩠ᨵ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|put thaʔ}}) onset letter: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨻ}} pure vowel: {{lang\\|nod\\| ᩩ}} final 'consonant': {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨴ}} onset letter: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨵ}} pure vowel: no symbol final consonant: none The encoding is \<U\+1A3B LOW PA, U\+1A69 SIGN U, U\+1A34 LOW TA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A35 LOW THA\> Example: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨻᩕ}} has a single consonant sound {{IPA\\|nod\\|pʰ}}, but formerly had 2 sounds, namely those of {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨻ}} and then {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩁ}} as in central Thai. This word is encoded as \<LOW PA, MEDIAL RA\>. Apart from MEDIAL RA, the order of the consonant glyphs is the same as the order of the sounds. In most cases MEDIAL RA is the last consonant but the WA of /ua/ and the LOW YA of /ia/ follow MEDIAL RA. Examples: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩆᩣᩈ᩠ᨲᩕ᩺}} is encoded \<U\+1A46 HIGH SHA, U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\+1A7A RA HAAM\>. {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨠᩕᩈᩢ᩠ᨲ}} is encoded \<U\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A32 HIGH TA\&gt. {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩈᩕ᩠ᩅᨾ}} is encoded \<U\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A45 WA, U\+1A3E MA\>. But {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨲᩕ᩠ᨶᩬᨾ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|tʰa nɔːm}}){{rp\\|269}} is encoded \<U\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A36 NA, U\+1A6C SIGN OA BELOW, U\+1A3E MA\> For words like {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ}} there is the rule that symbols for vowels and tones have the order:{{rp\\|at\=Section 5 first part, 5\.3 and 13}} (1\) leading vowels (2\) vowels below (top to bottom) (3\) vowels above (bottom to top) (4\) tone marks (left to right) (5\) trailing vowels (left to right) In the application of these rules, MAI KANG is reckoned as a vowel even though it function as niggahita or as a consonant. The Unicode character MAI SAT is reckoned as a vowel even though it function as a consonant, i.e as mai kak, i.e. as a final consonant or function as a vowel shortener as in {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨸᩮᩢ᩠ᨯ}}. The relative ordering of the marks above and below should follow Thai and Lao as in {{lang\\|th\\|เจ้า เกี่ว ชุํ}} and {{lang\\|lo\\|ບິ່}}. Examples: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A27 HIGH CA, U\+1A6E SIGN E, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A76 TONE\-2, U\+1A63 SIGN AA\>{{rp\\|at\=Section 5 no. 29}} {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨾᩢᩣ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|maːk\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A3E MA, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A63 SIGN AA\> {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩃᩪᩢ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|luːk\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A43 LA, U\+1A6A SIGN UU, U\+1A62 MAI SAT\> {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨶᩮᩢᩣ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A36 NA, U\+1A6E SIGN E, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A63 SIGN AA\> {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩋᩫᨶ᩠ᨲᩕᩣ᩠ᨿ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|on thaʔ laːi}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A4B LETTER A, U\+1A6B SIGN O, U\+1A36 NA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3F LOW YA\> For /ia/ and /ua/ in all their forms, subscript LOW YA and WA are reckoned as onset consonants.{{rp\\|at\=Section 14\.3}} Examples: {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩈ᩠ᨿᩮ}} is actually encoded \<U\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3F LOW YA, U\+1A6E SIGN E\>{{rp\\|at\=Section 5 No. 33}} {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨸ᩠ᩃ᩠ᨿ᩵ᩁ}} is actually encoded \<U\+1A38 HIGH PA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A43 LA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3F LOW YA, U\+1A75 TONE\-1, U\+1A41 RA\>{{rp\\|at\=Section 14\.9}} {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫ}} is actually encoded \<U\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A45 WA, U\+1A6B SIGN O\>{{rp\\|at\=Section 14\.3}} {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩈ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁ}} is actually encoded \<U\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A45 WA, U\+1A75 TONE\-1, U\+1A41 RA\> {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨠᩖ᩠ᩅ᩠᩶ᨿ}} is actually encoded as \<U\+1A20 KA, U\+1A56 MEDIAL LA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A45 WA, U\+1A76 TONE\-2, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3F LOW YA\> (\<U\+1A60, U\+1A76\> is canonically equivalent to \<U\+1A76, U\+1A60\>) Outside Northern Thailand, the MAI KANG in the symbol for /am/ is written on the SIGN AA component. In Northern Thailand, it is positioned variously – on the consonant, on the SIGN AA and between them. The Unicode Consortium refused a special character for the combination. The word {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨷᩴ᩠᩵ᨾᩣ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|bɔːmaː}}) should not appear to have the same vowel as {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨲ᩵ᩣᩴ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|tam\\|IPA}}). The combination for /am/ is therefore encoded as \<U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A74 MAI KANG\>. The word {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨷᩴ᩠᩵ᨾᩣ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A37 BA, U\+1A74 MAI KANG, U\+1A75 TONE\-1, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3E MA, U\+1A63 SIGN AA\>. The word {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨲ᩵ᩣᩴ}} is encoded as \<U\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\+1A75 TONE\-1, U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A74 MAI KANG\>. The combination for /am/ with SIGN TALL AA is encoded as \<U\+1A64 SIGN TALL AA, U\+1A74 MAI KANG\>. U\+1A5A SIGN LOW PA is a special case; the Tai Lue word {{lang\\|khb\\|ᨣᨽᩚ}} ({{IPA\\|khb\\|kap phaʔ\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \<U\+1A23 LOW KA, U\+1A3D LOW PHA, U\+1A5A SIGN LOW PA\>.{{rp\\|at\=Section 4}} Examples showing mai kang lai and la tang lai: Pali word {{lang\\|nod\\|ᩈᩘᨥᩮᩣ}} (saṅgho) is encoded \<U\+1A48 SA, U\+1A58 MAI KANG LAI, U\+1A25 LOW KHA, U\+1A6E SIGN E, U\+1A63 SIGN AA\>. Northern Thai word {{lang\\|nod\\|ᨴᩘ᩠ᩃᩣ᩠ᨿ}} ({{IPA\\|nod\\|taŋ laːi}}) is encoded \<U\+1A34 LOW TA, U\+1A58 MAI KANG LAI, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A43 LA, U\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\+1A60 SAKOT, U\+1A3F LOW YA\&gt. Tai Lue word {{lang\\|khb\\|ᨴᩢᩗᩣ}} ({{IPA\\|khb\\|taŋ laːi}}) is encoded \<U\+1A34 LOW TA, U\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\+1A57 LA TANG LAI, U\+1A63 SIGN AA\>.	[ "Character Order within Text\n---------------------------", "The encoding proposal defined the ordering of Unicode characters.", "Like the way of writing Burmese, Khmer, and Indian languages, Unicode characters are ordered according to the order of the sounds except in special cases{{refn\\\|name\\=aside\\\|\"The encoding model for Lanna is similar to that for Myanmar and Khmer, using a CEONG{{refn\\\|Read as COENG i.e. U\\+17D2 KHMER SIGN COENG}}\\-like character\nplus some combining medial\\-consonant characters.\"{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 14}}}} or if 2 sounds combine into a single sound and then one uses the old order. This order is usually as in Siamese. If the sound does not have an order then one uses the visual order or a special alternative order.", "There are special rules for:\n(a) The ordering of vowels\n(b) The writing of mai kia in all its variants\n(c) Th writing of mai kua in all its variants\n(d) The writing of mai kam\n(e) The writing of tone marks", "The ordering of Unicode characters for consonants and vowels is: onset letters, true vowel marks, coda consonants, onset letters, true vowel marks, coda consonants.{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 14}} For convenience, one reckons that symbols killing vowels are vowels.", "The 'onset letters' are consonants, independent vowels or special symbols. The consonants in a group are ordered according to the order in which they are sounded or used to be sounded.", "Example: {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨻᩩᨴ᩠ᨵ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|put thaʔ}}) \nonset letter: {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨻ}}\npure vowel: {{lang\\\|nod\\\| ᩩ}}\nfinal 'consonant': {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨴ}}\nonset letter: {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨵ}}\npure vowel: no symbol\nfinal consonant: none", "The encoding is \\<U\\+1A3B LOW PA, U\\+1A69 SIGN U, U\\+1A34 LOW TA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A35 LOW THA\\>", "Example: {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨻᩕ}} has a single consonant sound {{IPA\\\|nod\\\|pʰ}}, but formerly had 2 sounds, namely those of {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨻ}} and then {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩁ}} as in central Thai. This word is encoded as \\<LOW PA, MEDIAL RA\\>.", "Apart from MEDIAL RA, the order of the consonant glyphs is the same as the order of the sounds. In most cases MEDIAL RA is the last consonant but the WA of /ua/ and the LOW YA of /ia/ follow MEDIAL RA.", "Examples:\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩆᩣᩈ᩠ᨲᩕ᩺}} is encoded \\<U\\+1A46 HIGH SHA, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\\+1A7A RA HAAM\\>.\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨠᩕᩈᩢ᩠ᨲ}} is encoded \\<U\\+1A20 HIGH KA, U\\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A32 HIGH TA\\&gt.\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩈᩕ᩠ᩅᨾ}} is encoded \\<U\\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A45 WA, U\\+1A3E MA\\>.\nBut {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨲᩕ᩠ᨶᩬᨾ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|tʰa nɔːm}}){{rp\\\|269}} is encoded \\<U\\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A36 NA, U\\+1A6C SIGN OA BELOW, U\\+1A3E MA\\>", "For words like {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ}} there is the rule that symbols for vowels and tones have the order:{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 5 first part, 5\\.3 and 13}}\n(1\\) leading vowels\n(2\\) vowels below (top to bottom)\n(3\\) vowels above (bottom to top)\n(4\\) tone marks (left to right)\n(5\\) trailing vowels (left to right)", "In the application of these rules, MAI KANG is reckoned as a vowel even though it function as niggahita or as a consonant. The Unicode character MAI SAT is reckoned as a vowel even though it function as a consonant, i.e as mai kak, i.e. as a final consonant or function as a vowel shortener as in {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨸᩮᩢ᩠ᨯ}}.", "The relative ordering of the marks above and below should follow Thai and Lao as in {{lang\\\|th\\\|เจ้า เกี่ว ชุํ}} and {{lang\\\|lo\\\|ບິ່}}.", "Examples:\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A27 HIGH CA, U\\+1A6E SIGN E, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A76 TONE\\-2, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA\\>{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 5 no. 29}}\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨾᩢᩣ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|maːk\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A3E MA, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA\\>\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩃᩪᩢ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|luːk\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A43 LA, U\\+1A6A SIGN UU, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT\\>\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨶᩮᩢᩣ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A36 NA, U\\+1A6E SIGN E, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA\\>\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩋᩫᨶ᩠ᨲᩕᩣ᩠ᨿ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|on thaʔ laːi}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A4B LETTER A, U\\+1A6B SIGN O, U\\+1A36 NA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\\+1A55 MEDIAL RA, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3F LOW YA\\>", "For /ia/ and /ua/ in all their forms, subscript LOW YA and WA are reckoned as onset consonants.{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 14\\.3}}", "Examples:\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩈ᩠ᨿᩮ}} is actually encoded \\<U\\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3F LOW YA, U\\+1A6E SIGN E\\>{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 5 No. 33}}\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨸ᩠ᩃ᩠ᨿ᩵ᩁ}} is actually encoded \\<U\\+1A38 HIGH PA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A43 LA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3F LOW YA, U\\+1A75 TONE\\-1, U\\+1A41 RA\\>{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 14\\.9}}\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫ}} is actually encoded \\<U\\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A45 WA, U\\+1A6B SIGN O\\>{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 14\\.3}}\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩈ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁ}} is actually encoded \\<U\\+1A48 HIGH SA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A45 WA, U\\+1A75 TONE\\-1, U\\+1A41 RA\\>\n{{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨠᩖ᩠ᩅ᩠᩶ᨿ}} is actually encoded as \\<U\\+1A20 KA, U\\+1A56 MEDIAL LA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A45 WA, U\\+1A76 TONE\\-2, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3F LOW YA\\>\n(\\<U\\+1A60, U\\+1A76\\> is canonically equivalent to \\<U\\+1A76, U\\+1A60\\>)", "Outside Northern Thailand, the MAI KANG in the symbol for /am/ is written on the SIGN AA component. In Northern Thailand, it is positioned variously – on the consonant, on the SIGN AA and between them. The Unicode Consortium refused a special character for the combination. The word {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨷᩴ᩠᩵ᨾᩣ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|bɔːmaː}}) should not appear to have the same vowel as {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨲ᩵ᩣᩴ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|tam\\\|IPA}}). The combination for /am/ is therefore encoded as \\<U\\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\\+1A74 MAI KANG\\>. The word {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨷᩴ᩠᩵ᨾᩣ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A37 BA, U\\+1A74 MAI KANG, U\\+1A75 TONE\\-1, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3E MA, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA\\>. The word {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨲ᩵ᩣᩴ}} is encoded as \\<U\\+1A32 HIGH TA, U\\+1A75 TONE\\-1, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\\+1A74 MAI KANG\\>. The combination for /am/ with SIGN TALL AA is encoded as \\<U\\+1A64 SIGN TALL AA, U\\+1A74 MAI KANG\\>.", "U\\+1A5A SIGN LOW PA is a special case; the Tai Lue word {{lang\\\|khb\\\|ᨣᨽᩚ}} ({{IPA\\\|khb\\\|kap phaʔ\\\|IPA}}) is encoded as \\<U\\+1A23 LOW KA, U\\+1A3D LOW PHA, U\\+1A5A SIGN LOW PA\\>.{{rp\\\|at\\=Section 4}}", "Examples showing mai kang lai and la tang lai:\nPali word {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᩈᩘᨥᩮᩣ}} (saṅgho) is encoded \\<U\\+1A48 SA, U\\+1A58 MAI KANG LAI, U\\+1A25 LOW KHA, U\\+1A6E SIGN E, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA\\>.\nNorthern Thai word {{lang\\\|nod\\\|ᨴᩘ᩠ᩃᩣ᩠ᨿ}} ({{IPA\\\|nod\\\|taŋ laːi}}) is encoded \\<U\\+1A34 LOW TA, U\\+1A58 MAI KANG LAI, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A43 LA, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA, U\\+1A60 SAKOT, U\\+1A3F LOW YA\\&gt.\nTai Lue word {{lang\\\|khb\\\|ᨴᩢᩗᩣ}} ({{IPA\\\|khb\\\|taŋ laːi}}) is encoded \\<U\\+1A34 LOW TA, U\\+1A62 MAI SAT, U\\+1A57 LA TANG LAI, U\\+1A63 SIGN AA\\>.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \\|align\=left \\|1920\= 115 \\|1930\= 61 \\|1940\= 66 \\|1950\= 59 \\|1960\= 31 \\|1970\= 13 \\|1980\= 25 \\|1990\= 37 \\|2000\= 15 \\|2010\= 16 \\|estyear\=2019 \\|estimate\=16 \\|estref\={{cite web\\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2019\.html\\|date\=May 24, 2020\\|title\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\=May 27, 2020}} \\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\\|title\=U.S. Census website\\|url\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\=2012\-12\-18}} of 2010, there were 16 people, 8 households, and 3 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\\|160\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 10 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|100\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") and 6\.3% from two or more races. There were 8 households, of which 12\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, and 62\.5% were non\-families. 50\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 37\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.00 and the average family size was 3\.33\. The median age in the city was 51\.5 years. 18\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 0\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\.1% were from 25 to 44; 18\.8% were from 45 to 64; and 37\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\.0% male and 50\.0% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web \\|url\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|accessdate\=2008\-01\-31 \\|title\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 15 people, 7 households, and 3 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|139\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\=us\\|adj\=off}}. There were 12 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|111\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\=us\\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 100\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 6\.67% of the population. There were 7 households, out of which none had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 14\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 57\.1% were non\-families. 42\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.14 and the average family size was 3\.00\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 6\.7% under the age of 18, 20\.0% from 18 to 24, 33\.3% from 25 to 44, 26\.7% from 45 to 64, and 13\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 114\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 133\.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $12,500, and the median income for a family was $52,917\. Males had a median income of $36,250 versus $0 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $15,164\. There were no families and 35\.7% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including no under eighteens and none of those over 64\.	[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\\|align\\=left\n\\\|1920\\= 115\n\\\|1930\\= 61\n\\\|1940\\= 66\n\\\|1950\\= 59\n\\\|1960\\= 31\n\\\|1970\\= 13\n\\\|1980\\= 25\n\\\|1990\\= 37\n\\\|2000\\= 15\n\\\|2010\\= 16\n\\\|estyear\\=2019\n\\\|estimate\\=16\n\\\|estref\\={{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2019\\.html\\\|date\\=May 24, 2020\\\|title\\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\\|accessdate\\=May 27, 2020}}\n\\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-12\\-18}} of 2010, there were 16 people, 8 households, and 3 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\\|160\\.0\\\|PD/sqmi\\\|PD/km2\\\|1}}. There were 10 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\\|100\\.0\\\|/sqmi\\\|/km2\\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") and 6\\.3% from two or more races.", "There were 8 households, of which 12\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, and 62\\.5% were non\\-families. 50\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 37\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.00 and the average family size was 3\\.33\\.", "The median age in the city was 51\\.5 years. 18\\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 0\\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\\.1% were from 25 to 44; 18\\.8% were from 45 to 64; and 37\\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\\.0% male and 50\\.0% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-01\\-31 \\\|title\\=U.S. Census website }} of 2000, there were 15 people, 7 households, and 3 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\\|139\\.9\\\|PD/sqmi\\\|PD/km2\\\|sp\\=us\\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 12 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\\|111\\.9\\\|/sqmi\\\|/km2\\\|sp\\=us\\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 100\\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 6\\.67% of the population.", "There were 7 households, out of which none had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 14\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 57\\.1% were non\\-families. 42\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.14 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 6\\.7% under the age of 18, 20\\.0% from 18 to 24, 33\\.3% from 25 to 44, 26\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 13\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 114\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 133\\.3 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $12,500, and the median income for a family was $52,917\\. Males had a median income of $36,250 versus $0 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $15,164\\. There were no families and 35\\.7% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including no under eighteens and none of those over 64\\.", "" ]
About SolBridge --------------- The founder of SolBridge, Sung\-kyung Kim, designed SolBridge as a multinational, multicultural, business school. The school was built around a four\-year undergraduate program and has since developed a portfolio of graduate programs (MBA and specialized master's degrees). [Joshua Park](https://www.solbridge.ac.kr/story/page/index.jsp?code=solbridge_n010201), who serves as its dean since August 2021, is a graduate of Harvard Law School with extensive experience in negotiation, debate, and mediation which are all reflected in the books he has authored and research publications. SolBridge is the first business school in Korea with an international faculty and student body.{{cite web\\|title\=Breathing Multiculturalism into Korea\\|url\=http://www.arirang.co.kr/Tv2/AToday\_Archive.asp?PROG\_CODE\=TVCR0488\&view\_seq\=93\&Page\=51\&sys\_lang\=Eng\\|publisher\=AriRang Today\\|accessdate\=18 January 2016}} International students come from 70 countries and represent 80% of the student population.{{cite web\\|last1\=Senin\\|first1\=Senin\\|title\=UII to send students, lecturers to S Korea\\|url\=http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/81549/uii\-to\-send\-students\-lecturers\-to\-s\-korea\\|website\=antaranews.com\\|publisher\=Antara News}} At SolBridge, all courses are taught in [English](/wiki/English_language "English language"){{cite web\\|last1\=Kartajaya\\|first1\=Hermawan\\|title\=Korea: The New Asia\\|url\=http://forbesindonesia.com/berita\-428\-korea\-the\-new\-asia.html\\|website\=forbesindonesia.com\\|accessdate\=16 January 2016}} and students have to study Korean, Chinese and Japanese languages. SolBridge graduates now work in nations around the world. SolBridge is accredited by the [AACSB](/wiki/Association_to_Advance_Collegiate_Schools_of_Business "Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business") board of executives. It is the youngest business school in AACSB's history to receive this accreditation, just 7 years after its establishment. Partnerships exist with 260 schools and universities around the world, giving students opportunities to study in Asia, Europe, Australia and in the Americas. SolBridge features an ultramodern high\-rise campus located a few hundred meters from the Daejeon Station, a central node in the country's high\-speed rail network.	[ "About SolBridge\n---------------", "The founder of SolBridge, Sung\\-kyung Kim, designed SolBridge as a multinational, multicultural, business school. The school was built around a four\\-year undergraduate program and has since developed a portfolio of graduate programs (MBA and specialized master's degrees).", "[Joshua Park](https://www.solbridge.ac.kr/story/page/index.jsp?code=solbridge_n010201), who serves as its dean since August 2021, is a graduate of Harvard Law School with extensive experience in negotiation, debate, and mediation which are all reflected in the books he has authored and research publications.", "SolBridge is the first business school in Korea with an international faculty and student body.{{cite web\\\|title\\=Breathing Multiculturalism into Korea\\\|url\\=http://www.arirang.co.kr/Tv2/AToday\\_Archive.asp?PROG\\_CODE\\=TVCR0488\\&view\\_seq\\=93\\&Page\\=51\\&sys\\_lang\\=Eng\\\|publisher\\=AriRang Today\\\|accessdate\\=18 January 2016}} International students come from 70 countries and represent 80% of the student population.{{cite web\\\|last1\\=Senin\\\|first1\\=Senin\\\|title\\=UII to send students, lecturers to S Korea\\\|url\\=http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/81549/uii\\-to\\-send\\-students\\-lecturers\\-to\\-s\\-korea\\\|website\\=antaranews.com\\\|publisher\\=Antara News}}", "At SolBridge, all courses are taught in [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\"){{cite web\\\|last1\\=Kartajaya\\\|first1\\=Hermawan\\\|title\\=Korea: The New Asia\\\|url\\=http://forbesindonesia.com/berita\\-428\\-korea\\-the\\-new\\-asia.html\\\|website\\=forbesindonesia.com\\\|accessdate\\=16 January 2016}} and students have to study Korean, Chinese and Japanese languages.", "SolBridge graduates now work in nations around the world.", "SolBridge is accredited by the [AACSB](/wiki/Association_to_Advance_Collegiate_Schools_of_Business \"Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business\") board of executives. It is the youngest business school in AACSB's history to receive this accreditation, just 7 years after its establishment.", "Partnerships exist with 260 schools and universities around the world, giving students opportunities to study in Asia, Europe, Australia and in the Americas.", "SolBridge features an ultramodern high\\-rise campus located a few hundred meters from the Daejeon Station, a central node in the country's high\\-speed rail network.", "" ]
Biography --------- Peter Konwitschny grew up in Leipzig, where his father [Franz Konwitschny](/wiki/Franz_Konwitschny "Franz Konwitschny") was principal conductor of the [Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra](/wiki/Leipzig_Gewandhaus_Orchestra "Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra"). After an aborted study of physics, he studied theatre direction from 1965 until 1970 in Berlin. In the 1970s, Konwitschny worked as an assistant director with [Ruth Berghaus](/wiki/Ruth_Berghaus "Ruth Berghaus") at the [Berliner Ensemble](/wiki/Berliner_Ensemble "Berliner Ensemble"). From 1980 onwards he chiefly worked as a free\-lance director. During this period he directed both opera and theatre productions in Berlin, [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt "Halle, Saxony-Anhalt"), [Greifswald](/wiki/Greifswald "Greifswald") and [Rostock](/wiki/Rostock "Rostock"). From 1986 until 1990 he was chief director of the [Landestheater Halle](/wiki/Halle_Opera_House "Halle Opera House"). His [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel") productions [Rinaldo](/wiki/Rinaldo_%28opera%29 "Rinaldo (opera)"), [Aci, Galatea e Polifemo](/wiki/Aci%2C_Galatea_e_Polifemo "Aci, Galatea e Polifemo") and [Tamerlano](/wiki/Tamerlano "Tamerlano"), as well as [Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto "Rigoletto") and [Carmen](/wiki/Carmen "Carmen") received high acclaim. Even though Konwitschny had already directed operas in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany") ([Bluebeard's Castle](/wiki/Bluebeard%27s_Castle "Bluebeard's Castle"), [Kassel](/wiki/Kassel "Kassel"), 1987, and [Fidelio](/wiki/Fidelio "Fidelio"), [Basel](/wiki/Basel "Basel"), 1989\), it was only after the fall of the [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall "Berlin Wall"), that his international career took off. After [Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini "Giacomo Puccini") and [Rossini](/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini "Gioachino Rossini") operas in [Graz](/wiki/Graz "Graz"), Leipzig and [Basel](/wiki/Basel "Basel"), Konwitschny turned to [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"): [Parsifal](/wiki/Parsifal "Parsifal") (1995, [Bavarian State Opera](/wiki/Bavarian_State_Opera "Bavarian State Opera")), [Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 "Tannhäuser (opera)") (1997, [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden "Dresden") [Semperoper](/wiki/Semperoper "Semperoper")), [Lohengrin](/wiki/Lohengrin_%28opera%29 "Lohengrin (opera)") (1998, [Hamburg State Opera](/wiki/Hamburg_State_Opera "Hamburg State Opera")), [Tristan und Isolde](/wiki/Tristan_und_Isolde "Tristan und Isolde") (1998, [Bavarian State Opera](/wiki/Bavarian_State_Opera "Bavarian State Opera")), and a highly acclaimed [Götterdämmerung](/wiki/G%C3%B6tterd%C3%A4mmerung "Götterdämmerung") (2000, [Staatsoper Stuttgart](/wiki/Staatsoper_Stuttgart "Staatsoper Stuttgart")). After Lohengrin, Konwitschny returned to Hamburg to cooperate with the conductor [Ingo Metzmacher](/wiki/Ingo_Metzmacher "Ingo Metzmacher") on [Alban Berg](/wiki/Alban_Berg "Alban Berg")'s [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28opera%29 "Lulu (opera)"), Richard Wagner's [Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg](/wiki/Die_Meistersinger_von_N%C3%BCrnberg "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg"), and [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg")'s [Moses und Aron](/wiki/Moses_und_Aron "Moses und Aron").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.andante.com/article/article.cfm?id\=19384 \\|title\=Sense and Nonsense in Two ''Meistersingers'' \\|authorlink\=Jochen Breiholz \\|last\=Breiholz \\|first\=Jochen \\|date\=December 2002 \\|publisher\=Andante \\|accessdate\=9 April 2010 \\|url\-status\=dead \\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129003657/http://www.andante.com/article/article.cfm?id\=19384 \\|archivedate\=29 January 2006 }} In 2004 he directed Wagner's [The Flying Dutchman](/wiki/The_Flying_Dutchman_%28opera%29 "The Flying Dutchman (opera)") at the [Bolshoi Theatre](/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre "Bolshoi Theatre") in Moscow, in 2005 [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss "Richard Strauss")' [Elektra](/wiki/Elektra_%28opera%29 "Elektra (opera)") in Copenhagen and in 2009 Strauss' [Salome](/wiki/Salome_%28opera%29 "Salome (opera)") in Amsterdam. Since August 2008, Konwitschny is principal director of productions at the [Leipzig Opera](/wiki/Leipzig_Opera "Leipzig Opera"). In 2018, Konwitschny, was fired from the [Gothenburg Opera](/wiki/Gothenburg_opera_house "Gothenburg opera house") due to a conflict between Peter Konwitschny and co\-workers around the stage, during the rehearsals of [Boris Godunov](/wiki/Boris_Godunov_%28opera%29 "Boris Godunov (opera)").{{Cite news\\|url\=https://www.expressen.se/gt/stjarnregissoren\-sparkas\-efter\-vredesutbrott\-pa\-scen/\\|title\=Stjärnregissören Peter Konwitschny sparkas från Göteborgsoperan – efter vredesutbrott på scen\\|access\-date\=21 April 2018\\|language\=sv\-SE}} The Gothenburg Opera CEO stated in a press release that This is a house where one is allowed to be angry, have conflicts and to make mistakes. But there is a limit to where a behavior towards co\-workers becomes unacceptable. In this case, we could not afterwards reach a mutual understanding concerning the gravity of the situation. Therefore, we chose to terminate the cooperation{{Cite web\\|url\=http://en.opera.se/press/2018/angaende\-vart\-samarbete\-med\-regissoren\-peter\-konwitschny/\\|title\=Regarding our collaboration with director Peter Konwitschny \- Press {{!}} The Göteborg Opera\\|website\=en.opera.se\\|language\=en\\|access\-date\=21 April 2018}}. Konwitschny later issued a statement to the press, comparing the response to the Spanish Inquisition and vowing not to return to the opera house.	[ "Biography\n---------", "Peter Konwitschny grew up in Leipzig, where his father [Franz Konwitschny](/wiki/Franz_Konwitschny \"Franz Konwitschny\") was principal conductor of the [Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra](/wiki/Leipzig_Gewandhaus_Orchestra \"Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra\"). After an aborted study of physics, he studied theatre direction from 1965 until 1970 in Berlin.", "In the 1970s, Konwitschny worked as an assistant director with [Ruth Berghaus](/wiki/Ruth_Berghaus \"Ruth Berghaus\") at the [Berliner Ensemble](/wiki/Berliner_Ensemble \"Berliner Ensemble\"). From 1980 onwards he chiefly worked as a free\\-lance director. During this period he directed both opera and theatre productions in Berlin, [Halle](/wiki/Halle%2C_Saxony-Anhalt \"Halle, Saxony-Anhalt\"), [Greifswald](/wiki/Greifswald \"Greifswald\") and [Rostock](/wiki/Rostock \"Rostock\"). From 1986 until 1990 he was chief director of the [Landestheater Halle](/wiki/Halle_Opera_House \"Halle Opera House\"). His [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\") productions [Rinaldo](/wiki/Rinaldo_%28opera%29 \"Rinaldo (opera)\"), [Aci, Galatea e Polifemo](/wiki/Aci%2C_Galatea_e_Polifemo \"Aci, Galatea e Polifemo\") and [Tamerlano](/wiki/Tamerlano \"Tamerlano\"), as well as [Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto \"Rigoletto\") and [Carmen](/wiki/Carmen \"Carmen\") received high acclaim.", "Even though Konwitschny had already directed operas in [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\") ([Bluebeard's Castle](/wiki/Bluebeard%27s_Castle \"Bluebeard's Castle\"), [Kassel](/wiki/Kassel \"Kassel\"), 1987, and [Fidelio](/wiki/Fidelio \"Fidelio\"), [Basel](/wiki/Basel \"Basel\"), 1989\\), it was only after the fall of the [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall \"Berlin Wall\"), that his international career took off. After [Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini \"Giacomo Puccini\") and [Rossini](/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini \"Gioachino Rossini\") operas in [Graz](/wiki/Graz \"Graz\"), Leipzig and [Basel](/wiki/Basel \"Basel\"), Konwitschny turned to [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"): [Parsifal](/wiki/Parsifal \"Parsifal\") (1995, [Bavarian State Opera](/wiki/Bavarian_State_Opera \"Bavarian State Opera\")), [Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 \"Tannhäuser (opera)\") (1997, [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden \"Dresden\") [Semperoper](/wiki/Semperoper \"Semperoper\")), [Lohengrin](/wiki/Lohengrin_%28opera%29 \"Lohengrin (opera)\") (1998, [Hamburg State Opera](/wiki/Hamburg_State_Opera \"Hamburg State Opera\")), [Tristan und Isolde](/wiki/Tristan_und_Isolde \"Tristan und Isolde\") (1998, [Bavarian State Opera](/wiki/Bavarian_State_Opera \"Bavarian State Opera\")), and a highly acclaimed [Götterdämmerung](/wiki/G%C3%B6tterd%C3%A4mmerung \"Götterdämmerung\") (2000, [Staatsoper Stuttgart](/wiki/Staatsoper_Stuttgart \"Staatsoper Stuttgart\")).", "After Lohengrin, Konwitschny returned to Hamburg to cooperate with the conductor [Ingo Metzmacher](/wiki/Ingo_Metzmacher \"Ingo Metzmacher\") on [Alban Berg](/wiki/Alban_Berg \"Alban Berg\")'s [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28opera%29 \"Lulu (opera)\"), Richard Wagner's [Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg](/wiki/Die_Meistersinger_von_N%C3%BCrnberg \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\"), and [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\")'s [Moses und Aron](/wiki/Moses_und_Aron \"Moses und Aron\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.andante.com/article/article.cfm?id\\=19384 \\\|title\\=Sense and Nonsense in Two ''Meistersingers'' \\\|authorlink\\=Jochen Breiholz \\\|last\\=Breiholz \\\|first\\=Jochen \\\|date\\=December 2002 \\\|publisher\\=Andante \\\|accessdate\\=9 April 2010 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129003657/http://www.andante.com/article/article.cfm?id\\=19384 \\\|archivedate\\=29 January 2006 }} In 2004 he directed Wagner's [The Flying Dutchman](/wiki/The_Flying_Dutchman_%28opera%29 \"The Flying Dutchman (opera)\") at the [Bolshoi Theatre](/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre \"Bolshoi Theatre\") in Moscow, in 2005 [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss \"Richard Strauss\")' [Elektra](/wiki/Elektra_%28opera%29 \"Elektra (opera)\") in Copenhagen and in 2009 Strauss' [Salome](/wiki/Salome_%28opera%29 \"Salome (opera)\") in Amsterdam. Since August 2008, Konwitschny is principal director of productions at the [Leipzig Opera](/wiki/Leipzig_Opera \"Leipzig Opera\").", "In 2018, Konwitschny, was fired from the [Gothenburg Opera](/wiki/Gothenburg_opera_house \"Gothenburg opera house\") due to a conflict between Peter Konwitschny and co\\-workers around the stage, during the rehearsals of [Boris Godunov](/wiki/Boris_Godunov_%28opera%29 \"Boris Godunov (opera)\").{{Cite news\\\|url\\=https://www.expressen.se/gt/stjarnregissoren\\-sparkas\\-efter\\-vredesutbrott\\-pa\\-scen/\\\|title\\=Stjärnregissören Peter Konwitschny sparkas från Göteborgsoperan – efter vredesutbrott på scen\\\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2018\\\|language\\=sv\\-SE}} The Gothenburg Opera CEO stated in a press release that This is a house where one is allowed to be angry, have conflicts and to make mistakes. But there is a limit to where a behavior towards co\\-workers becomes unacceptable. In this case, we could not afterwards reach a mutual understanding concerning the gravity of the situation. Therefore, we chose to terminate the cooperation{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://en.opera.se/press/2018/angaende\\-vart\\-samarbete\\-med\\-regissoren\\-peter\\-konwitschny/\\\|title\\=Regarding our collaboration with director Peter Konwitschny \\- Press {{!}} The Göteborg Opera\\\|website\\=en.opera.se\\\|language\\=en\\\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2018}}. Konwitschny later issued a statement to the press, comparing the response to the Spanish Inquisition and vowing not to return to the opera house.", "" ]
Operations ---------- ### Cattle Paraway is involved in the [breeding](/wiki/Animal_husbandry "Animal husbandry") and growing of beef cattle across all its portfolios. The 'Northern' properties run a mix of [Brahman](/wiki/Brahman_cattle "Brahman cattle") and Brahman X in their herds, whilst those based in the 'Central' regions run an [Angus](/wiki/Aberdeen_Angus "Aberdeen Angus") breeding herd. In the Southern region, several properties run trade cattle and when conditions permit they are used to finish Paraway bred cattle as well. Collectively, Paraway's properties have the ability to run over 200 000 head of cattle and produce in excess of 20 million kilograms of beef each year. #### Davenport Downs [Davenport Downs](/wiki/Davenport_Downs_Station "Davenport Downs Station") consists of two original properties, Davenport Downs and Springvale, purchased by Paraway in 2009 and 2011 respectively. Together they form a 1\.5 million hectare aggregation that deals with fattening over 29 000 steers. Its land size makes Davenport Downs Paraway's biggest property as well as the largest cattle station in Queensland. Davenport Downs is chiefly [Mitchell grass](/wiki/Astrebla "Astrebla") and channel country with its water sourced from a network of [bores](/wiki/Artesian_aquifer "Artesian aquifer"), as well the [Diamantina River](/wiki/Diamantina_River "Diamantina River") and Farrahs Creek that crosscut the property. These waterways often flood during the wet season, covering up to one quarter of the property and contributing to a reliable source of feed throughout the rest of the year. #### Tanbar [thumb\\|Satellite image of the channel country flooding taken by NASA\\|alt\=\\|254x254px](/wiki/File:ChannelCountryFloodingNASA.jpg "ChannelCountryFloodingNASA.jpg") [Tanbar](/wiki/Tanbar_Station "Tanbar Station"), located on the [Cooper Creek](/wiki/Cooper_Creek "Cooper Creek") in the [channel country](/wiki/Channel_Country "Channel Country") of Western Queensland, was acquired by Paraway in 2016 from the Western Grazing Company and covers just over 1 million hectares. Due to its channel country location, a significant portion of the property is flooded by the Cooper Creek each year which then feeds into the transient [Lake Yamma Yamma](/wiki/Lake_Yamma_Yamma "Lake Yamma Yamma"), thus providing the pastures with a form of natural irrigation. The acquisition of Tanbar substantially added to Paraway's growing capacity and was seen as a significant developmental step in terms of expanding its grass finishing capacity. It also allowed for the streamlining of the Company's breeding location and capacity with the combined purchase of Rocklands, an almost 680 000 hectare breeding property on the Barkly Tableland in Northwestern Queensland occurring at the same time. The incorporated purchase was rumoured to be worth between $130 million and $140 million.{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.beefcentral.com/property/paraway\-secures\-two\-showcase\-western\-grazing\-properties\-for\-reported\-130m/\\|title\=Paraway secures two showcase Western Grazing properties for reported \+$130m\\|date\=2016\-05\-10\\|website\=Beef Central\\|language\=en\-US\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16}} #### Oxley Oxley Station is a 35 000 hectare holding located on the Lower [Macquarie River](/wiki/Macquarie_River "Macquarie River"), approximately 75km north of [Warren](/wiki/Warren%2C_New_South_Wales "Warren, New South Wales"), NSW. It was purchased by Paraway in 2011 and is located at the point where the river fans into natural wetlands (that account for nearly one third of the property's total area){{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.theland.com.au/story/5812116/life\-on\-the\-marshes/\\|title\=Life on the marshes\\|last\=Austin\\|first\=Peter\\|date\=2018\-12\-26\\|website\=The Land\\|language\=en\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16}} known as the Macquarie Marshes, increasing its grazing potential as even during times of drought the marshes remain green.{{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.theland.com.au/story/5812087/reedbed\-roll\-call/\\|title\=Reedbed roll\-call\\|date\=2018\-12\-21\\|website\=The Land\\|language\=en\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16}} The property began with the name "Ringorah" and became part of the Buttabone Pastoral Company in 1876\. By 1924 this aggregation encompassed almost 97 000 hectares and Buttabone had become the largest [freehold](/wiki/Freehold_%28law%29 "Freehold (law)") in the Macquarie Valley until it all went up for [subdivision](/wiki/Subdivision_%28land%29 "Subdivision (land)") during auction later that year. It is suggested that JJ Leahy acquired Oxley following Buttabone's dispersion as "throughout the 1940s, rural newspapers regularly ran articles highlighting the latest sale\-yard triumph of Oxley\-bred bullocks".{{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.theland.com.au/story/5822872/clydes\-flying\-start\-as\-santas\-prove\-worth/\\|title\=Clyde's flying start as Santas prove worth\\|date\=2018\-12\-20\\|website\=The Land\\|language\=en\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16}} So remarkable was Leahy's breeding that from January 8th to May 2nd, his stock who were sold under the name "J.J. Leahy", secured top prices for steers and bullocks, twenty times with his cows, heifers and dealers topping the market on five other occasions.{{Cite news\\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article141822500\\|title\=RURAL TOPICS—Matters of General Farming Interest\\|date\=1940\-06\-15\\|work\=Australasian (Melbourne, Vic. : 1864 \- 1946\)\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16\\|pages\=19}} Oxley was sold in 1949, remaining JJ's cattle breeding base until this time. After JJ Leahy died in 1959, his son Keith bought Ringorah South but the main Oxley property was purchased by Berawinnia Pastoral Company, a joint venture of the Crawford, Moxham and Stalley families. In 1969 Berawinnia was bought ad lib by [British American Tobacco Australia](/wiki/British_American_Tobacco "British American Tobacco") as part of its diversification strategy. This enterprise was later called Amatil and thus Oxley became part of Amatil's Naroo Pastoral Company. Following successive crises in both the wool and cattle markets, Amatil decided to divest its pastoral portfolio and Oxley along with several other Naroo properties was purchased by Argentinian John D Kahlbetzer's Twynam Pastoral Company in 1979\. In 1984 Twynam also bought Keith Leahy's Ringorah South subdivision allowing them to rebuild the original Ringorah holdings to its 1937 dimensions. In 1998 Oxley was bought by Clyde Agriculture, an agricultural production and land management company,{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId\=48968529\\|title\=Clyde Agriculture Pty. Ltd.: Private Company Information \- Bloomberg\\|website\=www.bloomberg.com\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16}} a purchase the corporation had coveted for some time. After a run of good years early on, the 2000s drought hit Oxley hard as it received next to no flooding from 2001 to 2007 and in the following years, Clyde began to reduce its pastoral investment. In 2011 Oxley was bought by Paraway in a "bulk deal worth close to $50 million". ### Sheep Paraway began its sheep breeding and growing enterprises in 2007 with its purchase of Pooginook, an iconic sheep stud in the Riverina region of NSW. From this initial purchase Paraway has added sheep farming properties in Central and Southern NSW as well as Victoria to accommodate a flock of up to 240 000 head. This flock produces over 1\.46 million kilograms of wool each year and sells 120 000 head of sheep to both processors and restockers. #### Pooginook Station [thumb\\|273x273px\\|Merino sheep](/wiki/File:Merino_Sheep_%28PSF%29.png "Merino Sheep (PSF).png") Pooginook Station, is an historic [Merino](/wiki/Merino "Merino") stud made up of almost 20 000 hectares of native and irrigated grazing land in the [Riverina Region](/wiki/Riverina "Riverina") of NSW, and was Paraway's first purchase when it was formed in 2007\. As a result of its specific husbandry practices, careful selection and continual benchmarking, Pooginook aims to set the standard for high quality stud and commercial sheep. They host an annual ram sale on the last Tuesday of September each year where both their Merino and [Poll](/wiki/Poll_Dorset "Poll Dorset") rams are auctioned. Semen is also available for sale from Pooginook special stud sires. Pooginook is a member of the NSW Stud Merino Breeders Association.{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.merinonsw.com.au/membership/nsw\-stud\-directory/2316\-pooginook.html\\|title\=Pooginook\\|website\=www.merinonsw.com.au\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16}} The ram breeding enterprise that began as the foundation of what is Pooginook today was established by the Culley and Taylor Partnership in 1912 as Yoorooga Merino Stud at [Jerilderie](/wiki/Jerilderie "Jerilderie"). The base of the breeding [ewes](/wiki/Sheep "Sheep") came from Wanganella and the [rams](/wiki/Sheep "Sheep") from Murga. When the partnership dissolved in 1937, Pooginook Stud was formed with half of the stud sheep and Wonga Stud was formed with the other half. The Pooginook Stud stock that have descended from Yoorooga's original flock is what Paraway purchased in 2007\.{{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.pooginook.com/merino\-property.shtml\\|title\=Pooginook Merino Stud Sheep and Ram Sales\\|website\=www.pooginook.com\\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-16}} ### Cropping As an addition to its sheep and cattle operations, Paraway has [dryland cropping](/wiki/Dryland_farming "Dryland farming") area totally over 20 000 hectares as well as 2 500 hectares of [irrigated cropping](/wiki/Irrigation "Irrigation"). This land produces a variety of [cereal crops](/wiki/Cereal "Cereal"), [legumes](/wiki/Legume "Legume"), [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice") and [cotton](/wiki/Cotton "Cotton"). Paraway retains a significant amount of the grain and hay it produces to use in its livestock operations.	[ "Operations\n----------", "### Cattle", "Paraway is involved in the [breeding](/wiki/Animal_husbandry \"Animal husbandry\") and growing of beef cattle across all its portfolios. The 'Northern' properties run a mix of [Brahman](/wiki/Brahman_cattle \"Brahman cattle\") and Brahman X in their herds, whilst those based in the 'Central' regions run an [Angus](/wiki/Aberdeen_Angus \"Aberdeen Angus\") breeding herd. In the Southern region, several properties run trade cattle and when conditions permit they are used to finish Paraway bred cattle as well. Collectively, Paraway's properties have the ability to run over 200 000 head of cattle and produce in excess of 20 million kilograms of beef each year.", "#### Davenport Downs", "[Davenport Downs](/wiki/Davenport_Downs_Station \"Davenport Downs Station\") consists of two original properties, Davenport Downs and Springvale, purchased by Paraway in 2009 and 2011 respectively. Together they form a 1\\.5 million hectare aggregation that deals with fattening over 29 000 steers. Its land size makes Davenport Downs Paraway's biggest property as well as the largest cattle station in Queensland. Davenport Downs is chiefly [Mitchell grass](/wiki/Astrebla \"Astrebla\") and channel country with its water sourced from a network of [bores](/wiki/Artesian_aquifer \"Artesian aquifer\"), as well the [Diamantina River](/wiki/Diamantina_River \"Diamantina River\") and Farrahs Creek that crosscut the property. These waterways often flood during the wet season, covering up to one quarter of the property and contributing to a reliable source of feed throughout the rest of the year.\n#### Tanbar", "[thumb\\\|Satellite image of the channel country flooding taken by NASA\\\|alt\\=\\\|254x254px](/wiki/File:ChannelCountryFloodingNASA.jpg \"ChannelCountryFloodingNASA.jpg\")\n[Tanbar](/wiki/Tanbar_Station \"Tanbar Station\"), located on the [Cooper Creek](/wiki/Cooper_Creek \"Cooper Creek\") in the [channel country](/wiki/Channel_Country \"Channel Country\") of Western Queensland, was acquired by Paraway in 2016 from the Western Grazing Company and covers just over 1 million hectares. Due to its channel country location, a significant portion of the property is flooded by the Cooper Creek each year which then feeds into the transient [Lake Yamma Yamma](/wiki/Lake_Yamma_Yamma \"Lake Yamma Yamma\"), thus providing the pastures with a form of natural irrigation.", "The acquisition of Tanbar substantially added to Paraway's growing capacity and was seen as a significant developmental step in terms of expanding its grass finishing capacity. It also allowed for the streamlining of the Company's breeding location and capacity with the combined purchase of Rocklands, an almost 680 000 hectare breeding property on the Barkly Tableland in Northwestern Queensland occurring at the same time. The incorporated purchase was rumoured to be worth between $130 million and $140 million.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.beefcentral.com/property/paraway\\-secures\\-two\\-showcase\\-western\\-grazing\\-properties\\-for\\-reported\\-130m/\\\|title\\=Paraway secures two showcase Western Grazing properties for reported \\+$130m\\\|date\\=2016\\-05\\-10\\\|website\\=Beef Central\\\|language\\=en\\-US\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16}}", "#### Oxley", "Oxley Station is a 35 000 hectare holding located on the Lower [Macquarie River](/wiki/Macquarie_River \"Macquarie River\"), approximately 75km north of [Warren](/wiki/Warren%2C_New_South_Wales \"Warren, New South Wales\"), NSW. It was purchased by Paraway in 2011 and is located at the point where the river fans into natural wetlands (that account for nearly one third of the property's total area){{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.theland.com.au/story/5812116/life\\-on\\-the\\-marshes/\\\|title\\=Life on the marshes\\\|last\\=Austin\\\|first\\=Peter\\\|date\\=2018\\-12\\-26\\\|website\\=The Land\\\|language\\=en\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16}} known as the Macquarie Marshes, increasing its grazing potential as even during times of drought the marshes remain green.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.theland.com.au/story/5812087/reedbed\\-roll\\-call/\\\|title\\=Reedbed roll\\-call\\\|date\\=2018\\-12\\-21\\\|website\\=The Land\\\|language\\=en\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16}}", "The property began with the name \"Ringorah\" and became part of the Buttabone Pastoral Company in 1876\\. By 1924 this aggregation encompassed almost 97 000 hectares and Buttabone had become the largest [freehold](/wiki/Freehold_%28law%29 \"Freehold (law)\") in the Macquarie Valley until it all went up for [subdivision](/wiki/Subdivision_%28land%29 \"Subdivision (land)\") during auction later that year.", "It is suggested that JJ Leahy acquired Oxley following Buttabone's dispersion as \"throughout the 1940s, rural newspapers regularly ran articles highlighting the latest sale\\-yard triumph of Oxley\\-bred bullocks\".{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.theland.com.au/story/5822872/clydes\\-flying\\-start\\-as\\-santas\\-prove\\-worth/\\\|title\\=Clyde's flying start as Santas prove worth\\\|date\\=2018\\-12\\-20\\\|website\\=The Land\\\|language\\=en\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16}} So remarkable was Leahy's breeding that from January 8th to May 2nd, his stock who were sold under the name \"J.J. Leahy\", secured top prices for steers and bullocks, twenty times with his cows, heifers and dealers topping the market on five other occasions.{{Cite news\\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article141822500\\\|title\\=RURAL TOPICS—Matters of General Farming Interest\\\|date\\=1940\\-06\\-15\\\|work\\=Australasian (Melbourne, Vic. : 1864 \\- 1946\\)\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16\\\|pages\\=19}}", "Oxley was sold in 1949, remaining JJ's cattle breeding base until this time. After JJ Leahy died in 1959, his son Keith bought Ringorah South but the main Oxley property was purchased by Berawinnia Pastoral Company, a joint venture of the Crawford, Moxham and Stalley families. In 1969 Berawinnia was bought ad lib by [British American Tobacco Australia](/wiki/British_American_Tobacco \"British American Tobacco\") as part of its diversification strategy. This enterprise was later called Amatil and thus Oxley became part of Amatil's Naroo Pastoral Company.", "Following successive crises in both the wool and cattle markets, Amatil decided to divest its pastoral portfolio and Oxley along with several other Naroo properties was purchased by Argentinian John D Kahlbetzer's Twynam Pastoral Company in 1979\\. In 1984 Twynam also bought Keith Leahy's Ringorah South subdivision allowing them to rebuild the original Ringorah holdings to its 1937 dimensions.", "In 1998 Oxley was bought by Clyde Agriculture, an agricultural production and land management company,{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId\\=48968529\\\|title\\=Clyde Agriculture Pty. Ltd.: Private Company Information \\- Bloomberg\\\|website\\=www.bloomberg.com\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16}} a purchase the corporation had coveted for some time. After a run of good years early on, the 2000s drought hit Oxley hard as it received next to no flooding from 2001 to 2007 and in the following years, Clyde began to reduce its pastoral investment. In 2011 Oxley was bought by Paraway in a \"bulk deal worth close to $50 million\".", "### Sheep", "Paraway began its sheep breeding and growing enterprises in 2007 with its purchase of Pooginook, an iconic sheep stud in the Riverina region of NSW. From this initial purchase Paraway has added sheep farming properties in Central and Southern NSW as well as Victoria to accommodate a flock of up to 240 000 head. This flock produces over 1\\.46 million kilograms of wool each year and sells 120 000 head of sheep to both processors and restockers.", "#### Pooginook Station", "[thumb\\\|273x273px\\\|Merino sheep](/wiki/File:Merino_Sheep_%28PSF%29.png \"Merino Sheep (PSF).png\")\nPooginook Station, is an historic [Merino](/wiki/Merino \"Merino\") stud made up of almost 20 000 hectares of native and irrigated grazing land in the [Riverina Region](/wiki/Riverina \"Riverina\") of NSW, and was Paraway's first purchase when it was formed in 2007\\. As a result of its specific husbandry practices, careful selection and continual benchmarking, Pooginook aims to set the standard for high quality stud and commercial sheep. They host an annual ram sale on the last Tuesday of September each year where both their Merino and [Poll](/wiki/Poll_Dorset \"Poll Dorset\") rams are auctioned. Semen is also available for sale from Pooginook special stud sires. Pooginook is a member of the NSW Stud Merino Breeders Association.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.merinonsw.com.au/membership/nsw\\-stud\\-directory/2316\\-pooginook.html\\\|title\\=Pooginook\\\|website\\=www.merinonsw.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16}}", "The ram breeding enterprise that began as the foundation of what is Pooginook today was established by the Culley and Taylor Partnership in 1912 as Yoorooga Merino Stud at [Jerilderie](/wiki/Jerilderie \"Jerilderie\"). The base of the breeding [ewes](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\") came from Wanganella and the [rams](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\") from Murga. When the partnership dissolved in 1937, Pooginook Stud was formed with half of the stud sheep and Wonga Stud was formed with the other half. The Pooginook Stud stock that have descended from Yoorooga's original flock is what Paraway purchased in 2007\\.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.pooginook.com/merino\\-property.shtml\\\|title\\=Pooginook Merino Stud Sheep and Ram Sales\\\|website\\=www.pooginook.com\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-16}}", "### Cropping", "As an addition to its sheep and cattle operations, Paraway has [dryland cropping](/wiki/Dryland_farming \"Dryland farming\") area totally over 20 000 hectares as well as 2 500 hectares of [irrigated cropping](/wiki/Irrigation \"Irrigation\"). This land produces a variety of [cereal crops](/wiki/Cereal \"Cereal\"), [legumes](/wiki/Legume \"Legume\"), [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\") and [cotton](/wiki/Cotton \"Cotton\"). Paraway retains a significant amount of the grain and hay it produces to use in its livestock operations.", "" ]
History ------- The Communications Act of 1934 largely combined and reorganized existing provisions of law, including provisions of the Federal [Radio Act of 1927](/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927 "Radio Act of 1927") relating to [radio](/wiki/Radio "Radio") licensing, and of the [Mann\-Elkins Act of 1910](/wiki/Mann-Elkins_Act_of_1910 "Mann-Elkins Act of 1910") relating to telephone service. In 1933, President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") asked [Daniel C. Roper](/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper "Daniel C. Roper"), [Secretary of Commerce](/wiki/Secretary_of_Commerce "Secretary of Commerce"), to appoint an interdepartmental committee for studying electronic communications. The Committee reported that "the communications service, as far as congressional action is involved, should be regulated by a single body". A recommendation was made for the establishment of a new agency that would regulate all interstate and foreign communication by wire and radio, [telegraphy](/wiki/Telegraph "Telegraph"), telephone and [broadcast](/wiki/Radio_broadcast "Radio broadcast"). On February 26, 1934, the President sent a special message to Congress urging the creation of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The following day Senator [Clarence Dill](/wiki/Clarence_Dill "Clarence Dill") and Representative [Sam Rayburn](/wiki/Sam_Rayburn "Sam Rayburn") introduced bills to carry out this recommendation. The Senate Bill (S.3285\) passed the House on June 1, 1934, and the conference report was adopted by both houses eight days later. The Communications Act was signed by President Roosevelt in June 1934\. Particular parts of it became effective July 1, 1934; the remaining parts on July 11, 1934\.[From History of Wire and Broadcast Communication, FCC (May 1993\)](http://www.cybertelecom.org/notes/communications_act.htm) The Communications Act of 1934 followed the precedents of trial cases set under the [Commerce Clause](/wiki/Commerce_Clause "Commerce Clause") of the [U.S. Constitution](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Constitution "U.S. Constitution") ([Article I](/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution "Article One of the United States Constitution"), [Section 8](/wiki/Enumerated_powers "Enumerated powers"), Clause 3\), regulating commerce "among the several states". Twenty years earlier, in 1914, the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Supreme_Court "U.S. Supreme Court") had set limits on price discrimination that were effectively [interstate commerce](/wiki/Interstate_commerce "Interstate commerce") in Houston, East \& West Texas Railway Co. v. United States. The railway was setting lower prices for intrastate carriers within Texas while charging more for carriers that were going through or out of the state. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the ICC, and maximum prices were set to limit the damage that other states could face due to price discrimination.{{cite journal\\|last\=Kennedy\\|first\=L. J.\\|author2\=Purcell, H.A.\\|title\=Section 332 of the Communications Act of 1934: A federal regulatory framework that is "hog tight, horse high, and bull strong"\\|journal\=Federal Communications Law Journal\\|year\=1998\\|volume\=50\\|issue\=3 \\|pages\=547–604\\|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/213194460/\\|access\-date\=April 12, 2011}} Communications technology was determined to be an interstate good. President Franklin Roosevelt, along with lobbyists and state regulators, wanted communications technology, both wired and wireless, to be monitored in a similar way and influenced Congress to pass the Communications Act of 1934\. The goal was to have telephone and broadcasting regulated with the same jurisdiction in a way similar to that in which the ICC regulates the railways and interstate commerce. The act did not, however, allow for price regulation through the FCC due to strong [lobbying](/wiki/Lobbying "Lobbying") efforts from the [National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners](/wiki/National_Association_of_Regulatory_Utility_Commissioners "National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners") (NARUC). Currently there are some challenges and proposed changes to the act. The company CellAntenna unsuccessfully sued the FCC, claiming the [Homeland Security Act of 2002](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Act_of_2002 "Homeland Security Act of 2002") did override the Communications Act of 1934\.[Marguerite Reardon, "Company challenges FCC rules on cell phone\-jamming gear"](http://news.cnet.com/Company-challenges-FCC-rules-on-cell-phone-jamming-gear/2100-1036_3-6139854.html), CNET, December 1, 2006; accessed March 2, 2011\. The 1934 Communications Act prohibits local and state law enforcement from using [jamming](/wiki/Radio_jamming "Radio jamming") devices to thwart criminal and terrorist acts. CellAntenna lost its case, but as a response have supported legislation (The Safe Prisons Communications Act) sponsored by Senator [Kay Bailey Hutchison](/wiki/Kay_Bailey_Hutchison "Kay Bailey Hutchison") and Representative [Kevin Brady](/wiki/Kevin_Brady "Kevin Brady"), attempting to amend the Communications Act of 1934\. The bill was left in committee in the House.[H.R.560 – Safe Prisons Communications Act of 2009](http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-h560/show); accessed October 30, 2017\. There has been public debate about the need for an [Internet kill switch](/wiki/Internet_kill_switch "Internet kill switch"), defined in a proposed Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act.[S.3480 \- Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010](http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-s3480/show), at OpenCongress.org This act removes the powers established in the 19 Act and gives the President the authority to stop the Internet in case of a cyber attack. The act forbids foreign individuals, governments, and corporations owning more than 20% of the capital stock of a broadcast, common carrier, or radio station.{{cite web \\| url\=https://www.fcc.gov/general/foreign\-ownership\-rules\-and\-policies\-common\-carrier\-aeronautical\-en\-route\-and\-aeronautical\#:\~:text\=Section%20310(b)(3,or%20aeronautical%20radio%20station%20licensee. \\| title\=Foreign Ownership Rules and Policies for Common Carrier, Aeronautical en Route and Aeronautical Fixed Radio Station Licensees \\| date\=September 10, 2013 }} In 2013 the FCC relaxed these rules.{{Cite news \\|last\=Fung \\|first\=Brian \\|date\=2014 \\|title\=FCC relaxes rules rule limiting foreign ownership of media stations \\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\-switch/wp/2013/11/14/the\-next\-rupert\-murdoch\-wont\-have\-to\-change\-his\-citizenship\-to\-rule\-the\-tv\-biz/ }}	[ "History\n-------", "The Communications Act of 1934 largely combined and reorganized existing provisions of law, including provisions of the Federal [Radio Act of 1927](/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927 \"Radio Act of 1927\") relating to [radio](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\") licensing, and of the [Mann\\-Elkins Act of 1910](/wiki/Mann-Elkins_Act_of_1910 \"Mann-Elkins Act of 1910\") relating to telephone service.", "In 1933, President [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") asked [Daniel C. Roper](/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper \"Daniel C. Roper\"), [Secretary of Commerce](/wiki/Secretary_of_Commerce \"Secretary of Commerce\"), to appoint an interdepartmental committee for studying electronic communications. The Committee reported that \"the communications service, as far as congressional action is involved, should be regulated by a single body\". A recommendation was made for the establishment of a new agency that would regulate all interstate and foreign communication by wire and radio, [telegraphy](/wiki/Telegraph \"Telegraph\"), telephone and [broadcast](/wiki/Radio_broadcast \"Radio broadcast\").", "On February 26, 1934, the President sent a special message to Congress urging the creation of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The following day Senator [Clarence Dill](/wiki/Clarence_Dill \"Clarence Dill\") and Representative [Sam Rayburn](/wiki/Sam_Rayburn \"Sam Rayburn\") introduced bills to carry out this recommendation. The Senate Bill (S.3285\\) passed the House on June 1, 1934, and the conference report was adopted by both houses eight days later. The Communications Act was signed by President Roosevelt in June 1934\\. Particular parts of it became effective July 1, 1934; the remaining parts on July 11, 1934\\.[From History of Wire and Broadcast Communication, FCC (May 1993\\)](http://www.cybertelecom.org/notes/communications_act.htm)", "The Communications Act of 1934 followed the precedents of trial cases set under the [Commerce Clause](/wiki/Commerce_Clause \"Commerce Clause\") of the [U.S. Constitution](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Constitution \"U.S. Constitution\") ([Article I](/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution \"Article One of the United States Constitution\"), [Section 8](/wiki/Enumerated_powers \"Enumerated powers\"), Clause 3\\), regulating commerce \"among the several states\". Twenty years earlier, in 1914, the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Supreme_Court \"U.S. Supreme Court\") had set limits on price discrimination that were effectively [interstate commerce](/wiki/Interstate_commerce \"Interstate commerce\") in Houston, East \\& West Texas Railway Co. v. United States. The railway was setting lower prices for intrastate carriers within Texas while charging more for carriers that were going through or out of the state. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the ICC, and maximum prices were set to limit the damage that other states could face due to price discrimination.{{cite journal\\\|last\\=Kennedy\\\|first\\=L. J.\\\|author2\\=Purcell, H.A.\\\|title\\=Section 332 of the Communications Act of 1934: A federal regulatory framework that is \"hog tight, horse high, and bull strong\"\\\|journal\\=Federal Communications Law Journal\\\|year\\=1998\\\|volume\\=50\\\|issue\\=3 \\\|pages\\=547–604\\\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/213194460/\\\|access\\-date\\=April 12, 2011}}", "Communications technology was determined to be an interstate good. President Franklin Roosevelt, along with lobbyists and state regulators, wanted communications technology, both wired and wireless, to be monitored in a similar way and influenced Congress to pass the Communications Act of 1934\\. The goal was to have telephone and broadcasting regulated with the same jurisdiction in a way similar to that in which the ICC regulates the railways and interstate commerce. The act did not, however, allow for price regulation through the FCC due to strong [lobbying](/wiki/Lobbying \"Lobbying\") efforts from the [National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners](/wiki/National_Association_of_Regulatory_Utility_Commissioners \"National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners\") (NARUC).\nCurrently there are some challenges and proposed changes to the act. The company CellAntenna unsuccessfully sued the FCC, claiming the [Homeland Security Act of 2002](/wiki/Homeland_Security_Act_of_2002 \"Homeland Security Act of 2002\") did override the Communications Act of 1934\\.[Marguerite Reardon, \"Company challenges FCC rules on cell phone\\-jamming gear\"](http://news.cnet.com/Company-challenges-FCC-rules-on-cell-phone-jamming-gear/2100-1036_3-6139854.html), CNET, December 1, 2006; accessed March 2, 2011\\.", "The 1934 Communications Act prohibits local and state law enforcement from using [jamming](/wiki/Radio_jamming \"Radio jamming\") devices to thwart criminal and terrorist acts. CellAntenna lost its case, but as a response have supported legislation (The Safe Prisons Communications Act) sponsored by Senator [Kay Bailey Hutchison](/wiki/Kay_Bailey_Hutchison \"Kay Bailey Hutchison\") and Representative [Kevin Brady](/wiki/Kevin_Brady \"Kevin Brady\"), attempting to amend the Communications Act of 1934\\. The bill was left in committee in the House.[H.R.560 – Safe Prisons Communications Act of 2009](http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-h560/show); accessed October 30, 2017\\.", "There has been public debate about the need for an [Internet kill switch](/wiki/Internet_kill_switch \"Internet kill switch\"), defined in a proposed Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act.[S.3480 \\- Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010](http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-s3480/show), at OpenCongress.org This act removes the powers established in the 19 Act and gives the President the authority to stop the Internet in case of a cyber attack.", "The act forbids foreign individuals, governments, and corporations owning more than 20% of the capital stock of a broadcast, common carrier, or radio station.{{cite web \\\| url\\=https://www.fcc.gov/general/foreign\\-ownership\\-rules\\-and\\-policies\\-common\\-carrier\\-aeronautical\\-en\\-route\\-and\\-aeronautical\\#:\\~:text\\=Section%20310(b)(3,or%20aeronautical%20radio%20station%20licensee. \\\| title\\=Foreign Ownership Rules and Policies for Common Carrier, Aeronautical en Route and Aeronautical Fixed Radio Station Licensees \\\| date\\=September 10, 2013 }} In 2013 the FCC relaxed these rules.{{Cite news \\\|last\\=Fung \\\|first\\=Brian \\\|date\\=2014 \\\|title\\=FCC relaxes rules rule limiting foreign ownership of media stations \\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\\-switch/wp/2013/11/14/the\\-next\\-rupert\\-murdoch\\-wont\\-have\\-to\\-change\\-his\\-citizenship\\-to\\-rule\\-the\\-tv\\-biz/ }}", "" ]
Controversies ------------- ### 1934: Commercial radio debate Before the Communications Act of 1934 was enacted as law by the [U.S. Congress](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Congress "U.S. Congress"), there was a debate over commercial versus non\-commercial broadcasting: Senators [Robert Wagner](/wiki/Robert_F._Wagner "Robert F. Wagner") of [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)") and [Henry Hatfield](/wiki/Henry_D._Hatfield "Henry D. Hatfield") of [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia "West Virginia") offered an amendment to the then proposed Communications Act. Educators wanted more of radio to be given to them; they had been termed a "special interest" by the Federal Radio Commission and their stations were forced to share frequencies. The [Wagner\-Hatfield amendment](/wiki/Wagner-Hatfield_amendment "Wagner-Hatfield amendment") would have given 25% of all radio broadcasting facilities to non\-profit institutions and organizations. It would also have allowed these educational stations to sell advertising in order to become self\-sufficient. Senator [Clarence Dill](/wiki/Clarence_Dill "Clarence Dill"), a pro\-industry spokesman, opposed this amendment. It would have meant eliminating numerous commercial stations, but that is not what Senator Dill publicly complained about. He expressed horror over the advertising. He said there was too much advertising already. Not all educators supported the advertising clause, so a compromise was struck. The issue was to be given to the new FCC to study and to hold hearings on and to report back to Congress. Hatfield and Wagner stuck to their guns, however, and proposed their amendment anyway. The Hatfield\-Wagner amendment died and the Communications Act was passed. The Federal Communications Commission reported back, saying that commercial stations had ample time for educational and other public service programs. The Commission called for cooperation between commercial and educational interests and other non\-profit groups. The educators lost, although commercial broadcasters were forced to air public affairs programs. ### 1943: Chain (network) case The U.S. Supreme Court held in [National Broadcasting Co. v. United States](/wiki/National_Broadcasting_Co._v._United_States "National Broadcasting Co. v. United States"), 319 U.S. 190 on May 10, 1943, that the FCC had the right to issue regulations pertaining to associations between broadcasting networks and their affiliated stations. The opinion of the Supreme Court was not unanimous and it led to a conflict with an earlier decision in Federal Communications Commission v. Sanders Brothers Radio Station, 309 U.S. 470, on March 25, 1940\. In that case the FCC interpreted Supreme Court decisions concerning broadcasting to mean that potential economic injury to an existing licensee was not grounds for refusing to license a competitor. (This FCC interpretation remained in place from 1940 to 1958\.) The opinion of the Supreme Court was delivered by [Felix Frankfurter](/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter "Felix Frankfurter"). Justices [Hugo Black](/wiki/Hugo_Black "Hugo Black") and [Wiley Blount Rutledge](/wiki/Wiley_Blount_Rutledge "Wiley Blount Rutledge") took no part in the discussion or decision. Justice [Frank Murphy](/wiki/Frank_Murphy "Frank Murphy") offered a dissenting opinion, stating that the Court was effectively giving the FCC a power to regulate networks which had not been given to the FCC by Congress. Murphy stated that {{blockquote\\|we exceed our competence when we gratuitously bestow upon an agency power which the Congress has not granted. Since that is what the Court in substance does today, I dissent.}} Because the majority of the Court did not agree with Murphy, it effectively gave the FCC power to regulate the networks. As a result of this 1943 decision, [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") was forced to sell one of its two networks—the [Blue Network](/wiki/Blue_Network "Blue Network")—and it was this action which then led to the creation of the [American Broadcasting Company](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company").	[ "Controversies\n-------------", "### 1934: Commercial radio debate", "Before the Communications Act of 1934 was enacted as law by the [U.S. Congress](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Congress \"U.S. Congress\"), there was a debate over commercial versus non\\-commercial broadcasting: Senators [Robert Wagner](/wiki/Robert_F._Wagner \"Robert F. Wagner\") of [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\") and [Henry Hatfield](/wiki/Henry_D._Hatfield \"Henry D. Hatfield\") of [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\") offered an amendment to the then proposed Communications Act. Educators wanted more of radio to be given to them; they had been termed a \"special interest\" by the Federal Radio Commission and their stations were forced to share frequencies.", "The [Wagner\\-Hatfield amendment](/wiki/Wagner-Hatfield_amendment \"Wagner-Hatfield amendment\") would have given 25% of all radio broadcasting facilities to non\\-profit institutions and organizations. It would also have allowed these educational stations to sell advertising in order to become self\\-sufficient.", "Senator [Clarence Dill](/wiki/Clarence_Dill \"Clarence Dill\"), a pro\\-industry spokesman, opposed this amendment. It would have meant eliminating numerous commercial stations, but that is not what Senator Dill publicly complained about. He expressed horror over the advertising. He said there was too much advertising already. Not all educators supported the advertising clause, so a compromise was struck.", "The issue was to be given to the new FCC to study and to hold hearings on and to report back to Congress. Hatfield and Wagner stuck to their guns, however, and proposed their amendment anyway. The Hatfield\\-Wagner amendment died and the Communications Act was passed.", "The Federal Communications Commission reported back, saying that commercial stations had ample time for educational and other public service programs. The Commission called for cooperation between commercial and educational interests and other non\\-profit groups. The educators lost, although commercial broadcasters were forced to air public affairs programs.", "### 1943: Chain (network) case", "The U.S. Supreme Court held in [National Broadcasting Co. v. United States](/wiki/National_Broadcasting_Co._v._United_States \"National Broadcasting Co. v. United States\"), 319 U.S. 190 on May 10, 1943, that the FCC had the right to issue regulations pertaining to associations between broadcasting networks and their affiliated stations. The opinion of the Supreme Court was not unanimous and it led to a conflict with an earlier decision in Federal Communications Commission v. Sanders Brothers Radio Station, 309 U.S. 470, on March 25, 1940\\.", "In that case the FCC interpreted Supreme Court decisions concerning broadcasting to mean that potential economic injury to an existing licensee was not grounds for refusing to license a competitor. (This FCC interpretation remained in place from 1940 to 1958\\.)", "The opinion of the Supreme Court was delivered by [Felix Frankfurter](/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter \"Felix Frankfurter\"). Justices [Hugo Black](/wiki/Hugo_Black \"Hugo Black\") and [Wiley Blount Rutledge](/wiki/Wiley_Blount_Rutledge \"Wiley Blount Rutledge\") took no part in the discussion or decision. Justice [Frank Murphy](/wiki/Frank_Murphy \"Frank Murphy\") offered a dissenting opinion, stating that the Court was effectively giving the FCC a power to regulate networks which had not been given to the FCC by Congress. Murphy stated that", "{{blockquote\\\|we exceed our competence when we gratuitously bestow upon an agency power which the Congress has not granted. Since that is what the Court in substance does today, I dissent.}}", "Because the majority of the Court did not agree with Murphy, it effectively gave the FCC power to regulate the networks. As a result of this 1943 decision, [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") was forced to sell one of its two networks—the [Blue Network](/wiki/Blue_Network \"Blue Network\")—and it was this action which then led to the creation of the [American Broadcasting Company](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\").", "" ]
### 1934: Commercial radio debate Before the Communications Act of 1934 was enacted as law by the [U.S. Congress](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Congress "U.S. Congress"), there was a debate over commercial versus non\-commercial broadcasting: Senators [Robert Wagner](/wiki/Robert_F._Wagner "Robert F. Wagner") of [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)") and [Henry Hatfield](/wiki/Henry_D._Hatfield "Henry D. Hatfield") of [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia "West Virginia") offered an amendment to the then proposed Communications Act. Educators wanted more of radio to be given to them; they had been termed a "special interest" by the Federal Radio Commission and their stations were forced to share frequencies. The [Wagner\-Hatfield amendment](/wiki/Wagner-Hatfield_amendment "Wagner-Hatfield amendment") would have given 25% of all radio broadcasting facilities to non\-profit institutions and organizations. It would also have allowed these educational stations to sell advertising in order to become self\-sufficient. Senator [Clarence Dill](/wiki/Clarence_Dill "Clarence Dill"), a pro\-industry spokesman, opposed this amendment. It would have meant eliminating numerous commercial stations, but that is not what Senator Dill publicly complained about. He expressed horror over the advertising. He said there was too much advertising already. Not all educators supported the advertising clause, so a compromise was struck. The issue was to be given to the new FCC to study and to hold hearings on and to report back to Congress. Hatfield and Wagner stuck to their guns, however, and proposed their amendment anyway. The Hatfield\-Wagner amendment died and the Communications Act was passed. The Federal Communications Commission reported back, saying that commercial stations had ample time for educational and other public service programs. The Commission called for cooperation between commercial and educational interests and other non\-profit groups. The educators lost, although commercial broadcasters were forced to air public affairs programs.	[ "### 1934: Commercial radio debate", "Before the Communications Act of 1934 was enacted as law by the [U.S. Congress](/wiki/U.S.%C2%A0Congress \"U.S. Congress\"), there was a debate over commercial versus non\\-commercial broadcasting: Senators [Robert Wagner](/wiki/Robert_F._Wagner \"Robert F. Wagner\") of [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\") and [Henry Hatfield](/wiki/Henry_D._Hatfield \"Henry D. Hatfield\") of [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\") offered an amendment to the then proposed Communications Act. Educators wanted more of radio to be given to them; they had been termed a \"special interest\" by the Federal Radio Commission and their stations were forced to share frequencies.", "The [Wagner\\-Hatfield amendment](/wiki/Wagner-Hatfield_amendment \"Wagner-Hatfield amendment\") would have given 25% of all radio broadcasting facilities to non\\-profit institutions and organizations. It would also have allowed these educational stations to sell advertising in order to become self\\-sufficient.", "Senator [Clarence Dill](/wiki/Clarence_Dill \"Clarence Dill\"), a pro\\-industry spokesman, opposed this amendment. It would have meant eliminating numerous commercial stations, but that is not what Senator Dill publicly complained about. He expressed horror over the advertising. He said there was too much advertising already. Not all educators supported the advertising clause, so a compromise was struck.", "The issue was to be given to the new FCC to study and to hold hearings on and to report back to Congress. Hatfield and Wagner stuck to their guns, however, and proposed their amendment anyway. The Hatfield\\-Wagner amendment died and the Communications Act was passed.", "The Federal Communications Commission reported back, saying that commercial stations had ample time for educational and other public service programs. The Commission called for cooperation between commercial and educational interests and other non\\-profit groups. The educators lost, although commercial broadcasters were forced to air public affairs programs.", "" ]
Special events -------------- ### Basketball and football victories Following every football and basketball win the NCSU Bell Tower is illuminated red and students are encouraged to "Storm the Bell Tower" and show their Wolfpack pride. After the [NC State men's basketball team](/wiki/North_Carolina_State_Wolfpack_basketball "North Carolina State Wolfpack basketball") won the national championship in 1983, students converged on Hillsborough Street to celebrate, with at least one injury to a police officer. Subsequently, the police department cracked down on problem bars on Hillsborough Street, which resulted in many bar closures. The closures included seven bars located at Hillsborough Square. ### Paint the Town Red and NCSU Homecoming As part of NCSU's [homecoming](/wiki/Homecoming "Homecoming") week since 2006, many businesses along Hillsborough Street agree to have groups of NCSU students paint their windows red, the main athletic color of the [NC State Wolfpack](/wiki/NC_State_Wolfpack "NC State Wolfpack").{{Cite web \\|url\=http://media.www.technicianonline.com/media/storage/paper848/news/2006/10/30/News/Hillsborough.Street.Is.Seeing.Red\-2408220\.shtml \\|title\=Technician Online \- Hillsborough Street is seeing red (10\-30\-2006\) \\|access\-date\=2007\-02\-24 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185848/http://media.www.technicianonline.com/media/storage/paper848/news/2006/10/30/News/Hillsborough.Street.Is.Seeing.Red\-2408220\.shtml \\|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-27 \\|url\-status\=dead }} The spectacle was deemed "Paint the Town Red". Each year, alumni, students, faculty and staff as well as Wolfpack faithful fill the NC State Campus and surrounding areas painting the town red. Onlookers congregate on Hillsborough Street for the annual Homecoming Parade and watch as dozens of school floats make their way towards the Bell Tower. ### WRAL\-TV Raleigh Christmas Parade A [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") [parade](/wiki/Parade "Parade") is held along Hillsborough Street among other Raleigh streets every November. The event, sponsored by [WRAL\-TV](/wiki/WRAL-TV "WRAL-TV") attracts Raleighites, NCSU students, and visitors.[WRAL\-TV Raleigh Christmas Parade 2005](http://www.cbc-raleigh.com/capcom/news/2005/wraltv_05/xmas_parade/xmas_parade_promo2.htm) ### Krispy Kreme Challenge {{Main article\\|Krispy Kreme Challenge}} The [Krispy Kreme](/wiki/Krispy_Kreme "Krispy Kreme") Challenge, a race invented and organized by NC State Park Scholars with a majority of runners attending NC State, is a new NC State tradition which attracted over 7,500 runners in 2010\. Part of Hillsborough Street is closed in order for runners to make their way from the [NC State Bell Tower](/wiki/North_Carolina_State_University_Memorial_Bell_Tower "North Carolina State University Memorial Bell Tower") to the [Krispy Kreme](/wiki/Krispy_Kreme "Krispy Kreme") on Peace Street. The objective is to run to the Krispy Kreme, eat one dozen [doughnuts](/wiki/Doughnuts "Doughnuts"), and run back to the Bell Tower in under one hour. The event raises money to support the North Carolina Children's Hospital, and in 2010 raised $122 million. ### City of Oaks Marathon The Raleigh City of Oaks Marathon and Rex Healthcare Half Marathon annually attracts thousands of athletes to the capital city. The course is revered for the diversity of the landscape, showcasing the Triangle’s natural areas and the capital’s history. ### Susan G. Komen Race for the Cure The Komen NC Triangle Race for the Cure, hosted at Meredith College, raises funds and awareness for the fight against breast cancer, celebrates breast cancer survivorship, and honors those who have lost their battle with the disease. All net funds from the Komen Race for the Cure go to research, education, screening and treatment programs. ### 9/11 Memorial Service On the tenth anniversary of September 11, 2001 NC State Chancellor Randy Woodson lead the campus and community in a memorial service at the Bell Tower honoring all those who perished in the events of [9/11](/wiki/9/11 "9/11"). The service paid tribute to all NCSU alumni who have served in the military. To coincide with this event, the Hillsborough Street Community Service Corporation enlisted the help of over 35 NCSU student groups and organizations to decorate the store\-fronts on Hillsborough Street with patriotic imagery. These groups volunteered their time to show their support for, and appreciation of, all the first responders and citizens who lost their lives on that day in 2001\. They also thanked all the troops who have served and continue to serve the USA in the armed services. ### Art to Wear Art to Wear is an annual fashion show featuring the creations of NC State students. The NCSU College of Design and College of Textiles team together to showcase the young talent that can be found at NC State as well as its connectivity to the clothing design merchants found around Raleigh, NC. The event is normally followed by an after event which fills the local establishments with customers long into the night.	[ "Special events\n--------------", "### Basketball and football victories", "Following every football and basketball win the NCSU Bell Tower is illuminated red and students are encouraged to \"Storm the Bell Tower\" and show their Wolfpack pride. After the [NC State men's basketball team](/wiki/North_Carolina_State_Wolfpack_basketball \"North Carolina State Wolfpack basketball\") won the national championship in 1983, students converged on Hillsborough Street to celebrate, with at least one injury to a police officer. Subsequently, the police department cracked down on problem bars on Hillsborough Street, which resulted in many bar closures. The closures included seven bars located at Hillsborough Square.", "### Paint the Town Red and NCSU Homecoming", "As part of NCSU's [homecoming](/wiki/Homecoming \"Homecoming\") week since 2006, many businesses along Hillsborough Street agree to have groups of NCSU students paint their windows red, the main athletic color of the [NC State Wolfpack](/wiki/NC_State_Wolfpack \"NC State Wolfpack\").{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://media.www.technicianonline.com/media/storage/paper848/news/2006/10/30/News/Hillsborough.Street.Is.Seeing.Red\\-2408220\\.shtml \\\|title\\=Technician Online \\- Hillsborough Street is seeing red (10\\-30\\-2006\\) \\\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-02\\-24 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185848/http://media.www.technicianonline.com/media/storage/paper848/news/2006/10/30/News/Hillsborough.Street.Is.Seeing.Red\\-2408220\\.shtml \\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-27 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The spectacle was deemed \"Paint the Town Red\". Each year, alumni, students, faculty and staff as well as Wolfpack faithful fill the NC State Campus and surrounding areas painting the town red. Onlookers congregate on Hillsborough Street for the annual Homecoming Parade and watch as dozens of school floats make their way towards the Bell Tower.", "### WRAL\\-TV Raleigh Christmas Parade", "A [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") [parade](/wiki/Parade \"Parade\") is held along Hillsborough Street among other Raleigh streets every November. The event, sponsored by [WRAL\\-TV](/wiki/WRAL-TV \"WRAL-TV\") attracts Raleighites, NCSU students, and visitors.[WRAL\\-TV Raleigh Christmas Parade 2005](http://www.cbc-raleigh.com/capcom/news/2005/wraltv_05/xmas_parade/xmas_parade_promo2.htm)", "### Krispy Kreme Challenge", "{{Main article\\\|Krispy Kreme Challenge}}", "The [Krispy Kreme](/wiki/Krispy_Kreme \"Krispy Kreme\") Challenge, a race invented and organized by NC State Park Scholars with a majority of runners attending NC State, is a new NC State tradition which attracted over 7,500 runners in 2010\\. Part of Hillsborough Street is closed in order for runners to make their way from the [NC State Bell Tower](/wiki/North_Carolina_State_University_Memorial_Bell_Tower \"North Carolina State University Memorial Bell Tower\") to the [Krispy Kreme](/wiki/Krispy_Kreme \"Krispy Kreme\") on Peace Street. The objective is to run to the Krispy Kreme, eat one dozen [doughnuts](/wiki/Doughnuts \"Doughnuts\"), and run back to the Bell Tower in under one hour. The event raises money to support the North Carolina Children's Hospital, and in 2010 raised $122 million.", "### City of Oaks Marathon", "The Raleigh City of Oaks Marathon and Rex Healthcare Half Marathon annually attracts thousands of athletes to the capital city. The course is revered for the diversity of the landscape, showcasing the Triangle’s natural areas and the capital’s history.", "### Susan G. Komen Race for the Cure", "The Komen NC Triangle Race for the Cure, hosted at Meredith College, raises funds and awareness for the fight against breast cancer, celebrates breast cancer survivorship, and honors those who have lost their battle with the disease. All net funds from the Komen Race for the Cure go to research, education, screening and treatment programs.", "### 9/11 Memorial Service", "On the tenth anniversary of September 11, 2001 NC State Chancellor Randy Woodson lead the campus and community in a memorial service at the Bell Tower honoring all those who perished in the events of [9/11](/wiki/9/11 \"9/11\"). The service paid tribute to all NCSU alumni who have served in the military. To coincide with this event, the Hillsborough Street Community Service Corporation enlisted the help of over 35 NCSU student groups and organizations to decorate the store\\-fronts on Hillsborough Street with patriotic imagery. These groups volunteered their time to show their support for, and appreciation of, all the first responders and citizens who lost their lives on that day in 2001\\. They also thanked all the troops who have served and continue to serve the USA in the armed services.", "### Art to Wear", "Art to Wear is an annual fashion show featuring the creations of NC State students. The NCSU College of Design and College of Textiles team together to showcase the young talent that can be found at NC State as well as its connectivity to the clothing design merchants found around Raleigh, NC. The event is normally followed by an after event which fills the local establishments with customers long into the night.", "" ]
Life ---- DeMarinis was born in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") to "Big Al" DeMarinis, an Italian gangster, and Ruth Siik, a Finnish dancer. After their divorce, he was sent briefly to a Catholic boarding school before his mother took him to live with her relatives in Michigan. He led an itinerant childhood with his mother, living in Michigan, Texas, New York, and California twice while his mother pursued work opportunities. After high school he joined the Air Force in hopes of seeing the world, but was instead stationed in [Havre, Montana](/wiki/Havre%2C_Montana "Havre, Montana"). In Havre he met his first wife, Mary Lee, with whom he had two children. After his time in the Air Force, he went to work in the aviation industry at both [Lockheed](/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation "Lockheed Corporation") and [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing "Boeing"), experiences which influenced his novel Scimitar. He then returned to school, attending the [University of Montana](/wiki/University_of_Montana "University of Montana") to study literature. There he met his second wife, Carol, in a poetry class, whom he would later have another child with. He taught at the [University of Montana](/wiki/University_of_Montana "University of Montana"), [San Diego State University](/wiki/San_Diego_State_University "San Diego State University"), [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University "Arizona State University"), and the [University of Texas at El Paso](/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_El_Paso "University of Texas at El Paso").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.blackbird.vcu.edu/v1n2/fiction/demarinis\_r/index.htm\\|title\=Rick DeMarinis, Blackbird\\|work\=vcu.edu}} While at Montana he lived across the street from [Richard Hugo](/wiki/Richard_Hugo "Richard Hugo"), who he considered his mentor, and down the block from [James Welch](/wiki/James_Welch_%28writer%29 "James Welch (writer)"), a frequent writing partner. It was during this time he published his first novel, A Lovely Monster. His short stories have appeared in Esquire, The Atlantic Monthly, Harpers,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.harpers.org/subjects/RickDeMarinis\\|title\=Rick DeMarinis\\|work\=harpers.org}} GQ, The Paris Review, and The Iowa Review. DeMarinis died on June 12, 2019, due to complications from [Lewy body dementia](/wiki/Lewy_body_dementia "Lewy body dementia").	[ "Life\n----", "DeMarinis was born in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") to \"Big Al\" DeMarinis, an Italian gangster, and Ruth Siik, a Finnish dancer. After their divorce, he was sent briefly to a Catholic boarding school before his mother took him to live with her relatives in Michigan. He led an itinerant childhood with his mother, living in Michigan, Texas, New York, and California twice while his mother pursued work opportunities. After high school he joined the Air Force in hopes of seeing the world, but was instead stationed in [Havre, Montana](/wiki/Havre%2C_Montana \"Havre, Montana\").", "In Havre he met his first wife, Mary Lee, with whom he had two children. After his time in the Air Force, he went to work in the aviation industry at both [Lockheed](/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation \"Lockheed Corporation\") and [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing \"Boeing\"), experiences which influenced his novel Scimitar. He then returned to school, attending the [University of Montana](/wiki/University_of_Montana \"University of Montana\") to study literature. There he met his second wife, Carol, in a poetry class, whom he would later have another child with.", "He taught at the [University of Montana](/wiki/University_of_Montana \"University of Montana\"), [San Diego State University](/wiki/San_Diego_State_University \"San Diego State University\"), [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University \"Arizona State University\"), and the [University of Texas at El Paso](/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_El_Paso \"University of Texas at El Paso\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.blackbird.vcu.edu/v1n2/fiction/demarinis\\_r/index.htm\\\|title\\=Rick DeMarinis, Blackbird\\\|work\\=vcu.edu}} While at Montana he lived across the street from [Richard Hugo](/wiki/Richard_Hugo \"Richard Hugo\"), who he considered his mentor, and down the block from [James Welch](/wiki/James_Welch_%28writer%29 \"James Welch (writer)\"), a frequent writing partner. It was during this time he published his first novel, A Lovely Monster.", "His short stories have appeared in Esquire, The Atlantic Monthly, Harpers,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.harpers.org/subjects/RickDeMarinis\\\|title\\=Rick DeMarinis\\\|work\\=harpers.org}} GQ, The Paris Review, and The Iowa Review.", "DeMarinis died on June 12, 2019, due to complications from [Lewy body dementia](/wiki/Lewy_body_dementia \"Lewy body dementia\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Mooney was born in [Paterson, New Jersey](/wiki/Paterson%2C_New_Jersey "Paterson, New Jersey"), United States.{{cite news\\|last1\=Campbell\\|first1\=Mary\\|title\=Records In Review\\|newspaper\=The Oil City Derrick \\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/4949784/the\_oil\_city\_derrick/\\|agency\=The Oil City Derrick\\|date\=August 31, 1963\\|location\=Pennsylvania, Oil City\\|page\=5\\|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]\\|accessdate \= April 15, 2016}} {{Open access}}{{cite web\\|url\=http://thedeadrockstarsclub.com/1970\.html?referer\=www.clickfind.com.au\\|title\=The Dead Rock Stars Club \- The 1970s\\|first\=Doc\\|last\=Rock\\|website\=Thedeadrockstarsclub.com\\|accessdate\=1 October 2018}} He went [blind](/wiki/Blindness "Blindness") when he was around 10 years of age. Mooney's first job, at age 12, was playing the piano for requests called in to a local radio station. He and his brother, Dan, played together on radio broadcasts in the late 1920s, and recorded between 1929 and 1931 as the Sunshine Boys and the Melotone Boys; both sang while Joe accompanied on piano. They continued performing together on [WLW](/wiki/WLW "WLW") in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati") until 1936, after which time Dan Mooney left the [music industry](/wiki/Music_industry "Music industry"). In 1937, Mooney began working as a pianist and arranger for [Frank Dailey](/wiki/Frank_Dailey "Frank Dailey"),{{r\\|simon81\\|page1\=505}} a role he reprised with [Buddy Rogers](/wiki/Charles_Rogers_%28actor%29 "Charles Rogers (actor)") in 1938\. Through the early 1940s he arranged for [Paul Whiteman](/wiki/Paul_Whiteman "Paul Whiteman"),{{r\\|simon81\\|page1\=453}} [Vincent Lopez](/wiki/Vincent_Lopez "Vincent Lopez"), [Larry Clinton](/wiki/Larry_Clinton "Larry Clinton"),Simon, George T. (1981\).Simon Says, 4th Edition. Schirmer Books. {{ISBN\\|0\-02\-872430\-5}} p. 129 [Les Brown](/wiki/Les_Brown_%28bandleader%29 "Les Brown (bandleader)"), and [The Modernaires](/wiki/The_Modernaires "The Modernaires"). He put together his own quartet in 1943; he sang and played accordion with accompaniment on guitar, bass, and clarinet. This group experienced considerable success in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") in the last half of the 1940s. In 1946, a newspaper columnist wrote that Mooney's music "has the most cynical hot jazz critics describing it in joyous terms such as 'exciting,' 'new,' 'the best thing since Ellington,' \[and] 'as new to jazz as the first Dixieland jazz band was when it first arrived.'"{{cite news\\|last1\=O'Brian\\|first1\=Jack\\|title\=Along Broadway\\|newspaper\=Cumberland Evening Times \\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/4949989/cumberland\_evening\_times/\\|agency\=Cumberland Evening Times\\|date\=November 27, 1946\\|location\=Maryland, Cumberland\\|page\=3\\|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]\\|accessdate \= April 15, 2016}} {{Open access}} As for Mooney himself, the columnist wrote that he "played in virtuoso fashion ... a fellow who knows not only his instrument, but jazz music, both to just about the ultimate degree." In the 1950s, Mooney sang with the [Sauter\-Finegan Orchestra](/wiki/Sauter-Finegan_Orchestra "Sauter-Finegan Orchestra"),{{r\\|simon81\\|page1\=463}} and he played with [Johnny Smith](/wiki/Johnny_Smith "Johnny Smith") in 1953\. After moving to [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida") in 1954 he concentrated more on organ. He recorded again in 1956\. In 1963, a group of friends formed a company to produce a record, "Joe Mooney and His Friends." He recorded again in the middle of the 1960s. Joe Mooney died at age 64, on May 12, 1975, in [Fort Lauderdale, Florida](/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale%2C_Florida "Fort Lauderdale, Florida"), after a [stroke](/wiki/Stroke "Stroke").	[ "Biography\n---------", "Mooney was born in [Paterson, New Jersey](/wiki/Paterson%2C_New_Jersey \"Paterson, New Jersey\"), United States.{{cite news\\\|last1\\=Campbell\\\|first1\\=Mary\\\|title\\=Records In Review\\\|newspaper\\=The Oil City Derrick \\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/4949784/the\\_oil\\_city\\_derrick/\\\|agency\\=The Oil City Derrick\\\|date\\=August 31, 1963\\\|location\\=Pennsylvania, Oil City\\\|page\\=5\\\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\\|accessdate \\= April 15, 2016}} {{Open access}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://thedeadrockstarsclub.com/1970\\.html?referer\\=www.clickfind.com.au\\\|title\\=The Dead Rock Stars Club \\- The 1970s\\\|first\\=Doc\\\|last\\=Rock\\\|website\\=Thedeadrockstarsclub.com\\\|accessdate\\=1 October 2018}} He went [blind](/wiki/Blindness \"Blindness\") when he was around 10 years of age.", "Mooney's first job, at age 12, was playing the piano for requests called in to a local radio station. He and his brother, Dan, played together on radio broadcasts in the late 1920s, and recorded between 1929 and 1931 as the Sunshine Boys and the Melotone Boys; both sang while Joe accompanied on piano. They continued performing together on [WLW](/wiki/WLW \"WLW\") in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\") until 1936, after which time Dan Mooney left the [music industry](/wiki/Music_industry \"Music industry\").", "In 1937, Mooney began working as a pianist and arranger for [Frank Dailey](/wiki/Frank_Dailey \"Frank Dailey\"),{{r\\\|simon81\\\|page1\\=505}} a role he reprised with [Buddy Rogers](/wiki/Charles_Rogers_%28actor%29 \"Charles Rogers (actor)\") in 1938\\. Through the early 1940s he arranged for [Paul Whiteman](/wiki/Paul_Whiteman \"Paul Whiteman\"),{{r\\\|simon81\\\|page1\\=453}} [Vincent Lopez](/wiki/Vincent_Lopez \"Vincent Lopez\"), [Larry Clinton](/wiki/Larry_Clinton \"Larry Clinton\"),Simon, George T. (1981\\).Simon Says, 4th Edition. Schirmer Books. {{ISBN\\\|0\\-02\\-872430\\-5}} p. 129 [Les Brown](/wiki/Les_Brown_%28bandleader%29 \"Les Brown (bandleader)\"), and [The Modernaires](/wiki/The_Modernaires \"The Modernaires\").", "He put together his own quartet in 1943; he sang and played accordion with accompaniment on guitar, bass, and clarinet. This group experienced considerable success in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") in the last half of the 1940s. In 1946, a newspaper columnist wrote that Mooney's music \"has the most cynical hot jazz critics describing it in joyous terms such as 'exciting,' 'new,' 'the best thing since Ellington,' \\[and] 'as new to jazz as the first Dixieland jazz band was when it first arrived.'\"{{cite news\\\|last1\\=O'Brian\\\|first1\\=Jack\\\|title\\=Along Broadway\\\|newspaper\\=Cumberland Evening Times \\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/4949989/cumberland\\_evening\\_times/\\\|agency\\=Cumberland Evening Times\\\|date\\=November 27, 1946\\\|location\\=Maryland, Cumberland\\\|page\\=3\\\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]\\\|accessdate \\= April 15, 2016}} {{Open access}} As for Mooney himself, the columnist wrote that he \"played in virtuoso fashion ... a fellow who knows not only his instrument, but jazz music, both to just about the ultimate degree.\"", "In the 1950s, Mooney sang with the [Sauter\\-Finegan Orchestra](/wiki/Sauter-Finegan_Orchestra \"Sauter-Finegan Orchestra\"),{{r\\\|simon81\\\|page1\\=463}} and he played with [Johnny Smith](/wiki/Johnny_Smith \"Johnny Smith\") in 1953\\. After moving to [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\") in 1954 he concentrated more on organ. He recorded again in 1956\\.", "In 1963, a group of friends formed a company to produce a record, \"Joe Mooney and His Friends.\" He recorded again in the middle of the 1960s.", "Joe Mooney died at age 64, on May 12, 1975, in [Fort Lauderdale, Florida](/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale%2C_Florida \"Fort Lauderdale, Florida\"), after a [stroke](/wiki/Stroke \"Stroke\").", "" ]
Summary ------- Okuzaki ultimately holds [Emperor Shōwa](/wiki/Hirohito "Hirohito") accountable for all the suffering of the war ("I hate irresponsible people ... the most cowardly man in Japan, is the Emperor"). During his protests, he calls police "robots". He painstakingly tracks down former soldiers and officers, convincing them into telling him about the deaths, often abusing them verbally and at times physically in the process and causing one to bleed (at one point, Okuzaki states that "violence is my forte"). The people he talks to give different accounts of what transpired almost 40 years earlier, some saying that those killed were executed for [desertion](/wiki/Desertion "Desertion") after the war was already over, while others state that they were shot for cannibalizing [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea") [indigenous people](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples "Indigenous peoples"). At the end of the war, the Japanese garrison in New Guinea was crammed into a small area and almost completely cut off from food supplies, leading to starvation and eventually to [cannibalism](/wiki/Human_cannibalism "Human cannibalism"). According to confessions, indigenous people were [euphemistically](/wiki/Euphemism "Euphemism") called "black pigs" while Allied soldiers were "white pigs"—although one of the interviewed says there was a ban on eating "white pigs". The sister of one of the executed at one point states her belief that the two (low\-ranking [privates](/wiki/Private_%28rank%29 "Private (rank)")) were killed so that the officers would have something to eat. During the course of Okuzaki's investigation a [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28land%29 "Captain (land)") named Koshimizu is said to have issued the order to execute the pair, with a couple of the interviewed also stating that he personally finished them off with his pistol after the [firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad "Execution by firing squad") failed to kill them outright, something the captain denies. Okuzaki also discovers that there has been another suspicious death in his unit and seeks out a former sergeant who is the sole survivor of his [regiment](/wiki/Regiment "Regiment"). After much coaxing and a physical altercation, the sergeant tells him that he personally killed a fellow soldier who had been stealing food and that the corpse was then eaten. He also states that the indigenous were not cannibalized as they were too quick to catch. Instead, Japanese soldiers were marked for death and cannibalized ("the immoral and selfish ones" first). The sergeant states that he only survived because he could make himself useful as a jungle guide, for instance finding fresh water for the other soldiers. A [title card](/wiki/Title_card "Title card") states that the documentary crew and Okuzaki traveled to New Guinea but that the footage was confiscated by the Indonesian government. An [epilogue](/wiki/Epilogue "Epilogue") shows pictures of newspaper headlines where it is revealed that Okuzaki attempted to kill Koshimizu, whom he holds responsible for the deaths of the two soldiers. Not finding him at home Okuzaki settled for shooting Koshimizu's son, who was seriously wounded. It is then stated that Okuzaki was sentenced to 12 years of [hard labor](/wiki/Penal_labour "Penal labour") for attempted murder. [thumbnail\\|200px\\|One of the methods of Okuzaki, as seen in the film, was to paint his car and home with political messages. Here is a picture of his [carport](/wiki/Carport "Carport").](/wiki/File:%E5%A5%A5%E5%B4%8E%E8%AC%99%E4%B8%89%E9%82%B8P5050550.JPG "奥崎謙三邸P5050550.JPG")	[ "Summary\n-------", "Okuzaki ultimately holds [Emperor Shōwa](/wiki/Hirohito \"Hirohito\") accountable for all the suffering of the war (\"I hate irresponsible people ... the most cowardly man in Japan, is the Emperor\"). During his protests, he calls police \"robots\". He painstakingly tracks down former soldiers and officers, convincing them into telling him about the deaths, often abusing them verbally and at times physically in the process and causing one to bleed (at one point, Okuzaki states that \"violence is my forte\"). The people he talks to give different accounts of what transpired almost 40 years earlier, some saying that those killed were executed for [desertion](/wiki/Desertion \"Desertion\") after the war was already over, while others state that they were shot for cannibalizing [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\") [indigenous people](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples \"Indigenous peoples\").", "At the end of the war, the Japanese garrison in New Guinea was crammed into a small area and almost completely cut off from food supplies, leading to starvation and eventually to [cannibalism](/wiki/Human_cannibalism \"Human cannibalism\"). According to confessions, indigenous people were [euphemistically](/wiki/Euphemism \"Euphemism\") called \"black pigs\" while Allied soldiers were \"white pigs\"—although one of the interviewed says there was a ban on eating \"white pigs\". The sister of one of the executed at one point states her belief that the two (low\\-ranking [privates](/wiki/Private_%28rank%29 \"Private (rank)\")) were killed so that the officers would have something to eat.", "During the course of Okuzaki's investigation a [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28land%29 \"Captain (land)\") named Koshimizu is said to have issued the order to execute the pair, with a couple of the interviewed also stating that he personally finished them off with his pistol after the [firing squad](/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad \"Execution by firing squad\") failed to kill them outright, something the captain denies.", "Okuzaki also discovers that there has been another suspicious death in his unit and seeks out a former sergeant who is the sole survivor of his [regiment](/wiki/Regiment \"Regiment\"). After much coaxing and a physical altercation, the sergeant tells him that he personally killed a fellow soldier who had been stealing food and that the corpse was then eaten. He also states that the indigenous were not cannibalized as they were too quick to catch. Instead, Japanese soldiers were marked for death and cannibalized (\"the immoral and selfish ones\" first). The sergeant states that he only survived because he could make himself useful as a jungle guide, for instance finding fresh water for the other soldiers.", "A [title card](/wiki/Title_card \"Title card\") states that the documentary crew and Okuzaki traveled to New Guinea but that the footage was confiscated by the Indonesian government.", "An [epilogue](/wiki/Epilogue \"Epilogue\") shows pictures of newspaper headlines where it is revealed that Okuzaki attempted to kill Koshimizu, whom he holds responsible for the deaths of the two soldiers. Not finding him at home Okuzaki settled for shooting Koshimizu's son, who was seriously wounded. It is then stated that Okuzaki was sentenced to 12 years of [hard labor](/wiki/Penal_labour \"Penal labour\") for attempted murder.", "[thumbnail\\\|200px\\\|One of the methods of Okuzaki, as seen in the film, was to paint his car and home with political messages. Here is a picture of his [carport](/wiki/Carport \"Carport\").](/wiki/File:%E5%A5%A5%E5%B4%8E%E8%AC%99%E4%B8%89%E9%82%B8P5050550.JPG \"奥崎謙三邸P5050550.JPG\")", "" ]
Reactions --------- ### Hydrazine production Oxaziridines are intermediates in the [peroxide process](/wiki/Peroxide_process "Peroxide process") for the production of [hydrazine](/wiki/Hydrazine "Hydrazine"). Many millions of kilograms of hydrazine are produced annually by this method that involves a step wherein ammonia is oxidized in the presence of [methyl ethyl ketone](/wiki/Methyl_ethyl_ketone "Methyl ethyl ketone") to give the oxaziridine:Jean\-Pierre Schirmann, Paul Bourdauducq "Hydrazine" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley\-VCH, Weinheim, 2002\. {{doi\\|10\.1002/14356007\.a13\_177}}. Me(Et)C\=O \+ NH3 \+ H2O2 → Me(Et)CONH \+ H2O In subsequent steps the oxaziridine is converted to the hydrazone, which is the immediate in the way to hydrazine: Me(Et)CONH \+ NH3 → Me(Et)C\=NNH2 \+ H2O ### Oxygen transfer #### α\-Hydroxylation of enolates α\-Hydroxyketones, or [acyloins](/wiki/Acyloin "Acyloin"), are an important synthetic motifs present in many natural products. α\-Hydroxyketones have been synthesized in many ways, including reduction of α\-diketones, substitution of a hydroxyl for a leaving group and direct oxidation of an enolate. [Oxodiperoxymolybdenum(pyridine)\-(hexamethylphosphoric triamide)](/wiki/MoOPH "MoOPH") (MoOPH) and N\-sulfonyloxaziridines are the most common electrophilic sources of oxygen implemented in this process. One advantage of using N\-sulfonyloxaziridines is that higher chiral induction is almost invariably observed relative to MoOPH and other oxidants.{{cite journal \\|author1\=Evans, D. A. \\|author2\=Morrissey, M. M. \\|author3\=Dorow, R. L. \\|title\=Asymmetric oxygenation of chiral imide enolates. A general approach to the synthesis of enantiomerically pure .alpha.\-hydroxy carboxylic acid synthons\\|journal\=\[\[Journal of the American Chemical Society]]\\|year\=1985\\|volume\=107\\|pages\=4346\\|doi\=10\.1021/ja00300a054\\|issue\=14}} High yield (77–91%) and dr (95:5 – 99:1\) are reported for α\-hydroxylation with the [Evans' chiral auxiliary](/wiki/Aldol_reaction%23Evans.27_oxazolidinone_chemistry "Aldol reaction#Evans.27 oxazolidinone chemistry") with N\-sulfonyloxaziridine as the electrophile. Chiral induction has been demonstrated with many other chiral ketones and ketones with [chiral auxiliaries](/wiki/Chiral_auxiliary "Chiral auxiliary"), including [SAMP and RAMP](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/SAMP_RAMP_Struktur.svg). [center\\|450px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Evans aldol with oxaziridine](/wiki/File:Exans.png "Exans.png") Extensive work has been reported on asymmetric hydroxylation of prochiral enolates with camphorsulfonyloxaziridine derivatives, achieving moderate to high [enantiomeric excess](/wiki/Enantiomeric_excess "Enantiomeric excess"). The commonly accepted proposed transition state that justifies this stereochemical outcome involves an open transition state where the steric bulk of R1 determines the face of approach. [center\\|500px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Asymmetric oxaziridine hydroxylation](/wiki/File:Alphahydroxasym.png "Alphahydroxasym.png") The selectivity of some hydroxylations may be drastically improved in some cases with the addition of coordinating groups alpha to the oxaziridine ring as oxaziridines 3b and 3c in the table above. In these instances it is proposed that the reaction proceeds through a closed transition state where the metal oxyanion is stabilized by [chelation](/wiki/Chelation "Chelation") from the sulfate and coordinating groups on the camphor skeleton. [center\\|500px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Asymmetric oxaziridine hydroxylation with closed transition state](/wiki/File:ClosedTShydoxylation.png "ClosedTShydoxylation.png") α\-Hydroxylation with oxaziridines has been widely implemented in total synthesis. It is a key step in both the [Holton Taxol total synthesis](/wiki/Holton_Taxol_total_synthesis "Holton Taxol total synthesis") and the [Wender Taxol total synthesis](/wiki/Wender_Taxol_total_synthesis "Wender Taxol total synthesis"). Additionally, Forsyth implemented the transformation in his synthesis of the C3\-C14 (substituted 1,7\-Dioxaspiro\[5\.5]undec\-3\-ene) System of [okadaic acid](/wiki/Okadaic_acid "Okadaic acid").{{cite journal \\|author1\=Dounay, Amy B. \\|author2\=Forsyth, Craig J. \\|title\=Abbreviated Synthesis of the C3−C14 (Substituted 1,7\-Dioxaspiro\[5\.5]undec\-3\-ene) System of Okadaic Acid\\|journal\=\[\[Org. Lett.]]\\|year\=1999\\|volume\=1\\|pages\=451–3\\|doi\=10\.1021/ol9906615\\|issue\=3\\|pmid\=10822585 }} [center\\|600px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Alpha hydroxylation highlighted in the synthesis of okadaic acid](/wiki/File:Alphahydroxtotalsyn.png "Alphahydroxtotalsyn.png") #### Epoxidation of alkenes [Epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation "Epoxidation") of alkenes is a common reaction because epoxides can be derivatized in a number of useful ways. Classically, laboratory epoxidation is carried out with mCPBA or other peracids. Oxaziridines have been found to be useful for the formation of highly acid sensitive epoxides. (−)\-Chaetominine was synthesized via oxaziridine epoxidation as a late stage transformation as seen below.{{cite journal \\|author1\=Malgesini, Beatrice \\|author2\=Forte, Barbara \\|author3\=Borghi, Daniela \\|author4\=Quartieri, Francesca \\|author5\=Gennari, Cesare \\|author6\=Papeo, Gianluca \\|title\=A Straightforward Total Synthesis of (−)\-Chaetominine \\|journal\=\[\[Chem. Eur. J.]]\\|year\=2009\\|volume\=15\\|pages\=7922–7929\\|doi\=10\.1002/chem.200900793 \\|issue\=32\\|pmid\=19562787 }} [center\\|500px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Oxaziridine epoxidation in total synthesis](/wiki/File:EpoxidationTotalSynthesis.png "EpoxidationTotalSynthesis.png") Another transformation of high synthetic utility is [asymmetric](/wiki/Asymmetric_reaction "Asymmetric reaction") [epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation "Epoxidation"). A number of asymmetric epoxidations exist: the [Sharpless epoxidation](/wiki/Sharpless_epoxidation "Sharpless epoxidation"), the [Jacobsen\-Katsuki epoxidation](/wiki/Jacobsen_epoxidation "Jacobsen epoxidation"), and the [Juliá\-Colonna epoxidation](/wiki/Juli%C3%A1-Colonna_epoxidation "Juliá-Colonna epoxidation"). These methods require specific functionality in order to achieve selectivity. The Sharpless epoxidation is specific to allylic alcohols, the Jacobsen epoxidation requires cis\-disubstituted aryl alkenes, and the Juliá epoxidation requires [α\-β unsaturated ketones](/wiki/Enone "Enone"). Chiral oxaziridines act [stereospecifically](/wiki/Stereospecific "Stereospecific") on many unfunctionalized alkenes. It has even possible to effect stereospecific epoxidation catalytically in the oxaziridine chiral unit. Further investigation into these reactions may be required before levels of enantiometic excess become practical for large scale synthesis. Lusinichi et al. have investigated asymmetric epoxidation with a chiral oxaziridinium salt using oxone as the stoichiometric oxidant seen below.{{cite journal \\|author1\=Bohé, Luis \\|author2\=Hanquet, Gilles \\|author3\=Lusinchi, Marie \\|author4\=Lusinchi, Xavier \\|title\=The stereospecific synthesis of a new chiral oxaziridinium salt \\|journal\=\[\[Tetrahedron Letters]]\\|year\=1993\\|volume\=34\\|pages\=7271\\|doi\=10\.1016/S0040\-4039(00\)79306\-3 \\|issue\=45}} [center\\|400px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Catalytic asymmetric epoxidation of trans\-stillbene](/wiki/File:Cat_Epox.png "Cat Epox.png") #### Hydroxylation of unactivated hydrocarbons Perfluorinated oxaziridines are known to hydroxylate unactivated hydrocarbons with remarkable regio\- and diastereospecificity. This is a highly coveted transformation, and similar reactivity and specificity is seldom rivaled, especially considering the nonmetallic nature of the oxidant. Perfluorinated oxaziridines show high selectivity toward [tertiary](/wiki/Tertiary_carbon "Tertiary carbon") hydrogens. Hydroxylation of primary carbons and dihydroxylation of a compound with two oxidizable sites have never been observed. Retention of stereochemistry is very high, often 95 to 98%. (Retention of stereochemistry may be further enhanced by the addition of a fluoride salt).{{cite journal \\|author1\=Arnone, Alberto \\|author2\=Foletto, Stefania \\|author3\=Metrangolo, Pierangelo \\|author4\=Pregnolato, Massimo \\|author5\= \[\[Giuseppe Resnati\\|Resnati, Giuseppe]] \\|title\=Highly Enantiospecific Oxyfunctionalization of Nonactivated Hydrocarbon Sites by Perfluoro\-cis\-2\-n\-butyl\-3\-n\-propyloxaziridine\\|journal\=\[\[Org. Lett.]]\\|year\=1999\\|volume\=1\\|pages\=281\\|doi\=10\.1021/ol990594e\\|issue\=2}} [center\\|500px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Hydroxylation of unactivated alkanes by perfluorinated oxaziridines](/wiki/File:PerfluoroHydroxylatioon.png "PerfluoroHydroxylatioon.png") ### Nitrogen transfer Oxaziridines with unsubstituted or acylated nitrogens are capable of nitrogen atom transfer, although this reactivity has received considerably less attention.{{cite journal\\|doi\=10\.1002/cber.19640970916\\|author1\=Schmitz, E.\\|author2\=Ohme, R.\\|title\=Isomere Oxime mit Dreiringstruktur\\|journal\=\[\[Chem. Ber.]]\\|year\=1964\\|volume\=97\\|pages\=2521\\|issue\=9}} #### Amination of N\-nucleophiles Amination of nucleophiles with N\-unsubstituted oxaziridines is quite versatile in the breadth of possible nucleophiles and corresponding products. [Hydrazines](/wiki/Hydrazine "Hydrazine") may be derived from the amination of secondary or tertiary amines, hydroxylamine and thiohydroxamines may be formed from their corresponding [alcohols](/wiki/Alcohol_%28chemistry%29 "Alcohol (chemistry)") and [thiols](/wiki/Thiol "Thiol"), sulfimides may be formed from [thioethers](/wiki/Thioether "Thioether") and α\-aminoketones may be formed by attack of corresponding enolates.{{cite journal\\|author1\=Andreae, S.\\|author2\=Schmitz, E.\\|title\=ChemInform Abstract: Electrophilic Aminations with Oxaziridines\\|journal\=\[\[ChemInform]]\\|year\=1991\\|volume\=22\\|pages\=327\\|doi\=10\.1002/chin.199146339\\|issue\=46}} [center\\|400px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Selected amination reactions with oxaziridine](/wiki/File:Amination.png "Amination.png") #### N\-acylamidation The transfer of acylated amines is more difficult than that of unsubstituted amines, although, unlike amine transfer by oxaziridines, there are no alternative methods that directly transfer acylated amines. Acylamine transfer has primarily been performed using amines and hydrazines as nucleophiles. Very few transfers of acylated nitrogens to carbon nucleophiles have been successfully performed, although some do exist in the literature. [center\\|470px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Select acyl transfer reactions of oxaziridine](/wiki/File:AcylTransfer.png "AcylTransfer.png") ### Rearrangements Oxaziridines have been found to undergo rearrangement reactions via a [radical mechanism](/wiki/Radical_%28chemistry%29 "Radical (chemistry)") when irradiated with UV light or in the presence of a single electron transfer reagent such as CuI. [spirocylic](/wiki/Spiro_compound "Spiro compound") oxaziridines undergo ring expansions to the corresponding [lactam](/wiki/Lactam "Lactam").{{cite journal\\|author\= Aubé, Jeffrey\\|title\= Oxiziridine rearrangements in asymmetric synthesis\\|journal\=\[\[Chemical Society Reviews]]\\|year\=1997\\|volume\=26\\|pages\=269–277\\|doi\=10\.1039/CS9972600269\\|issue\=4}} The migrating substituent is determined by a [stereoelectronic effect](/wiki/Stereoelectronic_effect "Stereoelectronic effect") where the group trans to the lone pair on the nitrogen will always be the predominant migration product.{{cite journal\\|author1\=Lattes, Armand\\|author2\=Oliveros, Esther\\|author3\=Riviere, Monique\\|author4\=Belzeck, Czeslaw\\|author5\=Mostowicz, Danuta\\|author6\=Abramskj, Wojciech\\|author7\=Piccinni\-Leopardi, Carla\\|author8\=Germain, Gabriel\\|author9\=Van Meerssche, Maurice\\|title\=Photochemical and thermal rearrangement of oxaziridines. Experimental evidence in support of the stereoelectronic control theory\\|journal\=\[\[Journal of the American Chemical Society]]\\|year\=1982\\|volume\=104\\|pages\=3929\\|doi\=10\.1021/ja00378a024\\|issue\=14}} In light of this effect, it is possible to take advantage of the chiral nitrogen due to high inversion barrier to direct the rearrangement. This phenomenon is demonstrated by observed selectivities in the rearrangements below. In the rearrangement on the left the [thermodynamically](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics") unfavorable product is observed exclusively, while in the reaction on the right the product derived from the less stable radical intermediate is favored. [center\\|600px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Evidence for selectivity based on nitrogen lone pair orientation.](/wiki/File:RearrangementElectronics.png "RearrangementElectronics.png") Aubé takes advantage of this rearrangement as the key step in his synthesis of (\+)\-[yohimbine](/wiki/Yohimbine "Yohimbine"), a natural medicine classified by the [NIH](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health "National Institutes of Health") as possibly effective in the treatment of [erectile dysfunction](/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction "Erectile dysfunction") and the sexual problems caused by [selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors](/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor").{{cite web\\|url \= https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient\-yohimbe.html\\|title \= Yohimbe: MedlinePlus Supplements\\|publisher \= \[\[National Institutes of Health\\|nlm.nih.gov]]\\|date \= November 19, 2010\\|access\-date \= December 13, 2010}} [center\\|500px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Synthesis of (\+)\-Yohimbine](/wiki/File:YohimbineSynthesis.png "YohimbineSynthesis.png") It is also notable that oxaziridines will thermally rearrange to [nitrones](/wiki/Nitrone "Nitrone"). [Cis\-trans](/wiki/Cis%E2%80%93trans_isomerism "Cis–trans isomerism") selectivity of the resulting nitrone is poor, however, yields are good to excellent. It is thought that some oxaziridines racemize over time through a nitrone intermediate. [center\\|300px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Conversion of an oxaziridine to a nitrone.](/wiki/File:OxaziridineToNitrone.png "OxaziridineToNitrone.png") ### Cycloadditions with heterocumulenes Oxaziridines undergo [cycloaddition](/wiki/Cycloaddition "Cycloaddition") reactions with hetero[cumulenes](/wiki/Cumulene "Cumulene") to afford a number of unique five membered heterocycles, as shown in the figure below. This reactivity is due to the strained three membered ring and weak N\-O bond. [center\\|550px\\|class\=skin\-invert\-image\\|Electrocyclic reactions of oxaziridines and heterocumulenes](/wiki/File:HeterocumuleneCycloaddition.png "HeterocumuleneCycloaddition.png")	[ "Reactions\n---------", "### Hydrazine production", "Oxaziridines are intermediates in the [peroxide process](/wiki/Peroxide_process \"Peroxide process\") for the production of [hydrazine](/wiki/Hydrazine \"Hydrazine\"). Many millions of kilograms of hydrazine are produced annually by this method that involves a step wherein ammonia is oxidized in the presence of [methyl ethyl ketone](/wiki/Methyl_ethyl_ketone \"Methyl ethyl ketone\") to give the oxaziridine:Jean\\-Pierre Schirmann, Paul Bourdauducq \"Hydrazine\" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley\\-VCH, Weinheim, 2002\\. {{doi\\\|10\\.1002/14356007\\.a13\\_177}}.\nMe(Et)C\\=O \\+ NH3 \\+ H2O2 → Me(Et)CONH \\+ H2O\nIn subsequent steps the oxaziridine is converted to the hydrazone, which is the immediate in the way to hydrazine:\nMe(Et)CONH \\+ NH3 → Me(Et)C\\=NNH2 \\+ H2O", "### Oxygen transfer", "#### α\\-Hydroxylation of enolates", "α\\-Hydroxyketones, or [acyloins](/wiki/Acyloin \"Acyloin\"), are an important synthetic motifs present in many natural products. α\\-Hydroxyketones have been synthesized in many ways, including reduction of α\\-diketones, substitution of a hydroxyl for a leaving group and direct oxidation of an enolate. [Oxodiperoxymolybdenum(pyridine)\\-(hexamethylphosphoric triamide)](/wiki/MoOPH \"MoOPH\") (MoOPH) and N\\-sulfonyloxaziridines are the most common electrophilic sources of oxygen implemented in this process. One advantage of using N\\-sulfonyloxaziridines is that higher chiral induction is almost invariably observed relative to MoOPH and other oxidants.{{cite journal \\\|author1\\=Evans, D. A. \\\|author2\\=Morrissey, M. M. \\\|author3\\=Dorow, R. L. \\\|title\\=Asymmetric oxygenation of chiral imide enolates. A general approach to the synthesis of enantiomerically pure .alpha.\\-hydroxy carboxylic acid synthons\\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of the American Chemical Society]]\\\|year\\=1985\\\|volume\\=107\\\|pages\\=4346\\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/ja00300a054\\\|issue\\=14}} High yield (77–91%) and dr (95:5 – 99:1\\) are reported for α\\-hydroxylation with the [Evans' chiral auxiliary](/wiki/Aldol_reaction%23Evans.27_oxazolidinone_chemistry \"Aldol reaction#Evans.27 oxazolidinone chemistry\") with N\\-sulfonyloxaziridine as the electrophile. Chiral induction has been demonstrated with many other chiral ketones and ketones with [chiral auxiliaries](/wiki/Chiral_auxiliary \"Chiral auxiliary\"), including [SAMP and RAMP](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/SAMP_RAMP_Struktur.svg).", "[center\\\|450px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Evans aldol with oxaziridine](/wiki/File:Exans.png \"Exans.png\")", "Extensive work has been reported on asymmetric hydroxylation of prochiral enolates with camphorsulfonyloxaziridine derivatives, achieving moderate to high [enantiomeric excess](/wiki/Enantiomeric_excess \"Enantiomeric excess\"). The commonly accepted proposed transition state that justifies this stereochemical outcome involves an open transition state where the steric bulk of R1 determines the face of approach.", "[center\\\|500px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Asymmetric oxaziridine hydroxylation](/wiki/File:Alphahydroxasym.png \"Alphahydroxasym.png\")", "The selectivity of some hydroxylations may be drastically improved in some cases with the addition of coordinating groups alpha to the oxaziridine ring as oxaziridines 3b and 3c in the table above. In these instances it is proposed that the reaction proceeds through a closed transition state where the metal oxyanion is stabilized by [chelation](/wiki/Chelation \"Chelation\") from the sulfate and coordinating groups on the camphor skeleton.", "[center\\\|500px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Asymmetric oxaziridine hydroxylation with closed transition state](/wiki/File:ClosedTShydoxylation.png \"ClosedTShydoxylation.png\")", "α\\-Hydroxylation with oxaziridines has been widely implemented in total synthesis. It is a key step in both the [Holton Taxol total synthesis](/wiki/Holton_Taxol_total_synthesis \"Holton Taxol total synthesis\") and the [Wender Taxol total synthesis](/wiki/Wender_Taxol_total_synthesis \"Wender Taxol total synthesis\"). Additionally, Forsyth implemented the transformation in his synthesis of the C3\\-C14 (substituted 1,7\\-Dioxaspiro\\[5\\.5]undec\\-3\\-ene) System of [okadaic acid](/wiki/Okadaic_acid \"Okadaic acid\").{{cite journal \\\|author1\\=Dounay, Amy B. \\\|author2\\=Forsyth, Craig J. \\\|title\\=Abbreviated Synthesis of the C3−C14 (Substituted 1,7\\-Dioxaspiro\\[5\\.5]undec\\-3\\-ene) System of Okadaic Acid\\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Org. Lett.]]\\\|year\\=1999\\\|volume\\=1\\\|pages\\=451–3\\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/ol9906615\\\|issue\\=3\\\|pmid\\=10822585 }}", "[center\\\|600px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Alpha hydroxylation highlighted in the synthesis of okadaic acid](/wiki/File:Alphahydroxtotalsyn.png \"Alphahydroxtotalsyn.png\")", "#### Epoxidation of alkenes", "[Epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation \"Epoxidation\") of alkenes is a common reaction because epoxides can be derivatized in a number of useful ways. Classically, laboratory epoxidation is carried out with mCPBA or other peracids. Oxaziridines have been found to be useful for the formation of highly acid sensitive epoxides. (−)\\-Chaetominine was synthesized via oxaziridine epoxidation as a late stage transformation as seen below.{{cite journal \\\|author1\\=Malgesini, Beatrice \\\|author2\\=Forte, Barbara \\\|author3\\=Borghi, Daniela \\\|author4\\=Quartieri, Francesca \\\|author5\\=Gennari, Cesare \\\|author6\\=Papeo, Gianluca \\\|title\\=A Straightforward Total Synthesis of (−)\\-Chaetominine \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Chem. Eur. J.]]\\\|year\\=2009\\\|volume\\=15\\\|pages\\=7922–7929\\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/chem.200900793 \\\|issue\\=32\\\|pmid\\=19562787 }}", "[center\\\|500px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Oxaziridine epoxidation in total synthesis](/wiki/File:EpoxidationTotalSynthesis.png \"EpoxidationTotalSynthesis.png\")", "Another transformation of high synthetic utility is [asymmetric](/wiki/Asymmetric_reaction \"Asymmetric reaction\") [epoxidation](/wiki/Epoxidation \"Epoxidation\"). A number of asymmetric epoxidations exist: the [Sharpless epoxidation](/wiki/Sharpless_epoxidation \"Sharpless epoxidation\"), the [Jacobsen\\-Katsuki epoxidation](/wiki/Jacobsen_epoxidation \"Jacobsen epoxidation\"), and the [Juliá\\-Colonna epoxidation](/wiki/Juli%C3%A1-Colonna_epoxidation \"Juliá-Colonna epoxidation\"). These methods require specific functionality in order to achieve selectivity. The Sharpless epoxidation is specific to allylic alcohols, the Jacobsen epoxidation requires cis\\-disubstituted aryl alkenes, and the Juliá epoxidation requires [α\\-β unsaturated ketones](/wiki/Enone \"Enone\"). Chiral oxaziridines act [stereospecifically](/wiki/Stereospecific \"Stereospecific\") on many unfunctionalized alkenes. It has even possible to effect stereospecific epoxidation catalytically in the oxaziridine chiral unit. Further investigation into these reactions may be required before levels of enantiometic excess become practical for large scale synthesis. Lusinichi et al. have investigated asymmetric epoxidation with a chiral oxaziridinium salt using oxone as the stoichiometric oxidant seen below.{{cite journal \\\|author1\\=Bohé, Luis \\\|author2\\=Hanquet, Gilles \\\|author3\\=Lusinchi, Marie \\\|author4\\=Lusinchi, Xavier \\\|title\\=The stereospecific synthesis of a new chiral oxaziridinium salt \\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Tetrahedron Letters]]\\\|year\\=1993\\\|volume\\=34\\\|pages\\=7271\\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0040\\-4039(00\\)79306\\-3 \\\|issue\\=45}}", "[center\\\|400px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Catalytic asymmetric epoxidation of trans\\-stillbene](/wiki/File:Cat_Epox.png \"Cat Epox.png\")", "#### Hydroxylation of unactivated hydrocarbons", "Perfluorinated oxaziridines are known to hydroxylate unactivated hydrocarbons with remarkable regio\\- and diastereospecificity. This is a highly coveted transformation, and similar reactivity and specificity is seldom rivaled, especially considering the nonmetallic nature of the oxidant. Perfluorinated oxaziridines show high selectivity toward [tertiary](/wiki/Tertiary_carbon \"Tertiary carbon\") hydrogens. Hydroxylation of primary carbons and dihydroxylation of a compound with two oxidizable sites have never been observed. Retention of stereochemistry is very high, often 95 to 98%. (Retention of stereochemistry may be further enhanced by the addition of a fluoride salt).{{cite journal \\\|author1\\=Arnone, Alberto \\\|author2\\=Foletto, Stefania \\\|author3\\=Metrangolo, Pierangelo \\\|author4\\=Pregnolato, Massimo \\\|author5\\= \\[\\[Giuseppe Resnati\\\|Resnati, Giuseppe]] \\\|title\\=Highly Enantiospecific Oxyfunctionalization of Nonactivated Hydrocarbon Sites by Perfluoro\\-cis\\-2\\-n\\-butyl\\-3\\-n\\-propyloxaziridine\\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Org. Lett.]]\\\|year\\=1999\\\|volume\\=1\\\|pages\\=281\\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/ol990594e\\\|issue\\=2}}", "[center\\\|500px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Hydroxylation of unactivated alkanes by perfluorinated oxaziridines](/wiki/File:PerfluoroHydroxylatioon.png \"PerfluoroHydroxylatioon.png\")", "### Nitrogen transfer", "Oxaziridines with unsubstituted or acylated nitrogens are capable of nitrogen atom transfer, although this reactivity has received considerably less attention.{{cite journal\\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/cber.19640970916\\\|author1\\=Schmitz, E.\\\|author2\\=Ohme, R.\\\|title\\=Isomere Oxime mit Dreiringstruktur\\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Chem. Ber.]]\\\|year\\=1964\\\|volume\\=97\\\|pages\\=2521\\\|issue\\=9}}", "#### Amination of N\\-nucleophiles", "Amination of nucleophiles with N\\-unsubstituted oxaziridines is quite versatile in the breadth of possible nucleophiles and corresponding products. [Hydrazines](/wiki/Hydrazine \"Hydrazine\") may be derived from the amination of secondary or tertiary amines, hydroxylamine and thiohydroxamines may be formed from their corresponding [alcohols](/wiki/Alcohol_%28chemistry%29 \"Alcohol (chemistry)\") and [thiols](/wiki/Thiol \"Thiol\"), sulfimides may be formed from [thioethers](/wiki/Thioether \"Thioether\") and α\\-aminoketones may be formed by attack of corresponding enolates.{{cite journal\\\|author1\\=Andreae, S.\\\|author2\\=Schmitz, E.\\\|title\\=ChemInform Abstract: Electrophilic Aminations with Oxaziridines\\\|journal\\=\\[\\[ChemInform]]\\\|year\\=1991\\\|volume\\=22\\\|pages\\=327\\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/chin.199146339\\\|issue\\=46}}", "[center\\\|400px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Selected amination reactions with oxaziridine](/wiki/File:Amination.png \"Amination.png\")", "#### N\\-acylamidation", "The transfer of acylated amines is more difficult than that of unsubstituted amines, although, unlike amine transfer by oxaziridines, there are no alternative methods that directly transfer acylated amines. Acylamine transfer has primarily been performed using amines and hydrazines as nucleophiles. Very few transfers of acylated nitrogens to carbon nucleophiles have been successfully performed, although some do exist in the literature.", "[center\\\|470px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Select acyl transfer reactions of oxaziridine](/wiki/File:AcylTransfer.png \"AcylTransfer.png\")", "### Rearrangements", "Oxaziridines have been found to undergo rearrangement reactions via a [radical mechanism](/wiki/Radical_%28chemistry%29 \"Radical (chemistry)\") when irradiated with UV light or in the presence of a single electron transfer reagent such as CuI. [spirocylic](/wiki/Spiro_compound \"Spiro compound\") oxaziridines undergo ring expansions to the corresponding [lactam](/wiki/Lactam \"Lactam\").{{cite journal\\\|author\\= Aubé, Jeffrey\\\|title\\= Oxiziridine rearrangements in asymmetric synthesis\\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Chemical Society Reviews]]\\\|year\\=1997\\\|volume\\=26\\\|pages\\=269–277\\\|doi\\=10\\.1039/CS9972600269\\\|issue\\=4}} The migrating substituent is determined by a [stereoelectronic effect](/wiki/Stereoelectronic_effect \"Stereoelectronic effect\") where the group trans to the lone pair on the nitrogen will always be the predominant migration product.{{cite journal\\\|author1\\=Lattes, Armand\\\|author2\\=Oliveros, Esther\\\|author3\\=Riviere, Monique\\\|author4\\=Belzeck, Czeslaw\\\|author5\\=Mostowicz, Danuta\\\|author6\\=Abramskj, Wojciech\\\|author7\\=Piccinni\\-Leopardi, Carla\\\|author8\\=Germain, Gabriel\\\|author9\\=Van Meerssche, Maurice\\\|title\\=Photochemical and thermal rearrangement of oxaziridines. Experimental evidence in support of the stereoelectronic control theory\\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of the American Chemical Society]]\\\|year\\=1982\\\|volume\\=104\\\|pages\\=3929\\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/ja00378a024\\\|issue\\=14}} In light of this effect, it is possible to take advantage of the chiral nitrogen due to high inversion barrier to direct the rearrangement. This phenomenon is demonstrated by observed selectivities in the rearrangements below. In the rearrangement on the left the [thermodynamically](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\") unfavorable product is observed exclusively, while in the reaction on the right the product derived from the less stable radical intermediate is favored.", "[center\\\|600px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Evidence for selectivity based on nitrogen lone pair orientation.](/wiki/File:RearrangementElectronics.png \"RearrangementElectronics.png\")", "Aubé takes advantage of this rearrangement as the key step in his synthesis of (\\+)\\-[yohimbine](/wiki/Yohimbine \"Yohimbine\"), a natural medicine classified by the [NIH](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health \"National Institutes of Health\") as possibly effective in the treatment of [erectile dysfunction](/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction \"Erectile dysfunction\") and the sexual problems caused by [selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors](/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor \"Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor\").{{cite web\\\|url \\= https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient\\-yohimbe.html\\\|title \\= Yohimbe: MedlinePlus Supplements\\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[National Institutes of Health\\\|nlm.nih.gov]]\\\|date \\= November 19, 2010\\\|access\\-date \\= December 13, 2010}}", "[center\\\|500px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Synthesis of (\\+)\\-Yohimbine](/wiki/File:YohimbineSynthesis.png \"YohimbineSynthesis.png\")", "It is also notable that oxaziridines will thermally rearrange to [nitrones](/wiki/Nitrone \"Nitrone\"). [Cis\\-trans](/wiki/Cis%E2%80%93trans_isomerism \"Cis–trans isomerism\") selectivity of the resulting nitrone is poor, however, yields are good to excellent. It is thought that some oxaziridines racemize over time through a nitrone intermediate.", "[center\\\|300px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Conversion of an oxaziridine to a nitrone.](/wiki/File:OxaziridineToNitrone.png \"OxaziridineToNitrone.png\")", "### Cycloadditions with heterocumulenes", "Oxaziridines undergo [cycloaddition](/wiki/Cycloaddition \"Cycloaddition\") reactions with hetero[cumulenes](/wiki/Cumulene \"Cumulene\") to afford a number of unique five membered heterocycles, as shown in the figure below. This reactivity is due to the strained three membered ring and weak N\\-O bond.", "[center\\\|550px\\\|class\\=skin\\-invert\\-image\\\|Electrocyclic reactions of oxaziridines and heterocumulenes](/wiki/File:HeterocumuleneCycloaddition.png \"HeterocumuleneCycloaddition.png\")", "" ]
Career ------ ### Comics McKean first showed his work to editors at [Marvel Comics](/wiki/Marvel_Comics "Marvel Comics"), [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics"), and [Continuity Comics](/wiki/Continuity_Comics "Continuity Comics") when visiting New York City in 1986\. There, he met Neil Gaiman and the pair collaborated on the graphic novel [Violent Cases](/wiki/Violent_Cases "Violent Cases"), which was published in 1987\.{{cite web \\|url\= http://www.neilgaiman.com/p/Cool\_Stuff/Essays/Essays\_By\_Neil/Neil\_Gaiman\_on\_Dave\_McKean\\|title\= Neil Gaiman on Dave McKean\\|first\= Neil\\|last\= Gaiman\\|author\-link\= Neil Gaiman\\|year\= 2003\\|publisher\= Neilgaiman.com\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140327044152/http://neilgaiman.com/p/Cool\_Stuff/Essays/Essays\_By\_Neil/Neil\_Gaiman\_on\_Dave\_McKean\\|archive\-date\= 27 March 2014\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all}} This was followed in 1988 by a [Black Orchid](/wiki/Black_Orchid_%28comic_book%29 "Black Orchid (comic book)") miniseries{{Cite book\\|last\= Irvine\\|first\= Alex\\|author\-link\= Alexander C. Irvine\\|contribution\= Black Orchid\\|editor\-last\= Dougall\\|editor\-first\= Alastair\\|title\= The Vertigo Encyclopedia\\|pages\= 32–34\\|publisher\= \[\[Dorling Kindersley]]\\|year\= 2008\\|location\= London, United Kingdom\\|isbn\= 978\-0\-7566\-4122\-1\\|oclc\= 213309015}}{{cite book\\|last1\=Manning\\|first1\= Matthew K.\\|last2\=Dolan\\|first2\=Hannah, ed.\\|chapter\= 1980s\\|title \= DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle\\|publisher\=\[\[Dorling Kindersley]]\\|year\=2010\\|location\= London, United Kingdom\\|isbn\= 978\-0\-7566\-6742\-9\\|page\= 235\\|quote \= Neil Gaiman scripted the complex ''Black Orchid'' prestige format limited series in December \[1988], re\-envisioning the character with the help of artist Dave McKean.}} and [Hellblazer](/wiki/Hellblazer "Hellblazer") covers for DC Comics.Irvine "John Constantine Hellblazer" in Dougall, pp. 102–111{{gcdb\\|type\=credit\\|search\= Dave\+McKean\\|title\= Dave McKean}} In 1989, McKean illustrated the [Batman](/wiki/Batman "Batman") graphic novel, [Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth](/wiki/Arkham_Asylum:A_Serious_House_on_Serious_Earth "A Serious House on Serious Earth"), with writer [Grant Morrison](/wiki/Grant_Morrison "Grant Morrison").Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 240: "Written by Grant Morrison, with painted artwork by Dave McKean, Batman: Arkham Asylum was an innovative and complex examination of Batman's Rogues Gallery." The book was a commercial success, selling over 260,000 copies in hardcover and paperback.{{cite book\\|last \= Daniels\\|first \= Les\\|author\-link \= Les Daniels\\|chapter\= A Novel Approach\\|title \= DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes\\|publisher \= \[\[Little, Brown and Company\\|Bulfinch Press]]\\|year \= 1995\\|location\= New York, New York\\|isbn \= 0821220764}} From 1989 to 1997, McKean created the covers for Gaiman's series [The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28Vertigo%29 "The Sandman (Vertigo)") and many of its spin\-offs.Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 238: "The Sandman saw a variety of artists grace its pages...Illustrator Dave McKean's mixed media pieces garnished each cover."{{cite book\\|last\= Bender\\|first\= Hy\\|title\= The Sandman Companion\\|publisher\= DC Comics\\|year\= 1999\\|location\= New York, New York\\|page\= 40\\|isbn\= 978\-1563894657}} In 1998, the cover images from The Sandman were released in one volume titled Dustcovers: The Collected Sandman Covers.{{cite book\\|last1\= Gaiman\\|first1\= Neil\\|last2\= McKean\\|first2\= Dave\\|title\= Dustcovers: The Collected Sandman Covers, 1989\-1997\\|publisher\= DC Comics\\|year\= 1998\\|location\= New York, New York\\|page\= 206\\|isbn\= 978\-1563893889}} Further collaborations with Gaiman produced the graphic novels [Signal to Noise](/wiki/Signal_to_Noise_%28comics%29 "Signal to Noise (comics)") and [The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Mr. Punch](/wiki/The_Tragical_Comedy_or_Comical_Tragedy_of_Mr._Punch "The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Mr. Punch"). In 1995 McKean wrote and illustrated a book for [The Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones "The Rolling Stones") called [Voodoo Lounge](/wiki/Voodoo_Lounge "Voodoo Lounge") to tie in with the release of their album of the same name. Between 1990 and 1996, McKean wrote and drew the ten issues of [Cages](/wiki/Cages_%28comics%29 "Cages (comics)"), a graphic novel about artists and creativity.{{cite web \\|url\= http://www.stripkap.net/McKean.html\\|title\= Dave McKean\\|first\= Gert\\|last\= Meesters\\|date\= November 1997\\|publisher\= Stripkap.net\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130731004857/http://www.stripkap.net/McKean.html\\|archive\-date\= 31 July 2013\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|quote\= Meesters: 'Some parts of ''Cages'' remind me of José Muñoz's art.' McKean: 'Yeah. And the artists that influenced him. German illustrators of the thirties and during the war, with thick black lines. Wonderful stuff. Muñoz is wonderful, Mattotti is wonderful.'}} McKean's collections of short comics Pictures That Tick, and Pictures That Tick 2: Exhibition{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.darkhorse.com/Books/24\-661/Pictures\-That\-Tick\-Volume\-2\-Ltd\-Ed\-HC\\|title\=Pictures That Tick Volume 2 Ltd. Ed. HC :: Profile :: Dark Horse Comics\\|publisher\=Dark Horse Comics\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160628040820/http://www.darkhorse.com/Books/24\-661/Pictures\-That\-Tick\-Volume\-2\-Ltd\-Ed\-HC\\|archive\-date\= 28 June 2016\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|access\-date\= 3 September 2016}} were published by Dark Horse Comics in 2009 and 2015\. Pictures That Tick won the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum "Victoria and Albert Museum") Illustrated Book of the Year award. McKean created a wordless [erotic graphic novel](/wiki/Erotic_literature "Erotic literature") called Celluloid{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.fantagraphics.com/celluloid/\\|title\=Artists :: Dave McKean :: Celluloid\\|publisher\= \[\[Fantagraphics Books]]\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160120141131/http://www.fantagraphics.com/celluloid/\\|archive\-date\= 20 January 2016\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|access\-date\= 3 September 2016}} for [Delcourt](/wiki/Delcourt_%28publisher%29 "Delcourt (publisher)"), which was published in the United States by [Fantagraphics Books](/wiki/Fantagraphics_Books "Fantagraphics Books"). Black Dog: The Dreams of Paul Nash, which was commissioned by the 14\-18 Now Foundation, [The Imperial War Museum](/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum "Imperial War Museum") and The Lakes International Comic art Festival, was published in October 2016 by [Dark Horse Comics](/wiki/Dark_Horse_Comics "Dark Horse Comics") as an oversized hardback and regular paperback.{{Cite news \\|date\=2016\-05\-27 \\|title\=Black Dog: Dave McKean delves into the dreams of war artist Paul Nash – in pictures \\|language\=en\-GB \\|work\=The Guardian \\|url\=http://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2016/may/27/black\-dog\-the\-dreams\-of\-paul\-nash\-dave\-mckean \\|access\-date\=2023\-05\-26 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526124037/https://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2016/may/27/black\-dog\-the\-dreams\-of\-paul\-nash\-dave\-mckean \\|archive\-date\=2023\-05\-26 \\|issn\=0261\-3077}} Raptor was released in 2021 by Dark Horse Books {{cite web \\|url\=https://www.darkhorse.com/Books/3004\-327/Raptor\-A\-Sokol\-Graphic\-Novel\-TPB \\|title\=Raptor: A Sokol Graphic Novel TPB \\|website\=Dark Horse Comics \\|access\-date\=21 December 2022}} and is the first of a proposed series of books featuring the character Sokol. ### Illustration McKean designed the posters for the Raindance Film Festival{{cite web \\|url\= https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2011/sep/28/poster\-notes\-raindance\-film\-festival\\|title\= Poster notes: Raindance film festival \\|date\= 28 September 2011\\| work \= \[\[The Guardian]] \\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140526035444/http://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2011/sep/28/poster\-notes\-raindance\-film\-festival\\|archive\-date\= 26 May 2014 \\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all}} for five consecutive years between 1996 and 2000\. In 1997 he wrote, directed and edited a ninety\-second trailer for the festival. In 2005, McKean designed the poster for the 32nd [Telluride Film Festival](/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival "Telluride Film Festival"). In 2006, he designed projections, sets and directed film clips for the Broadway musical [Lestat](/wiki/Lestat_%28musical%29 "Lestat (musical)").{{Citation needed\\|date\=April 2023}} McKean has also released picture books that include pictures from his trips. Examples include Postcards from Vienna, Postcards from Barcelona, Postcards from Paris (2008\), Postcards from Brussels (2009\), Postcards from Perugia (2011\), Postcards from Bilbao (2012\). He created another book of 200 pages called Squink (éditions BdArtist(e)) that gathered a number of drawings in 15 chapters.{{Citation needed\\|date\=May 2023}} ### Album and book covers McKean has created album covers for many artists, including [Counting Crows](/wiki/Counting_Crows "Counting Crows"), [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper"), [Testament](/wiki/Testament_%28band%29 "Testament (band)"), [Altan](/wiki/Altan_%28band%29 "Altan (band)"), [Tori Amos](/wiki/Tori_Amos "Tori Amos"), [Download](/wiki/Download_%28band%29 "Download (band)"), [Fear Factory](/wiki/Fear_Factory "Fear Factory"), [Front Line Assembly](/wiki/Front_Line_Assembly "Front Line Assembly"), [Paradise Lost](/wiki/Paradise_Lost_%28band%29 "Paradise Lost (band)"), [Dream Theater](/wiki/Dream_Theater "Dream Theater"), [Stabbing Westward](/wiki/Stabbing_Westward "Stabbing Westward"), [Skinny Puppy](/wiki/Skinny_Puppy "Skinny Puppy"),{{cite web\\|url\= http://thequietus.com/articles/17626\-dave\-mckean\-interview\\|title\= Portraying Psychological Angst: Dave McKean Interviewed\\|first\= Dan\\|last\= Franklin\\|date\= 15 April 2015\\|work\= \[\[The Quietus]]\\|archive\-url\= http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20161101091216/http://thequietus.com/articles/17626%2Ddave%2Dmckean%2Dinterview\\|archive\-date\= 1 November 2016\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\= dmy\-all\\|quote\= I like the Front Line Assembly covers, I think they've got better through the years, and I like the band. I liked doing the Skinny Puppy covers and the Stabbing Westward cover. The Fear Factory covers came out well, but only after a lot of rather pointless back and forth.}} [Toad the Wet Sprocket](/wiki/Toad_the_Wet_Sprocket "Toad the Wet Sprocket"), [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28musician%29 "Steve Walsh (musician)"){{Citation needed\\|date\=May 2023}}, and [Delerium](/wiki/Delerium "Delerium").{{Cite web \\|date\=2023\-04\-26 \\|title\=Interview with Bill Leeb Of Delerium: ‘Delerium Is A Healing Process, A Perfect Escape From The Aggression In The World’ \\|url\=https://www.side\-line.com/interview\-with\-bill\-leeb\-of\-delerium\-delerium\-is\-a\-healing\-process\-a\-perfect\-escape\-from\-the\-aggression\-in\-the\-world/ \\|access\-date\=2024\-09\-05 \\|language\=en\-US}} [Bill Bruford](/wiki/Bill_Bruford "Bill Bruford")'s [Earthworks](/wiki/Earthworks_%28band%29 "Earthworks (band)") commissioned McKean artworks for six of their albums from 1994 to 2004, as well as additional images for the 2019 Complete box set.{{Citation needed\\|date\=May 2023}} McKean has also made book covers for [Jonathan Carroll](/wiki/Jonathan_Carroll "Jonathan Carroll"), [Iain Sinclair](/wiki/Iain_Sinclair "Iain Sinclair") and [Alan Moore](/wiki/Alan_Moore "Alan Moore").{{Citation needed\\|date\=May 2023}} ### Books of photography McKean has published five books of photography: * A Small Book of Black and White Lies (1995\) * Option: Click (1998\) * The Particle Tarot: The Major Arcana (2000\) * The Particle Tarot: The Minor Arcana (2006\) * Prompt: Conversations with [Artificial Intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence "Artificial Intelligence") (2022\) ### Work with John Cale McKean designed and illustrated [John Cale](/wiki/John_Cale "John Cale")'s autobiography What's Welsh for Zen, a further biography called Sedition and Alchemy, a box set of C.D.s called [Circus Live](/wiki/Circus_Live "Circus Live"), and used John's Welsh\-by\-way\-of\-New York voice as the narrator for his short film Neon. ### Children's picture books McKean has collaborated with [Neil Gaiman](/wiki/Neil_Gaiman "Neil Gaiman") on four children's [picture books](/wiki/Picture_book "Picture book"), [The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish](/wiki/The_Day_I_Swapped_My_Dad_for_Two_Goldfish "The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish") (1998\), [The Wolves in the Walls](/wiki/The_Wolves_in_the_Walls "The Wolves in the Walls") (2003\), [Crazy Hair](/wiki/Crazy_Hair "Crazy Hair") (2009\), and [Mirrormask](/wiki/MirrorMask "MirrorMask") (2005\), and illustrated Gaiman's children's novels [Coraline](/wiki/Coraline "Coraline") (2002\) and [The Graveyard Book](/wiki/The_Graveyard_Book "The Graveyard Book") (2008\), as well as [S. F. Said](/wiki/S._F._Said "S. F. Said")'s [Varjak Paw](/wiki/Varjak_Paw "Varjak Paw") (2003\), Outlaw Varjak Paw (2006\), Phoenix (2013\) and Tyger (2022\). The Wolves in the Walls: a Musical Pandemonium premiered as a play in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow") in 2006 with Improbable and the [National Theatre of Scotland](/wiki/National_Theatre_of_Scotland "National Theatre of Scotland"). The National Theatre of Scotland adapted The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish into a promenade performance for young people in 2013\. He illustrated [David Almond](/wiki/David_Almond "David Almond")'s [The Savage](/wiki/The_Savage_%28novel%29 "The Savage (novel)") published in April 2008, [Slog's Dad](/wiki/Slog%27s_Dad "Slog's Dad") published in September 2010, and [Mouse Bird Snake Wolf](/wiki/Mouse_Bird_Snake_Wolf "Mouse Bird Snake Wolf") (2013\). In 2011, McKean collaborated with [Richard Dawkins](/wiki/Richard_Dawkins "Richard Dawkins") on [The Magic of Reality](/wiki/The_Magic_of_Reality "The Magic of Reality"), an introduction to critical thinking and science for children.{{cite web\\|url\= http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/625578\\|title\= ''The Magic of Reality'' \- new book by Richard Dawkins this Fall\\|date\= 10 May 2011\\|publisher\= The Richards Dawkins Foundation\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140203020534/http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/625578\\|archive\-date\= 3 February 2014\\|url\-status\= dead\\|df\= dmy\-all\\|access\-date\= 26 May 2014}} McKean also illustrated [Ray Bradbury](/wiki/Ray_Bradbury "Ray Bradbury")'s The Homecoming (2006\). ### The Fat Duck Cookbook In 2008, McKean collaborated with [Heston Blumenthal](/wiki/Heston_Blumenthal "Heston Blumenthal") on The Fat Duck Cookbook, an autobiography, compilation of key recipes and insight into Blumenthal's scientific method. The book was nominated in the [James Beard Foundation](/wiki/James_Beard_Foundation "James Beard Foundation") Awards for Cooking from a Professional Point of View and won the Photography/Illustration award. In 2014, McKean collaborated again with Blumenthal and writer Pascal Clariss on Historical Heston, a collection of historically inspired recipes. The book won two James Beard Foundation Awards. McKean is the Director of Story at [The Fat Duck](/wiki/The_Fat_Duck "The Fat Duck"), and helped to relaunch the restaurant after its refurbishment in 2015\. He has created package designs, maps, menu designs and murals for The Fat Duck, as well as [Dinner by Heston Blumenthal](/wiki/Dinner_by_Heston_Blumenthal "Dinner by Heston Blumenthal") in London and Melbourne. {{fact\\|date\=July 2023}} ### Stamps McKean created six images for the [Royal Mail](/wiki/Royal_Mail "Royal Mail")'s Mythical Creatures collection, which featured depictions of mythical creatures found in British folklore, including [dragons](/wiki/Dragon "Dragon"), [unicorns](/wiki/Unicorn "Unicorn"), [giants](/wiki/Giant_%28mythology%29 "Giant (mythology)"), [pixies](/wiki/Pixie "Pixie"), [mermaids](/wiki/Mermaid "Mermaid"), and [fairies](/wiki/Fairy "Fairy"). The collection was released in the UK on 16 June 2009\. The Presentation Pack contains short descriptions of each subject by author Neil Gaiman.{{cite web \\|url\= http://www.norvic\-philatelics.co.uk/2009/06a\-mythical\_creatures.htm\\|title\= Mythical Creatures\\|date\= 16 June 2009\\|publisher\= Norvic\-philatelics.co.uk\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120812043327/http://www.norvic\-philatelics.co.uk/2009/06a\-mythical\_creatures.htm\\|archive\-date\= 12 August 2012\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all}} ### Films [MirrorMask](/wiki/MirrorMask "MirrorMask"), McKean's first feature film as director, premiered at the [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival "Sundance Film Festival") in January 2005\. The screenplay was written by Neil Gaiman, from a story by Gaiman and McKean. A children's fantasy which combines live action and digital animation, MirrorMask was produced by [Jim Henson Studios](/wiki/Jim_Henson_Studios "Jim Henson Studios") and stars a British cast [Stephanie Leonidas](/wiki/Stephanie_Leonidas "Stephanie Leonidas"), [Jason Barry](/wiki/Jason_Barry "Jason Barry"), [Rob Brydon](/wiki/Rob_Brydon "Rob Brydon"), and [Gina McKee](/wiki/Gina_McKee "Gina McKee"). Before MirrorMask, McKean directed a number of television intros and music videos as well as several short films, such as The Week Before (1998\) and N\[eon] (2002\),{{Cite news\\|url\=https://www.futuremovies.co.uk/filmmaking/dreamweaver/michelle\-thomas\\|title\= Dreamweaver\\|date\=1 March 2005\\|publisher\= Future Movies\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194143/https://www.futuremovies.co.uk/filmmaking/dreamweaver/michelle\-thomas\\|archive\-date\= 4 March 2016\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all}} which are included in the compilation DVD of McKean's work [Keanoshow](/wiki/Keanoshow "Keanoshow") from Allen Spiegel Fine Arts. McKean has directed [The Gospel of Us](/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Us "The Gospel of Us"), a film of the [National Theatre Wales](/wiki/National_Theatre_Wales "National Theatre Wales")'s [Passion play](/wiki/Passion_play "Passion play") in [Port Talbot](/wiki/Port_Talbot "Port Talbot") which stars [Michael Sheen](/wiki/Michael_Sheen "Michael Sheen").{{Cite news\\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-wales\-south\-west\-wales\-12326895\\|title\=Port Talbot Passion Play to be filmed\\|work\= BBC News\\|date\=31 January 2011\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430224547/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-wales\-south\-west\-wales\-12326895\\|archive\-date\= 30 April 2011\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all}} The feature film Luna,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.lunathemovie.com/page9/index.html\\|title\=Dave McKean\\|website\= Luna the Movie \\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160801121243/http://www.lunathemovie.com/page9/index.html\\|archive\-date\= 1 August 2016\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|access\-date\= 3 September 2016}} written and directed by McKean and starring Stephanie Leonidas, Ben Daniels, Dervla Kirwan and Michael Maloney, debuted at the [Toronto International Film Festival](/wiki/Toronto_International_Film_Festival "Toronto International Film Festival") in September 2014\. McKean was a [concept artist](/wiki/Concept_art "Concept art") on the TV mini\-series [Neverwhere](/wiki/Neverwhere "Neverwhere") (1996\), which was created and co\-written by Neil Gaiman, and the feature films [Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Prisoner_of_Azkaban_%28film%29 "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (film)") (2004\) and [Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Goblet_of_Fire_%28film%29 "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film)") (2005\). ### Theatre and live performance McKean wrote and performed a song cycle called Nine Lives{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.bleedingcool.com/2014/06/09/nine\-lives\-lived\-in\-full\-with\-dave\-mckean\-at\-the\-british\-library/\\|title\=Nine Lives Lived In Full With Dave McKean At The British Library\\|last\= Johnston\\|first\= Rich\\|author\-link\= Rich Johnston\\|date\=9 June 2014\\|publisher\=Bleeding Cool\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140811000117/http://www.bleedingcool.com/2014/06/09/nine\-lives\-lived\-in\-full\-with\-dave\-mckean\-at\-the\-british\-library/\\|archive\-date\=11 August 2014 \\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|access\-date\= 3 September 2016}} at the [Sydney Opera House](/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House "Sydney Opera House") as part of the Graphic Festival. This was also performed at the [British Library](/wiki/British_Library "British Library") and at LICAF. McKean wrote the text for Wildworks' Wolf's Child{{cite web\\|url\=http://wildworks.biz/projects/wolfs\-child/\\|title\=''Wolf's Child''\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402225740/http://wildworks.biz/projects/wolfs\-child/\\|archive\-date\= 2 April 2016\\|url\-status\= usurped\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|access\-date\= 3 September 2016}} site\-specific theatre work as part of the Norwich Theatre Festival in 2015\. An Ape's Progress {{cite web\\|url\=http://www.manchesterjazz.com/2015/07/30/world\-premiere\-of\-an\-apes\-progress/\\|title\=World Premiere of ''An Ape's Progress''\\|date\=30 July 2015\\|publisher\=\[\[Manchester Jazz Festival]]\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160906021225/http://www.manchesterjazz.com/2015/07/30/world\-premiere\-of\-an\-apes\-progress/\\|archive\-date\= 6 September 2016\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|access\-date\=3 September 2016}} was a commission by the [Manchester Literature/Jazz Festivals](/wiki/Manchester_Jazz_Festival "Manchester Jazz Festival") in 2015, and was created by poet [Matthew Sweeney](/wiki/Matthew_Sweeney "Matthew Sweeney"), composer/saxophone player [Iain Ballamy](/wiki/Iain_Ballamy "Iain Ballamy"), cellist Matthew Sharp, singer Emilia Martensson, accordionist [Stian Carstensen](/wiki/Stian_Carstensen "Stian Carstensen"), and pianist [Kit Downes](/wiki/Kit_Downes "Kit Downes"), with McKean providing film projections and keyboards. A book of the work accompanied the show. Black Dog: The Dreams of Paul Nash {{cite web\\|url\=https://www.1418now.org.uk/commissions/black\-dog\-the\-dreams\-of\-paul\-nash/\\|title\=Black Dog \- The Dreams of Paul Nash\\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160315171054/https://www.1418now.org.uk/commissions/black\-dog\-the\-dreams\-of\-paul\-nash/\\|archive\-date\= 15 March 2016\\|url\-status\= live\\|df\=dmy\-all\\|access\-date\=3 September 2016}} is a multi\-media, music, song and performance work commissioned by 14\-18 Now Foundation and LICAF. McKean performs as narrator and pianist, Matthew Sharp as a performer, singer and cellist, and Clare Haythornthwaite as violinist/performer. It premiered in [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens "Amiens"), and has been performed in Kendal. In 2016 it was performed in Rye, Ashford and at [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern "Tate Modern"). ### Music and jazz label McKean has produced [album artwork](/wiki/Album_cover "Album cover") for many bands, such as: [Paradise Lost](/wiki/Paradise_Lost_%28band%29 "Paradise Lost (band)"), [Machine Head](/wiki/Machine_Head_%28band%29 "Machine Head (band)"), [Testament](/wiki/Testament_%28band%29 "Testament (band)"), [Fear Factory](/wiki/Fear_Factory "Fear Factory"), [Counting Crows](/wiki/Counting_Crows "Counting Crows"), [Dream Theater](/wiki/Dream_Theater "Dream Theater"), [Michael Nyman](/wiki/Michael_Nyman "Michael Nyman"). He has a longstanding relationship with [industrial](/wiki/Industrial_music "Industrial music") band [Front Line Assembly](/wiki/Front_Line_Assembly "Front Line Assembly"), creating many illustrations for dozens of their albums from [1994](/wiki/Millennium_%28Front_Line_Assembly_album%29 "Millennium (Front Line Assembly album)") to [2021](/wiki/Mechanical_Soul "Mechanical Soul"). McKean also founded the record label Feral Records with saxophonist Iain Ballamy. ### Video games McKean created the cover art for [Synnergist](/wiki/Synnergist "Synnergist"), [point\-and\-click adventure](/wiki/Point-and-click_Adventure "Point-and-click Adventure") game released in 1996, the only video game he has made art for.	[ "Career\n------", "### Comics", "McKean first showed his work to editors at [Marvel Comics](/wiki/Marvel_Comics \"Marvel Comics\"), [DC Comics](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\"), and [Continuity Comics](/wiki/Continuity_Comics \"Continuity Comics\") when visiting New York City in 1986\\. There, he met Neil Gaiman and the pair collaborated on the graphic novel [Violent Cases](/wiki/Violent_Cases \"Violent Cases\"), which was published in 1987\\.{{cite web \\\|url\\= http://www.neilgaiman.com/p/Cool\\_Stuff/Essays/Essays\\_By\\_Neil/Neil\\_Gaiman\\_on\\_Dave\\_McKean\\\|title\\= Neil Gaiman on Dave McKean\\\|first\\= Neil\\\|last\\= Gaiman\\\|author\\-link\\= Neil Gaiman\\\|year\\= 2003\\\|publisher\\= Neilgaiman.com\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140327044152/http://neilgaiman.com/p/Cool\\_Stuff/Essays/Essays\\_By\\_Neil/Neil\\_Gaiman\\_on\\_Dave\\_McKean\\\|archive\\-date\\= 27 March 2014\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} This was followed in 1988 by a [Black Orchid](/wiki/Black_Orchid_%28comic_book%29 \"Black Orchid (comic book)\") miniseries{{Cite book\\\|last\\= Irvine\\\|first\\= Alex\\\|author\\-link\\= Alexander C. Irvine\\\|contribution\\= Black Orchid\\\|editor\\-last\\= Dougall\\\|editor\\-first\\= Alastair\\\|title\\= The Vertigo Encyclopedia\\\|pages\\= 32–34\\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Dorling Kindersley]]\\\|year\\= 2008\\\|location\\= London, United Kingdom\\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-7566\\-4122\\-1\\\|oclc\\= 213309015}}{{cite book\\\|last1\\=Manning\\\|first1\\= Matthew K.\\\|last2\\=Dolan\\\|first2\\=Hannah, ed.\\\|chapter\\= 1980s\\\|title \\= DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Dorling Kindersley]]\\\|year\\=2010\\\|location\\= London, United Kingdom\\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-7566\\-6742\\-9\\\|page\\= 235\\\|quote \\= Neil Gaiman scripted the complex ''Black Orchid'' prestige format limited series in December \\[1988], re\\-envisioning the character with the help of artist Dave McKean.}} and [Hellblazer](/wiki/Hellblazer \"Hellblazer\") covers for DC Comics.Irvine \"John Constantine Hellblazer\" in Dougall, pp. 102–111{{gcdb\\\|type\\=credit\\\|search\\= Dave\\+McKean\\\|title\\= Dave McKean}}", "In 1989, McKean illustrated the [Batman](/wiki/Batman \"Batman\") graphic novel, [Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth](/wiki/Arkham_Asylum:A_Serious_House_on_Serious_Earth \"A Serious House on Serious Earth\"), with writer [Grant Morrison](/wiki/Grant_Morrison \"Grant Morrison\").Manning \"1980s\" in Dolan, p. 240: \"Written by Grant Morrison, with painted artwork by Dave McKean, Batman: Arkham Asylum was an innovative and complex examination of Batman's Rogues Gallery.\" The book was a commercial success, selling over 260,000 copies in hardcover and paperback.{{cite book\\\|last \\= Daniels\\\|first \\= Les\\\|author\\-link \\= Les Daniels\\\|chapter\\= A Novel Approach\\\|title \\= DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes\\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Little, Brown and Company\\\|Bulfinch Press]]\\\|year \\= 1995\\\|location\\= New York, New York\\\|isbn \\= 0821220764}} From 1989 to 1997, McKean created the covers for Gaiman's series [The Sandman](/wiki/The_Sandman_%28Vertigo%29 \"The Sandman (Vertigo)\") and many of its spin\\-offs.Manning \"1980s\" in Dolan, p. 238: \"The Sandman saw a variety of artists grace its pages...Illustrator Dave McKean's mixed media pieces garnished each cover.\"{{cite book\\\|last\\= Bender\\\|first\\= Hy\\\|title\\= The Sandman Companion\\\|publisher\\= DC Comics\\\|year\\= 1999\\\|location\\= New York, New York\\\|page\\= 40\\\|isbn\\= 978\\-1563894657}} In 1998, the cover images from The Sandman were released in one volume titled Dustcovers: The Collected Sandman Covers.{{cite book\\\|last1\\= Gaiman\\\|first1\\= Neil\\\|last2\\= McKean\\\|first2\\= Dave\\\|title\\= Dustcovers: The Collected Sandman Covers, 1989\\-1997\\\|publisher\\= DC Comics\\\|year\\= 1998\\\|location\\= New York, New York\\\|page\\= 206\\\|isbn\\= 978\\-1563893889}} Further collaborations with Gaiman produced the graphic novels [Signal to Noise](/wiki/Signal_to_Noise_%28comics%29 \"Signal to Noise (comics)\") and [The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Mr. Punch](/wiki/The_Tragical_Comedy_or_Comical_Tragedy_of_Mr._Punch \"The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Mr. Punch\"). In 1995 McKean wrote and illustrated a book for [The Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones \"The Rolling Stones\") called [Voodoo Lounge](/wiki/Voodoo_Lounge \"Voodoo Lounge\") to tie in with the release of their album of the same name.", "Between 1990 and 1996, McKean wrote and drew the ten issues of [Cages](/wiki/Cages_%28comics%29 \"Cages (comics)\"), a graphic novel about artists and creativity.{{cite web \\\|url\\= http://www.stripkap.net/McKean.html\\\|title\\= Dave McKean\\\|first\\= Gert\\\|last\\= Meesters\\\|date\\= November 1997\\\|publisher\\= Stripkap.net\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130731004857/http://www.stripkap.net/McKean.html\\\|archive\\-date\\= 31 July 2013\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|quote\\= \nMeesters: 'Some parts of ''Cages'' remind me of José Muñoz's art.' \nMcKean: 'Yeah. And the artists that influenced him. German illustrators of the thirties and during the war, with thick black lines. Wonderful stuff. Muñoz is wonderful, Mattotti is wonderful.'}}", "McKean's collections of short comics Pictures That Tick, and Pictures That Tick 2: Exhibition{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.darkhorse.com/Books/24\\-661/Pictures\\-That\\-Tick\\-Volume\\-2\\-Ltd\\-Ed\\-HC\\\|title\\=Pictures That Tick Volume 2 Ltd. Ed. HC :: Profile :: Dark Horse Comics\\\|publisher\\=Dark Horse Comics\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160628040820/http://www.darkhorse.com/Books/24\\-661/Pictures\\-That\\-Tick\\-Volume\\-2\\-Ltd\\-Ed\\-HC\\\|archive\\-date\\= 28 June 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\= 3 September 2016}} were published by Dark Horse Comics in 2009 and 2015\\. Pictures That Tick won the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum \"Victoria and Albert Museum\") Illustrated Book of the Year award.", "McKean created a wordless [erotic graphic novel](/wiki/Erotic_literature \"Erotic literature\") called Celluloid{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.fantagraphics.com/celluloid/\\\|title\\=Artists :: Dave McKean :: Celluloid\\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Fantagraphics Books]]\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160120141131/http://www.fantagraphics.com/celluloid/\\\|archive\\-date\\= 20 January 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\= 3 September 2016}} for [Delcourt](/wiki/Delcourt_%28publisher%29 \"Delcourt (publisher)\"), which was published in the United States by [Fantagraphics Books](/wiki/Fantagraphics_Books \"Fantagraphics Books\").", "Black Dog: The Dreams of Paul Nash, which was commissioned by the 14\\-18 Now Foundation, [The Imperial War Museum](/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum \"Imperial War Museum\") and The Lakes International Comic art Festival, was published in October 2016 by [Dark Horse Comics](/wiki/Dark_Horse_Comics \"Dark Horse Comics\") as an oversized hardback and regular paperback.{{Cite news \\\|date\\=2016\\-05\\-27 \\\|title\\=Black Dog: Dave McKean delves into the dreams of war artist Paul Nash – in pictures \\\|language\\=en\\-GB \\\|work\\=The Guardian \\\|url\\=http://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2016/may/27/black\\-dog\\-the\\-dreams\\-of\\-paul\\-nash\\-dave\\-mckean \\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-26 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526124037/https://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2016/may/27/black\\-dog\\-the\\-dreams\\-of\\-paul\\-nash\\-dave\\-mckean \\\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-26 \\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}}", "Raptor was released in 2021 by Dark Horse Books {{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.darkhorse.com/Books/3004\\-327/Raptor\\-A\\-Sokol\\-Graphic\\-Novel\\-TPB \\\|title\\=Raptor: A Sokol Graphic Novel TPB \\\|website\\=Dark Horse Comics \\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2022}} and is the first of a proposed series of books featuring the character Sokol.", "### Illustration", "McKean designed the posters for the Raindance Film Festival{{cite web \\\|url\\= https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2011/sep/28/poster\\-notes\\-raindance\\-film\\-festival\\\|title\\= Poster notes: Raindance film festival \\\|date\\= 28 September 2011\\\| work \\= \\[\\[The Guardian]] \\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140526035444/http://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2011/sep/28/poster\\-notes\\-raindance\\-film\\-festival\\\|archive\\-date\\= 26 May 2014 \\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} for five consecutive years between 1996 and 2000\\. In 1997 he wrote, directed and edited a ninety\\-second trailer for the festival. In 2005, McKean designed the poster for the 32nd [Telluride Film Festival](/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival \"Telluride Film Festival\"). In 2006, he designed projections, sets and directed film clips for the Broadway musical [Lestat](/wiki/Lestat_%28musical%29 \"Lestat (musical)\").{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=April 2023}}", "McKean has also released picture books that include pictures from his trips. Examples include Postcards from Vienna, Postcards from Barcelona, Postcards from Paris (2008\\), Postcards from Brussels (2009\\), Postcards from Perugia (2011\\), Postcards from Bilbao (2012\\). He created another book of 200 pages called Squink (éditions BdArtist(e)) that gathered a number of drawings in 15 chapters.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=May 2023}}", "### Album and book covers", "McKean has created album covers for many artists, including [Counting Crows](/wiki/Counting_Crows \"Counting Crows\"), [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\"), [Testament](/wiki/Testament_%28band%29 \"Testament (band)\"), [Altan](/wiki/Altan_%28band%29 \"Altan (band)\"), [Tori Amos](/wiki/Tori_Amos \"Tori Amos\"), [Download](/wiki/Download_%28band%29 \"Download (band)\"), [Fear Factory](/wiki/Fear_Factory \"Fear Factory\"), [Front Line Assembly](/wiki/Front_Line_Assembly \"Front Line Assembly\"), [Paradise Lost](/wiki/Paradise_Lost_%28band%29 \"Paradise Lost (band)\"), [Dream Theater](/wiki/Dream_Theater \"Dream Theater\"), [Stabbing Westward](/wiki/Stabbing_Westward \"Stabbing Westward\"), [Skinny Puppy](/wiki/Skinny_Puppy \"Skinny Puppy\"),{{cite web\\\|url\\= http://thequietus.com/articles/17626\\-dave\\-mckean\\-interview\\\|title\\= Portraying Psychological Angst: Dave McKean Interviewed\\\|first\\= Dan\\\|last\\= Franklin\\\|date\\= 15 April 2015\\\|work\\= \\[\\[The Quietus]]\\\|archive\\-url\\= http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20161101091216/http://thequietus.com/articles/17626%2Ddave%2Dmckean%2Dinterview\\\|archive\\-date\\= 1 November 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\= dmy\\-all\\\|quote\\= I like the Front Line Assembly covers, I think they've got better through the years, and I like the band. I liked doing the Skinny Puppy covers and the Stabbing Westward cover. The Fear Factory covers came out well, but only after a lot of rather pointless back and forth.}} [Toad the Wet Sprocket](/wiki/Toad_the_Wet_Sprocket \"Toad the Wet Sprocket\"), [Steve Walsh](/wiki/Steve_Walsh_%28musician%29 \"Steve Walsh (musician)\"){{Citation needed\\\|date\\=May 2023}}, and [Delerium](/wiki/Delerium \"Delerium\").{{Cite web \\\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\\|title\\=Interview with Bill Leeb Of Delerium: ‘Delerium Is A Healing Process, A Perfect Escape From The Aggression In The World’ \\\|url\\=https://www.side\\-line.com/interview\\-with\\-bill\\-leeb\\-of\\-delerium\\-delerium\\-is\\-a\\-healing\\-process\\-a\\-perfect\\-escape\\-from\\-the\\-aggression\\-in\\-the\\-world/ \\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-05 \\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "[Bill Bruford](/wiki/Bill_Bruford \"Bill Bruford\")'s [Earthworks](/wiki/Earthworks_%28band%29 \"Earthworks (band)\") commissioned McKean artworks for six of their albums from 1994 to 2004, as well as additional images for the 2019 Complete box set.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=May 2023}}", "McKean has also made book covers for [Jonathan Carroll](/wiki/Jonathan_Carroll \"Jonathan Carroll\"), [Iain Sinclair](/wiki/Iain_Sinclair \"Iain Sinclair\") and [Alan Moore](/wiki/Alan_Moore \"Alan Moore\").{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=May 2023}}", "### Books of photography", "McKean has published five books of photography:", "* A Small Book of Black and White Lies (1995\\)\n* Option: Click (1998\\)\n* The Particle Tarot: The Major Arcana (2000\\)\n* The Particle Tarot: The Minor Arcana (2006\\)\n* Prompt: Conversations with [Artificial Intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence \"Artificial Intelligence\") (2022\\)", "### Work with John Cale", "McKean designed and illustrated [John Cale](/wiki/John_Cale \"John Cale\")'s autobiography What's Welsh for Zen, a further biography called Sedition and Alchemy, a box set of C.D.s called [Circus Live](/wiki/Circus_Live \"Circus Live\"), and used John's Welsh\\-by\\-way\\-of\\-New York voice as the narrator for his short film Neon.", "### Children's picture books", "McKean has collaborated with [Neil Gaiman](/wiki/Neil_Gaiman \"Neil Gaiman\") on four children's [picture books](/wiki/Picture_book \"Picture book\"), [The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish](/wiki/The_Day_I_Swapped_My_Dad_for_Two_Goldfish \"The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish\") (1998\\), [The Wolves in the Walls](/wiki/The_Wolves_in_the_Walls \"The Wolves in the Walls\") (2003\\), [Crazy Hair](/wiki/Crazy_Hair \"Crazy Hair\") (2009\\), and [Mirrormask](/wiki/MirrorMask \"MirrorMask\") (2005\\), and illustrated Gaiman's children's novels [Coraline](/wiki/Coraline \"Coraline\") (2002\\) and [The Graveyard Book](/wiki/The_Graveyard_Book \"The Graveyard Book\") (2008\\), as well as [S. F. Said](/wiki/S._F._Said \"S. F. Said\")'s [Varjak Paw](/wiki/Varjak_Paw \"Varjak Paw\") (2003\\), Outlaw Varjak Paw (2006\\), Phoenix (2013\\) and Tyger (2022\\). The Wolves in the Walls: a Musical Pandemonium premiered as a play in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\") in 2006 with Improbable and the [National Theatre of Scotland](/wiki/National_Theatre_of_Scotland \"National Theatre of Scotland\"). The National Theatre of Scotland adapted The Day I Swapped My Dad for Two Goldfish into a promenade performance for young people in 2013\\. He illustrated [David Almond](/wiki/David_Almond \"David Almond\")'s [The Savage](/wiki/The_Savage_%28novel%29 \"The Savage (novel)\") published in April 2008, [Slog's Dad](/wiki/Slog%27s_Dad \"Slog's Dad\") published in September 2010, and [Mouse Bird Snake Wolf](/wiki/Mouse_Bird_Snake_Wolf \"Mouse Bird Snake Wolf\") (2013\\). In 2011, McKean collaborated with [Richard Dawkins](/wiki/Richard_Dawkins \"Richard Dawkins\") on [The Magic of Reality](/wiki/The_Magic_of_Reality \"The Magic of Reality\"), an introduction to critical thinking and science for children.{{cite web\\\|url\\= http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/625578\\\|title\\= ''The Magic of Reality'' \\- new book by Richard Dawkins this Fall\\\|date\\= 10 May 2011\\\|publisher\\= The Richards Dawkins Foundation\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140203020534/http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/625578\\\|archive\\-date\\= 3 February 2014\\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\\|df\\= dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\= 26 May 2014}} McKean also illustrated [Ray Bradbury](/wiki/Ray_Bradbury \"Ray Bradbury\")'s The Homecoming (2006\\).", "### The Fat Duck Cookbook", "In 2008, McKean collaborated with [Heston Blumenthal](/wiki/Heston_Blumenthal \"Heston Blumenthal\") on The Fat Duck Cookbook, an autobiography, compilation of key recipes and insight into Blumenthal's scientific method. The book was nominated in the [James Beard Foundation](/wiki/James_Beard_Foundation \"James Beard Foundation\") Awards for Cooking from a Professional Point of View and won the Photography/Illustration award. In 2014, McKean collaborated again with Blumenthal and writer Pascal Clariss on Historical Heston, a collection of historically inspired recipes. The book won two James Beard Foundation Awards. McKean is the Director of Story at [The Fat Duck](/wiki/The_Fat_Duck \"The Fat Duck\"), and helped to relaunch the restaurant after its refurbishment in 2015\\. He has created package designs, maps, menu designs and murals for The Fat Duck, as well as [Dinner by Heston Blumenthal](/wiki/Dinner_by_Heston_Blumenthal \"Dinner by Heston Blumenthal\") in London and Melbourne.\n{{fact\\\|date\\=July 2023}}", "### Stamps", "McKean created six images for the [Royal Mail](/wiki/Royal_Mail \"Royal Mail\")'s Mythical Creatures collection, which featured depictions of mythical creatures found in British folklore, including [dragons](/wiki/Dragon \"Dragon\"), [unicorns](/wiki/Unicorn \"Unicorn\"), [giants](/wiki/Giant_%28mythology%29 \"Giant (mythology)\"), [pixies](/wiki/Pixie \"Pixie\"), [mermaids](/wiki/Mermaid \"Mermaid\"), and [fairies](/wiki/Fairy \"Fairy\"). The collection was released in the UK on 16 June 2009\\. The Presentation Pack contains short descriptions of each subject by author Neil Gaiman.{{cite web \\\|url\\= http://www.norvic\\-philatelics.co.uk/2009/06a\\-mythical\\_creatures.htm\\\|title\\= Mythical Creatures\\\|date\\= 16 June 2009\\\|publisher\\= Norvic\\-philatelics.co.uk\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120812043327/http://www.norvic\\-philatelics.co.uk/2009/06a\\-mythical\\_creatures.htm\\\|archive\\-date\\= 12 August 2012\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}", "### Films", "[MirrorMask](/wiki/MirrorMask \"MirrorMask\"), McKean's first feature film as director, premiered at the [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival \"Sundance Film Festival\") in January 2005\\. The screenplay was written by Neil Gaiman, from a story by Gaiman and McKean. A children's fantasy which combines live action and digital animation, MirrorMask was produced by [Jim Henson Studios](/wiki/Jim_Henson_Studios \"Jim Henson Studios\") and stars a British cast [Stephanie Leonidas](/wiki/Stephanie_Leonidas \"Stephanie Leonidas\"), [Jason Barry](/wiki/Jason_Barry \"Jason Barry\"), [Rob Brydon](/wiki/Rob_Brydon \"Rob Brydon\"), and [Gina McKee](/wiki/Gina_McKee \"Gina McKee\"). Before MirrorMask, McKean directed a number of television intros and music videos as well as several short films, such as The Week Before (1998\\) and N\\[eon] (2002\\),{{Cite news\\\|url\\=https://www.futuremovies.co.uk/filmmaking/dreamweaver/michelle\\-thomas\\\|title\\= Dreamweaver\\\|date\\=1 March 2005\\\|publisher\\= Future Movies\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194143/https://www.futuremovies.co.uk/filmmaking/dreamweaver/michelle\\-thomas\\\|archive\\-date\\= 4 March 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} which are included in the compilation DVD of McKean's work [Keanoshow](/wiki/Keanoshow \"Keanoshow\") from Allen Spiegel Fine Arts. McKean has directed [The Gospel of Us](/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Us \"The Gospel of Us\"), a film of the [National Theatre Wales](/wiki/National_Theatre_Wales \"National Theatre Wales\")'s [Passion play](/wiki/Passion_play \"Passion play\") in [Port Talbot](/wiki/Port_Talbot \"Port Talbot\") which stars [Michael Sheen](/wiki/Michael_Sheen \"Michael Sheen\").{{Cite news\\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-wales\\-south\\-west\\-wales\\-12326895\\\|title\\=Port Talbot Passion Play to be filmed\\\|work\\= BBC News\\\|date\\=31 January 2011\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430224547/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-wales\\-south\\-west\\-wales\\-12326895\\\|archive\\-date\\= 30 April 2011\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} The feature film Luna,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.lunathemovie.com/page9/index.html\\\|title\\=Dave McKean\\\|website\\= Luna the Movie\n\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160801121243/http://www.lunathemovie.com/page9/index.html\\\|archive\\-date\\= 1 August 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\= 3 September 2016}} written and directed by McKean and starring Stephanie Leonidas, Ben Daniels, Dervla Kirwan and Michael Maloney, debuted at the [Toronto International Film Festival](/wiki/Toronto_International_Film_Festival \"Toronto International Film Festival\") in September 2014\\.", "McKean was a [concept artist](/wiki/Concept_art \"Concept art\") on the TV mini\\-series [Neverwhere](/wiki/Neverwhere \"Neverwhere\") (1996\\), which was created and co\\-written by Neil Gaiman, and the feature films [Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Prisoner_of_Azkaban_%28film%29 \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (film)\") (2004\\) and [Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Goblet_of_Fire_%28film%29 \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film)\") (2005\\).", "### Theatre and live performance", "McKean wrote and performed a song cycle called Nine Lives{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.bleedingcool.com/2014/06/09/nine\\-lives\\-lived\\-in\\-full\\-with\\-dave\\-mckean\\-at\\-the\\-british\\-library/\\\|title\\=Nine Lives Lived In Full With Dave McKean At The British Library\\\|last\\= Johnston\\\|first\\= Rich\\\|author\\-link\\= Rich Johnston\\\|date\\=9 June 2014\\\|publisher\\=Bleeding Cool\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140811000117/http://www.bleedingcool.com/2014/06/09/nine\\-lives\\-lived\\-in\\-full\\-with\\-dave\\-mckean\\-at\\-the\\-british\\-library/\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 August 2014 \\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\= 3 September 2016}} at the [Sydney Opera House](/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House \"Sydney Opera House\") as part of the Graphic Festival. This was also performed at the [British Library](/wiki/British_Library \"British Library\") and at LICAF.", "McKean wrote the text for Wildworks' Wolf's Child{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://wildworks.biz/projects/wolfs\\-child/\\\|title\\=''Wolf's Child''\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402225740/http://wildworks.biz/projects/wolfs\\-child/\\\|archive\\-date\\= 2 April 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= usurped\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\= 3 September 2016}} site\\-specific theatre work as part of the Norwich Theatre Festival in 2015\\.", "An Ape's Progress {{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.manchesterjazz.com/2015/07/30/world\\-premiere\\-of\\-an\\-apes\\-progress/\\\|title\\=World Premiere of ''An Ape's Progress''\\\|date\\=30 July 2015\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Manchester Jazz Festival]]\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160906021225/http://www.manchesterjazz.com/2015/07/30/world\\-premiere\\-of\\-an\\-apes\\-progress/\\\|archive\\-date\\= 6 September 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2016}} was a commission by the [Manchester Literature/Jazz Festivals](/wiki/Manchester_Jazz_Festival \"Manchester Jazz Festival\") in 2015, and was created by poet [Matthew Sweeney](/wiki/Matthew_Sweeney \"Matthew Sweeney\"), composer/saxophone player [Iain Ballamy](/wiki/Iain_Ballamy \"Iain Ballamy\"), cellist Matthew Sharp, singer Emilia Martensson, accordionist [Stian Carstensen](/wiki/Stian_Carstensen \"Stian Carstensen\"), and pianist [Kit Downes](/wiki/Kit_Downes \"Kit Downes\"), with McKean providing film projections and keyboards. A book of the work accompanied the show.", "Black Dog: The Dreams of Paul Nash {{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.1418now.org.uk/commissions/black\\-dog\\-the\\-dreams\\-of\\-paul\\-nash/\\\|title\\=Black Dog \\- The Dreams of Paul Nash\\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160315171054/https://www.1418now.org.uk/commissions/black\\-dog\\-the\\-dreams\\-of\\-paul\\-nash/\\\|archive\\-date\\= 15 March 2016\\\|url\\-status\\= live\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all\\\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2016}} is a multi\\-media, music, song and performance work commissioned by 14\\-18 Now Foundation and LICAF. McKean performs as narrator and pianist, Matthew Sharp as a performer, singer and cellist, and Clare Haythornthwaite as violinist/performer. It premiered in [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens \"Amiens\"), and has been performed in Kendal. In 2016 it was performed in Rye, Ashford and at [Tate Modern](/wiki/Tate_Modern \"Tate Modern\").", "### Music and jazz label", "McKean has produced [album artwork](/wiki/Album_cover \"Album cover\") for many bands, such as: [Paradise Lost](/wiki/Paradise_Lost_%28band%29 \"Paradise Lost (band)\"), [Machine Head](/wiki/Machine_Head_%28band%29 \"Machine Head (band)\"), [Testament](/wiki/Testament_%28band%29 \"Testament (band)\"), [Fear Factory](/wiki/Fear_Factory \"Fear Factory\"), [Counting Crows](/wiki/Counting_Crows \"Counting Crows\"), [Dream Theater](/wiki/Dream_Theater \"Dream Theater\"), [Michael Nyman](/wiki/Michael_Nyman \"Michael Nyman\"). He has a longstanding relationship with [industrial](/wiki/Industrial_music \"Industrial music\") band [Front Line Assembly](/wiki/Front_Line_Assembly \"Front Line Assembly\"), creating many illustrations for dozens of their albums from [1994](/wiki/Millennium_%28Front_Line_Assembly_album%29 \"Millennium (Front Line Assembly album)\") to [2021](/wiki/Mechanical_Soul \"Mechanical Soul\"). McKean also founded the record label Feral Records with saxophonist Iain Ballamy.", "### Video games", "McKean created the cover art for [Synnergist](/wiki/Synnergist \"Synnergist\"), [point\\-and\\-click adventure](/wiki/Point-and-click_Adventure \"Point-and-click Adventure\") game released in 1996, the only video game he has made art for.", "" ]
Career ------ Wedgeworth received her B.A. in sociology/anthropology from the [University of Redlands](/wiki/University_of_Redlands "University of Redlands") in 1978\. In 1989, Wedgeworth became City Council Senior Analyst. From 1994 to 1996, she was Clerk and Recorder for the City and County of Denver. She was part of Mayor [Wellington Webb](/wiki/Wellington_Webb "Wellington Webb")'s administration as part of the Denver Election Commission. From 1996\-1999, Wedgeworth was Director of Community Relations and Philanthropic Affairs at [Denver Health and Hospital Authority](/wiki/Denver_Health_Medical_Center "Denver Health Medical Center"). In this role, she reinstated the Board of Directors and launched the Denver Health Foundation.{{Citation \\| url \= https://denverurbanspectrum.com/articles/463386 \\| title \= Local Trailblazer Shares in MLK Dream of Service Elbra M. Wedgeworth Brings Stellar Career to a Close \\| work \= \\| publisher \= Denver Urban Spectrum \\| date \= 30 December 2019 }} In 1999, Wedgeworth was elected to the District 8 seat of the [Denver City Council](/wiki/Denver_City_Council "Denver City Council"). She was City Council President Pro Tempore from July 2001 to July 2002, and served as Denver City Council President from July 2003 to July 2005\. She is the second African American to serve as City Council President. In 2007, Wedgeworth resigned from City Council and became the Chief Government and Community Relations Office for Denver Health. In this role, she was the liaison to governmental legislative matters and the Community Engagement Initiatives. She was instrumental in a $1 billion bond in 2017 that funds the hospital's new outpatient medical center. Wedgeworth oversaw the reopening of [Union Station](/wiki/Denver_Union_Station "Denver Union Station") as the Chair of the Union Station Redevelopment Project. She was the first African American woman to chair the Downtown Denver Partnership. Wedgeworth was President and Chair of the Board for the [Denver 2008 Convention Host Committee](/wiki/Denver_2008_Convention_Host_Committee "Denver 2008 Convention Host Committee") as part of the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention "Democratic National Convention"). She is the first African American person to head a national convention host committee. Wedgeworth retired on December 31, 2019, from her position at Denver Health and Hospital Authority. In 2020, Wedgeworth joined [Denver Public Schools](/wiki/Denver_Public_Schools "Denver Public Schools") as a senior adviser. Her role was to support schools and coordinate a multi\-agency partnership that works with communities dealing with youth violence.{{Citation \\| url \= https://www.dpsk12\.org/dps\-hires\-longtime\-community\-leader\-to\-strengthen\-support\-services\-and\-safety\-efforts/ \\| title \= DPS Hires Longtime Community Leader to Strengthen Support Services and Safety Efforts \\| work \= \\| publisher \= \\| date \= 6 February 2020 \\| ref \= none }} She is part of the Board of Trustees for University of the Redlands.	[ "Career\n------", "Wedgeworth received her B.A. in sociology/anthropology from the [University of Redlands](/wiki/University_of_Redlands \"University of Redlands\") in 1978\\.", "In 1989, Wedgeworth became City Council Senior Analyst. From 1994 to 1996, she was Clerk and Recorder for the City and County of Denver. She was part of Mayor [Wellington Webb](/wiki/Wellington_Webb \"Wellington Webb\")'s administration as part of the Denver Election Commission.", "From 1996\\-1999, Wedgeworth was Director of Community Relations and Philanthropic Affairs at [Denver Health and Hospital Authority](/wiki/Denver_Health_Medical_Center \"Denver Health Medical Center\"). In this role, she reinstated the Board of Directors and launched the Denver Health Foundation.{{Citation\n\\\| url \\= https://denverurbanspectrum.com/articles/463386\n\\\| title \\= Local Trailblazer Shares in MLK Dream of Service Elbra M. Wedgeworth Brings Stellar Career to a Close \n\\\| work \\= \n\\\| publisher \\= Denver Urban Spectrum\n\\\| date \\= 30 December 2019\n}}", "In 1999, Wedgeworth was elected to the District 8 seat of the [Denver City Council](/wiki/Denver_City_Council \"Denver City Council\"). She was City Council President Pro Tempore from July 2001 to July 2002, and served as Denver City Council President from July 2003 to July 2005\\. She is the second African American to serve as City Council President.", "In 2007, Wedgeworth resigned from City Council and became the Chief Government and Community Relations Office for Denver Health. In this role, she was the liaison to governmental legislative matters and the Community Engagement Initiatives. She was instrumental in a $1 billion bond in 2017 that funds the hospital's new outpatient medical center.", "Wedgeworth oversaw the reopening of [Union Station](/wiki/Denver_Union_Station \"Denver Union Station\") as the Chair of the Union Station Redevelopment Project. She was the first African American woman to chair the Downtown Denver Partnership.", "Wedgeworth was President and Chair of the Board for the [Denver 2008 Convention Host Committee](/wiki/Denver_2008_Convention_Host_Committee \"Denver 2008 Convention Host Committee\") as part of the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention \"Democratic National Convention\"). She is the first African American person to head a national convention host committee.", "Wedgeworth retired on December 31, 2019, from her position at Denver Health and Hospital Authority.", "In 2020, Wedgeworth joined [Denver Public Schools](/wiki/Denver_Public_Schools \"Denver Public Schools\") as a senior adviser. Her role was to support schools and coordinate a multi\\-agency partnership that works with communities dealing with youth violence.{{Citation\n\\\| url \\= https://www.dpsk12\\.org/dps\\-hires\\-longtime\\-community\\-leader\\-to\\-strengthen\\-support\\-services\\-and\\-safety\\-efforts/\n\\\| title \\= DPS Hires Longtime Community Leader to Strengthen Support Services and Safety Efforts\n\\\| work \\= \n\\\| publisher \\= \n\\\| date \\= 6 February 2020\n\\\| ref \\= none\n}}", "She is part of the Board of Trustees for University of the Redlands.", "" ]
Career ------ Ganji has sold some of her designs to textile\-printing factories. She traveled to [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") in 1974, where she was hired as a designer for Dura Tufing GMBH. As she was in close contact with expressionist painters, she brought fresh visions to her designs. That was an opportunity for her to expand her skills and techniques. In 1975, Ganji moved to [France](/wiki/France "France") and took a course at [Ecole des Beaux Arts](/wiki/%C3%89cole_des_Beaux-Arts "École des Beaux-Arts") in Paris, France. She worked on “the kinetic movement of esoteric arabesque designs of Persian carpets, inspired by the dancing human form”. ### Teaching Ganji returned to Iran in 1976, collaborated with the center for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults, curated an exhibition of their paintings, and illustrated a book. She was married and had two kids before returning to Iran to teach. In 1986, Ganji taught at art schools in Tehran. She researched on the visual art of the Far East to find the influential elements of Sassanid Patterns on Japanese visual art through the Silk Road. Pariyoush Ganji has taught at places such as [Alzahra University](/wiki/Alzahra_University "Alzahra University"), [Islamic Azad University](/wiki/Islamic_Azad_University "Islamic Azad University"), and [University of Tehran](/wiki/University_of_Tehran "University of Tehran"). Also, she has been a member in organizations such as Tehran Cultural Heritage Organization, [Contemporary Arts Museum](/wiki/Tehran_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art "Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art"), Tehran’s Jury Memberships Contemporary Drawing, Handicrafts, and Tourism Organization. ### Work in Japan Ganji traveled to Japan in 1996 through the invitation of the Cultural Foundation of Japan; she studied the influences of [Iranian](/wiki/Iranian_patterns "Iranian patterns") patterns on Japanese textiles.\["Paintings in praise of light and hope" n. d. IRNA, 20 Jun, n.d. Web. 19 November 2015\.]{{Cite web \\|date\=18 December 2003 \\|title\=پری يوش گنجی مسافری هميشه در راه \\|trans\-title\=Pari Yosh Ganji is a traveler always on the way \\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/persian/arts/story/2003/12/031218\_pm\-pa\-ganji \\|access\-date\=2022\-12\-15 \\|website\=\[\[BBC Persian]] \\|language\=fa}} It was in Japan where she learned about a Japanese technique called [Sumi\-e](/wiki/Sumi-e "Sumi-e") or ink wash painting, which she worked to master. That was when she produced some paintings that were, “blends of minimal Japanese Shojis and ornamental Persian windows”. ### Series She stayed there for six months. A year later, Ganji worked on a new series called Red. The Red series were a selection of painting with red on black backgrounds. In the early 2000s, Ganji started working on the Night Windows series, which replaced red with purple. Night Windows are described to be new ways to historical occurrences to show the light through the darkness shaped by the many layers of purple. She then continued to work on other series called Roses, Day Windows, and Water, each with a different and continual direction for “searching the light".\[“Pariyoush Ganji”. Majd, Maryam. Art 360, May 2015\. Web. 21 November 2015\.] ### Exhibitions Pariyoush Ganji’s work has been exhibited around the world. She has had around twenty exhibitions, and some of her paintings are an important part of the collections in Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\[“Future”. n.a. Gallery Lucy Mackintosh, September 6, 2012\. Web. 25 November 2015\.] Throughout the four periods of Ganji’s work, Ganji’s paintings have been exhibited not only in Iran but also in England, Japan, United States, Germany, Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabi, Kyrgyzstan, Kuwait, Uzbekistan, and Switzerland.	[ "Career\n------", "Ganji has sold some of her designs to textile\\-printing factories. She traveled to [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") in 1974, where she was hired as a designer for Dura Tufing GMBH. As she was in close contact with expressionist painters, she brought fresh visions to her designs. That was an opportunity for her to expand her skills and techniques.", "In 1975, Ganji moved to [France](/wiki/France \"France\") and took a course at [Ecole des Beaux Arts](/wiki/%C3%89cole_des_Beaux-Arts \"École des Beaux-Arts\") in Paris, France. She worked on “the kinetic movement of esoteric arabesque designs of Persian carpets, inspired by the dancing human form”.", "### Teaching", "Ganji returned to Iran in 1976, collaborated with the center for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults, curated an exhibition of their paintings, and illustrated a book. She was married and had two kids before returning to Iran to teach.", "In 1986, Ganji taught at art schools in Tehran. She researched on the visual art of the Far East to find the influential elements of Sassanid Patterns on Japanese visual art through the Silk Road. Pariyoush Ganji has taught at places such as [Alzahra University](/wiki/Alzahra_University \"Alzahra University\"), [Islamic Azad University](/wiki/Islamic_Azad_University \"Islamic Azad University\"), and [University of Tehran](/wiki/University_of_Tehran \"University of Tehran\"). Also, she has been a member in organizations such as Tehran Cultural Heritage Organization, [Contemporary Arts Museum](/wiki/Tehran_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art \"Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art\"), Tehran’s Jury Memberships Contemporary Drawing, Handicrafts, and Tourism Organization.", "### Work in Japan", "Ganji traveled to Japan in 1996 through the invitation of the Cultural Foundation of Japan; she studied the influences of [Iranian](/wiki/Iranian_patterns \"Iranian patterns\") patterns on Japanese textiles.\\[\"Paintings in praise of light and hope\" n. d. IRNA, 20 Jun, n.d. Web. 19 November 2015\\.]{{Cite web \\\|date\\=18 December 2003 \\\|title\\=پری يوش گنجی مسافری هميشه در راه \\\|trans\\-title\\=Pari Yosh Ganji is a traveler always on the way \\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/persian/arts/story/2003/12/031218\\_pm\\-pa\\-ganji \\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-15 \\\|website\\=\\[\\[BBC Persian]] \\\|language\\=fa}} It was in Japan where she learned about a Japanese technique called [Sumi\\-e](/wiki/Sumi-e \"Sumi-e\") or ink wash painting, which she worked to master. That was when she produced some paintings that were, “blends of minimal Japanese Shojis and ornamental Persian windows”.", "### Series", "She stayed there for six months. A year later, Ganji worked on a new series called Red. The Red series were a selection of painting with red on black backgrounds. In the early 2000s, Ganji started working on the Night Windows series, which replaced red with purple. Night Windows are described to be new ways to historical occurrences to show the light through the darkness shaped by the many layers of purple. She then continued to work on other series called Roses, Day Windows, and Water, each with a different and continual direction for “searching the light\".\\[“Pariyoush Ganji”. Majd, Maryam. Art 360, May 2015\\. Web. 21 November 2015\\.]", "### Exhibitions", "Pariyoush Ganji’s work has been exhibited around the world. She has had around twenty exhibitions, and some of her paintings are an important part of the collections in Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\\[“Future”. n.a. Gallery Lucy Mackintosh, September 6, 2012\\. Web. 25 November 2015\\.] Throughout the four periods of Ganji’s work, Ganji’s paintings have been exhibited not only in Iran but also in England, Japan, United States, Germany, Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabi, Kyrgyzstan, Kuwait, Uzbekistan, and Switzerland.", "" ]
History ------- ### D. Lewis [thumb\\|D. Lewis of Great Portland StreetOriginally](/wiki/File:D_Lewis_original_label.jpg "D Lewis original label.jpg") a family business called D. Lewis, started in the 1892 as a gentlemen's outfitter or "wardobe company", At that time, the company produced gents suiting and raincoats in the [east end of London](/wiki/East_End_of_London "East End of London"). D. Lewis became a Limited company in 1929 under the stewardship of brothers Nathan Jones, David and Lewis Isaacs on [Great Portland Street](/wiki/Great_Portland_Street "Great Portland Street") in London's [West End](/wiki/West_End_of_London "West End of London"), they also had Birmingham, Sheffield and Liverpool which traded under the name of N Jones. It was during the 1910s that the company started making and retailing specialist clothing for what was then considered the "gentlemen's" auto sports of [aviation](/wiki/Aviation "Aviation") and [motoring](/wiki/Driving "Driving") producing their wares in Watford. At the time, Great Portland Street was known as "Motor Row", the primary location for purchasing [automobiles](/wiki/Automobile "Automobile") and related accessories in the early years of the 20th century.Michael Worthington\-Williams, "Warren Street and the London motor trade", in Aspects of Motoring History, Edition 6, Society of Automotive Historians in Britain, October 2010\. It had no less than 33 showrooms located along it, including companies such as: [Benz Motor](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz"), [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Cars "Jaguar Cars"), [Austin](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas"), [Morgan Motor](/wiki/Morgan_Motor_Company "Morgan Motor Company") and the [Indian Motorcycle Company](/wiki/Indian_Motorcycle_Company "Indian Motorcycle Company").,Allan Ford \& Nick Corble, You Can't Wear Out an Indian Scout, Chalford, Amberley Publishing, 2009, p. 11 <http://www.nickcorble.co.uk/uploads/samples/Cant%20Wear%20Out%20Sample.pdf> accessed on 2011\-07\-09 and <http://www.indianriders.co.uk/before%20after.htm> accessed on 2011\-07\-09 as well as being the center of the [clothing trade](/wiki/Fashion "Fashion"). ### Aviakit [thumb\\|left\\|1930s Aviakit label](/wiki/File:Aviakit_early_30s.jpg "Aviakit early 30s.jpg") Initially used as a Telegram address ("Aviakit Wesdo") in 1929, in 1930 the company introduced Aviakit (short for "aviation kit")Biker: Truth And Myth: How The Original Cowboy Of The Road Became The Easy Rider Of The Silver Screen by Bill Osgerby, The Lyons Press, 2005 {{ISBN\\|1592288413}} as the brand name for its aviation clothing, which it had already been selling from the first quarter of the century and acting as contractors to numerous governments around the world including the Netherlands, India, Belgium, South Africa and Greece. It went on to produce clothing for the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") (RAF) during World War II including made to measure outfits for officers. The product line was also to include boots, [goggles](/wiki/Goggles "Goggles"), and [crash helmets](/wiki/Motorcycle_helmet "Motorcycle helmet") identical to those made by Everoak. Its garments were worn by [Spitfire](/wiki/Spitfire "Spitfire") test pilot Sir [Alex Henshaw](/wiki/Alex_Henshaw "Alex Henshaw") and RAF fighter pilots during World War II. The name still appears in Lewis Leathers jackets, boots, gloves and other products to this day. ### Post\-World War II [thumb\\|upright\\|1960s Aviakit label](/wiki/File:60s_LL_Aviakit_labels.jpg "60s LL Aviakit labels.jpg") Following the end of hostilities, although handicapped by petrol [rationing](/wiki/Rationing_in_the_United_Kingdom "Rationing in the United Kingdom"), D. Lewis started selling ex\-RAF clothing to [de\-mobbed](/wiki/Demobilization "Demobilization") motorcyclists and then, in the early 1950s as rationing ended, started to develop more casual items into their ranges, expanding into shops in [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield "Sheffield"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham") and [St Albans](/wiki/St_Albans "St Albans"). By 1953, its advertising claims were that the company was already the largest motorcycle clothing and accessory company in the UK and abroad.Cycle World Magazine, Jan 1975 "World's largest mail order motorcycle catalogue", p.103\. The company's products came to represent the high end of the market, out of reach of many individuals, also serving the circuit racing fraternity offering repair and replacement right hand boots which commonly wore out on England's clockwise racing circuits.Scratching – Racing Earning your degree at the University of Brands Hatch, Cycle World magazine, 24 November 2010 by Steven L. Thompson ### Lewis Leathers It was not until 1960 that the company registered the name by which it soon became most commonly known, 'Lewis Leathers'. This brand name was introduced on a new range of leather jackets aimed at the youth market and, in 1962, it aligned itself with the burgeoning [59 Club](/wiki/59_Club "59 Club") in London, [Hackney Wick](/wiki/Hackney_Wick "Hackney Wick"). As the [Mods and Rockers](/wiki/Mods_and_Rockers "Mods and Rockers") clashed at English seaside resorts, Lewis Leather clothing was to be seen on both sides of the conflict. In 1982, the company was sold to the Newbold Brothers; it was then sold to Richard Lyon in November 1986\. In 1991 its classic designs were to be researched and re\-created by Derek Harris. After trading from the same location for 101 years, the Great Portland Street shop closed in 1993\. That same year saw the launch of a small 'Retro Range' of Lewis Leathers jackets with lining, labels and hardware all as found on the jackets seen during the 60s and 70s. The release of this range and its subsequent marketing in Japan, USA and the UK coincided with vintage Lewis Leathers jackets becoming increasingly sought after in JapanLeathers that's cool for ever, The Mutton, The Times 3 February 2010Lewis Leathers × Hysteric Glamour, Mikako Sakai, Rolling Stone Japan, 2 January 2012 [http://www.rollingstonejapan.com/fashion/lewis\-leathers\-x\-hysteric\-glamour/](http://www.rollingstonejapan.com/fashion/lewis-leathers-x-hysteric-glamour/) where they are promoted for their authentic connections to the rockers of the 60s,Pride and Glory: The Art of the Rockers' Jacket, Horst A. Friedrichs, Lars Harmsen, DAAB Media Gmbh, 2012\. {{ISBN\\|3942597209}} / Interview with Professor Colin Fallows leading British [Punks](/wiki/Punk_rock "Punk rock"),Punk Rock: So What?: The Cultural Legacy of Punk by Roger Sabin, Routledge, 1 Jun 2002 p.146The Roxy London Wc2: A Punk History by Paul Marko, Punk, 2007 {{ISBN\\|0955658306}}. p.111 [Rock musicians](/wiki/Rock_music "Rock music") and fashion icons, and are often highly customised. [thumb\\|left\\|Lewis Leathers shop, Whitfield Street, London in 2013](/wiki/File:Lewis_Leathers_shop.jpg "Lewis Leathers shop.jpg") Harris and Lyon continued to expand the range of authentic retro\-styled jackets,[Lewis Leathers by Marcus Ross, Jocks \& Nerds magazine, July 2011](http://jocksandnerdsmagazine.com/m/lewis-leathers/) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://archive.today/20130629140853/http://jocksandnerdsmagazine.com/m/lewis\-leathers/ \\|date\=29 June 2013 }} their efforts leading to collaborations with leading fashion designers such as [Comme des Garçons](/wiki/Comme_des_Gar%C3%A7ons "Comme des Garçons") in 2002\.Japanese Fashion Designers: The Work and Influence of Issey Miyake, Yohji Yamamoto and Rei Kawakubo by Bonnie English, Berg, 25 October 2011, {{ISBN\\|1847883109}}. p. 80 In 2003 Lyon announced his retirement leading to Harris, whom, after 12 years researching and working on its designs, took over the company and established an office in Japan opened by 59 Club Japan leader, Koji Baba. The London branch was re\-opened close to the original premises in Whitfield Street, part of London's [Fitzrovia](/wiki/Fitzrovia "Fitzrovia").Time Out Magazine: Lewis Leathers, 3\-5 Whitfield Street, Fitzrovia, London, W1T 2SA. [http://www.timeout.com/london/shopping/lewis\-leathers](http://www.timeout.com/london/shopping/lewis-leathers) [thumb\\|Lewis Leathers in Windmill Street, London, 2023\.](/wiki/File:Lewis_Leathers_motorcycle_clothiers_Windmill_Street_London.jpg "Lewis Leathers motorcycle clothiers Windmill Street London.jpg") D. Lewis Ltd and Lewis Leathers garments were always produced in England, initially in [Watford](/wiki/Watford "Watford")Flight magazine, 1958 or [St Albans](/wiki/St_Albans "St Albans"), and from 1958 to 1982, in [Copperfield Rd, East London](/wiki/Mile_End "Mile End"). In the 1970s, a small factory in Sheffield was also used. In 1982 all production was moved to Northampton, returning to London in 1993 where it remains until the present date. From the late 1950s Lewis Leathers advertised to motorcyclists and also in popular musical publications such as the [NME](/wiki/NME "NME") and [Melody Maker](/wiki/Melody_Maker "Melody Maker"). Lewis Leathers were also official suppliers to police motorcyclists in the UK.	[ "History\n-------", "### D. Lewis", "[thumb\\\|D. Lewis of Great Portland StreetOriginally](/wiki/File:D_Lewis_original_label.jpg \"D Lewis original label.jpg\") a family business called D. Lewis, started in the 1892 as a gentlemen's outfitter or \"wardobe company\", At that time, the company produced gents suiting and raincoats in the [east end of London](/wiki/East_End_of_London \"East End of London\"). D. Lewis became a Limited company in 1929 under the stewardship of brothers Nathan Jones, David and Lewis Isaacs on [Great Portland Street](/wiki/Great_Portland_Street \"Great Portland Street\") in London's [West End](/wiki/West_End_of_London \"West End of London\"), they also had Birmingham, Sheffield and Liverpool which traded under the name of N Jones. It was during the 1910s that the company started making and retailing specialist clothing for what was then considered the \"gentlemen's\" auto sports of [aviation](/wiki/Aviation \"Aviation\") and [motoring](/wiki/Driving \"Driving\") producing their wares in Watford.", "At the time, Great Portland Street was known as \"Motor Row\", the primary location for purchasing [automobiles](/wiki/Automobile \"Automobile\") and related accessories in the early years of the 20th century.Michael Worthington\\-Williams, \"Warren Street and the London motor trade\", in Aspects of Motoring History, Edition 6, Society of Automotive Historians in Britain, October 2010\\. It had no less than 33 showrooms located along it, including companies such as: [Benz Motor](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\"), [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Cars \"Jaguar Cars\"), [Austin](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\"), [Morgan Motor](/wiki/Morgan_Motor_Company \"Morgan Motor Company\") and the [Indian Motorcycle Company](/wiki/Indian_Motorcycle_Company \"Indian Motorcycle Company\").,Allan Ford \\& Nick Corble, You Can't Wear Out an Indian Scout, Chalford, Amberley Publishing, 2009, p. 11 <http://www.nickcorble.co.uk/uploads/samples/Cant%20Wear%20Out%20Sample.pdf> accessed on 2011\\-07\\-09 and <http://www.indianriders.co.uk/before%20after.htm> accessed on 2011\\-07\\-09 as well as being the center of the [clothing trade](/wiki/Fashion \"Fashion\").", "### Aviakit", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|1930s Aviakit label](/wiki/File:Aviakit_early_30s.jpg \"Aviakit early 30s.jpg\")\nInitially used as a Telegram address (\"Aviakit Wesdo\") in 1929, in 1930 the company introduced Aviakit (short for \"aviation kit\")Biker: Truth And Myth: How The Original Cowboy Of The Road Became The Easy Rider Of The Silver Screen by Bill Osgerby, The Lyons Press, 2005 {{ISBN\\\|1592288413}} as the brand name for its aviation clothing, which it had already been selling from the first quarter of the century and acting as contractors to numerous governments around the world including the Netherlands, India, Belgium, South Africa and Greece. It went on to produce clothing for the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") (RAF) during World War II including made to measure outfits for officers. The product line was also to include boots, [goggles](/wiki/Goggles \"Goggles\"), and [crash helmets](/wiki/Motorcycle_helmet \"Motorcycle helmet\") identical to those made by Everoak.", "Its garments were worn by [Spitfire](/wiki/Spitfire \"Spitfire\") test pilot Sir [Alex Henshaw](/wiki/Alex_Henshaw \"Alex Henshaw\") and RAF fighter pilots during World War II.\nThe name still appears in Lewis Leathers jackets, boots, gloves and other products to this day.", "### Post\\-World War II", "[thumb\\\|upright\\\|1960s Aviakit label](/wiki/File:60s_LL_Aviakit_labels.jpg \"60s LL Aviakit labels.jpg\")\nFollowing the end of hostilities, although handicapped by petrol [rationing](/wiki/Rationing_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Rationing in the United Kingdom\"), D. Lewis started selling ex\\-RAF clothing to [de\\-mobbed](/wiki/Demobilization \"Demobilization\") motorcyclists and then, in the early 1950s as rationing ended, started to develop more casual items into their ranges, expanding into shops in [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield \"Sheffield\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\") and [St Albans](/wiki/St_Albans \"St Albans\"). By 1953, its advertising claims were that the company was already the largest motorcycle clothing and accessory company in the UK and abroad.Cycle World Magazine, Jan 1975 \"World's largest mail order motorcycle catalogue\", p.103\\.", "The company's products came to represent the high end of the market, out of reach of many individuals, also serving the circuit racing fraternity offering repair and replacement right hand boots which commonly wore out on England's clockwise racing circuits.Scratching – Racing Earning your degree at the University of Brands Hatch, Cycle World magazine, 24 November 2010 by Steven L. Thompson", "### Lewis Leathers", "It was not until 1960 that the company registered the name by which it soon became most commonly known, 'Lewis Leathers'. This brand name was introduced on a new range of leather jackets aimed at the youth market and, in 1962, it aligned itself with the burgeoning [59 Club](/wiki/59_Club \"59 Club\") in London, [Hackney Wick](/wiki/Hackney_Wick \"Hackney Wick\"). As the [Mods and Rockers](/wiki/Mods_and_Rockers \"Mods and Rockers\") clashed at English seaside resorts, Lewis Leather clothing was to be seen on both sides of the conflict.", "In 1982, the company was sold to the Newbold Brothers; it was then sold to Richard Lyon in November 1986\\. In 1991 its classic designs were to be researched and re\\-created by Derek Harris. After trading from the same location for 101 years, the Great Portland Street shop closed in 1993\\. That same year saw the launch of a small 'Retro Range' of Lewis Leathers jackets with lining, labels and hardware all as found on the jackets seen during the 60s and 70s. The release of this range and its subsequent marketing in Japan, USA and the UK coincided with vintage Lewis Leathers jackets becoming increasingly sought after in JapanLeathers that's cool for ever, The Mutton, The Times 3 February 2010Lewis Leathers × Hysteric Glamour, Mikako Sakai, Rolling Stone Japan, 2 January 2012 [http://www.rollingstonejapan.com/fashion/lewis\\-leathers\\-x\\-hysteric\\-glamour/](http://www.rollingstonejapan.com/fashion/lewis-leathers-x-hysteric-glamour/) where they are promoted for their authentic connections to the rockers of the 60s,Pride and Glory: The Art of the Rockers' Jacket, Horst A. Friedrichs, Lars Harmsen, DAAB Media Gmbh, 2012\\. {{ISBN\\\|3942597209}} / Interview with Professor Colin Fallows leading British [Punks](/wiki/Punk_rock \"Punk rock\"),Punk Rock: So What?: The Cultural Legacy of Punk by Roger Sabin, Routledge, 1 Jun 2002 p.146The Roxy London Wc2: A Punk History by Paul Marko, Punk, 2007 {{ISBN\\\|0955658306}}. p.111 [Rock musicians](/wiki/Rock_music \"Rock music\") and fashion icons, and are often highly customised.", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|Lewis Leathers shop, Whitfield Street, London in 2013](/wiki/File:Lewis_Leathers_shop.jpg \"Lewis Leathers shop.jpg\")\nHarris and Lyon continued to expand the range of authentic retro\\-styled jackets,[Lewis Leathers by Marcus Ross, Jocks \\& Nerds magazine, July 2011](http://jocksandnerdsmagazine.com/m/lewis-leathers/) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130629140853/http://jocksandnerdsmagazine.com/m/lewis\\-leathers/ \\\|date\\=29 June 2013 }} their efforts leading to collaborations with leading fashion designers such as [Comme des Garçons](/wiki/Comme_des_Gar%C3%A7ons \"Comme des Garçons\") in 2002\\.Japanese Fashion Designers: The Work and Influence of Issey Miyake, Yohji Yamamoto and Rei Kawakubo by Bonnie English, Berg, 25 October 2011, {{ISBN\\\|1847883109}}. p. 80 In 2003 Lyon announced his retirement leading to Harris, whom, after 12 years researching and working on its designs, took over the company and established an office in Japan opened by 59 Club Japan leader, Koji Baba. The London branch was re\\-opened close to the original premises in Whitfield Street, part of London's [Fitzrovia](/wiki/Fitzrovia \"Fitzrovia\").Time Out Magazine: Lewis Leathers, 3\\-5 Whitfield Street, Fitzrovia, London, W1T 2SA. [http://www.timeout.com/london/shopping/lewis\\-leathers](http://www.timeout.com/london/shopping/lewis-leathers)\n[thumb\\\|Lewis Leathers in Windmill Street, London, 2023\\.](/wiki/File:Lewis_Leathers_motorcycle_clothiers_Windmill_Street_London.jpg \"Lewis Leathers motorcycle clothiers Windmill Street London.jpg\")\nD. Lewis Ltd and Lewis Leathers garments were always produced in England, initially in [Watford](/wiki/Watford \"Watford\")Flight magazine, 1958 or [St Albans](/wiki/St_Albans \"St Albans\"), and from 1958 to 1982, in [Copperfield Rd, East London](/wiki/Mile_End \"Mile End\"). In the 1970s, a small factory in Sheffield was also used. In 1982 all production was moved to Northampton, returning to London in 1993 where it remains until the present date.", "From the late 1950s Lewis Leathers advertised to motorcyclists and also in popular musical publications such as the [NME](/wiki/NME \"NME\") and [Melody Maker](/wiki/Melody_Maker \"Melody Maker\"). Lewis Leathers were also official suppliers to police motorcyclists in the UK.", "" ]
Playing career -------------- ### 2010 [thumb\\|right\\|Fifita representing the Tigers in 2010](/wiki/File:Andrew_Fifita.jpg "Andrew Fifita.jpg") In round 2, Fifita made his first grade debut for the Wests Tigers against [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters"), coming off the interchange bench where he scored a try in the 44–32 loss at the [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 "Sydney Football Stadium (1988)").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/sydney\-roosters\-defeat\-wests\-tigers\-44\-32\-at\-sfs/story\-fn2mcuj6\-1225918976671\\|title\=Home \\| Live Scores \& Latest News\\|work\=\[\[Fox Sports]]\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In round 23, against the [Penrith Panthers](/wiki/Penrith_Panthers "Penrith Panthers"), Fifita scored two tries in the Tigers 43–18 win at [Campbelltown Stadium](/wiki/Campbelltown_Stadium "Campbelltown Stadium").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010\-08\-16/long\-finals\-wait\-over\-for\-tigers/945328\\|title\=Long finals wait over for Tigers \- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\|website\=Abc.net.au\\|date\=2010\-08\-16\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita finished his debut year in the NRL with 5 tries from 22 matches. On 25 October, Fifita made his international debut for [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team "Tonga national rugby league team"), starting at prop in the 6–22 loss against [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa_national_rugby_league_team "Samoa national rugby league team") at [Parramatta Stadium](/wiki/Parramatta_Stadium "Parramatta Stadium"). Fifita commented after match saying, "It was a good experience, it's not about the loss here, it's about the experience and about looking forward to the future for the World Cup and the years ahead."{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2010/10/25/samoa\-rally\-to\-beat\-tonga/\\|title\=Samoa rally to beat Tonga\\|publisher\=The Roar\\|date\=2010\-10\-25\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} ### 2011 Fifita was chosen to participate in a [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") developmental squad.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/01/13/3112075\.htm?site\=sydney\\|title\=Stuart names 'Blues in waiting' \- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\|website\=Abc.net.au\\|date\=2011\-01\-13\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In the off\-season he had dropped about 10 kilos to be playing at about 109 kg. Fifita started the season at prop, but was dropped from first grade by [Tim Sheens](/wiki/Tim_Sheens "Tim Sheens") after round 19 and never returned. "I was always saying, 'Let me play, let me play,'" Fifita said. "But he just said go to [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup "NSW Cup"). I was pulling 80 minutes each game there, what can you do? You're up against the coach. You can't say anything. At the end I had kind of given up. I thought there was no more first grade for me."{{cite web\\|author\=Michael Chammas\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-news/regrets\-taufua\-and\-fifita\-say\-they\-have\-a\-few\-20120209\-1rx4p.html\\|title\=Regrets, Taufua and Fifita say they have a few\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} [thumb\\|right\\|Fifita playing for the Tigers in 2011](/wiki/File:Andrew_Fifita_Tigers.jpg "Andrew Fifita Tigers.jpg") On 15 July, Fifita signed with the [Cronulla\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks "Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks") on a 3\-year deal, starting from 2012 after was released from the Wests Tigers, along with [Bryce Gibbs](/wiki/Bryce_Gibbs_%28rugby_league%29 "Bryce Gibbs (rugby league)"), so that the club could accommodate [Adam Blair](/wiki/Adam_Blair "Adam Blair") under the salary cap.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/nrl/wests\-tigers\-forwards\-andrew\-fifita\-and\-bryce\-gibbs\-sign\-for\-cronulla\-sharks/story\-e6frep5x\-1226075893068\\|title\=Wests Tigers Forwards Andrew Fifita and Bryce Gibbs Sign Up for Cronulla Sharks\\|website\=Couriermail.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita finished his last year with the Wests Tigers with 3 tries in 17 matches. ### 2012 On 9 February, Fifita played for the [Indigenous All Stars](/wiki/Indigenous_All_Stars_%28rugby_league%29 "Indigenous All Stars (rugby league)") against the [NRL All Stars](/wiki/NRL_All_Stars_team "NRL All Stars team"), starting at prop in the 28–36 loss.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/indigenous\-all\-stars\-team\-named/tabid/10874/newsid/65573/default.aspx\\|title\=Indigenous All Stars team named\\|website\=NRL.com\\|date\=2011\-12\-07\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}}{{cite web\\|author\=Brad Walter\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-match\-report/intensity\-aplenty\-with\-all\-star\-scuffles\-and\-merritt\-magic\-20120204\-1qz61\.html\\|title\=NRL All Stars win Gold Coast thriller\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In round 1, Fifita made his debut for the [Cronulla\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks "Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks") against his former club, the Wests Tigers, playing off the interchange bench in the 16–17 loss at [Leichhardt Oval](/wiki/Leichhardt_Oval "Leichhardt Oval").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/lowdown\-on\-wests\-tigers\-versus\-cronulla\-sharks\-round\-one\-nrl\-clash/story\-e6frexnr\-1226288465421\\|title\=Tigers Versus Sharks NRL Round One Clash\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In round 4, against the [North Queensland Cowboys](/wiki/North_Queensland_Cowboys "North Queensland Cowboys"), Fifita scored his first club try for the Sharks in the 20–14 win at [1300SMILES Stadium](/wiki/1300SMILES_Stadium "1300SMILES Stadium").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/cronulla\-20\-d\-north\-queensland\-14\-sharks\-bite\-back\-to\-stun\-cowboys\-at\-dairy\-farmers\-stadium/story\-fnj90t7b\-1226309251236\\|title\=Sharks Bite Back to Stun Cowboys\\|website\=Goldcoastbulletin.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} With the Sharks starting 2012 well, and with his old club struggling to win early games, Fifita commented, "We have an unbelievable bond. We're so tight. Compared to the Tigers everyone is so tight. We have the same dressing rooms. It's just more of a friendship. We're all just brothers and it's no split groups, no nothing, it's who we are."{{cite news\\|newspaper\=The Australian\\|title\=Struggling Tigers a split group, says discard Fifita\\|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/struggling\-tigers\-a\-split\-group\-says\-discard\-fifita/story\-fnca0von\-1226322326328\\|access\-date\=25 April 2012\\|date\=10 April 2012}} Fifita finished his first year with the Sharks with him playing in 22 matches and scoring 5 tries. ### 2013 On 9 February, Fifita played for the Indigenous All Stars against the NRL All Stars, starting at prop in the 32–6 win.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/2013\-all\-stars\-teams\-announced/tabid/10874/newsid/70589/default.aspx\\|title\=2013 All Stars teams announced\\|website\=NRL.com\\|date\=2013\-01\-16\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}}{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/indigenous\-all\-stars\-big\-guns\-blow\-out\-cobwebs\-in\-style\-to\-beat\-nrl\-all\-stars\-in\-thrilling\-opener/story\-e6frf3ou\-1226574533848\\|title\=Home \\| Live Scores \& Latest News\\|work\=\[\[Fox Sports]]\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita proved to be a revelation for the Sharks in the [2013 NRL season](/wiki/2013_NRL_season "2013 NRL season") and was rewarded with representative selections for [NSW City Origin](/wiki/City_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "City New South Wales rugby league team") and the [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") [State of Origin](/wiki/State_of_Origin "State of Origin") teams.{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/archive/news/cronulla\-sharks\-forward\-andrew\-fifita\-shocked\-at\-selection\-in\-nsw\-state\-of\-origin\-side/story\-fncagcd8\-1226651220453\\|title\=Nocookies\\|newspaper\=\[\[The Australian]]\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 21 April, he played for City Origin against the [NSW Country Origin](/wiki/Country_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "Country New South Wales rugby league team") side, where he played off the interchange bench and scored a try in the 12–18 loss.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/country\-overcome\-city\-in\-close\-clash/story\-e6frf3ou\-1226625366206\\|title\=Home \\| Live Scores \& Latest News\\|work\=\[\[Fox Sports]]\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 5 June, Fifita made his State of Origin debut for New South Wales against [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_rugby_league_team "Queensland rugby league team"), where he played off the interchange bench in the Blues 14–6 win at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium "ANZ Stadium").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/nsw\-blues\-beat\-queensland\-14\-6\-in\-state\-of\-origin\-i/story\-fni3fqyo\-1226658129708\\|title\=Blues Beat Queensland 14\-6\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} After continuing his good form for the Sharks and helping them to a 5th\-place finish, Fifita was selected as the 2013 [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M_Awards "Dally M Awards") {{rlp\\|PR}} of the year after being the Sharks highest tryscorer with 9 tries from 25 matches.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/cronulla\-sharks\-star\-andrew\-fifita\-popular\-choice\-for\-dally\-m\-prop\-of\-the\-year/story\-fni3gol8\-1226731107122\\|title\=Cronulla Sharks Star Andre Fifita Popular Choice for Dally\-M Prop of the Year\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita was chosen in the 24\-man [Australian](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team "Australia national rugby league team") squad for the [2013 Rugby League World Cup](/wiki/2013_Rugby_League_World_Cup "2013 Rugby League World Cup").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/kangaroos\-name\-24\-man\-world\-cup\-squad/tabid/10874/newsid/75008/default.aspx\\|title\=Jennings in 24\-man World Cup Squad\\|website\=NRL.com\\|date\=2013\-10\-07\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042218/http://www.nrl.com/kangaroos\-name\-24\-man\-world\-cup\-squad/tabid/10874/newsid/75008/default.aspx\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|url\-status\=dead\\|df\=dmy\-all}} On 26 October, he made his international debut for Australia against [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team "England national rugby league team") where he played off the interchange bench in the 28–20 win at [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium").{{cite news\\|last\=Brown\\|first\=Oliver\\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/rugbyleague/10407869/Rugby\-League\-World\-Cup\-2013\-Prop\-George\-Burgess\-caps\-a\-fine\-display\-with\-a\-try\-but\-Australia\-still\-triumph.html\\|title\=Rugby League World Cup 2013: Prop George Burgess caps a fine display with a try but Australia still triumph\\|newspaper\=The Telegraph\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In his third match for Australia, against [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland_national_rugby_league_team "Ireland national rugby league team"), Fifita scored his first international try in the Kangaroos 50–0 win at [Thomond Park](/wiki/Thomond_Park "Thomond Park").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/kangaroos\-cruise\-past\-ireland\-into\-rugby\-league\-world\-cup\-quarterfinals/story\-fnca0von\-1226756697170\\|title\=Kangaroos Cruise Past Ireland into World Cup Quarterfinals\\|newspaper\=\[\[The Australian]]\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In the Kangaroos semi\-final match against [Fiji](/wiki/Fiji_national_rugby_league_team "Fiji national rugby league team"), Fifita scored the last try of the match in the 64–0 win. It was the last try ever described by [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") rugby league commentator [Ray French](/wiki/Ray_French "Ray French").{{cite web\\|author\=Brad Walter\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-match\-report/rugby\-league\-world\-cup\-australia\-smash\-fiji\-20131123\-2y3bn.html\\|title\=Rugby League World Cup: Australia smash Fiji\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\=2013\-11\-24\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} During the tournament, Fifita played in 6 matches and scored 2 tries for Australia, including playing off the interchange bench in the Kangaroos 34\-2 World Cup win over [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team "New Zealand national rugby league team") at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford "Old Trafford").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/world\-cup\-final\-player\-ratings/tabid/10874/newsid/75602/default.aspx\\|title\=World Cup final player ratings\\|website\=NRL.com\\|date\=2013\-12\-01\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} ### 2014 On 11 March, Fifita signed a four\-year contract worth more than $800,000 a season to play with the [Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury_Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/cronullas\-andrew\-fifita\-to\-stay\-in\-nrl\-as\-bulldogs\-lead\-the\-race\-to\-sign\-the\-prop/story\-e6frf3uc\-1226849075272\\|title\=Home \\| Live Scores \& Latest News\\|work\=\[\[Fox Sports]]\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 31 March, Fifita's contract with the Canterbury\-Bankstown Bulldogs was terminated. A statement from the Bulldogs stated that they had advised Fifita's management that he would not be playing for the club "given the final terms of the NRL Playing Contract could not be agreed". Canterbury's management team were also reportedly upset with Fifita's comments days after signing with the club saying that "He wished he joined Rugby Union instead" and that his "heart was still with Cronulla".{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/canterbury\-bulldogs\-backflip\-on\-multimillion\-dollar\-deal\-bringing\-andrew\-fifita\-to\-the\-club/story\-fni3g67w\-1226869916996\\|title\=Bulldogs Backflip on Multi Million Dollar Deal Bringing Andre Fifita to the Club\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 26 April, Fifita re\-signed with Cronulla on a four\-year deal until the end of the 2018 season.{{cite web\\|author\=Adrian Proszenko\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-news/andrew\-fifita\-resigns\-with\-cronulla\-for\-four\-years\-20140426\-zqzz7\.html\\|title\=Andrew Fifita re\-signs with Cronulla for four years\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\=2014\-04\-26\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita later made public the terms of the memorandum of understanding he had signed, which stated he would be paid $800,000 per season. When the official contract was received 17 days later, the figures were much lower, and only offered $375,000 for the first season.{{cite web\\|author\=Michael Carayannis\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-news/andrew\-fifita\-goes\-public\-with\-details\-of\-bulldogs\-contract\-offer\-20140429\-zr1gy.html\\|title\=Andrew Fifita goes public with details of Bulldogs' contract offer\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\=2014\-04\-29\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 4 May, Fifita played for City against Country where he scored a try in the 26\-all draw.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/hulking\-centre\-jamal\-idris\-stars\-in\-thrilling\-citycountry\-draw\-in\-dubbo/story\-fni3fbgz\-1226904860045\\|title\=Hulking Centre Jamal Idris Stars in tHrilling City Country Draw\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In round 9, against the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels "Parramatta Eels"), Fifita suffered an ankle injury.{{cite web\\|author\=Michael Chammas\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-match\-report/andrew\-fifita\-injury\-adds\-to\-nsw\-blues\-origin\-headaches\-20140512\-zramn.html\\|title\=Andrew Fifita injury adds to NSW Blues' Origin headaches\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\=2014\-05\-12\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} The injury resulted in Fifita missing the [2014 State of Origin series](/wiki/2014_State_of_Origin_series "2014 State of Origin series"), and a big chunk of the NRL season. Fifita returned in round 18, against the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\-07\-13/sharks\-on\-end\-of\-knights\-fight\-back/5593266\\|title\=Newcastle Knights stage fight\-back to beat Cronulla 31\-18 in NRL clash at Shark Park \- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\|website\=Abc.net.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} In round 22, against the [New Zealand Warriors](/wiki/New_Zealand_Warriors "New Zealand Warriors"), Fifita suffered a broken arm which ended his season.{{cite web\\|author\=James MacSmith\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-news/andrew\-fifita\-out\-for\-season\-after\-breaking\-arm\-in\-cronulla\-sharks\-loss\-to\-new\-zealand\-warriors\-20140810\-102jy2\.html\\|title\=Andrew Fifita out for season after breaking arm in Cronulla Sharks' loss to New Zealand Warriors\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita played in 12 matches during his tumultuous heavily publicised [2014 NRL season](/wiki/2014_NRL_season "2014 NRL season"). On 17 August, Fifita was involved in a road rage incident at [Taren Point](/wiki/Taren_Point%2C_New_South_Wales "Taren Point, New South Wales") where he allegedly threw an object at a car travelling behind him and later after the pair pulled over, Fifita allegedly got out of his Jeep and verbally abused the 23\-year\-old male driver of the Subaru before punching and kicking the panels of his car.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/sharks/cronulla\-sharks\-superstar\-andrew\-fifita\-interviewed\-by\-police\-over\-alleged\-road\-rage\-incident/news\-story/f1e3335d6f252f0e9ec09ce944df56b5\\|title\=Andrew Fifita Interviewed by Police Over Alleged Road Rage Incident\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} ### 2015 In round 2, against the [Brisbane Broncos](/wiki/Brisbane_Broncos "Brisbane Broncos"), Fifita played his 100th career match in the Sharks 2–10 loss at Shark Park.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/broncos/sharks\-v\-broncos\-ben\-barba\-form\-a\-massive\-concern\-as\-cronulla\-go\-tryless\-against\-brisbane/news\-story/72a7d05be515d223af46fb480c9b413a\\|title\=Ban Barba Form a Massive Concern as Cronulla Go Tryless Against Brisbane\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 3 May, he played for City Origin in the 22–34 loss in [Wagga Wagga](/wiki/Wagga_Wagga%2C_New_South_Wales "Wagga Wagga, New South Wales").{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/country\-overcome\-city\-in\-seesawing\-affair/tabid/10874/newsid/85906/default.aspx\\|title\=Country overcome City in seesawing affair\\|website\=NRL.com\\|date\=2015\-05\-03\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita's good form in the early rounds of the season earned him a spot back into the New South Wales Blues team,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/breaking\-news/state\-of\-origin\-2015\-nsw\-blues\-forward\-andrew\-fifitas\-unborn\-daughter\-is\-due\-on\-game\-one/news\-story/46463c07a90a4f47def5acd51279c6b1\\|title\=Home \\| Live Scores \& Latest News\\|work\=\[\[Fox Sports]]\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} where he played in game 1 of the [series](/wiki/2015_State_of_Origin_series "2015 State of Origin series"), coming off the interchange bench in the Blues 10–11 loss at ANZ Stadium.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\-of\-origin/state\-of\-origin\-2015\-game\-1\-live\-coverage\-of\-nsw\-blues\-v\-qld\-maroons\-at\-anz\-stadium/news\-story/ce7edf8ca753f65143eb51208c52e457\\|title\=State of Origin 2015 Game : Live Coverage\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} He wasn't selected for games 2 or 3\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\-of\-origin/andrew\-fifita\-left\-out\-of\-blues\-team\-for\-state\-of\-origin\-2/news\-story/8b8aa7f3c95ba0033debd03b64a780d5\\|title\=Andrew Fifita Left Out of Blues Team for State of Origin\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 6 August, Fifita and his twin brother David were given 6\-week suspensions and a $30,000 fine after they abused a referee at a junior match in Penrith.{{cite web\\|author\=Adrian Proszenko\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/cronulla\-sharks/cronulla\-sharks\-postpone\-board\-meeting\-over\-andrew\-and\-david\-fifita\-referee\-abuse\-allegations\-20150806\-git417\.html\\|title\=Andrew Fifita banned for six weeks, fined $30,000 for abusing junior referee\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\=6 August 2015\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} The pair allegedly abused the referee because a player in the team they were helping out, St Patrick's Blacktown, was injured in back play and the referee didn't stop the match.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/andrew\-fifita\-tells\-junior\-rugby\-league\-referee\-ill\-smash\-you/news\-story/5405bb47eac71cc00f6b38278f519816\\|title\=Andrew Fifita Tells Junior Rugby League Referee "I'll Smash You"\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} During the suspension, on an episode of [The Footy Show](/wiki/The_Footy_Show_%28rugby_league%29 "The Footy Show (rugby league)"), Fifita discussed how he had suffered severe depression in October 2014 and attempted suicide by trying to hurl himself out of a 20th story window at a holiday resort at [Surfers Paradise](/wiki/Surfers_Paradise%2C_Queensland "Surfers Paradise, Queensland") after a drunken night out with his brothers and friends celebrating a friend's bucks night.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/sharks/nrl\-star\-andrew\-fifita\-reveals\-he\-tried\-to\-commit\-suicide/news\-story/7a669537295f77ac4584e31cb6473a07\\|title\=Andrew Fifita Reveals He Tried to Commit Suicide\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita revealed that he had been saved when someone in the room grabbed his legs and pulled him back inside and said "David punched me in the face, punched me in the mouth, I sat there laughing at him", I was just yelling at him 'I don't care: it's over, do what you want.' Life was over for me at that point."{{cite web\\|author\=David Sygall\\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/cronulla\-sharks/cronulla\-sharks\-star\-andrew\-fifita\-reveals\-suicide\-bid\-on\-nrl\-footy\-show\-20150820\-gj4bis.html\\|title\=Cronulla Sharks star Andrew Fifita reveals suicide bid in NRL Footy Show interview\\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\=2015\-08\-21\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita had become suicidal amid the pressures of his team's poor results, a personal form slump and complications involving his contract. Following the incident, Andrew's brother David forced him to seek psychiatric help after which he received treatment for depression and a personality disorder. After his suspension was over, Fifita returned for the Sharks in their elimination finals match against the reigning premiers the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs"), where he played off the interchange bench in the Sharks 28–12 win.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015\-09\-09/andrew\-fifita\-raring\-to\-go\-in\-return\-match\-against\-south\-sydney/6762130\\|title\=Cronulla's Andrew Fifita raring to go in return match against South Sydney \- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\|website\=Abc.net.au\\|date\=2015\-09\-09\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} Fifita finished the [year](/wiki/2015_NRL_season "2015 NRL season") with him playing in 18 matches and scoring 7 tries for the Sharks. ### 2016 On 13 February, Fifita played for the Indigenous All Stars against the [World All Stars](/wiki/World_All_Stars "World All Stars"), starting at prop in the 12–8 loss at Suncorp Stadium. In September 2016, sports journalist [Rebecca Wilson](/wiki/Rebecca_Wilson "Rebecca Wilson") called for Fifita to be terminated by Cronulla after the player had visited convicted killer [Kieran Loveridge](/wiki/Kieran_Loveridge "Kieran Loveridge") in prison. Wilson later said that Fifita had no place in rugby league.{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/oct/07/rebecca\-wilson\-renown\-sports\-journalist\-dies\-from\-breast\-cancer\-at\-54/\\|title\=Rebecca Wilson: renowned sports journalist dies from breast cancer at 54\\|website\=The Guardian}}{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/sharks\-ignore\-calls\-to\-stand\-down\-andrew\-fifita\-after\-kieran\-loveridge\-support/news\-story/7c3398df11bdd2860822a9924218a3f5/\\|title\=Sharks ignore calls to stand down Andrew Fifita after Kieran Loveridge support\\|website\=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/world\-all\-stars\-defeat\-indigenous\-all\-stars\-128\-at\-suncorp\-stadium/news\-story/034a63c6602597828b4b9a5ce72f986e\\|title\=World All Stars Defeat Indigenous All Stars 12\-8\\|website\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-11}} On 2 October, Fifita played for Cronulla\-Sutherland against the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") in the [2016 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2016_NRL_Grand_Final "2016 NRL Grand Final"), which Cronulla won 14–12 at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium "ANZ Stadium") in Sydney. He scored the winning try with ten minutes to go in the game, carrying several defenders over the line with him. His efforts in the 2016 season saw him co\-winner of the Cronulla\-Sutherland Sharks Player of the Year trophy at the clubs annual season awards night. On 13 December 2016, Fifita was handed a breach notice by The NRL for showing support for childhood friend, one punch killer Kieran Loveridge. Fifita attempted to reach out to the family of Thomas Kelly and was dismayed at how the incident was received.{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/im\-heartbroken\-andrew\-fifita\-wants\-to\-apologise\-in\-person\-to\-kelly\-family\-20160903\-gr84pg.html \\|title\=Andrew Fifita wants to apologise to Thomas Kelly's family over Kieran Loveridge message \\|publisher\=Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\=3 September 2016 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}} On seven occasions Fifita was photographed playing with the message on his wrist during the Cronulla's premiership drought\-breaking campaign. On 21 December 2016, Fifita was fined $20,000 by The NRL over his continued support for Loveridge.{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.nrl.com/news/2016/12/22/andrew\-fifita\-fined\-$20000/ \\|title\=Andrew Fifita fined $20,000 \\|publisher\=NRL \\|date\=22 December 2016 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}}{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016\-12\-13/nrl\-hits\-andrew\-fifita\-with\-breach\-notice\-support\-convicted\-kil/8117516 \\|title\=Andrew Fifita hit with NRL breach notice for 'FKL' support for convicted killer Kieran Loveridge \\|publisher\=ABC \\|date\=13 December 2016 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}} ### 2017 On 31 May 2017, Fifita played for the [New South Wales Blues](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") in game 1 of the 2017 [State of Origin series](/wiki/State_of_Origin_series "State of Origin series") and was instrumental in the team's 28–4 win over the [Queensland Maroons](/wiki/Queensland_Maroons "Queensland Maroons"). He fended multiple times to put [James Maloney](/wiki/James_Maloney_%28rugby_league%29 "James Maloney (rugby league)") in under the posts, then made some runs. He took advantage of a loose ball from [Justin O'Neill](/wiki/Justin_O%27Neill "Justin O'Neill") to score under the posts. Fifita was adjudged man of the match. During RLWC 2017, despite being named in the Australian team, Fifita opted to play for [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team "Tonga national rugby league team"), and was instrumental in their most successful World Cup campaign to date, reaching the semi\-finals. On 2 December 2017, it was revealed that Fifita was taking NRL club Canterbury to court over a contract dispute which was reportedly worth $3\.2 million over 4 seasons.{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/andrew\-fifita\-set\-to\-sue\-canterbury\-bulldogs\-for\-32\-million\-over\-contract\-offer\-20171202\-gzxhoq.html \\|title\=Andrew Fifita set to sue Canterbury Bulldogs for $3\.2 million over contract offer \\|publisher\=Sydney Morning Herald \\|date\=2 December 2017 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}}{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/league/99484039/tonga\-test\-star\-andrew\-fifita\-set\-to\-challenge\-canterbury\-bulldogs\-for\-32\-million\-over\-contract\-offer \\|title\=Tonga test star Andrew Fifita set to challenge Canterbury Bulldogs for $3\.2 million over contract offer \\|publisher\=Stuff \\|date\=3 December 2017 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}} ### 2018 Fifita had a strong year in 2018\. He captained the Sharks on occasion and was awarded the Dally M Prop of the Year. In November, it was revealed by The Daily Telegraph that Cronulla had lost their 3 main sponsors ahead of the 2019 season. According to the report, Cronulla were in talks with securing a major sponsor for the next five seasons equaling $6 million but the deal was cancelled due to Fifita and fellow Cronulla player Josh Dugan's antics during a podcast back in August 2018 when Fifita called Daily Telegraph sports columnist Phil Rothfield a "complete fuckwit" and Dugan calling Rothfield an "old, weathered and baldheaded idiot".{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/teams/sharks/cronulla\-have\-lost\-three\-sponsors\-heading\-into\-the\-2019\-season\-and\-will\-be\-forced\-to\-wear\-bare\-jerseys/news\-story/a7168293e530810cc589ce117a159660 \\|title\=Cronulla have lost three sponsors heading into the 2019 season and will be forced to wear bare jerseys \\|publisher\=Fox League \\|date\=30 November 2018 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}}{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.sportingnews.com/au/league/news/andrew\-fifita\-buzz\-rothfield\-josh\-dugan\-podcast\-cronulla/1ued2hlrxo24w10opou8w8x76p \\|title\=Cronulla's Josh Dugan pulled from media duties in wake of Buzz Rothfield podcast saga \\|publisher\=Sporting News \\|date\=23 August 2018 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}} In the historic first ever rugby league Test between the [Australian Kangaroos](/wiki/Australian_Kangaroos "Australian Kangaroos") and [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team "Tonga national rugby league team"), Fifita led the Tongan pre\-match warcry, the [sipi tau](/wiki/Kailao "Kailao"), in front of a sold\-out crowd at Auckland's [Mount Smart Stadium](/wiki/Mount_Smart_Stadium "Mount Smart Stadium"). The Kangaroos went on to win 36–14\.{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/sport/369091/kangaroos\-withstand\-spirited\-tongan\-challenge \\|title\=Kangaroos withstand spirited Tongan challenge \\|publisher\=RNZ \\|date\=21 October 2018 \\|access\-date\=14 October 2021}} ### 2019 [thumb\\|right\\|350px\\|Fifita playing for the Newtown Jets in 2021](/wiki/File:ANDREW_FIFITA.jpg "ANDREW FIFITA.jpg") On 3 May, Fifita ruled out a return to play for New South Wales saying "The pinnacle of our game is to play for your country, And we’ve created something really good for international footy and I don’t want it to drop off". In Round 18 against the [New Zealand Warriors](/wiki/New_Zealand_Warriors "New Zealand Warriors"), Fifita was sin binned with 10 minutes of play left after using an illegal shoulder charge on New Zealand player [Lachlan Burr](/wiki/Lachlan_Burr "Lachlan Burr"). New Zealand would go on to kick the subsequent penalty goal and then kicked a field goal to win the match 19–18\. After the match, former NRL player [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer "Darren Lockyer") branded Fifita "irresponsible" and "lazy".{{cite web\\|url\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/andrew\-fifita\-nailed\-darren\-lockyer\-cronulla\-sharks/e454ba17\-bea2\-4915\-88cd\-0f26049398d6/\\|title\=Andrew Fifita play branded 'irresponsible, lazy' by NRL great Darren Lockyer\\|website\=WWOS}}{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/teams/sharks/pinnacle\-of\-our\-game\-is\-to\-play\-for\-your\-country\-fifita\-rules\-out\-nsw\-recall/news\-story/2a9e774be396a6c4d68e13edcdb26322/\\|title\='Pinnacle of our game is to play for your country': Fifita rules out NSW recall\\|website\=Fox Sports}}{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/andrew\-voss\-column\-andrew\-fifita\-lets\-sharks\-down\-nrl\-coaching\-needs\-a\-health\-warning/news\-story/5ce66d9763fbcf9953fd008dfdeda8e9/\\|title\=Andrew Voss column: Andrew Fifita lets Sharks down, NRL coaching needs a health warning\\|website\=Fox Sports}} At the end of the 2019 regular season, Cronulla finished in 7th spot and qualified for the finals. Fifita played in the club's elimination final defeat against Manly at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval "Brookvale Oval").{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.nrl.com/news/2019/09/14/under\-strength\-sea\-eagles\-send\-sharks\-packing/\\|title\=Under\-strength Sea Eagles send Sharks packing\\|website\=NRL}} ### 2020 Fifita played 12 games for Cronulla in the [2020 NRL season](/wiki/2020_NRL_season "2020 NRL season") as the club finished 8th and qualified for the finals. He played in Cronulla's elimination final loss against Canberra.{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/nrl\-2020\-canberra\-raiders\-vs\-cronulla\-sharks\-finals\-live\-stream\-live\-blog\-teams\-videos\-supercoach\-scores\-jack\-wighton/news\-story/4fed4e0a89be75dfcdf95cba3a693e27/\\|title\=Wighton, Williams spark Raiders comeback as Sharks finals hopes ended\\|website\=www.foxsports.com.au}} ### 2021 Fifita started the season in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup "NSW Cup"), playing for Cronulla's feeder club [Newtown](/wiki/Newtown_Jets "Newtown Jets"). In round 10 of the [2021 NRL season](/wiki/2021_NRL_season "2021 NRL season"), he made his first appearance of the year for Cronulla against [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs").{{cite web\\|url\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/paul\-gallen\-defends\-andrew\-fifita\-over\-newtown\-jets\-reserve\-grade\-nrl/5651ffeb\-2861\-45d1\-8ba8\-d5d19f8067ff/\\|title\='I don't think that's right at all': Paul Gallen launches impassioned defence of Andrew Fifita\\|website\=wwos.nine.com.au}} In round 22 against Newcastle, Fifita was taken from the field in the first half of the match and later taken to hospital with a suspected throat injury,{{cite web\\|url\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/andrew\-fifita\-hospitalised\-after\-cronulla\-sharks\-loss\-to\-newcastle/72f097fb\-964c\-4478\-8966\-c2ed0fc2a85c/\\|title\=Andrew Fifita taken to hospital after having 'trouble breathing' following Sharks' loss to Knights\\|website\=wwos.nine.com.au}} where he was diagnosed with a fractured larynx requiring surgery and placed into an induced coma.{{Cite web\\|date\=2021\-08\-16\\|title\=Andrew Fifita in a coma awaiting surgery on fractured larynx\\|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\-08\-17/andrew\-fifita\-in\-induced\-coma\-after\-fractured\-larynx/100382366\\|access\-date\=2021\-08\-17\\|website\=www.abc.net.au\\|language\=en\-AU}} ### 2022 In round 17 of the [2022 NRL season](/wiki/2022_NRL_season "2022 NRL season"), Fifita was sent to the sin bin for a dangerous tackle during Cronulla's 28\-6 victory over [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm").{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/nrl\-2022\-brandon\-smith\-sin\-binned\-melbourne\-storm\-video\-cronulla\-sharks/news\-story/4b44fddb239c3cb87a55f94d67b5a4cd/\\|title\=‘What did you say bra?’: Storm star Smith’s big admission after ugly clash with Sharks fan\\|website\=www.foxsports.com.au}} On 23 August, Fifita announced he would be leaving Cronulla at the end of the 2022 season.{{Cite web \\|title\='Heartbroken' premiership hero quits Sharks \\|url\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/andrew\-fifita\-cronulla\-pointsbet\-stadium\-last\-home\-match/49970aab\-a52c\-49e9\-9fa4\-2c7dbffc1ce4 \\|access\-date\=2022\-08\-23 \\|website\=wwos.nine.com.au \\|language\=en}} Fifita played a total of 22 games for Cronulla throughout 2022 including both of the clubs finals matches. Fifita's final game for Cronulla was their elimination final loss to [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs").{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/cronullas\-dual\-gamble\-pays\-off\-major\-flaw\-exposed\-in\-finals\-disaster\-brutal\-review/news\-story/619a3957ee64720ef66e0e9542f375b7/\\|title\=Young gun who can solve Sharks' big problem; masterstroke that can't be overlooked: Brutal Review\\|website\=www.foxsports.com.au}} In November, Fifita announced his retirement.	[ "Playing career\n--------------", "### 2010", "[thumb\\\|right\\\|Fifita representing the Tigers in 2010](/wiki/File:Andrew_Fifita.jpg \"Andrew Fifita.jpg\")\nIn round 2, Fifita made his first grade debut for the Wests Tigers against [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\"), coming off the interchange bench where he scored a try in the 44–32 loss at the [Sydney Football Stadium](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 \"Sydney Football Stadium (1988)\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/sydney\\-roosters\\-defeat\\-wests\\-tigers\\-44\\-32\\-at\\-sfs/story\\-fn2mcuj6\\-1225918976671\\\|title\\=Home \\\| Live Scores \\& Latest News\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In round 23, against the [Penrith Panthers](/wiki/Penrith_Panthers \"Penrith Panthers\"), Fifita scored two tries in the Tigers 43–18 win at [Campbelltown Stadium](/wiki/Campbelltown_Stadium \"Campbelltown Stadium\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010\\-08\\-16/long\\-finals\\-wait\\-over\\-for\\-tigers/945328\\\|title\\=Long finals wait over for Tigers \\- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\\|website\\=Abc.net.au\\\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-16\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita finished his debut year in the NRL with 5 tries from 22 matches. On 25 October, Fifita made his international debut for [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team \"Tonga national rugby league team\"), starting at prop in the 6–22 loss against [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa_national_rugby_league_team \"Samoa national rugby league team\") at [Parramatta Stadium](/wiki/Parramatta_Stadium \"Parramatta Stadium\"). Fifita commented after match saying, \"It was a good experience, it's not about the loss here, it's about the experience and about looking forward to the future for the World Cup and the years ahead.\"{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2010/10/25/samoa\\-rally\\-to\\-beat\\-tonga/\\\|title\\=Samoa rally to beat Tonga\\\|publisher\\=The Roar\\\|date\\=2010\\-10\\-25\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}", "### 2011", "Fifita was chosen to participate in a [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") developmental squad.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/01/13/3112075\\.htm?site\\=sydney\\\|title\\=Stuart names 'Blues in waiting' \\- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\\|website\\=Abc.net.au\\\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-13\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In the off\\-season he had dropped about 10 kilos to be playing at about 109 kg. Fifita started the season at prop, but was dropped from first grade by [Tim Sheens](/wiki/Tim_Sheens \"Tim Sheens\") after round 19 and never returned. \"I was always saying, 'Let me play, let me play,'\" Fifita said. \"But he just said go to [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup \"NSW Cup\"). I was pulling 80 minutes each game there, what can you do? You're up against the coach. You can't say anything. At the end I had kind of given up. I thought there was no more first grade for me.\"{{cite web\\\|author\\=Michael Chammas\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-news/regrets\\-taufua\\-and\\-fifita\\-say\\-they\\-have\\-a\\-few\\-20120209\\-1rx4p.html\\\|title\\=Regrets, Taufua and Fifita say they have a few\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}\n[thumb\\\|right\\\|Fifita playing for the Tigers in 2011](/wiki/File:Andrew_Fifita_Tigers.jpg \"Andrew Fifita Tigers.jpg\")\nOn 15 July, Fifita signed with the [Cronulla\\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks \"Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks\") on a 3\\-year deal, starting from 2012 after was released from the Wests Tigers, along with [Bryce Gibbs](/wiki/Bryce_Gibbs_%28rugby_league%29 \"Bryce Gibbs (rugby league)\"), so that the club could accommodate [Adam Blair](/wiki/Adam_Blair \"Adam Blair\") under the salary cap.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/nrl/wests\\-tigers\\-forwards\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-and\\-bryce\\-gibbs\\-sign\\-for\\-cronulla\\-sharks/story\\-e6frep5x\\-1226075893068\\\|title\\=Wests Tigers Forwards Andrew Fifita and Bryce Gibbs Sign Up for Cronulla Sharks\\\|website\\=Couriermail.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita finished his last year with the Wests Tigers with 3 tries in 17 matches.", "### 2012", "On 9 February, Fifita played for the [Indigenous All Stars](/wiki/Indigenous_All_Stars_%28rugby_league%29 \"Indigenous All Stars (rugby league)\") against the [NRL All Stars](/wiki/NRL_All_Stars_team \"NRL All Stars team\"), starting at prop in the 28–36 loss.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/indigenous\\-all\\-stars\\-team\\-named/tabid/10874/newsid/65573/default.aspx\\\|title\\=Indigenous All Stars team named\\\|website\\=NRL.com\\\|date\\=2011\\-12\\-07\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}{{cite web\\\|author\\=Brad Walter\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-match\\-report/intensity\\-aplenty\\-with\\-all\\-star\\-scuffles\\-and\\-merritt\\-magic\\-20120204\\-1qz61\\.html\\\|title\\=NRL All Stars win Gold Coast thriller\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In round 1, Fifita made his debut for the [Cronulla\\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks \"Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks\") against his former club, the Wests Tigers, playing off the interchange bench in the 16–17 loss at [Leichhardt Oval](/wiki/Leichhardt_Oval \"Leichhardt Oval\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/lowdown\\-on\\-wests\\-tigers\\-versus\\-cronulla\\-sharks\\-round\\-one\\-nrl\\-clash/story\\-e6frexnr\\-1226288465421\\\|title\\=Tigers Versus Sharks NRL Round One Clash\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In round 4, against the [North Queensland Cowboys](/wiki/North_Queensland_Cowboys \"North Queensland Cowboys\"), Fifita scored his first club try for the Sharks in the 20–14 win at [1300SMILES Stadium](/wiki/1300SMILES_Stadium \"1300SMILES Stadium\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/cronulla\\-20\\-d\\-north\\-queensland\\-14\\-sharks\\-bite\\-back\\-to\\-stun\\-cowboys\\-at\\-dairy\\-farmers\\-stadium/story\\-fnj90t7b\\-1226309251236\\\|title\\=Sharks Bite Back to Stun Cowboys\\\|website\\=Goldcoastbulletin.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} With the Sharks starting 2012 well, and with his old club struggling to win early games, Fifita commented, \"We have an unbelievable bond. We're so tight. Compared to the Tigers everyone is so tight. We have the same dressing rooms. It's just more of a friendship. We're all just brothers and it's no split groups, no nothing, it's who we are.\"{{cite news\\\|newspaper\\=The Australian\\\|title\\=Struggling Tigers a split group, says discard Fifita\\\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/struggling\\-tigers\\-a\\-split\\-group\\-says\\-discard\\-fifita/story\\-fnca0von\\-1226322326328\\\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2012\\\|date\\=10 April 2012}} Fifita finished his first year with the Sharks with him playing in 22 matches and scoring 5 tries.", "### 2013", "On 9 February, Fifita played for the Indigenous All Stars against the NRL All Stars, starting at prop in the 32–6 win.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/2013\\-all\\-stars\\-teams\\-announced/tabid/10874/newsid/70589/default.aspx\\\|title\\=2013 All Stars teams announced\\\|website\\=NRL.com\\\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-16\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/indigenous\\-all\\-stars\\-big\\-guns\\-blow\\-out\\-cobwebs\\-in\\-style\\-to\\-beat\\-nrl\\-all\\-stars\\-in\\-thrilling\\-opener/story\\-e6frf3ou\\-1226574533848\\\|title\\=Home \\\| Live Scores \\& Latest News\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita proved to be a revelation for the Sharks in the [2013 NRL season](/wiki/2013_NRL_season \"2013 NRL season\") and was rewarded with representative selections for [NSW City Origin](/wiki/City_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"City New South Wales rugby league team\") and the [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") [State of Origin](/wiki/State_of_Origin \"State of Origin\") teams.{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/archive/news/cronulla\\-sharks\\-forward\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-shocked\\-at\\-selection\\-in\\-nsw\\-state\\-of\\-origin\\-side/story\\-fncagcd8\\-1226651220453\\\|title\\=Nocookies\\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Australian]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} On 21 April, he played for City Origin against the [NSW Country Origin](/wiki/Country_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"Country New South Wales rugby league team\") side, where he played off the interchange bench and scored a try in the 12–18 loss.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/country\\-overcome\\-city\\-in\\-close\\-clash/story\\-e6frf3ou\\-1226625366206\\\|title\\=Home \\\| Live Scores \\& Latest News\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} On 5 June, Fifita made his State of Origin debut for New South Wales against [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland_rugby_league_team \"Queensland rugby league team\"), where he played off the interchange bench in the Blues 14–6 win at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium \"ANZ Stadium\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/nsw\\-blues\\-beat\\-queensland\\-14\\-6\\-in\\-state\\-of\\-origin\\-i/story\\-fni3fqyo\\-1226658129708\\\|title\\=Blues Beat Queensland 14\\-6\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} After continuing his good form for the Sharks and helping them to a 5th\\-place finish, Fifita was selected as the 2013 [Dally M](/wiki/Dally_M_Awards \"Dally M Awards\") {{rlp\\\|PR}} of the year after being the Sharks highest tryscorer with 9 tries from 25 matches.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/cronulla\\-sharks\\-star\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-popular\\-choice\\-for\\-dally\\-m\\-prop\\-of\\-the\\-year/story\\-fni3gol8\\-1226731107122\\\|title\\=Cronulla Sharks Star Andre Fifita Popular Choice for Dally\\-M Prop of the Year\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}", "Fifita was chosen in the 24\\-man [Australian](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") squad for the [2013 Rugby League World Cup](/wiki/2013_Rugby_League_World_Cup \"2013 Rugby League World Cup\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/kangaroos\\-name\\-24\\-man\\-world\\-cup\\-squad/tabid/10874/newsid/75008/default.aspx\\\|title\\=Jennings in 24\\-man World Cup Squad\\\|website\\=NRL.com\\\|date\\=2013\\-10\\-07\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042218/http://www.nrl.com/kangaroos\\-name\\-24\\-man\\-world\\-cup\\-squad/tabid/10874/newsid/75008/default.aspx\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} On 26 October, he made his international debut for Australia against [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team \"England national rugby league team\") where he played off the interchange bench in the 28–20 win at [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\").{{cite news\\\|last\\=Brown\\\|first\\=Oliver\\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/rugbyleague/10407869/Rugby\\-League\\-World\\-Cup\\-2013\\-Prop\\-George\\-Burgess\\-caps\\-a\\-fine\\-display\\-with\\-a\\-try\\-but\\-Australia\\-still\\-triumph.html\\\|title\\=Rugby League World Cup 2013: Prop George Burgess caps a fine display with a try but Australia still triumph\\\|newspaper\\=The Telegraph\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In his third match for Australia, against [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland_national_rugby_league_team \"Ireland national rugby league team\"), Fifita scored his first international try in the Kangaroos 50–0 win at [Thomond Park](/wiki/Thomond_Park \"Thomond Park\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/kangaroos\\-cruise\\-past\\-ireland\\-into\\-rugby\\-league\\-world\\-cup\\-quarterfinals/story\\-fnca0von\\-1226756697170\\\|title\\=Kangaroos Cruise Past Ireland into World Cup Quarterfinals\\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Australian]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In the Kangaroos semi\\-final match against [Fiji](/wiki/Fiji_national_rugby_league_team \"Fiji national rugby league team\"), Fifita scored the last try of the match in the 64–0 win. It was the last try ever described by [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") rugby league commentator [Ray French](/wiki/Ray_French \"Ray French\").{{cite web\\\|author\\=Brad Walter\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-match\\-report/rugby\\-league\\-world\\-cup\\-australia\\-smash\\-fiji\\-20131123\\-2y3bn.html\\\|title\\=Rugby League World Cup: Australia smash Fiji\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-24\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} During the tournament, Fifita played in 6 matches and scored 2 tries for Australia, including playing off the interchange bench in the Kangaroos 34\\-2 World Cup win over [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_league_team \"New Zealand national rugby league team\") at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford \"Old Trafford\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/world\\-cup\\-final\\-player\\-ratings/tabid/10874/newsid/75602/default.aspx\\\|title\\=World Cup final player ratings\\\|website\\=NRL.com\\\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-01\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}", "### 2014", "On 11 March, Fifita signed a four\\-year contract worth more than $800,000 a season to play with the [Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury_Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/cronullas\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-to\\-stay\\-in\\-nrl\\-as\\-bulldogs\\-lead\\-the\\-race\\-to\\-sign\\-the\\-prop/story\\-e6frf3uc\\-1226849075272\\\|title\\=Home \\\| Live Scores \\& Latest News\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} On 31 March, Fifita's contract with the Canterbury\\-Bankstown Bulldogs was terminated. A statement from the Bulldogs stated that they had advised Fifita's management that he would not be playing for the club \"given the final terms of the NRL Playing Contract could not be agreed\". Canterbury's management team were also reportedly upset with Fifita's comments days after signing with the club saying that \"He wished he joined Rugby Union instead\" and that his \"heart was still with Cronulla\".{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/canterbury\\-bulldogs\\-backflip\\-on\\-multimillion\\-dollar\\-deal\\-bringing\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-to\\-the\\-club/story\\-fni3g67w\\-1226869916996\\\|title\\=Bulldogs Backflip on Multi Million Dollar Deal Bringing Andre Fifita to the Club\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} On 26 April, Fifita re\\-signed with Cronulla on a four\\-year deal until the end of the 2018 season.{{cite web\\\|author\\=Adrian Proszenko\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-news/andrew\\-fifita\\-resigns\\-with\\-cronulla\\-for\\-four\\-years\\-20140426\\-zqzz7\\.html\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita re\\-signs with Cronulla for four years\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-26\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita later made public the terms of the memorandum of understanding he had signed, which stated he would be paid $800,000 per season. When the official contract was received 17 days later, the figures were much lower, and only offered $375,000 for the first season.{{cite web\\\|author\\=Michael Carayannis\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-news/andrew\\-fifita\\-goes\\-public\\-with\\-details\\-of\\-bulldogs\\-contract\\-offer\\-20140429\\-zr1gy.html\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita goes public with details of Bulldogs' contract offer\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-29\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} On 4 May, Fifita played for City against Country where he scored a try in the 26\\-all draw.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/hulking\\-centre\\-jamal\\-idris\\-stars\\-in\\-thrilling\\-citycountry\\-draw\\-in\\-dubbo/story\\-fni3fbgz\\-1226904860045\\\|title\\=Hulking Centre Jamal Idris Stars in tHrilling City Country Draw\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In round 9, against the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels \"Parramatta Eels\"), Fifita suffered an ankle injury.{{cite web\\\|author\\=Michael Chammas\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-match\\-report/andrew\\-fifita\\-injury\\-adds\\-to\\-nsw\\-blues\\-origin\\-headaches\\-20140512\\-zramn.html\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita injury adds to NSW Blues' Origin headaches\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|date\\=2014\\-05\\-12\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} The injury resulted in Fifita missing the [2014 State of Origin series](/wiki/2014_State_of_Origin_series \"2014 State of Origin series\"), and a big chunk of the NRL season. Fifita returned in round 18, against the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014\\-07\\-13/sharks\\-on\\-end\\-of\\-knights\\-fight\\-back/5593266\\\|title\\=Newcastle Knights stage fight\\-back to beat Cronulla 31\\-18 in NRL clash at Shark Park \\- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\\|website\\=Abc.net.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} In round 22, against the [New Zealand Warriors](/wiki/New_Zealand_Warriors \"New Zealand Warriors\"), Fifita suffered a broken arm which ended his season.{{cite web\\\|author\\=James MacSmith\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-news/andrew\\-fifita\\-out\\-for\\-season\\-after\\-breaking\\-arm\\-in\\-cronulla\\-sharks\\-loss\\-to\\-new\\-zealand\\-warriors\\-20140810\\-102jy2\\.html\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita out for season after breaking arm in Cronulla Sharks' loss to New Zealand Warriors\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita played in 12 matches during his tumultuous heavily publicised [2014 NRL season](/wiki/2014_NRL_season \"2014 NRL season\").", "On 17 August, Fifita was involved in a road rage incident at [Taren Point](/wiki/Taren_Point%2C_New_South_Wales \"Taren Point, New South Wales\") where he allegedly threw an object at a car travelling behind him and later after the pair pulled over, Fifita allegedly got out of his Jeep and verbally abused the 23\\-year\\-old male driver of the Subaru before punching and kicking the panels of his car.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/sharks/cronulla\\-sharks\\-superstar\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-interviewed\\-by\\-police\\-over\\-alleged\\-road\\-rage\\-incident/news\\-story/f1e3335d6f252f0e9ec09ce944df56b5\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita Interviewed by Police Over Alleged Road Rage Incident\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}", "### 2015", "In round 2, against the [Brisbane Broncos](/wiki/Brisbane_Broncos \"Brisbane Broncos\"), Fifita played his 100th career match in the Sharks 2–10 loss at Shark Park.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/broncos/sharks\\-v\\-broncos\\-ben\\-barba\\-form\\-a\\-massive\\-concern\\-as\\-cronulla\\-go\\-tryless\\-against\\-brisbane/news\\-story/72a7d05be515d223af46fb480c9b413a\\\|title\\=Ban Barba Form a Massive Concern as Cronulla Go Tryless Against Brisbane\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} On 3 May, he played for City Origin in the 22–34 loss in [Wagga Wagga](/wiki/Wagga_Wagga%2C_New_South_Wales \"Wagga Wagga, New South Wales\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/country\\-overcome\\-city\\-in\\-seesawing\\-affair/tabid/10874/newsid/85906/default.aspx\\\|title\\=Country overcome City in seesawing affair\\\|website\\=NRL.com\\\|date\\=2015\\-05\\-03\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita's good form in the early rounds of the season earned him a spot back into the New South Wales Blues team,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/breaking\\-news/state\\-of\\-origin\\-2015\\-nsw\\-blues\\-forward\\-andrew\\-fifitas\\-unborn\\-daughter\\-is\\-due\\-on\\-game\\-one/news\\-story/46463c07a90a4f47def5acd51279c6b1\\\|title\\=Home \\\| Live Scores \\& Latest News\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} where he played in game 1 of the [series](/wiki/2015_State_of_Origin_series \"2015 State of Origin series\"), coming off the interchange bench in the Blues 10–11 loss at ANZ Stadium.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\\-of\\-origin/state\\-of\\-origin\\-2015\\-game\\-1\\-live\\-coverage\\-of\\-nsw\\-blues\\-v\\-qld\\-maroons\\-at\\-anz\\-stadium/news\\-story/ce7edf8ca753f65143eb51208c52e457\\\|title\\=State of Origin 2015 Game : Live Coverage\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} He wasn't selected for games 2 or 3\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\\-of\\-origin/andrew\\-fifita\\-left\\-out\\-of\\-blues\\-team\\-for\\-state\\-of\\-origin\\-2/news\\-story/8b8aa7f3c95ba0033debd03b64a780d5\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita Left Out of Blues Team for State of Origin\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}", "On 6 August, Fifita and his twin brother David were given 6\\-week suspensions and a $30,000 fine after they abused a referee at a junior match in Penrith.{{cite web\\\|author\\=Adrian Proszenko\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/cronulla\\-sharks/cronulla\\-sharks\\-postpone\\-board\\-meeting\\-over\\-andrew\\-and\\-david\\-fifita\\-referee\\-abuse\\-allegations\\-20150806\\-git417\\.html\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita banned for six weeks, fined $30,000 for abusing junior referee\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|date\\=6 August 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} The pair allegedly abused the referee because a player in the team they were helping out, St Patrick's Blacktown, was injured in back play and the referee didn't stop the match.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/andrew\\-fifita\\-tells\\-junior\\-rugby\\-league\\-referee\\-ill\\-smash\\-you/news\\-story/5405bb47eac71cc00f6b38278f519816\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita Tells Junior Rugby League Referee \"I'll Smash You\"\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} During the suspension, on an episode of [The Footy Show](/wiki/The_Footy_Show_%28rugby_league%29 \"The Footy Show (rugby league)\"), Fifita discussed how he had suffered severe depression in October 2014 and attempted suicide by trying to hurl himself out of a 20th story window at a holiday resort at [Surfers Paradise](/wiki/Surfers_Paradise%2C_Queensland \"Surfers Paradise, Queensland\") after a drunken night out with his brothers and friends celebrating a friend's bucks night.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/sharks/nrl\\-star\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-reveals\\-he\\-tried\\-to\\-commit\\-suicide/news\\-story/7a669537295f77ac4584e31cb6473a07\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita Reveals He Tried to Commit Suicide\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita revealed that he had been saved when someone in the room grabbed his legs and pulled him back inside and said \"David punched me in the face, punched me in the mouth, I sat there laughing at him\", I was just yelling at him 'I don't care: it's over, do what you want.' Life was over for me at that point.\"{{cite web\\\|author\\=David Sygall\\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/cronulla\\-sharks/cronulla\\-sharks\\-star\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-reveals\\-suicide\\-bid\\-on\\-nrl\\-footy\\-show\\-20150820\\-gj4bis.html\\\|title\\=Cronulla Sharks star Andrew Fifita reveals suicide bid in NRL Footy Show interview\\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-21\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita had become suicidal amid the pressures of his team's poor results, a personal form slump and complications involving his contract. Following the incident, Andrew's brother David forced him to seek psychiatric help after which he received treatment for depression and a personality disorder. After his suspension was over, Fifita returned for the Sharks in their elimination finals match against the reigning premiers the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\"), where he played off the interchange bench in the Sharks 28–12 win.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015\\-09\\-09/andrew\\-fifita\\-raring\\-to\\-go\\-in\\-return\\-match\\-against\\-south\\-sydney/6762130\\\|title\\=Cronulla's Andrew Fifita raring to go in return match against South Sydney \\- ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\\\|website\\=Abc.net.au\\\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-09\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}} Fifita finished the [year](/wiki/2015_NRL_season \"2015 NRL season\") with him playing in 18 matches and scoring 7 tries for the Sharks.", "### 2016", "On 13 February, Fifita played for the Indigenous All Stars against the [World All Stars](/wiki/World_All_Stars \"World All Stars\"), starting at prop in the 12–8 loss at Suncorp Stadium. In September 2016, sports journalist [Rebecca Wilson](/wiki/Rebecca_Wilson \"Rebecca Wilson\") called for Fifita to be terminated by Cronulla after the player had visited convicted killer [Kieran Loveridge](/wiki/Kieran_Loveridge \"Kieran Loveridge\") in prison. Wilson later said that Fifita had no place in rugby league.{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/oct/07/rebecca\\-wilson\\-renown\\-sports\\-journalist\\-dies\\-from\\-breast\\-cancer\\-at\\-54/\\\|title\\=Rebecca Wilson: renowned sports journalist dies from breast cancer at 54\\\|website\\=The Guardian}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/sharks\\-ignore\\-calls\\-to\\-stand\\-down\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-after\\-kieran\\-loveridge\\-support/news\\-story/7c3398df11bdd2860822a9924218a3f5/\\\|title\\=Sharks ignore calls to stand down Andrew Fifita after Kieran Loveridge support\\\|website\\=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/world\\-all\\-stars\\-defeat\\-indigenous\\-all\\-stars\\-128\\-at\\-suncorp\\-stadium/news\\-story/034a63c6602597828b4b9a5ce72f986e\\\|title\\=World All Stars Defeat Indigenous All Stars 12\\-8\\\|website\\=Dailytelegraph.com.au\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-11}}", "On 2 October, Fifita played for Cronulla\\-Sutherland against the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") in the [2016 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2016_NRL_Grand_Final \"2016 NRL Grand Final\"), which Cronulla won 14–12 at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium \"ANZ Stadium\") in Sydney. He scored the winning try with ten minutes to go in the game, carrying several defenders over the line with him. His efforts in the 2016 season saw him co\\-winner of the Cronulla\\-Sutherland Sharks Player of the Year trophy at the clubs annual season awards night. On 13 December 2016, Fifita was handed a breach notice by The NRL for showing support for childhood friend, one punch killer Kieran Loveridge. Fifita attempted to reach out to the family of Thomas Kelly and was dismayed at how the incident was received.{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/im\\-heartbroken\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-wants\\-to\\-apologise\\-in\\-person\\-to\\-kelly\\-family\\-20160903\\-gr84pg.html \\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita wants to apologise to Thomas Kelly's family over Kieran Loveridge message \\\|publisher\\=Sydney Morning Herald \\\|date\\=3 September 2016 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}", "On seven occasions Fifita was photographed playing with the message on his wrist during the Cronulla's premiership drought\\-breaking campaign. On 21 December 2016, Fifita was fined $20,000 by The NRL over his continued support for Loveridge.{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.nrl.com/news/2016/12/22/andrew\\-fifita\\-fined\\-$20000/ \\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita fined $20,000 \\\|publisher\\=NRL \\\|date\\=22 December 2016 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016\\-12\\-13/nrl\\-hits\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-with\\-breach\\-notice\\-support\\-convicted\\-kil/8117516 \\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita hit with NRL breach notice for 'FKL' support for convicted killer Kieran Loveridge \\\|publisher\\=ABC \\\|date\\=13 December 2016 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}", "### 2017", "On 31 May 2017, Fifita played for the [New South Wales Blues](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") in game 1 of the 2017 [State of Origin series](/wiki/State_of_Origin_series \"State of Origin series\") and was instrumental in the team's 28–4 win over the [Queensland Maroons](/wiki/Queensland_Maroons \"Queensland Maroons\"). He fended multiple times to put [James Maloney](/wiki/James_Maloney_%28rugby_league%29 \"James Maloney (rugby league)\") in under the posts, then made some runs. He took advantage of a loose ball from [Justin O'Neill](/wiki/Justin_O%27Neill \"Justin O'Neill\") to score under the posts. Fifita was adjudged man of the match. During RLWC 2017, despite being named in the Australian team, Fifita opted to play for [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team \"Tonga national rugby league team\"), and was instrumental in their most successful World Cup campaign to date, reaching the semi\\-finals. On 2 December 2017, it was revealed that Fifita was taking NRL club Canterbury to court over a contract dispute which was reportedly worth $3\\.2 million over 4 seasons.{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/andrew\\-fifita\\-set\\-to\\-sue\\-canterbury\\-bulldogs\\-for\\-32\\-million\\-over\\-contract\\-offer\\-20171202\\-gzxhoq.html \\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita set to sue Canterbury Bulldogs for $3\\.2 million over contract offer \\\|publisher\\=Sydney Morning Herald \\\|date\\=2 December 2017 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/league/99484039/tonga\\-test\\-star\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-set\\-to\\-challenge\\-canterbury\\-bulldogs\\-for\\-32\\-million\\-over\\-contract\\-offer \\\|title\\=Tonga test star Andrew Fifita set to challenge Canterbury Bulldogs for $3\\.2 million over contract offer \\\|publisher\\=Stuff \\\|date\\=3 December 2017 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}", "### 2018", "Fifita had a strong year in 2018\\. He captained the Sharks on occasion and was awarded the Dally M Prop of the Year. In November, it was revealed by The Daily Telegraph that Cronulla had lost their 3 main sponsors ahead of the 2019 season. According to the report, Cronulla were in talks with securing a major sponsor for the next five seasons equaling $6 million but the deal was cancelled due to Fifita and fellow Cronulla player Josh Dugan's antics during a podcast back in August 2018 when Fifita called Daily Telegraph sports columnist Phil Rothfield a \"complete fuckwit\" and Dugan calling Rothfield an \"old, weathered and baldheaded idiot\".{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/teams/sharks/cronulla\\-have\\-lost\\-three\\-sponsors\\-heading\\-into\\-the\\-2019\\-season\\-and\\-will\\-be\\-forced\\-to\\-wear\\-bare\\-jerseys/news\\-story/a7168293e530810cc589ce117a159660 \\\|title\\=Cronulla have lost three sponsors heading into the 2019 season and will be forced to wear bare jerseys \\\|publisher\\=Fox League \\\|date\\=30 November 2018 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.sportingnews.com/au/league/news/andrew\\-fifita\\-buzz\\-rothfield\\-josh\\-dugan\\-podcast\\-cronulla/1ued2hlrxo24w10opou8w8x76p \\\|title\\=Cronulla's Josh Dugan pulled from media duties in wake of Buzz Rothfield podcast saga \\\|publisher\\=Sporting News \\\|date\\=23 August 2018 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}", "In the historic first ever rugby league Test between the [Australian Kangaroos](/wiki/Australian_Kangaroos \"Australian Kangaroos\") and [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga_national_rugby_league_team \"Tonga national rugby league team\"), Fifita led the Tongan pre\\-match warcry, the [sipi tau](/wiki/Kailao \"Kailao\"), in front of a sold\\-out crowd at Auckland's [Mount Smart Stadium](/wiki/Mount_Smart_Stadium \"Mount Smart Stadium\"). The Kangaroos went on to win 36–14\\.{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/sport/369091/kangaroos\\-withstand\\-spirited\\-tongan\\-challenge \\\|title\\=Kangaroos withstand spirited Tongan challenge \\\|publisher\\=RNZ \\\|date\\=21 October 2018 \\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2021}}", "### 2019", "[thumb\\\|right\\\|350px\\\|Fifita playing for the Newtown Jets in 2021](/wiki/File:ANDREW_FIFITA.jpg \"ANDREW FIFITA.jpg\")\nOn 3 May, Fifita ruled out a return to play for New South Wales saying \"The pinnacle of our game is to play for your country, And we’ve created something really good for international footy and I don’t want it to drop off\".", "In Round 18 against the [New Zealand Warriors](/wiki/New_Zealand_Warriors \"New Zealand Warriors\"), Fifita was sin binned with 10 minutes of play left after using an illegal shoulder charge on New Zealand player [Lachlan Burr](/wiki/Lachlan_Burr \"Lachlan Burr\"). New Zealand would go on to kick the subsequent penalty goal and then kicked a field goal to win the match 19–18\\. After the match, former NRL player [Darren Lockyer](/wiki/Darren_Lockyer \"Darren Lockyer\") branded Fifita \"irresponsible\" and \"lazy\".{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/andrew\\-fifita\\-nailed\\-darren\\-lockyer\\-cronulla\\-sharks/e454ba17\\-bea2\\-4915\\-88cd\\-0f26049398d6/\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita play branded 'irresponsible, lazy' by NRL great Darren Lockyer\\\|website\\=WWOS}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/teams/sharks/pinnacle\\-of\\-our\\-game\\-is\\-to\\-play\\-for\\-your\\-country\\-fifita\\-rules\\-out\\-nsw\\-recall/news\\-story/2a9e774be396a6c4d68e13edcdb26322/\\\|title\\='Pinnacle of our game is to play for your country': Fifita rules out NSW recall\\\|website\\=Fox Sports}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/andrew\\-voss\\-column\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-lets\\-sharks\\-down\\-nrl\\-coaching\\-needs\\-a\\-health\\-warning/news\\-story/5ce66d9763fbcf9953fd008dfdeda8e9/\\\|title\\=Andrew Voss column: Andrew Fifita lets Sharks down, NRL coaching needs a health warning\\\|website\\=Fox Sports}}", "At the end of the 2019 regular season, Cronulla finished in 7th spot and qualified for the finals. Fifita played in the club's elimination final defeat against Manly at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval \"Brookvale Oval\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.nrl.com/news/2019/09/14/under\\-strength\\-sea\\-eagles\\-send\\-sharks\\-packing/\\\|title\\=Under\\-strength Sea Eagles send Sharks packing\\\|website\\=NRL}}", "### 2020", "Fifita played 12 games for Cronulla in the [2020 NRL season](/wiki/2020_NRL_season \"2020 NRL season\") as the club finished 8th and qualified for the finals. He played in Cronulla's elimination final loss against Canberra.{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/nrl\\-2020\\-canberra\\-raiders\\-vs\\-cronulla\\-sharks\\-finals\\-live\\-stream\\-live\\-blog\\-teams\\-videos\\-supercoach\\-scores\\-jack\\-wighton/news\\-story/4fed4e0a89be75dfcdf95cba3a693e27/\\\|title\\=Wighton, Williams spark Raiders comeback as Sharks finals hopes ended\\\|website\\=www.foxsports.com.au}}", "### 2021", "Fifita started the season in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup \"NSW Cup\"), playing for Cronulla's feeder club [Newtown](/wiki/Newtown_Jets \"Newtown Jets\"). In round 10 of the [2021 NRL season](/wiki/2021_NRL_season \"2021 NRL season\"), he made his first appearance of the year for Cronulla against [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/paul\\-gallen\\-defends\\-andrew\\-fifita\\-over\\-newtown\\-jets\\-reserve\\-grade\\-nrl/5651ffeb\\-2861\\-45d1\\-8ba8\\-d5d19f8067ff/\\\|title\\='I don't think that's right at all': Paul Gallen launches impassioned defence of Andrew Fifita\\\|website\\=wwos.nine.com.au}}", "In round 22 against Newcastle, Fifita was taken from the field in the first half of the match and later taken to hospital with a suspected throat injury,{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/andrew\\-fifita\\-hospitalised\\-after\\-cronulla\\-sharks\\-loss\\-to\\-newcastle/72f097fb\\-964c\\-4478\\-8966\\-c2ed0fc2a85c/\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita taken to hospital after having 'trouble breathing' following Sharks' loss to Knights\\\|website\\=wwos.nine.com.au}} where he was diagnosed with a fractured larynx requiring surgery and placed into an induced coma.{{Cite web\\\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-16\\\|title\\=Andrew Fifita in a coma awaiting surgery on fractured larynx\\\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\\-08\\-17/andrew\\-fifita\\-in\\-induced\\-coma\\-after\\-fractured\\-larynx/100382366\\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-17\\\|website\\=www.abc.net.au\\\|language\\=en\\-AU}}", "### 2022", "In round 17 of the [2022 NRL season](/wiki/2022_NRL_season \"2022 NRL season\"), Fifita was sent to the sin bin for a dangerous tackle during Cronulla's 28\\-6 victory over [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/nrl\\-2022\\-brandon\\-smith\\-sin\\-binned\\-melbourne\\-storm\\-video\\-cronulla\\-sharks/news\\-story/4b44fddb239c3cb87a55f94d67b5a4cd/\\\|title\\=‘What did you say bra?’: Storm star Smith’s big admission after ugly clash with Sharks fan\\\|website\\=www.foxsports.com.au}}\nOn 23 August, Fifita announced he would be leaving Cronulla at the end of the 2022 season.{{Cite web \\\|title\\='Heartbroken' premiership hero quits Sharks \\\|url\\=https://wwos.nine.com.au/nrl/andrew\\-fifita\\-cronulla\\-pointsbet\\-stadium\\-last\\-home\\-match/49970aab\\-a52c\\-49e9\\-9fa4\\-2c7dbffc1ce4 \\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-23 \\\|website\\=wwos.nine.com.au \\\|language\\=en}}\nFifita played a total of 22 games for Cronulla throughout 2022 including both of the clubs finals matches. Fifita's final game for Cronulla was their elimination final loss to [South Sydney](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/cronullas\\-dual\\-gamble\\-pays\\-off\\-major\\-flaw\\-exposed\\-in\\-finals\\-disaster\\-brutal\\-review/news\\-story/619a3957ee64720ef66e0e9542f375b7/\\\|title\\=Young gun who can solve Sharks' big problem; masterstroke that can't be overlooked: Brutal Review\\\|website\\=www.foxsports.com.au}} In November, Fifita announced his retirement.", "" ]
Background ---------- Thanks to the victories of the [Spring Campaign](/wiki/Spring_Campaign "Spring Campaign"), the Hungarian Revolutionary Army liberated much of Hungary from the occupation of the numerically and technologically superior Habsburg armies and their Serbian, Romanian, and Croatian allies.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=314}}. The Hungarian army of Transylvania, led by [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_General "Lieutenant General") [Józef Bem](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Bem "Józef Bem") even managed to chase out from the province the first Russian intervention troops (7000 soldiers), which entered there in the winter of 1849\.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=257}}. From the end of March the Austrian politicians and military leaders understood that the Habsburg Empire is incapable of crushing their revolution by relying on their strength.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=315}}. So, based on the [Münchengrätz Agreements](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchengr%C3%A4tz_Agreements "Münchengrätz Agreements") from 1833, according to which the Habsburg and Russian Empires and Prussia agreed to help each other if their sovereignty is threatened by a revolt or revolution, Austria decided to ask for Russian help against the Hungarian Revolution, although initially, they were reluctant to do that, because they were conscious that this will cause them a big loss of prestige. But the Hungarian victories of the Spring Campaign made the Habsburg government make this unwanted step, and on 21 April, they made the official help request from Russia, followed by the letter of the emperor [Franz Joseph I of Austria](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria "Franz Joseph I of Austria") to Tsar [Nicholas I of Russia](/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia "Nicholas I of Russia"). In result the Tsar decided to send 200,000 Russian soldiers to Hungary, putting another 80,000 in reserve, to enter Hungary if their presence would be needed.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=315–316}}. Although the Hungarian Government led by [Bertalan Szemere](/wiki/Bertalan_Szemere "Bertalan Szemere") and Governor President [Lajos Kossuth](/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth "Lajos Kossuth") believed that the European nations would not allow Russia to intervene in Hungary, the European states and England agreed with Russian intervention to crush the Hungarian revolution, thus [Lord Palmerston](/wiki/Henry_John_Temple%2C_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston "Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston") replied to the question of the Russian ambassador about the reaction of England to Russian intervention in Hungary, saying: Finish them quickly!, demanding that after they fulfilled their task to return in Russia immediately.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=316}}. Although England worried about Russian intervention in Hungary, its first concern was that the Russian Empire to not advance in the Balkans, and an important condition for this was a strong Habsburg Empire. So, an independent Hungary could have impeded England's world domination policy. In the meanwhile, after the [capture of Buda](/wiki/Siege_of_Buda_%281849%29 "Siege of Buda (1849)") General [György Klapka](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Klapka "György Klapka"), as the deputy minister of war, elaborated the plan for the Hungarian military actions for summer, called later the Summer Campaign. His plan was based on the inactivity of the main Hungarian army corps, stationed around the fortress of [Komárom](/wiki/Kom%C3%A1rom "Komárom"), in the case of a retreat, appointed as the concentration point of the Hungarian troops in the Hungarian capitals ([Buda](/wiki/Buda "Buda") and [Pest](/wiki/Pest%2C_Hungary "Pest, Hungary")) and [Miskolc](/wiki/Miskolc "Miskolc"), which were facing the main imperial forces under the command of [Lieutenant Field Marshal](/wiki/Lieutenant_Field_Marshal "Lieutenant Field Marshal") [Julius Jacob von Haynau](/wiki/Julius_Jacob_von_Haynau "Julius Jacob von Haynau"), while the Hungarian troops from Transylvania and Southern Hungary had to accomplish so heavy tasks that could be achieved only after relentless military actions in two months. In the plan made by Klapka, the Russian military intervention was only faintly mentioned without taking any measure against it. This plan was rejected by many of the Hungarian commanders (Józef Bem, Lieutenant General [Henryk Dembiński](/wiki/Henryk_Dembi%C5%84ski "Henryk Dembiński")), who said that they would not obey it. The Hungarian commander\-in\-chief and War Minister General [Artúr Görgei](/wiki/Art%C3%BAr_G%C3%B6rgei "Artúr Görgei") also protested against this plan, underlining that as the concentration point of the Hungarian troops instead of Miskolc, Komárom should be appointed, and because of the imminent threat of the Russian intervention, he saw that the only way still open to the Hungarian army was to deal a decisive blow to the main imperial army before the slowly moving Russian forces arrived. This would have forced Austria to enter talks, and offer some kind of settlement, with the Hungarians.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=317}}. Görgei planned to attack towards Pozsony and Vienna quickly before the main Russian army started its attack on the Eastern and Northern fronts against Hungary. To this end he and his chief of the general staff, Lieutenant\-Colonel József Bayer, created at end of May the Central Operational Bureau (Központi Hadműveleti Iroda), to coordinate the movements of the different units of the Hungarian main army corps gathered in the Western Front.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=322}}. Besides the troops which the Central Operational Bureau disposed of (I., II., III. and parts of the VIII. corps), on the Western Front was another army grouping to which the VII. corps from the Rába line, led by Ernő Poeltenberg (from 6 May Colonel, and from 7 June General),{{Harvnb\\|Bóna\\|1987\\|pp\=268}}. and the garrison of Komárom (the VIII. corps) belonged, and this was led by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General "Major General") György Klapka, commander of the garrison of Komárom. Klapka refused to submit to the orders of the chief of the general staff József Bayer, actioning independently.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2004\\|pp\=272}}. [thumb\\|left\\|Görgey Artúr litográfia Barabás](/wiki/File:G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_%28Barab%C3%A1s_Mikl%C3%B3s_metszete%2C_1849%29.jpg "Görgei Artúr (Barabás Miklós metszete, 1849).jpg") [thumb\\|Ludwig von Wohlgemuth](/wiki/File:Ludwig_von_Wohlgemuth.jpg "Ludwig von Wohlgemuth.jpg") Görgei planned to attack as quickly as possible the Austrian troops on the Western Border of Hungary with the I., II., III., and parts of the VIII. corps, which were under the Central Operational Bureau's command, on the left Bank of the [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube"), while the remainder of his troops had to protect the defensive line based on the [Rába](/wiki/R%C3%A1ba "Rába") and [Marcal](/wiki/Marcal "Marcal") rivers. Before the attack, he hoped that the 12,000 soldiers led by Józef Bem, coming from the southern front and Transylvania, promised by Kossuth to arrive to join his forces (unfortunately Bem refused to come, saying that this will leave Transylvania defenseless against the imminent Russian invasion).{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=316–317}}. The Hungarian armies at the beginning of the Summer Campaign consisted of 150,000 soldiers, 464 field, and 393 defensive (castle) cannons.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=318}}. Another problem of the Hungarian army was that many of the talented, experienced Hungarian generals, who helped decisively the success of the Spring Campaign, were no more available ([János Damjanich](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Damjanich "János Damjanich"), who broke his leg; [Lajos Aulich](/wiki/Lajos_Aulich "Lajos Aulich") who became ill;{{Harvnb\\|Bóna\\|1987\\|pp\=96}}. [András Gáspár](/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_G%C3%A1sp%C3%A1r_%28general%29 "András Gáspár (general)")) who resigned from the Hungarian army because of political reasons{{Harvnb\\|Bóna\\|1987\\|pp\=157}}.) and General Görgei was forced to put in their place other officers who were talented soldiers, but were not experienced as army corps leaders, many of them lacking capacity of acting independently when it needed and they had no order to do so, but the military situation required this.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=325}}. So, Görgei put General Károly Knezić in Damjanich's place to lead III. corps, Colonel Lajos Asbóth in Aulich's place to lead II. corps, General [Ernő Poeltenberg](/wiki/Ern%C5%91_Poeltenberg "Ernő Poeltenberg") in Gáspár's place. General [György Klapka](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Klapka "György Klapka") who formerly was the commander of the I. corps, but who became temporary main commander of the main Hungarian army, called Hungarian Army of the Upper Danube (Feldunai Hadsereg),{{Harvnb\\|Bóna\\|1987\\|pp\=202}}. taking the place of Görgei, who became War Minister, had to give his position at the head of his corps to General [József Nagysándor](/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Nagys%C3%A1ndor "József Nagysándor"). These new corps commanders lacked the former generals' talent, intuition and experience. Görgei himself, because of now being War Minister, had to fulfill these two heavy tasks (ministry and high commandment of the army), could not focus in the same way on the military actions as he did in the Spring Campaign. At the start of the Summer Campaign, the Hungarian army had the same problem as the imperial main armies had at the beginning of the Spring Campaign: its commanders had not much knowledge about the enemy's distribution and where their main forces were stationed. The Hungarian intelligence failed to accomplish this important task. The support from the southern front (around 12 000 men) did not arrive, despite Görgei's hopes, because with the arrival there of [Feldzeugmeister](/wiki/Feldzeugmeister "Feldzeugmeister") [Josip Jelačić](/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Josip Jelačić")'s troops, in support to the Serbian rebels and Austrian troops stationed there, the military situation changed there in the favor of the imperials, so all the Hungarian troops were needed there. On the other hand, the Austro\-Russian coalition prepared to attack Hungary with 358,000 soldiers and 1354 cannons (165,000 Austrians with 770 cannons and 193,000 Russians with 584 cannons). While Russian and Austrian army groups, led by General [Alexander von Lüders](/wiki/Alexander_von_L%C3%BCders "Alexander von Lüders") and General [Eduard Clam\-Gallas](/wiki/Eduard_Clam-Gallas "Eduard Clam-Gallas"), prepared their attacks [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania "Transylvania") from [Bucovina](/wiki/Bucovina "Bucovina"), [Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia "Wallachia") and [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia "Moldavia"), (53,000 soldiers and 133 cannons against 39,000 Hungarians, who were mainly fresh recruits without any war experience, and 107 cannons), the main Russian army under the leadership of [Field Marshal](/wiki/Field_Marshal "Field Marshal") [Ivan Paskevich](/wiki/Ivan_Paskevich "Ivan Paskevich") had to advance from the North (135,000 Russian soldiers and 448 cannons against 16,500 Hungarians with 49 cannons), the Austro\-Croatian\-Serbian troops led by Feldzeugmeister Josip Jelačić operated in Southern Hungary (53,000 soldiers with 401 cannons against 34,000 Hungarians and 249 cannons). The numerical disadvantage of the Hungarian armies was augmented also that 13% of the Hungarian troops in Transylvania and Eastern Hungary were used in the sieges of different fortifications in imperial hands ([Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania "Arad, Romania"), [Temesvár](/wiki/Temesv%C3%A1r "Temesvár"), [Gyulafehérvár](/wiki/Gyulafeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r "Gyulafehérvár"), [Titel](/wiki/Titel "Titel")) (around 12,000 men), while others (8000 men) were garrisons in different fortifications, so they could not be used as moving forces against the invading Austro\-Russian armies.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=318–319}}. From the West, the imperial troops which were preparing to attack Hungary were led by Lieutenant Field Marshal Haynau, the commander\-in\-chief of all the Habsburg forces outside Italy, were about 83,000 soldiers (71,000 Austrians and a 12,000\-strong Russian army corps led by Lieutenant General Feodor Sergeyevich Panyutyin) and 336 cannons, against nearly 51,000 Hungarian soldiers (except a part of the garrison of the fortress of Komárom, the VIII. corps, which could not be moved out from the fortress to fight in open field) with 196 field and 244 defensive cannons used only in the fortifications, led by General Görgei. This assured Haynau a huge superiority. [thumb\\|upright\=1\.4\\|The military situation on the Western Front before and after the Battle of Pered. Red: Austrians. Broken red line: Russians. Black: Hungarians](/wiki/File:Banlaky-big_hadtortpic_2112b.jpg "Banlaky-big hadtortpic 2112b.jpg") Görgei's troops were positioned along the river Vág downwards to Komárom, and south of the Danube along the Rába's Eastern bank until [Marcaltő](/wiki/Marcalt%C5%91 "Marcaltő"). The mining towns (Bakabánya, [Besztercebánya](/wiki/Beszterceb%C3%A1nya "Besztercebánya"), [Bélabánya](/wiki/B%C3%A9lab%C3%A1nya "Bélabánya"), [Körmöcbánya](/wiki/K%C3%B6rm%C3%B6cb%C3%A1nya "Körmöcbánya"), Libetbánya, [Selmecbánya](/wiki/Selmecb%C3%A1nya "Selmecbánya"), [Újbánya](/wiki/%C3%9Ajb%C3%A1nya "Újbánya")) were protected by a detachment of 2700 soldiers led by Ármin Görgei, to South to this, around Mocsonok, [Ürmény](/wiki/%C3%9Crm%C3%A9ny "Ürmény") and Komjáti were 1300 soldiers at [Nyitra](/wiki/Nyitra "Nyitra"), to south the I. corps led by General József Nagysándor consisting of 7400 men, from here until [Érsekújvár](/wiki/%C3%89rsek%C3%BAjv%C3%A1r "Érsekújvár") on the course of the Vág the 9200 soldiers of the III. corps led by General Károly Knezić were positioned, south of this until Komárom stationed the 8600 men of the II. corps led by Colonel Lajos Asbóth, in [Csallóköz](/wiki/Csall%C3%B3k%C3%B6z "Csallóköz") stood the 4000 men strong division of the VIII. corps which were defending Komárom under General György Klapka (later another 3400 soldiers left the fortress to support the field army's operations). These 4000 soldiers from Csallóköz assured contact between the troops to North and South from the Danube. South to the Danube, around [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r "Győr") was the 9000 soldiers of the VII. corps under General Ernő Poeltenberg, and finally the Hungarian line's southernmost unit was the Kmety division consisting of 5100 men.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=325–326}}. The concentration, in the opportunity of a battle of these troops was impossible, because of the great length of the front, consisting in total 250 kilometers.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2004\\|pp\=280}}. The Austrian troops which faced the Hungarians in the Western, under the high command of Lieutenant Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau were positioned as follows. On the right (Southern) bank of the Danube: the III. corps under the lead of [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_General "Lieutenant General") von Moltke was stationed around [Sopron](/wiki/Sopron "Sopron") having 16,200 men, the I. corps, under the command of General Franz [Schlik](/wiki/Schlik "Schlik"), consisting of 21,900 soldiers were around Moson, [Magyaróvár](/wiki/Magyar%C3%B3v%C3%A1r "Magyaróvár"), [Öttevény](/wiki/%C3%96ttev%C3%A9ny "Öttevény"), [Kimle](/wiki/Kimle "Kimle") and [Hédervár](/wiki/H%C3%A9derv%C3%A1r "Hédervár"); on the left bank: the bulk of the 13,500 men big II. corps under Lieutenant General [Anton Csorich](/wiki/Anton_Csorich "Anton Csorich") was in Csallóköz, and its Pott\-brigade stationed along the Vág river at [Farkasd](/wiki/Vl%C4%8Dany "Vlčany") and [Vágsellye](/wiki/V%C3%A1gsellye "Vágsellye"), the reserve (IV.) corps under the lead of Lieutenant General [Ludwig von Wohlgemuth](/wiki/Ludwig_von_Wohlgemuth "Ludwig von Wohlgemuth") consisted of 17,700 soldiers, and had its headquarters at [Nagyszombat](/wiki/Nagyszombat "Nagyszombat"), while its brigades were stationed at [Szered](/wiki/Szered "Szered"), [Vága](/wiki/V%C3%A1hovce "Váhovce") and [Galgóc](/wiki/Galg%C3%B3c "Galgóc"). To these troops was sent in support by the high commander of the Russian forces, [Marshall](/wiki/Marshal "Marshal") [Ivan Paskevich](/wiki/Ivan_Paskevich "Ivan Paskevich") the Russian division, consisting of 11,900 soldiers under the lead of Lieutenant General Feodor Sergeyevich Panyutyin, which was stationed first around [Pozsony](/wiki/Pozsony "Pozsony"), then, because the [Cholera](/wiki/Cholera "Cholera") epidemic, which broke out in that region, it was moved to [Modor](/wiki/Modra "Modra") and [Bazin](/wiki/Pezinok "Pezinok"). Görgei planned to start a Hungarian attack on the northern banks of the Danube against the troops of Haynau. But on 13 June, the 15th Hungarian [division](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 "Division (military)") commanded by Colonel [György Kmety](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Kmety "György Kmety") attacked on the southern Bank of the Danube, and defeated an Austrian half brigade led by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General "Major General") Franz Wyss in the [Battle of Csorna](/wiki/Battle_of_Csorna "Battle of Csorna").{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2004\\|pp\=270–276}}. This attack had to attract some of the imperial troops towards the south, to make the task of the main Hungarian attack along the Vág river easier.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2004\\|pp\=273}}. Haynau indeed sent the order to his troops to move southwards and cross the Danube, but this was not given because Kmety's victory impressed him, but because the imperial commander wanted to start the general offensive there towards Komárom.	[ "Background\n----------", "Thanks to the victories of the [Spring Campaign](/wiki/Spring_Campaign \"Spring Campaign\"), the Hungarian Revolutionary Army liberated much of Hungary from the occupation of the numerically and technologically superior Habsburg armies and their Serbian, Romanian, and Croatian allies.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=314}}. The Hungarian army of Transylvania, led by [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_General \"Lieutenant General\") [Józef Bem](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Bem \"Józef Bem\") even managed to chase out from the province the first Russian intervention troops (7000 soldiers), which entered there in the winter of 1849\\.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=257}}. From the end of March the Austrian politicians and military leaders understood that the Habsburg Empire is incapable of crushing their revolution by relying on their strength.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=315}}. So, based on the [Münchengrätz Agreements](/wiki/M%C3%BCnchengr%C3%A4tz_Agreements \"Münchengrätz Agreements\") from 1833, according to which the Habsburg and Russian Empires and Prussia agreed to help each other if their sovereignty is threatened by a revolt or revolution, Austria decided to ask for Russian help against the Hungarian Revolution, although initially, they were reluctant to do that, because they were conscious that this will cause them a big loss of prestige. But the Hungarian victories of the Spring Campaign made the Habsburg government make this unwanted step, and on 21 April, they made the official help request from Russia, followed by the letter of the emperor [Franz Joseph I of Austria](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria \"Franz Joseph I of Austria\") to Tsar [Nicholas I of Russia](/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia \"Nicholas I of Russia\"). In result the Tsar decided to send 200,000 Russian soldiers to Hungary, putting another 80,000 in reserve, to enter Hungary if their presence would be needed.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=315–316}}. Although the Hungarian Government led by [Bertalan Szemere](/wiki/Bertalan_Szemere \"Bertalan Szemere\") and Governor President [Lajos Kossuth](/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth \"Lajos Kossuth\") believed that the European nations would not allow Russia to intervene in Hungary, the European states and England agreed with Russian intervention to crush the Hungarian revolution, thus\n[Lord Palmerston](/wiki/Henry_John_Temple%2C_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston \"Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston\") replied to the question of the Russian ambassador about the reaction of England to Russian intervention in Hungary, saying: Finish them quickly!, demanding that after they fulfilled their task to return in Russia immediately.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=316}}. Although England worried about Russian intervention in Hungary, its first concern was that the Russian Empire to not advance in the Balkans, and an important condition for this was a strong Habsburg Empire. So, an independent Hungary could have impeded England's world domination policy.", "In the meanwhile, after the [capture of Buda](/wiki/Siege_of_Buda_%281849%29 \"Siege of Buda (1849)\") General [György Klapka](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Klapka \"György Klapka\"), as the deputy minister of war, elaborated the plan for the Hungarian military actions for summer, called later the Summer Campaign. His plan was based on the inactivity of the main Hungarian army corps, stationed around the fortress of [Komárom](/wiki/Kom%C3%A1rom \"Komárom\"), in the case of a retreat, appointed as the concentration point of the Hungarian troops in the Hungarian capitals ([Buda](/wiki/Buda \"Buda\") and [Pest](/wiki/Pest%2C_Hungary \"Pest, Hungary\")) and [Miskolc](/wiki/Miskolc \"Miskolc\"), which were facing the main imperial forces under the command of [Lieutenant Field Marshal](/wiki/Lieutenant_Field_Marshal \"Lieutenant Field Marshal\") [Julius Jacob von Haynau](/wiki/Julius_Jacob_von_Haynau \"Julius Jacob von Haynau\"), while the Hungarian troops from Transylvania and Southern Hungary had to accomplish so heavy tasks that could be achieved only after relentless military actions in two months. In the plan made by Klapka, the Russian military intervention was only faintly mentioned without taking any measure against it. This plan was rejected by many of the Hungarian commanders (Józef Bem, Lieutenant General [Henryk Dembiński](/wiki/Henryk_Dembi%C5%84ski \"Henryk Dembiński\")), who said that they would not obey it. The Hungarian commander\\-in\\-chief and War Minister General [Artúr Görgei](/wiki/Art%C3%BAr_G%C3%B6rgei \"Artúr Görgei\") also protested against this plan, underlining that as the concentration point of the Hungarian troops instead of Miskolc, Komárom should be appointed, and because of the imminent threat of the Russian intervention, he saw that the only way still open to the Hungarian army was to deal a decisive blow to the main imperial army before the slowly moving Russian forces arrived. This would have forced Austria to enter talks, and offer some kind of settlement, with the Hungarians.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=317}}.", "Görgei planned to attack towards Pozsony and Vienna quickly before the main Russian army started its attack on the Eastern and Northern fronts against Hungary. To this end he and his chief of the general staff, Lieutenant\\-Colonel József Bayer, created at end of May the Central Operational Bureau (Központi Hadműveleti Iroda), to coordinate the movements of the different units of the Hungarian main army corps gathered in the Western Front.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=322}}. Besides the troops which the Central Operational Bureau disposed of (I., II., III. and parts of the VIII. corps), on the Western Front was another army grouping to which the VII. corps from the Rába line, led by Ernő Poeltenberg (from 6 May Colonel, and from 7 June General),{{Harvnb\\\|Bóna\\\|1987\\\|pp\\=268}}. and the garrison of Komárom (the VIII. corps) belonged, and this was led by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General \"Major General\") György Klapka, commander of the garrison of Komárom. Klapka refused to submit to the orders of the chief of the general staff József Bayer, actioning independently.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2004\\\|pp\\=272}}.\n[thumb\\\|left\\\|Görgey Artúr litográfia Barabás](/wiki/File:G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_%28Barab%C3%A1s_Mikl%C3%B3s_metszete%2C_1849%29.jpg \"Görgei Artúr (Barabás Miklós metszete, 1849).jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|Ludwig von Wohlgemuth](/wiki/File:Ludwig_von_Wohlgemuth.jpg \"Ludwig von Wohlgemuth.jpg\")\nGörgei planned to attack as quickly as possible the Austrian troops on the Western Border of Hungary with the I., II., III., and parts of the VIII. corps, which were under the Central Operational Bureau's command, on the left Bank of the [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\"), while the remainder of his troops had to protect the defensive line based on the [Rába](/wiki/R%C3%A1ba \"Rába\") and [Marcal](/wiki/Marcal \"Marcal\") rivers. Before the attack, he hoped that the 12,000 soldiers led by Józef Bem, coming from the southern front and Transylvania, promised by Kossuth to arrive to join his forces (unfortunately Bem refused to come, saying that this will leave Transylvania defenseless against the imminent Russian invasion).{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=316–317}}. The Hungarian armies at the beginning of the Summer Campaign consisted of 150,000 soldiers, 464 field, and 393 defensive (castle) cannons.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=318}}.", "Another problem of the Hungarian army was that many of the talented, experienced Hungarian generals, who helped decisively the success of the Spring Campaign, were no more available ([János Damjanich](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Damjanich \"János Damjanich\"), who broke his leg; [Lajos Aulich](/wiki/Lajos_Aulich \"Lajos Aulich\") who became ill;{{Harvnb\\\|Bóna\\\|1987\\\|pp\\=96}}. [András Gáspár](/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_G%C3%A1sp%C3%A1r_%28general%29 \"András Gáspár (general)\")) who resigned from the Hungarian army because of political reasons{{Harvnb\\\|Bóna\\\|1987\\\|pp\\=157}}.) and General Görgei was forced to put in their place other officers who were talented soldiers, but were not experienced as army corps leaders, many of them lacking capacity of acting independently when it needed and they had no order to do so, but the military situation required this.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=325}}. So, Görgei put General Károly Knezić in Damjanich's place to lead III. corps, Colonel Lajos Asbóth in Aulich's place to lead II. corps, General [Ernő Poeltenberg](/wiki/Ern%C5%91_Poeltenberg \"Ernő Poeltenberg\") in Gáspár's place. General [György Klapka](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Klapka \"György Klapka\") who formerly was the commander of the I. corps, but who became temporary main commander of the main Hungarian army, called Hungarian Army of the Upper Danube (Feldunai Hadsereg),{{Harvnb\\\|Bóna\\\|1987\\\|pp\\=202}}. taking the place of Görgei, who became War Minister, had to give his position at the head of his corps to General [József Nagysándor](/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Nagys%C3%A1ndor \"József Nagysándor\"). These new corps commanders lacked the former generals' talent, intuition and experience. Görgei himself, because of now being War Minister, had to fulfill these two heavy tasks (ministry and high commandment of the army), could not focus in the same way on the military actions as he did in the Spring Campaign.", "At the start of the Summer Campaign, the Hungarian army had the same problem as the imperial main armies had at the beginning of the Spring Campaign: its commanders had not much knowledge about the enemy's distribution and where their main forces were stationed. The Hungarian intelligence failed to accomplish this important task. The support from the southern front (around 12 000 men) did not arrive, despite Görgei's hopes, because with the arrival there of [Feldzeugmeister](/wiki/Feldzeugmeister \"Feldzeugmeister\") [Josip Jelačić](/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Josip Jelačić\")'s troops, in support to the Serbian rebels and Austrian troops stationed there, the military situation changed there in the favor of the imperials, so all the Hungarian troops were needed there.", "On the other hand, the Austro\\-Russian coalition prepared to attack Hungary with 358,000 soldiers and 1354 cannons (165,000 Austrians with 770 cannons and 193,000 Russians with 584 cannons). While Russian and Austrian army groups, led by General [Alexander von Lüders](/wiki/Alexander_von_L%C3%BCders \"Alexander von Lüders\") and General [Eduard Clam\\-Gallas](/wiki/Eduard_Clam-Gallas \"Eduard Clam-Gallas\"), prepared their attacks [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania \"Transylvania\") from [Bucovina](/wiki/Bucovina \"Bucovina\"), [Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia \"Wallachia\") and [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia \"Moldavia\"), (53,000 soldiers and 133 cannons against 39,000 Hungarians, who were mainly fresh recruits without any war experience, and 107 cannons), the main Russian army under the leadership of [Field Marshal](/wiki/Field_Marshal \"Field Marshal\") [Ivan Paskevich](/wiki/Ivan_Paskevich \"Ivan Paskevich\") had to advance from the North (135,000 Russian soldiers and 448 cannons against 16,500 Hungarians with 49 cannons), the Austro\\-Croatian\\-Serbian troops led by Feldzeugmeister Josip Jelačić operated in Southern Hungary (53,000 soldiers with 401 cannons against 34,000 Hungarians and 249 cannons). The numerical disadvantage of the Hungarian armies was augmented also that 13% of the Hungarian troops in Transylvania and Eastern Hungary were used in the sieges of different fortifications in imperial hands ([Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania \"Arad, Romania\"), [Temesvár](/wiki/Temesv%C3%A1r \"Temesvár\"), [Gyulafehérvár](/wiki/Gyulafeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r \"Gyulafehérvár\"), [Titel](/wiki/Titel \"Titel\")) (around 12,000 men), while others (8000 men) were garrisons in different fortifications, so they could not be used as moving forces against the invading Austro\\-Russian armies.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=318–319}}.", "From the West, the imperial troops which were preparing to attack Hungary were led by Lieutenant Field Marshal Haynau, the commander\\-in\\-chief\nof all the Habsburg forces outside Italy, were about 83,000 soldiers (71,000 Austrians and a 12,000\\-strong Russian army corps led by Lieutenant General Feodor Sergeyevich Panyutyin) and 336 cannons, against nearly 51,000 Hungarian soldiers (except a part of the garrison of the fortress of Komárom, the VIII. corps, which could not be moved out from the fortress to fight in open field) with 196 field and 244 defensive cannons used only in the fortifications, led by General Görgei. This assured Haynau a huge superiority.\n[thumb\\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\\|The military situation on the Western Front before and after the Battle of Pered. \n \nRed: Austrians. \n \nBroken red line: Russians. \n \nBlack: Hungarians](/wiki/File:Banlaky-big_hadtortpic_2112b.jpg \"Banlaky-big hadtortpic 2112b.jpg\")\nGörgei's troops were positioned along the river Vág downwards to Komárom, and south of the Danube along the Rába's Eastern bank until [Marcaltő](/wiki/Marcalt%C5%91 \"Marcaltő\"). The mining towns (Bakabánya, [Besztercebánya](/wiki/Beszterceb%C3%A1nya \"Besztercebánya\"), [Bélabánya](/wiki/B%C3%A9lab%C3%A1nya \"Bélabánya\"), [Körmöcbánya](/wiki/K%C3%B6rm%C3%B6cb%C3%A1nya \"Körmöcbánya\"), Libetbánya, [Selmecbánya](/wiki/Selmecb%C3%A1nya \"Selmecbánya\"), [Újbánya](/wiki/%C3%9Ajb%C3%A1nya \"Újbánya\")) were protected by a detachment of 2700 soldiers led by Ármin Görgei, to South to this, around Mocsonok, [Ürmény](/wiki/%C3%9Crm%C3%A9ny \"Ürmény\") and Komjáti were 1300 soldiers at [Nyitra](/wiki/Nyitra \"Nyitra\"), to south the I. corps led by General József Nagysándor consisting of 7400 men, from here until [Érsekújvár](/wiki/%C3%89rsek%C3%BAjv%C3%A1r \"Érsekújvár\") on the course of the Vág the 9200 soldiers of the III. corps led by General Károly Knezić were positioned, south of this until Komárom stationed the 8600 men of the II. corps led by Colonel Lajos Asbóth, in [Csallóköz](/wiki/Csall%C3%B3k%C3%B6z \"Csallóköz\") stood the 4000 men strong division of the VIII. corps which were defending Komárom under General György Klapka (later another 3400 soldiers left the fortress to support the field army's operations). These 4000 soldiers from Csallóköz assured contact between the troops to North and South from the Danube. South to the Danube, around [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r \"Győr\") was the 9000 soldiers of the VII. corps under General Ernő Poeltenberg, and finally the Hungarian line's southernmost unit was the Kmety division consisting of 5100 men.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=325–326}}. The concentration, in the opportunity of a battle of these troops was impossible, because of the great length of the front, consisting in total 250 kilometers.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2004\\\|pp\\=280}}.", "The Austrian troops which faced the Hungarians in the Western, under the high command of Lieutenant Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau were positioned as follows. On the right (Southern) bank of the Danube: the III. corps under the lead of [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_General \"Lieutenant General\") von Moltke was stationed around [Sopron](/wiki/Sopron \"Sopron\") having 16,200 men, the I. corps, under the command of General Franz [Schlik](/wiki/Schlik \"Schlik\"), consisting of 21,900 soldiers were around Moson, [Magyaróvár](/wiki/Magyar%C3%B3v%C3%A1r \"Magyaróvár\"), [Öttevény](/wiki/%C3%96ttev%C3%A9ny \"Öttevény\"), [Kimle](/wiki/Kimle \"Kimle\") and [Hédervár](/wiki/H%C3%A9derv%C3%A1r \"Hédervár\"); on the left bank: the bulk of the 13,500 men big II. corps under Lieutenant General [Anton Csorich](/wiki/Anton_Csorich \"Anton Csorich\") was in Csallóköz, and its Pott\\-brigade stationed along the Vág river at [Farkasd](/wiki/Vl%C4%8Dany \"Vlčany\") and [Vágsellye](/wiki/V%C3%A1gsellye \"Vágsellye\"), the reserve (IV.) corps under the lead of Lieutenant General [Ludwig von Wohlgemuth](/wiki/Ludwig_von_Wohlgemuth \"Ludwig von Wohlgemuth\") consisted of 17,700 soldiers, and had its headquarters at [Nagyszombat](/wiki/Nagyszombat \"Nagyszombat\"), while its brigades were stationed at [Szered](/wiki/Szered \"Szered\"), [Vága](/wiki/V%C3%A1hovce \"Váhovce\") and [Galgóc](/wiki/Galg%C3%B3c \"Galgóc\"). To these troops was sent in support by the high commander of the Russian forces, [Marshall](/wiki/Marshal \"Marshal\") [Ivan Paskevich](/wiki/Ivan_Paskevich \"Ivan Paskevich\") the Russian division, consisting of 11,900 soldiers under the lead of Lieutenant General Feodor Sergeyevich Panyutyin, which was stationed first around [Pozsony](/wiki/Pozsony \"Pozsony\"), then, because the [Cholera](/wiki/Cholera \"Cholera\") epidemic, which broke out in that region, it was moved to [Modor](/wiki/Modra \"Modra\") and [Bazin](/wiki/Pezinok \"Pezinok\").", "Görgei planned to start a Hungarian attack on the northern banks of the Danube against the troops of Haynau. But on 13 June, the 15th Hungarian [division](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 \"Division (military)\") commanded by Colonel [György Kmety](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Kmety \"György Kmety\") attacked on the southern Bank of the Danube, and defeated an Austrian half brigade led by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General \"Major General\") Franz Wyss in the [Battle of Csorna](/wiki/Battle_of_Csorna \"Battle of Csorna\").{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2004\\\|pp\\=270–276}}. This attack had to attract some of the imperial troops towards the south, to make the task of the main Hungarian attack along the Vág river easier.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2004\\\|pp\\=273}}. Haynau indeed sent the order to his troops to move southwards and cross the Danube, but this was not given because Kmety's victory impressed him, but because the imperial commander wanted to start the general offensive there towards Komárom.", "" ]