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Career ------ Walsh became a leader in Democratic Party politics in Helena and attended numerous local, county and state conventions as a delegate. He was defeated in a 1906 election for the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") and a 1910 race for the U.S. Senate. Walsh was a delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of [1908](/wiki/1908_Democratic_National_Convention "1908 Democratic National Convention"), [1912](/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention "1912 Democratic National Convention"), [1916](/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention "1916 Democratic National Convention"), [1920](/wiki/1920_Democratic_National_Convention "1920 Democratic National Convention"), [1924](/wiki/1924_Democratic_National_Convention "1924 Democratic National Convention"), [1928](/wiki/1928_Democratic_National_Convention "1928 Democratic National Convention"), and [1932](/wiki/1932_Democratic_National_Convention "1932 Democratic National Convention"). He was the permanent chairman of the 1928 and 1932 conventions. In 1912, Walsh won a state legislative election for U.S. Senate. He was repeatedly re\-elected, and served from 1913 until his death in 1933\. He emerged as a spokesman for President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") in the Senate and supported the graduated income tax, farm loans, and [women's suffrage](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage "Women's suffrage"). Walsh managed Wilson's western campaign against [Charles Evans Hughes](/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes "Charles Evans Hughes") during the 1916 presidential election, and was credited with helping Wilson win a narrow re\-election victory. Unlike many Irish Catholics, who did not want the United States to ally with the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), Walsh supported Wilson's foreign policy and voted for war against [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") in 1917\. In 1919, he supported Wilson's peace plans and the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations"). Walsh ran for re\-election [in 1918](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Montana%2C_1918 "United States Senate election in Montana, 1918"). In a three\-way election that included him, former [State Representative](/wiki/Montana_House_of_Representatives "Montana House of Representatives") Oscar M. Lanstrum as the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") nominee, and [US Representative](/wiki/US_Representative "US Representative") [Jeannette Rankin](/wiki/Jeannette_Rankin "Jeannette Rankin") as the [National Party](/wiki/National_Party_%28United_States%29 "National Party (United States)") nominee, Walsh narrowly won a second term. [thumb\|right\|*[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")* cover, 4 May 1925](/wiki/File:TIMEMagazine4May1925.jpg "TIMEMagazine4May1925.jpg") In his re\-election [in 1924](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Montana%2C_1924 "United States Senate election in Montana, 1924"), he defeated Republican [Frank Bird Linderman](/wiki/Frank_Bird_Linderman "Frank Bird Linderman") by a solid margin. In [1930](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Montana%2C_1930 "United States Senate election in Montana, 1930"), Walsh ran for re\-election and defeated [Albert J. Galen](/wiki/Albert_J._Galen "Albert J. Galen") in a landslide. During his tenure in the Senate, Walsh gained fame for his legal ability in the Judiciary Committee and speaking ability on the floor. In the 1920s, Walsh headed the Senate investigation into the [Teapot Dome scandal](/wiki/Teapot_Dome_scandal "Teapot Dome scandal") that involved top officials of the administration of President [Warren G. Harding](/wiki/Warren_G._Harding "Warren G. Harding"). He was chairman of the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention "Democratic National Convention") in New York in 1924 and in Chicago in 1932\. Walsh opposed [child labor](/wiki/Child_labor "Child labor") and supported [women's suffrage](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage "Women's suffrage") and, unlike most other Catholics, [Prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States"). On December 18, 1927 Senator Walsh introduced a plan to investigate the country's electric industry.{{cite web \|title\=Walsh Asks Probe of Electric Utilities \|url\=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1927\-12\-18/ed\-1/seq\-21/ \|website\=Library of Congress \|publisher\=Washington D.C. Evening Star \|accessdate\=8 July 2019}} The investigation done by the [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission "Federal Trade Commission") would continue through 1935 and eventually result in four of the most important laws governing the electric industry in the 20th century including the breakup of most of the large holding companies that formed during the 1920s.{{cite web \|title\=FTC Milestones: Making the case for reform of public utility holding company laws 1928\-35 Federal Trade Commission Annual Reports document the 7 year investig \|url\=https://www.ftc.gov/news\-events/blogs/competition\-matters/2014/11/ftc\-milestones\-making\-case\-reform\-public\-utility \|website\=Federal Trade Commission \|date\=18 November 2014 \|accessdate\=8 July 2019}} In 1933, Walsh was nominated for [Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General "United States Attorney General") by incoming President [Franklin Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt "Franklin Roosevelt"). In late February, he secretly married wealthy Cuban widow Mina Nieves Perez Chaumont de Truffin in Havana, Cuba. Less than a week later, he died while *en route* by train to [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") for [Roosevelt's inauguration](/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt "First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt"),{{cite book \|title\=Eleanor Roosevelt, Vol. 2: 1933–1938 \|last\=Cook \|first\=Blanche Wiesen \|author\-link\=Blanche Wiesen Cook\|year\=1999 \|publisher\=Viking \|isbn\=067080486X \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ecrtAAAAMAAJ \|accessdate\=November 26, 2012\|page\=28}} allegedly poisoned by his new wife.{{cite web \|title\=The mysterious death of Sen. Thomas Walsh \|url\=https://helenair.com/news/local/the\-mysterious\-death\-of\-sen\-thomas\-walsh/article\_7e59b94b\-d7d9\-5c6d\-88fc\-76a9d29471ba.html \|website\=Independent Record \|date\=24 December 2000 \|accessdate\=10 January 2021}} His funeral service was held in the Chamber of the United States Senate, and he was interred at Resurrection Cemetery in Helena.[Walsh, Thomas James, (1859 \- 1933\)](http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=w000104)
[ "Career\n------", "Walsh became a leader in Democratic Party politics in Helena and attended numerous local, county and state conventions as a delegate. He was defeated in a 1906 election for the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") and a 1910 race for the U.S. Senate. Walsh was a delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of [1908](/wiki/1908_Democratic_National_Convention \"1908 Democratic National Convention\"), [1912](/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention \"1912 Democratic National Convention\"), [1916](/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention \"1916 Democratic National Convention\"), [1920](/wiki/1920_Democratic_National_Convention \"1920 Democratic National Convention\"), [1924](/wiki/1924_Democratic_National_Convention \"1924 Democratic National Convention\"), [1928](/wiki/1928_Democratic_National_Convention \"1928 Democratic National Convention\"), and [1932](/wiki/1932_Democratic_National_Convention \"1932 Democratic National Convention\"). He was the permanent chairman of the 1928 and 1932 conventions.", "In 1912, Walsh won a state legislative election for U.S. Senate. He was repeatedly re\\-elected, and served from 1913 until his death in 1933\\. He emerged as a spokesman for President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") in the Senate and supported the graduated income tax, farm loans, and [women's suffrage](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage \"Women's suffrage\").", "Walsh managed Wilson's western campaign against [Charles Evans Hughes](/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes \"Charles Evans Hughes\") during the 1916 presidential election, and was credited with helping Wilson win a narrow re\\-election victory. Unlike many Irish Catholics, who did not want the United States to ally with the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), Walsh supported Wilson's foreign policy and voted for war against [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") in 1917\\. In 1919, he supported Wilson's peace plans and the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\").", "Walsh ran for re\\-election [in 1918](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Montana%2C_1918 \"United States Senate election in Montana, 1918\"). In a three\\-way election that included him, former [State Representative](/wiki/Montana_House_of_Representatives \"Montana House of Representatives\") Oscar M. Lanstrum as the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") nominee, and [US Representative](/wiki/US_Representative \"US Representative\") [Jeannette Rankin](/wiki/Jeannette_Rankin \"Jeannette Rankin\") as the [National Party](/wiki/National_Party_%28United_States%29 \"National Party (United States)\") nominee, Walsh narrowly won a second term.", "[thumb\\|right\\|*[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")* cover, 4 May 1925](/wiki/File:TIMEMagazine4May1925.jpg \"TIMEMagazine4May1925.jpg\")", "In his re\\-election [in 1924](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Montana%2C_1924 \"United States Senate election in Montana, 1924\"), he defeated Republican [Frank Bird Linderman](/wiki/Frank_Bird_Linderman \"Frank Bird Linderman\") by a solid margin. In [1930](/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_Montana%2C_1930 \"United States Senate election in Montana, 1930\"), Walsh ran for re\\-election and defeated [Albert J. Galen](/wiki/Albert_J._Galen \"Albert J. Galen\") in a landslide.", "During his tenure in the Senate, Walsh gained fame for his legal ability in the Judiciary Committee and speaking ability on the floor.", "In the 1920s, Walsh headed the Senate investigation into the [Teapot Dome scandal](/wiki/Teapot_Dome_scandal \"Teapot Dome scandal\") that involved top officials of the administration of President [Warren G. Harding](/wiki/Warren_G._Harding \"Warren G. Harding\"). He was chairman of the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention \"Democratic National Convention\") in New York in 1924 and in Chicago in 1932\\. Walsh opposed [child labor](/wiki/Child_labor \"Child labor\") and supported [women's suffrage](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage \"Women's suffrage\") and, unlike most other Catholics, [Prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States \"Prohibition in the United States\"). On December 18, 1927 Senator Walsh introduced a plan to investigate the country's electric industry.{{cite web \\|title\\=Walsh Asks Probe of Electric Utilities \\|url\\=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1927\\-12\\-18/ed\\-1/seq\\-21/ \\|website\\=Library of Congress \\|publisher\\=Washington D.C. Evening Star \\|accessdate\\=8 July 2019}} The investigation done by the [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission \"Federal Trade Commission\") would continue through 1935 and eventually result in four of the most important laws governing the electric industry in the 20th century including the breakup of most of the large holding companies that formed during the 1920s.{{cite web \\|title\\=FTC Milestones: Making the case for reform of public utility holding company laws 1928\\-35 Federal Trade Commission Annual Reports document the 7 year investig \\|url\\=https://www.ftc.gov/news\\-events/blogs/competition\\-matters/2014/11/ftc\\-milestones\\-making\\-case\\-reform\\-public\\-utility \\|website\\=Federal Trade Commission \\|date\\=18 November 2014 \\|accessdate\\=8 July 2019}}", "In 1933, Walsh was nominated for [Attorney General](/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General \"United States Attorney General\") by incoming President [Franklin Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt \"Franklin Roosevelt\"). In late February, he secretly married wealthy Cuban widow Mina Nieves Perez Chaumont de Truffin in Havana, Cuba. Less than a week later, he died while *en route* by train to [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") for [Roosevelt's inauguration](/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt\"),{{cite book \\|title\\=Eleanor Roosevelt, Vol. 2: 1933–1938 \\|last\\=Cook \\|first\\=Blanche Wiesen \\|author\\-link\\=Blanche Wiesen Cook\\|year\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Viking \\|isbn\\=067080486X \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ecrtAAAAMAAJ \\|accessdate\\=November 26, 2012\\|page\\=28}} allegedly poisoned by his new wife.{{cite web \\|title\\=The mysterious death of Sen. Thomas Walsh \\|url\\=https://helenair.com/news/local/the\\-mysterious\\-death\\-of\\-sen\\-thomas\\-walsh/article\\_7e59b94b\\-d7d9\\-5c6d\\-88fc\\-76a9d29471ba.html \\|website\\=Independent Record \\|date\\=24 December 2000 \\|accessdate\\=10 January 2021}}", "His funeral service was held in the Chamber of the United States Senate, and he was interred at Resurrection Cemetery in Helena.[Walsh, Thomas James, (1859 \\- 1933\\)](http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=w000104)", "" ]
Career ------ Dhami started working as a teacher, and for the next nine years she taught in primary and secondary schools in [Essex](/wiki/Essex "Essex") and in the London borough of [Waltham Forest](/wiki/Waltham_Forest "Waltham Forest"). During this time, she began writing stories for teenage magazines, and contributed many photo\-stories to the now\-defunct *[Jackie](/wiki/Jackie_%28magazine%29 "Jackie (magazine)")* magazine, published by [DC Thomson](/wiki/DC_Thomson "DC Thomson"). Eventually she gave up teaching for a full\-time writing job. For the last few years, she has been writing contemporary realistic fiction about children growing up in Britain. Her Babes quartet about three British Asian girls is extremely popular with girls between 9 and 14 years of age. She writes a wide range of children's books for pre\-teens on other subjects and now increasingly for older teens too. Her characters reflect the British urban ethnic mix. Books for 2009 included a teen thriller *Bang, Bang You're Dead!* May 2009, which won or was shortlisted for a large number of book awards in 2010, and the first book in a series of six for 9\+ readers called *The Beautiful Game* about girls' football. A further four books in the series were published in 2010 and the last of the six appeared in Jan 2011\. Dhami is one of the authors of the internationally successful *[Rainbow Magic](/wiki/Rainbow_Magic "Rainbow Magic")* series, written under the name of [Daisy Meadows](/wiki/Daisy_Meadows "Daisy Meadows"). Her most famous and biggest selling book was *Bend It Like Beckham*, a [novelisation](/wiki/Novelization "Novelization") of [the film](/wiki/Bend_It_Like_Beckham "Bend It Like Beckham"). Now she lives in [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire "Shropshire") with her husband and her cats, continuing her writing career. A book that came out in March 2015 is a thriller for 9\-13 year olds called 'Thirteen Hours', It was published by [Random House](/wiki/Random_House "Random House").
[ "Career\n------", "Dhami started working as a teacher, and for the next nine years she taught in primary and secondary schools in [Essex](/wiki/Essex \"Essex\") and in the London borough of [Waltham Forest](/wiki/Waltham_Forest \"Waltham Forest\"). During this time, she began writing stories for teenage magazines, and contributed many photo\\-stories to the now\\-defunct *[Jackie](/wiki/Jackie_%28magazine%29 \"Jackie (magazine)\")* magazine, published by [DC Thomson](/wiki/DC_Thomson \"DC Thomson\").", "Eventually she gave up teaching for a full\\-time writing job. For the last few years, she has been writing contemporary realistic fiction about children growing up in Britain. Her Babes quartet about three British Asian girls is extremely popular with girls between 9 and 14 years of age. She writes a wide range of children's books for pre\\-teens on other subjects and now increasingly for older teens too. Her characters reflect the British urban ethnic mix.", "Books for 2009 included a teen thriller *Bang, Bang You're Dead!* May 2009, which won or was shortlisted for a large number of book awards in 2010, and the first book in a series of six for 9\\+ readers called *The Beautiful Game* about girls' football. A further four books in the series were published in 2010 and the last of the six appeared in Jan 2011\\.", "Dhami is one of the authors of the internationally successful *[Rainbow Magic](/wiki/Rainbow_Magic \"Rainbow Magic\")* series, written under the name of [Daisy Meadows](/wiki/Daisy_Meadows \"Daisy Meadows\"). Her most famous and biggest selling book was *Bend It Like Beckham*, a [novelisation](/wiki/Novelization \"Novelization\") of [the film](/wiki/Bend_It_Like_Beckham \"Bend It Like Beckham\").", "Now she lives in [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire \"Shropshire\") with her husband and her cats, continuing her writing career. A book that came out in March 2015 is a thriller for 9\\-13 year olds called 'Thirteen Hours', It was published by [Random House](/wiki/Random_House \"Random House\").", "" ]
Design and development ---------------------- In the early 1920s Stanisław Działowski was head of aircraft assembly at the military flying school at [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz"). He and his brother Mieczysław began aircraft design with a [glider](/wiki/Glider_%28aircraft%29 "Glider (aircraft)"), the Bydgodaszczanka, which flew at the 1925 Second Polish Glider Contest. In the same year they began work on the D.K.D.1\. The surname initials D.K.D were those of the two brothers and of Jan Kruger, a local shoemaker who provided some funding and also bought the Gabriel brothers the Haacke engine that had been used in the [Gabriel P 5](/wiki/Gabriel_P_5 "Gabriel P 5") and [P 6](/wiki/Gabriel_P_6 "Gabriel P 6"). The wing was built in the military workshop but they were later forced out to a cellar in the town. The D.K.D.1 was a high wing aircraft with an enclosed cabin for one passenger and an open [cockpit](/wiki/Cockpit "Cockpit") for the pilot. It had a one\-piece wooden wing of trapezoidal plan with an unswept [leading edge](/wiki/Leading_edge "Leading edge"), built around two [spars](/wiki/Spar_%28aeronautics%29 "Spar (aeronautics)") and [fabric covered](/wiki/Aircraft_fabric_covering "Aircraft fabric covering"). The wing was braced with V\-struts from the lower fuselage [longerons](/wiki/Longeron "Longeron") to the spars. The aircraft first flew with the wing centrally fixed directly to the top of the fuselage but flight testing revealed poor forward visibility from the cockpit and the wing was raised a short distance on four vertical, [faired](/wiki/Aircraft_fairing "Aircraft fairing") [struts](/wiki/Strut "Strut"), allowing the pilot to look forward under the wing. There was a large, deep cut\-out in the [trailing edge](/wiki/Trailing_edge "Trailing edge") over the cockpit. The generous [balances](/wiki/Balanced_rudder "Balanced rudder") on its [ailerons](/wiki/Ailerons "Ailerons") extended beyond the squared wing tips. The D.K.D.1 was powered by a {{convert\|30\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Haacke HFM\-2](/wiki/Haacke_HFM-2 "Haacke HFM-2") air\-cooled [flat twin engine](/wiki/Flat_twin_engine "Flat twin engine") mounted onto the rectangular section steel tube fuselage frame under single\-curvature [duralumin](/wiki/Duralumin "Duralumin") sheet, with its cylinder heads exposed for cooling. Behind it the deep, flat\-sided fuselage was fabric covered apart from its rounded, [plywood](/wiki/Plywood "Plywood") covered decking. The enclosed, single seat passenger cabin was immediately behind the engine and ahead of the cockpit. It had a small window on each side and was entered by a port\-side door. Both [fin](/wiki/Fin_%28aeronautics%29 "Fin (aeronautics)") and [tailplane](/wiki/Tailplane "Tailplane"), the latter located on top of the fuselage, were small and rectangular in shape, mounting large, balanced control surfaces. These were also approximately rectangular but the bottom of the rudder was cut at an angle to allow the one\-piece [elevator](/wiki/Elevator_%28aeronautics%29 "Elevator (aeronautics)") to operate. All the rear surfaces were wooden framed and fabric covered. Its [undercarriage](/wiki/Landing_gear "Landing gear") was fixed and of the tailskid type, with mainwheels with rubber cord shock absorbers on a single axle. The axle was mounted on short steel tube V\-struts hinged from the lower fuselage longerons, with further steel struts from both the longerons and central fuselage underside to the axle's centre.
[ "Design and development\n----------------------", "", "In the early 1920s Stanisław Działowski was head of aircraft assembly at the military flying school at [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\"). He and his brother Mieczysław began aircraft design with a [glider](/wiki/Glider_%28aircraft%29 \"Glider (aircraft)\"), the Bydgodaszczanka, which flew at the 1925 Second Polish Glider Contest. In the same year they began work on the D.K.D.1\\. The surname initials D.K.D were those of the two brothers and of Jan Kruger, a local shoemaker who provided some funding and also bought the Gabriel brothers the Haacke engine that had been used in the [Gabriel P 5](/wiki/Gabriel_P_5 \"Gabriel P 5\") and [P 6](/wiki/Gabriel_P_6 \"Gabriel P 6\"). The wing was built in the military workshop but they were later forced out to a cellar in the town.", "The D.K.D.1 was a high wing aircraft with an enclosed cabin for one passenger and an open [cockpit](/wiki/Cockpit \"Cockpit\") for the pilot. It had a one\\-piece wooden wing of trapezoidal plan with an unswept [leading edge](/wiki/Leading_edge \"Leading edge\"), built around two [spars](/wiki/Spar_%28aeronautics%29 \"Spar (aeronautics)\") and [fabric covered](/wiki/Aircraft_fabric_covering \"Aircraft fabric covering\"). The wing was braced with V\\-struts from the lower fuselage [longerons](/wiki/Longeron \"Longeron\") to the spars. The aircraft first flew with the wing centrally fixed directly to the top of the fuselage but flight testing revealed poor forward visibility from the cockpit and the wing was raised a short distance on four vertical, [faired](/wiki/Aircraft_fairing \"Aircraft fairing\") [struts](/wiki/Strut \"Strut\"), allowing the pilot to look forward under the wing. There was a large, deep cut\\-out in the [trailing edge](/wiki/Trailing_edge \"Trailing edge\") over the cockpit. The generous [balances](/wiki/Balanced_rudder \"Balanced rudder\") on its [ailerons](/wiki/Ailerons \"Ailerons\") extended beyond the squared wing tips.", "The D.K.D.1 was powered by a {{convert\\|30\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Haacke HFM\\-2](/wiki/Haacke_HFM-2 \"Haacke HFM-2\") air\\-cooled [flat twin engine](/wiki/Flat_twin_engine \"Flat twin engine\") mounted onto the rectangular section steel tube fuselage frame under single\\-curvature [duralumin](/wiki/Duralumin \"Duralumin\") sheet, with its cylinder heads exposed for cooling. Behind it the deep, flat\\-sided fuselage was fabric covered apart from its rounded, [plywood](/wiki/Plywood \"Plywood\") covered decking. The enclosed, single seat passenger cabin was immediately behind the engine and ahead of the cockpit. It had a small window on each side and was entered by a port\\-side door.", "Both [fin](/wiki/Fin_%28aeronautics%29 \"Fin (aeronautics)\") and [tailplane](/wiki/Tailplane \"Tailplane\"), the latter located on top of the fuselage, were small and rectangular in shape, mounting large, balanced control surfaces. These were also approximately rectangular but the bottom of the rudder was cut at an angle to allow the one\\-piece [elevator](/wiki/Elevator_%28aeronautics%29 \"Elevator (aeronautics)\") to operate. All the rear surfaces were wooden framed and fabric covered.", "Its [undercarriage](/wiki/Landing_gear \"Landing gear\") was fixed and of the tailskid type, with mainwheels with rubber cord shock absorbers on a single axle. The axle was mounted on short steel tube V\\-struts hinged from the lower fuselage longerons, with further steel struts from both the longerons and central fuselage underside to the axle's centre.", "" ]
Philosophy ---------- {{Main\|Actual Idealism}} Patrick Romanell, philosopher and translator of the work of [Benedetto Croce](/wiki/Benedetto_Croce "Benedetto Croce"), wrote that Gentile "holds the honor of having been the most rigorous [neo\-Hegelian](/wiki/Neo-Hegelian "Neo-Hegelian") in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy." Patrick Romanell, "Translator's Introduction," in *Guide to Aesthetics* by [Benedetto Croce](/wiki/Benedetto_Croce "Benedetto Croce"), The Library of Liberal Arts, The Bobbs–Merrill Co., Inc., 1965, p. viii. Gentile's philosophical basis for fascism was rooted in his understanding of [ontology](/wiki/Ontology "Ontology") and [epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology "Epistemology"), in which he found vindication for the rejection of [individualism](/wiki/Individualism "Individualism") and acceptance of [collectivism](/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism "Collectivism and individualism"), with the [state](/wiki/Sovereign_state "Sovereign state") as the ultimate location of authority and loyalty outside of which individuality had no meaning (and which in turn helped justify the [totalitarian](/wiki/Totalitarianism "Totalitarianism") dimension of fascism).{{Cite book\|url\=http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm\|title\=Mussolini – THE DOCTRINE OF FASCISM\|website\=www.worldfuturefund.org\|access\-date\=2016\-12\-21}} The conceptual relationship between Gentile's [actual idealism](/wiki/Actual_idealism "Actual idealism") and his conception of fascism is not self\-evident. The supposed relationship does not appear to be based on logical deducibility. That is, actual idealism does not entail a fascist ideology in any rigorous sense.{{Original research inline\|date\=June 2024}} Gentile enjoyed fruitful intellectual relations with Croce from 1899 – and particularly during their joint editorship of *La Critica* from 1903 to 1922 – but broke philosophically and politically from Croce in the early 1920s over Gentile's embrace of fascism. (Croce assesses their philosophical disagreement in *Una discussione tra filosofi amici* in *Conversazioni Critiche*, II.) Ultimately, Gentile foresaw a social order wherein opposites of all kinds were not to be considered as existing independently from each other; that 'publicness' and 'privateness' as broad interpretations were currently false as imposed by all former kinds of government, including capitalism and [communism](/wiki/Communism "Communism"); and that only the reciprocal totalitarian state of corporatism, a fascist state, could defeat these problems which are made from [reifying](/wiki/Reification_%28fallacy%29 "Reification (fallacy)") as an external reality that which is in fact, to Gentile, only a reality in thinking. Whereas it was common in the philosophy of the time to see the conditional subject as abstract and the object as concrete, Gentile postulated (after Hegel) the opposite, that the subject is concrete and the object a mere abstraction (or rather, that what was conventionally dubbed "subject" is in fact only conditional object, and that the true subject is the *act* of being or essence of the object). Gentile was, because of his *actualist* system, a notable philosophical presence across Europe during his time. At its base, Gentile's brand of idealism asserted the primacy of the "[pure act](/wiki/Actus_purus "Actus purus")" of thinking. This act is foundational to all human experience – it *creates* the phenomenal world – and involves a process of "reflective awareness" (in Italian, "l'atto del pensiero, pensiero pensante") that is constitutive of the Absolute and revealed in education.{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias\-almanacs\-transcripts\-and\-maps/gentile\-giovanni\-1875\-1944\|title\=Encyclopedia of Philosophy\|last\=Harris\|first\=H.S.\|year\=1967\|editor\-last\=Gale\|editor\-first\=Thomas\|chapter\=Gentile, Giovanni (1875\-1944\)\|via\=Encyclopedia.com}} Gentile's emphasis on seeing Mind as the Absolute signalled his "revival of the idealist doctrine of the autonomy of the mind."{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy\-and\-religion/philosophy\-biographies/giovanni\-gentile\|title\=Encyclopedia of World Biography\|publisher\=The Gale Group, Inc.\|year\=2004\|chapter\=Giovanni Gentile\|via\=Encyclopedia.com}} It also connected his philosophical work to his vocation as a teacher. In actual idealism, then, pedagogy is [transcendental](/wiki/Transcendental_philosophy "Transcendental philosophy") and provides the process by which the Absolute is revealed. His idea of a transcending [truth above positivism](/wiki/Verstehen "Verstehen") garnered particular attention by emphasizing that all modes of sensation only take the form of ideas within one's mind; in other words, they are mental constructs. To Gentile, for example, even the correlation of the function and location of the physical brain with the functions of the physical body was merely a consistent creation of the mind, and not of the brain (itself a creation of the mind). Observations like this have led some commentators to view Gentile's philosophy as a kind of "absolute [solipsism](/wiki/Solipsism "Solipsism")," expressing the idea "that only the spirit or mind is real".{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GnSdPwAACAAJ\|title\=The Theory of Mind as Pure Act\|last\=Gentile\|first\=Giovanni\|date\=1 January 2008\|publisher\=Living Time Press\|isbn\=9781905820375\|language\=en}} Actual idealism also touches on ideas of concern to [theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology"). An example of actual idealism in theology is the idea that although man may have invented the concept of God, it does not make God any less real in any possible sense, so long as God is not presupposed to exist as abstraction*,* and except in case qualities about what existence actually entails (i.e. being invented apart from the thinking that makes it) are presupposed. Benedetto Croce objected that Gentile's "pure act" is nothing other than [Schopenhauer](/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer")'s [will](/wiki/Will_%28philosophy%29 "Will (philosophy)").[Runes, Dagobert](/wiki/Dagobert_D._Runes "Dagobert D. Runes"), editor, *Treasure of Philosophy*, "Gentile, Giovanni". Therefore, Gentile proposed a form of what he called "absolute [Immanentism](/wiki/Immanentism "Immanentism")" in which the divine was the present conception of reality in the totality of one's individual thinking as an evolving, growing and dynamic process. Many times accused of solipsism, Gentile maintained his philosophy to be a [Humanism](/wiki/Humanism "Humanism") that sensed the possibility of nothing beyond what was colligate in perception; the self's human thinking, in order to communicate as immanence is to be human like oneself, made a cohesive empathy of the self\-same, without an external division, and therefore not modelled as objects to one's own thinking. Whereas [solipsism would feel trapped](/wiki/Nonduality_%28spirituality%29 "Nonduality (spirituality)") in the realization of its solitude, actualism rejects such privation and is an expression of the only freedom which is possible within objective contingencies, where the transcendental Self does not even exist as an object, and the dialectical co\-substantiation of others necessary to understand the empirical self is felt as true others when found to be the nonrelativistic subjectivity of that whole self and essentially unified with the spirit of such higher self *in actu*, where others can be truly known, rather than thought as windowless monads. ### Phases of his thought A number of developments in Gentile's thought and career helped to define his philosophy, including: * the definition of Actual Idealism in his work *Theory of the Pure Act* (1903\); * his support for the invasion of [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") (1911\) and the entry of Italy into [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") (1915\); * his dispute with [Benedetto Croce](/wiki/Benedetto_Croce "Benedetto Croce") over the historic inevitability of Fascism;"Croce and Gentile," *The Living Age*, 19 September 1925\. * his role as minister of education (1922–24\); * his belief that Fascism could be made subservient to his philosophical thought, along with his gathering of influence through the work of students like [Armando Carlini](/wiki/Armando_Carlini "Armando Carlini") (leader of the so\-called "right Gentilians") and [Ugo Spirito](/wiki/Ugo_Spirito "Ugo Spirito") (who applied Gentile's philosophy to social problems and helped codify Fascist political theory); and * his work on the *[Enciclopedia Italiana](/wiki/Treccani "Treccani")* (1925–43; first edition finished in 1936\). ### Gentile's definition of and vision for Fascism {{More citations needed section\|date\=May 2018}} {{Fascism sidebar\|intellectuals}} Gentile considered Fascism the fulfilment of the Risorgimento ideals,[From Myth to Reality and Back Again: The Fascist and Post\-Fascist Reading of Garibaldi and the Risorgimento](https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_224792_smxx.pdf) particularly those represented by [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini "Giuseppe Mazzini")M. E. Moss (2004\) *Mussolini's Fascist Philosopher: Giovanni Gentile Reconsidered*; New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.; p. 58\-60 and the [Historical Right](/wiki/Historical_Right "Historical Right") party.{{Cite book\|title\=Italian Mathematics Between the Two World Wars\|isbn \= 9783764375126\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=S5fpiWCghYoC\&q\=Mi\+son\+dovuto\+persuadere\+che\+il\+liberalismo,\+com%27io\+l%27intendo\+e\+come\+lo\+intendevano\+gli\+uomini\+della\+gloriosa\+Destra\+che\+guid%C3%B2\+l%27Italia\+del\+Risorgimento\&pg\=PA86\|last1 \= Guerraggio\|first1 \= Angelo\|last2 \= Nastasi\|first2 \= Pietro\|date \= 20 January 2006\| publisher\=Springer }} Gentile sought to make his philosophy the basis for Fascism.{{Cite book\|title\=The Philosophical Basis of Fascism By Sir Giovanni Gentile}} However, with Gentile and with Fascism, the "problem of the party" existed by virtue of the fact that the Fascist "party", as such, arose organically rather than from a tract or pre\-established socio\-political doctrine. This complicated the matter for Gentile as it left no consensus to any way of thinking among Fascists, but ironically this aspect was to Gentile's view of how a state or party doctrine should live out its existence: with [natural organic growth](/wiki/Organicism "Organicism") and dialectical opposition intact. The fact that Mussolini gave credence to Gentile's viewpoints via Gentile's authorship helped with an official consideration, even though the "problem of the party" continued to exist for Mussolini as well. Gentile placed himself within the Hegelian tradition but also sought to distance himself from those views he considered erroneous. He criticized Hegel's dialectic (of Idea\-Nature\-Spirit), and instead proposed that everything is Spirit, with the dialectic residing in the *pure act* of thinking. Gentile believed Marx's conception of the dialectic to be the fundamental flaw of his application to system making. To the neo\-Hegelian Gentile, Marx had made the dialectic into an external object and therefore had abstracted it by making it part of a material process of historical development. The dialectic to Gentile could only be something of human precepts, something that is an active part of human thinking. It was, to Gentile, a concrete subject and not [abstract object](/wiki/Abstract_object "Abstract object"). This Gentile expounded on how humans think in forms wherein one side of a dual opposite could not be thought of without its complement. "Upward" wouldn't be known without "downward" and "heat" couldn't be known without "cold", while each are opposites they are co\-dependent for either one's realization: these were creations that existed as dialectic only in human thinking and couldn't be confirmed outside of which, and especially could not be said to exist in a condition external to human thought like independent matter and a world outside of personal subjectivity or as an empirical reality when not conceived in unity and from the standpoint of the human mind. To Gentile, Marx's externalizing of the dialectic was essentially a fetishistic mysticism. Though when viewed externally thus, it followed that Marx could then make claims to the effect of what state or condition the dialectic objectively existed in history, *[a posteriori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori")* of where any individual's opinion was while comporting oneself to the totalized whole of society. i.e. people themselves could by such a view be ideologically 'backwards' and left behind from the current state of the dialectic and not themselves be part of what is actively creating the dialectic as\-it\-is. Gentile thought this was absurd, and that there was no 'positive' independently existing dialectical object. Rather, the dialectic was natural to the state, as it is. Meaning that the interests composing the state are composing the dialectic by their living organic process of holding oppositional views within that state, and unified therein. It is the mean condition of those interests as ever they exist. Even criminality is unified as a necessary dialectic to be subsumed into the state and a creation and natural outlet of the dialectic of the positive state as ever it is. This view (influenced by the Hegelian theory of the state) justified the corporative system, wherein the individualized and particular interests of all divergent groups were to be personably incorporated into the state ("Stato etico"), each to be considered a bureaucratic branch of the state itself and given official leverage. Gentile, rather than believing the private to be swallowed synthetically within the public as Marx would have it in his objective dialectic, believed that public and private were *[a priori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori")* identified with each other in an active and subjective dialectic: one could not be subsumed fully into the other as they already are beforehand the same. In such a manner each is the other after their own fashion and from their respective, relative, and reciprocal, position. Yet both constitute the state itself and neither are free from it, nothing ever being truly free from it, the state (as in Hegel) existing as an eternal condition and not an objective, abstract collection of atomistic values and facts of the particulars about what is positively governing the people at any given time.
[ "Philosophy\n----------", "{{Main\\|Actual Idealism}}\nPatrick Romanell, philosopher and translator of the work of [Benedetto Croce](/wiki/Benedetto_Croce \"Benedetto Croce\"), wrote that Gentile \"holds the honor of having been the most rigorous [neo\\-Hegelian](/wiki/Neo-Hegelian \"Neo-Hegelian\") in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy.\" Patrick Romanell, \"Translator's Introduction,\" in *Guide to Aesthetics* by [Benedetto Croce](/wiki/Benedetto_Croce \"Benedetto Croce\"), The Library of Liberal Arts, The Bobbs–Merrill Co., Inc., 1965, p. viii. Gentile's philosophical basis for fascism was rooted in his understanding of [ontology](/wiki/Ontology \"Ontology\") and [epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\"), in which he found vindication for the rejection of [individualism](/wiki/Individualism \"Individualism\") and acceptance of [collectivism](/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism \"Collectivism and individualism\"), with the [state](/wiki/Sovereign_state \"Sovereign state\") as the ultimate location of authority and loyalty outside of which individuality had no meaning (and which in turn helped justify the [totalitarian](/wiki/Totalitarianism \"Totalitarianism\") dimension of fascism).{{Cite book\\|url\\=http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm\\|title\\=Mussolini – THE DOCTRINE OF FASCISM\\|website\\=www.worldfuturefund.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-21}}", "The conceptual relationship between Gentile's [actual idealism](/wiki/Actual_idealism \"Actual idealism\") and his conception of fascism is not self\\-evident. The supposed relationship does not appear to be based on logical deducibility. That is, actual idealism does not entail a fascist ideology in any rigorous sense.{{Original research inline\\|date\\=June 2024}} Gentile enjoyed fruitful intellectual relations with Croce from 1899 – and particularly during their joint editorship of *La Critica* from 1903 to 1922 – but broke philosophically and politically from Croce in the early 1920s over Gentile's embrace of fascism. (Croce assesses their philosophical disagreement in *Una discussione tra filosofi amici* in *Conversazioni Critiche*, II.)", "Ultimately, Gentile foresaw a social order wherein opposites of all kinds were not to be considered as existing independently from each other; that 'publicness' and 'privateness' as broad interpretations were currently false as imposed by all former kinds of government, including capitalism and [communism](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\"); and that only the reciprocal totalitarian state of corporatism, a fascist state, could defeat these problems which are made from [reifying](/wiki/Reification_%28fallacy%29 \"Reification (fallacy)\") as an external reality that which is in fact, to Gentile, only a reality in thinking. Whereas it was common in the philosophy of the time to see the conditional subject as abstract and the object as concrete, Gentile postulated (after Hegel) the opposite, that the subject is concrete and the object a mere abstraction (or rather, that what was conventionally dubbed \"subject\" is in fact only conditional object, and that the true subject is the *act* of being or essence of the object).", "Gentile was, because of his *actualist* system, a notable philosophical presence across Europe during his time. At its base, Gentile's brand of idealism asserted the primacy of the \"[pure act](/wiki/Actus_purus \"Actus purus\")\" of thinking. This act is foundational to all human experience – it *creates* the phenomenal world – and involves a process of \"reflective awareness\" (in Italian, \"l'atto del pensiero, pensiero pensante\") that is constitutive of the Absolute and revealed in education.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias\\-almanacs\\-transcripts\\-and\\-maps/gentile\\-giovanni\\-1875\\-1944\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Philosophy\\|last\\=Harris\\|first\\=H.S.\\|year\\=1967\\|editor\\-last\\=Gale\\|editor\\-first\\=Thomas\\|chapter\\=Gentile, Giovanni (1875\\-1944\\)\\|via\\=Encyclopedia.com}} Gentile's emphasis on seeing Mind as the Absolute signalled his \"revival of the idealist doctrine of the autonomy of the mind.\"{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy\\-and\\-religion/philosophy\\-biographies/giovanni\\-gentile\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of World Biography\\|publisher\\=The Gale Group, Inc.\\|year\\=2004\\|chapter\\=Giovanni Gentile\\|via\\=Encyclopedia.com}} It also connected his philosophical work to his vocation as a teacher. In actual idealism, then, pedagogy is [transcendental](/wiki/Transcendental_philosophy \"Transcendental philosophy\") and provides the process by which the Absolute is revealed. His idea of a transcending [truth above positivism](/wiki/Verstehen \"Verstehen\") garnered particular attention by emphasizing that all modes of sensation only take the form of ideas within one's mind; in other words, they are mental constructs. To Gentile, for example, even the correlation of the function and location of the physical brain with the functions of the physical body was merely a consistent creation of the mind, and not of the brain (itself a creation of the mind). Observations like this have led some commentators to view Gentile's philosophy as a kind of \"absolute [solipsism](/wiki/Solipsism \"Solipsism\"),\" expressing the idea \"that only the spirit or mind is real\".{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GnSdPwAACAAJ\\|title\\=The Theory of Mind as Pure Act\\|last\\=Gentile\\|first\\=Giovanni\\|date\\=1 January 2008\\|publisher\\=Living Time Press\\|isbn\\=9781905820375\\|language\\=en}}", "Actual idealism also touches on ideas of concern to [theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\"). An example of actual idealism in theology is the idea that although man may have invented the concept of God, it does not make God any less real in any possible sense, so long as God is not presupposed to exist as abstraction*,* and except in case qualities about what existence actually entails (i.e. being invented apart from the thinking that makes it) are presupposed. Benedetto Croce objected that Gentile's \"pure act\" is nothing other than [Schopenhauer](/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer \"Arthur Schopenhauer\")'s [will](/wiki/Will_%28philosophy%29 \"Will (philosophy)\").[Runes, Dagobert](/wiki/Dagobert_D._Runes \"Dagobert D. Runes\"), editor, *Treasure of Philosophy*, \"Gentile, Giovanni\".", "Therefore, Gentile proposed a form of what he called \"absolute [Immanentism](/wiki/Immanentism \"Immanentism\")\" in which the divine was the present conception of reality in the totality of one's individual thinking as an evolving, growing and dynamic process. Many times accused of solipsism, Gentile maintained his philosophy to be a [Humanism](/wiki/Humanism \"Humanism\") that sensed the possibility of nothing beyond what was colligate in perception; the self's human thinking, in order to communicate as immanence is to be human like oneself, made a cohesive empathy of the self\\-same, without an external division, and therefore not modelled as objects to one's own thinking. Whereas [solipsism would feel trapped](/wiki/Nonduality_%28spirituality%29 \"Nonduality (spirituality)\") in the realization of its solitude, actualism rejects such privation and is an expression of the only freedom which is possible within objective contingencies, where the transcendental Self does not even exist as an object, and the dialectical co\\-substantiation of others necessary to understand the empirical self is felt as true others when found to be the nonrelativistic subjectivity of that whole self and essentially unified with the spirit of such higher self *in actu*, where others can be truly known, rather than thought as windowless monads.", "### Phases of his thought", "A number of developments in Gentile's thought and career helped to define his philosophy, including:\n* the definition of Actual Idealism in his work *Theory of the Pure Act* (1903\\);\n* his support for the invasion of [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") (1911\\) and the entry of Italy into [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") (1915\\);\n* his dispute with [Benedetto Croce](/wiki/Benedetto_Croce \"Benedetto Croce\") over the historic inevitability of Fascism;\"Croce and Gentile,\" *The Living Age*, 19 September 1925\\.\n* his role as minister of education (1922–24\\);\n* his belief that Fascism could be made subservient to his philosophical thought, along with his gathering of influence through the work of students like [Armando Carlini](/wiki/Armando_Carlini \"Armando Carlini\") (leader of the so\\-called \"right Gentilians\") and [Ugo Spirito](/wiki/Ugo_Spirito \"Ugo Spirito\") (who applied Gentile's philosophy to social problems and helped codify Fascist political theory); and\n* his work on the *[Enciclopedia Italiana](/wiki/Treccani \"Treccani\")* (1925–43; first edition finished in 1936\\).", "### Gentile's definition of and vision for Fascism", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=May 2018}}\n{{Fascism sidebar\\|intellectuals}}\nGentile considered Fascism the fulfilment of the Risorgimento ideals,[From Myth to Reality and Back Again: The Fascist and Post\\-Fascist Reading of Garibaldi and the Risorgimento](https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_224792_smxx.pdf) particularly those represented by [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini \"Giuseppe Mazzini\")M. E. Moss (2004\\) *Mussolini's Fascist Philosopher: Giovanni Gentile Reconsidered*; New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.; p. 58\\-60 and the [Historical Right](/wiki/Historical_Right \"Historical Right\") party.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Italian Mathematics Between the Two World Wars\\|isbn \\= 9783764375126\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=S5fpiWCghYoC\\&q\\=Mi\\+son\\+dovuto\\+persuadere\\+che\\+il\\+liberalismo,\\+com%27io\\+l%27intendo\\+e\\+come\\+lo\\+intendevano\\+gli\\+uomini\\+della\\+gloriosa\\+Destra\\+che\\+guid%C3%B2\\+l%27Italia\\+del\\+Risorgimento\\&pg\\=PA86\\|last1 \\= Guerraggio\\|first1 \\= Angelo\\|last2 \\= Nastasi\\|first2 \\= Pietro\\|date \\= 20 January 2006\\| publisher\\=Springer }}", "Gentile sought to make his philosophy the basis for Fascism.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Philosophical Basis of Fascism By Sir Giovanni Gentile}} However, with Gentile and with Fascism, the \"problem of the party\" existed by virtue of the fact that the Fascist \"party\", as such, arose organically rather than from a tract or pre\\-established socio\\-political doctrine. This complicated the matter for Gentile as it left no consensus to any way of thinking among Fascists, but ironically this aspect was to Gentile's view of how a state or party doctrine should live out its existence: with [natural organic growth](/wiki/Organicism \"Organicism\") and dialectical opposition intact. The fact that Mussolini gave credence to Gentile's viewpoints via Gentile's authorship helped with an official consideration, even though the \"problem of the party\" continued to exist for Mussolini as well.", "Gentile placed himself within the Hegelian tradition but also sought to distance himself from those views he considered erroneous. He criticized Hegel's dialectic (of Idea\\-Nature\\-Spirit), and instead proposed that everything is Spirit, with the dialectic residing in the *pure act* of thinking. Gentile believed Marx's conception of the dialectic to be the fundamental flaw of his application to system making. To the neo\\-Hegelian Gentile, Marx had made the dialectic into an external object and therefore had abstracted it by making it part of a material process of historical development. The dialectic to Gentile could only be something of human precepts, something that is an active part of human thinking. It was, to Gentile, a concrete subject and not [abstract object](/wiki/Abstract_object \"Abstract object\"). This Gentile expounded on how humans think in forms wherein one side of a dual opposite could not be thought of without its complement.", "\"Upward\" wouldn't be known without \"downward\" and \"heat\" couldn't be known without \"cold\", while each are opposites they are co\\-dependent for either one's realization: these were creations that existed as dialectic only in human thinking and couldn't be confirmed outside of which, and especially could not be said to exist in a condition external to human thought like independent matter and a world outside of personal subjectivity or as an empirical reality when not conceived in unity and from the standpoint of the human mind.", "To Gentile, Marx's externalizing of the dialectic was essentially a fetishistic mysticism. Though when viewed externally thus, it followed that Marx could then make claims to the effect of what state or condition the dialectic objectively existed in history, *[a posteriori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\")* of where any individual's opinion was while comporting oneself to the totalized whole of society. i.e. people themselves could by such a view be ideologically 'backwards' and left behind from the current state of the dialectic and not themselves be part of what is actively creating the dialectic as\\-it\\-is.", "Gentile thought this was absurd, and that there was no 'positive' independently existing dialectical object. Rather, the dialectic was natural to the state, as it is. Meaning that the interests composing the state are composing the dialectic by their living organic process of holding oppositional views within that state, and unified therein. It is the mean condition of those interests as ever they exist. Even criminality is unified as a necessary dialectic to be subsumed into the state and a creation and natural outlet of the dialectic of the positive state as ever it is.", "This view (influenced by the Hegelian theory of the state) justified the corporative system, wherein the individualized and particular interests of all divergent groups were to be personably incorporated into the state (\"Stato etico\"), each to be considered a bureaucratic branch of the state itself and given official leverage. Gentile, rather than believing the private to be swallowed synthetically within the public as Marx would have it in his objective dialectic, believed that public and private were *[a priori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\")* identified with each other in an active and subjective dialectic: one could not be subsumed fully into the other as they already are beforehand the same. In such a manner each is the other after their own fashion and from their respective, relative, and reciprocal, position. Yet both constitute the state itself and neither are free from it, nothing ever being truly free from it, the state (as in Hegel) existing as an eternal condition and not an objective, abstract collection of atomistic values and facts of the particulars about what is positively governing the people at any given time.", "" ]
### Gentile's definition of and vision for Fascism {{More citations needed section\|date\=May 2018}} {{Fascism sidebar\|intellectuals}} Gentile considered Fascism the fulfilment of the Risorgimento ideals,[From Myth to Reality and Back Again: The Fascist and Post\-Fascist Reading of Garibaldi and the Risorgimento](https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_224792_smxx.pdf) particularly those represented by [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini "Giuseppe Mazzini")M. E. Moss (2004\) *Mussolini's Fascist Philosopher: Giovanni Gentile Reconsidered*; New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.; p. 58\-60 and the [Historical Right](/wiki/Historical_Right "Historical Right") party.{{Cite book\|title\=Italian Mathematics Between the Two World Wars\|isbn \= 9783764375126\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=S5fpiWCghYoC\&q\=Mi\+son\+dovuto\+persuadere\+che\+il\+liberalismo,\+com%27io\+l%27intendo\+e\+come\+lo\+intendevano\+gli\+uomini\+della\+gloriosa\+Destra\+che\+guid%C3%B2\+l%27Italia\+del\+Risorgimento\&pg\=PA86\|last1 \= Guerraggio\|first1 \= Angelo\|last2 \= Nastasi\|first2 \= Pietro\|date \= 20 January 2006\| publisher\=Springer }} Gentile sought to make his philosophy the basis for Fascism.{{Cite book\|title\=The Philosophical Basis of Fascism By Sir Giovanni Gentile}} However, with Gentile and with Fascism, the "problem of the party" existed by virtue of the fact that the Fascist "party", as such, arose organically rather than from a tract or pre\-established socio\-political doctrine. This complicated the matter for Gentile as it left no consensus to any way of thinking among Fascists, but ironically this aspect was to Gentile's view of how a state or party doctrine should live out its existence: with [natural organic growth](/wiki/Organicism "Organicism") and dialectical opposition intact. The fact that Mussolini gave credence to Gentile's viewpoints via Gentile's authorship helped with an official consideration, even though the "problem of the party" continued to exist for Mussolini as well. Gentile placed himself within the Hegelian tradition but also sought to distance himself from those views he considered erroneous. He criticized Hegel's dialectic (of Idea\-Nature\-Spirit), and instead proposed that everything is Spirit, with the dialectic residing in the *pure act* of thinking. Gentile believed Marx's conception of the dialectic to be the fundamental flaw of his application to system making. To the neo\-Hegelian Gentile, Marx had made the dialectic into an external object and therefore had abstracted it by making it part of a material process of historical development. The dialectic to Gentile could only be something of human precepts, something that is an active part of human thinking. It was, to Gentile, a concrete subject and not [abstract object](/wiki/Abstract_object "Abstract object"). This Gentile expounded on how humans think in forms wherein one side of a dual opposite could not be thought of without its complement. "Upward" wouldn't be known without "downward" and "heat" couldn't be known without "cold", while each are opposites they are co\-dependent for either one's realization: these were creations that existed as dialectic only in human thinking and couldn't be confirmed outside of which, and especially could not be said to exist in a condition external to human thought like independent matter and a world outside of personal subjectivity or as an empirical reality when not conceived in unity and from the standpoint of the human mind. To Gentile, Marx's externalizing of the dialectic was essentially a fetishistic mysticism. Though when viewed externally thus, it followed that Marx could then make claims to the effect of what state or condition the dialectic objectively existed in history, *[a posteriori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori")* of where any individual's opinion was while comporting oneself to the totalized whole of society. i.e. people themselves could by such a view be ideologically 'backwards' and left behind from the current state of the dialectic and not themselves be part of what is actively creating the dialectic as\-it\-is. Gentile thought this was absurd, and that there was no 'positive' independently existing dialectical object. Rather, the dialectic was natural to the state, as it is. Meaning that the interests composing the state are composing the dialectic by their living organic process of holding oppositional views within that state, and unified therein. It is the mean condition of those interests as ever they exist. Even criminality is unified as a necessary dialectic to be subsumed into the state and a creation and natural outlet of the dialectic of the positive state as ever it is. This view (influenced by the Hegelian theory of the state) justified the corporative system, wherein the individualized and particular interests of all divergent groups were to be personably incorporated into the state ("Stato etico"), each to be considered a bureaucratic branch of the state itself and given official leverage. Gentile, rather than believing the private to be swallowed synthetically within the public as Marx would have it in his objective dialectic, believed that public and private were *[a priori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori")* identified with each other in an active and subjective dialectic: one could not be subsumed fully into the other as they already are beforehand the same. In such a manner each is the other after their own fashion and from their respective, relative, and reciprocal, position. Yet both constitute the state itself and neither are free from it, nothing ever being truly free from it, the state (as in Hegel) existing as an eternal condition and not an objective, abstract collection of atomistic values and facts of the particulars about what is positively governing the people at any given time.
[ "### Gentile's definition of and vision for Fascism", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=May 2018}}\n{{Fascism sidebar\\|intellectuals}}\nGentile considered Fascism the fulfilment of the Risorgimento ideals,[From Myth to Reality and Back Again: The Fascist and Post\\-Fascist Reading of Garibaldi and the Risorgimento](https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_224792_smxx.pdf) particularly those represented by [Giuseppe Mazzini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini \"Giuseppe Mazzini\")M. E. Moss (2004\\) *Mussolini's Fascist Philosopher: Giovanni Gentile Reconsidered*; New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.; p. 58\\-60 and the [Historical Right](/wiki/Historical_Right \"Historical Right\") party.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Italian Mathematics Between the Two World Wars\\|isbn \\= 9783764375126\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=S5fpiWCghYoC\\&q\\=Mi\\+son\\+dovuto\\+persuadere\\+che\\+il\\+liberalismo,\\+com%27io\\+l%27intendo\\+e\\+come\\+lo\\+intendevano\\+gli\\+uomini\\+della\\+gloriosa\\+Destra\\+che\\+guid%C3%B2\\+l%27Italia\\+del\\+Risorgimento\\&pg\\=PA86\\|last1 \\= Guerraggio\\|first1 \\= Angelo\\|last2 \\= Nastasi\\|first2 \\= Pietro\\|date \\= 20 January 2006\\| publisher\\=Springer }}", "Gentile sought to make his philosophy the basis for Fascism.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Philosophical Basis of Fascism By Sir Giovanni Gentile}} However, with Gentile and with Fascism, the \"problem of the party\" existed by virtue of the fact that the Fascist \"party\", as such, arose organically rather than from a tract or pre\\-established socio\\-political doctrine. This complicated the matter for Gentile as it left no consensus to any way of thinking among Fascists, but ironically this aspect was to Gentile's view of how a state or party doctrine should live out its existence: with [natural organic growth](/wiki/Organicism \"Organicism\") and dialectical opposition intact. The fact that Mussolini gave credence to Gentile's viewpoints via Gentile's authorship helped with an official consideration, even though the \"problem of the party\" continued to exist for Mussolini as well.", "Gentile placed himself within the Hegelian tradition but also sought to distance himself from those views he considered erroneous. He criticized Hegel's dialectic (of Idea\\-Nature\\-Spirit), and instead proposed that everything is Spirit, with the dialectic residing in the *pure act* of thinking. Gentile believed Marx's conception of the dialectic to be the fundamental flaw of his application to system making. To the neo\\-Hegelian Gentile, Marx had made the dialectic into an external object and therefore had abstracted it by making it part of a material process of historical development. The dialectic to Gentile could only be something of human precepts, something that is an active part of human thinking. It was, to Gentile, a concrete subject and not [abstract object](/wiki/Abstract_object \"Abstract object\"). This Gentile expounded on how humans think in forms wherein one side of a dual opposite could not be thought of without its complement.", "\"Upward\" wouldn't be known without \"downward\" and \"heat\" couldn't be known without \"cold\", while each are opposites they are co\\-dependent for either one's realization: these were creations that existed as dialectic only in human thinking and couldn't be confirmed outside of which, and especially could not be said to exist in a condition external to human thought like independent matter and a world outside of personal subjectivity or as an empirical reality when not conceived in unity and from the standpoint of the human mind.", "To Gentile, Marx's externalizing of the dialectic was essentially a fetishistic mysticism. Though when viewed externally thus, it followed that Marx could then make claims to the effect of what state or condition the dialectic objectively existed in history, *[a posteriori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\")* of where any individual's opinion was while comporting oneself to the totalized whole of society. i.e. people themselves could by such a view be ideologically 'backwards' and left behind from the current state of the dialectic and not themselves be part of what is actively creating the dialectic as\\-it\\-is.", "Gentile thought this was absurd, and that there was no 'positive' independently existing dialectical object. Rather, the dialectic was natural to the state, as it is. Meaning that the interests composing the state are composing the dialectic by their living organic process of holding oppositional views within that state, and unified therein. It is the mean condition of those interests as ever they exist. Even criminality is unified as a necessary dialectic to be subsumed into the state and a creation and natural outlet of the dialectic of the positive state as ever it is.", "This view (influenced by the Hegelian theory of the state) justified the corporative system, wherein the individualized and particular interests of all divergent groups were to be personably incorporated into the state (\"Stato etico\"), each to be considered a bureaucratic branch of the state itself and given official leverage. Gentile, rather than believing the private to be swallowed synthetically within the public as Marx would have it in his objective dialectic, believed that public and private were *[a priori](/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\")* identified with each other in an active and subjective dialectic: one could not be subsumed fully into the other as they already are beforehand the same. In such a manner each is the other after their own fashion and from their respective, relative, and reciprocal, position. Yet both constitute the state itself and neither are free from it, nothing ever being truly free from it, the state (as in Hegel) existing as an eternal condition and not an objective, abstract collection of atomistic values and facts of the particulars about what is positively governing the people at any given time.", "" ]
Academic freedom issues ----------------------- [thumb\|right\|Looking North from the Kimball Tower toward Mount Timpanogos](/wiki/Image:BYU_North.jpg "BYU North.jpg") ### University standards In a 1971 speech to a BYU faculty group, [Martin B. Hickman](/wiki/Martin_B._Hickman "Martin B. Hickman"), then the dean of BYU's College of Social Sciences, argued that the decision to join the BYU faculty reflected an acceptance of the values of the university and thus anyone who joined the faculty with this proper mindset would not have any academic freedom issues while there.[Ernest L. Wilkinson](/wiki/Ernest_L._Wilkinson "Ernest L. Wilkinson"), ed., *Brigham Young University: The First 100 Years*. Vol. 4, p. 63 In 1992, BYU drafted a new Statement on Academic Freedom.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.byu.edu/fc/pages/refmapages/acadfree.html \|title\= Statement on Academic Freedom at BYU\|website\=www.byu.edu \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826205013/http://www.byu.edu/fc/pages/refmapages/acadfree.html \|archive\-date\=August 26, 2006}} After receiving comment from faculty and others, the document was implemented on September 14, 1992\. This document specified that: "Because the gospel encompasses all truth and affirms the full range of human modes of knowing, the scope of integration for LDS scholars is, in principle, as wide as truth itself."{{cite book\|title\=1999\-2000 Undergraduate Catalog\|date\=Fall 1999\|publisher\=BYU\|pages\=xvii\-xx\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/undergraduatecat19981999brig\#page/n17/mode/2up}} However, citing BYU's role as a religious institution, the document allowed limitations to be placed upon "expression with students or in public that: 1. contradicts or opposes, rather than analyzes or discusses, fundamental Church doctrine or policy; 2. deliberately attacks or derides the Church or its general leaders; or 3. violates the Honor Code because the expression is dishonest, illegal, unchaste, profane, or unduly disrespectful of others. "...The ultimate responsibility to determine harm to the University mission or the church, however, remains vested in the University's governing bodies—including the University president and central administration and, finally, the board of Trustees." Also in 1992, BYU began including a clause in its faculty contracts requiring Latter\-day Saint faculty to "accept the spiritual and temporal expectations of wholehearted Church membership". In 1993, contracts further required Latter\-day Saint faculty to "maintain standards of conduct consistent with qualifying for temple privileges"{{cite web\|url\=http://ce.byu.edu/ed/edweek/form1\.pdf \|title\=BYU Division of Continuing Education \|publisher\=Ce.byu.edu \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-14 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517074103/http://ce.byu.edu/ed/edweek/form1\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2011\-05\-17 }} (referring to entry into [LDS Church temples](/wiki/Temple_%28LDS_Church%29 "Temple (LDS Church)"), for which one must meet standards of activity and behavior in the LDS Church). In 1996, Latter\-day Saint faculty were required, as a condition of employment, to obtain the yearly endorsement of their local ecclesiastical leaders certifying that the faculty were temple\-worthy. BYU does not allow off\-campus groups to use the campus for protests or demonstrations. On\-campus groups and students must apply for a permit.{{cite news\|last\=Walsh \|first\=Tad \|title\=Y. campus protests to be rather decorous \|work\=Deseret Morning News \|date\=2007\-04\-04 \|access\-date\=2007\-04\-04 \|url\=http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,660208720,00\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406211426/http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0%2C1249%2C660208720%2C00\.html \|archive\-date\=6 April 2007 \|url\-status\=live }} ### Northwest Association In 1996, the Northwest Association of Schools and of Colleges and Universities (Northwest Association) reviewed BYU's academic freedom statement and renewed its accreditation. The Northwest Association specifically approved BYU's academic freedom statement. Such accreditation standards permit "religious colleges and universities to place limitations on academic freedom so long as they publish those limitations candidly." *THE ISSUE OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM: AN INTERVIEW WITH JIM GORDON* [http://magazine.byu.edu/?act\=view\&a\=664](http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=664) In addition, the Northwest Association investigated "almost all" of the allegations that the AAUP had asserted regarding other individuals, concluding that the University had not violated academic freedom. ### American Association of University Professors BYU's academic freedom policies have been criticized by the [American Association of University Professors](/wiki/American_Association_of_University_Professors "American Association of University Professors") (AAUP). In 1997, they issued a [report](https://web.archive.org/web/20120921091553/http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/27EB0A08-8D25-4415-9E55-8081CC874AC5/0/Brigham.pdf) documenting the cases of several professors, concluding "that infringements on academic freedom are distressingly common and that the climate for academic freedom is distressingly poor."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/27EB0A08\-8D25\-4415\-9E55\-8081CC874AC5/0/Brigham.pdf \|title\=Academic Freedom and Tenure: Brigham Young University \|access\-date\=2010\-07\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921091553/http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/27EB0A08\-8D25\-4415\-9E55\-8081CC874AC5/0/Brigham.pdf \|archive\-date\=2012\-09\-21 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite journal\|last1\=Adams\|first1\=Jonathan\|title\=Repression at BYU\|journal\=Secular Humanist Bulletin\|date\=Spring 2007\|volume\=23\|issue\=1\|url\=https://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php/articles/3435}} The AAUP report also contained, as an appendix, a response authored by the BYU administration, which argued that BYU had the right to limit academic freedom in order to preserve the religious character of the school, a right implied by a 1940 AAUP statement and generally followed until 1970\. In particular, BYU compared itself to [Gonzaga University](/wiki/Gonzaga_University "Gonzaga University"), a Jesuit institution which prohibited "open espousal of viewpoints which contradict explicit principles of Catholic faith and morals." BYU also stated that the academic freedom judgement process lacked transparency and objectivity. The AAUP's decision remained, however. In 1965, the AAUP had stated that "satisfactory conditions of academic freedom and tenure now prevail at Gonzaga."{{cite journal \| last \= McConnell \| first \= Michael W. \| author\-link \= Michael W. McConnell \| title \= Academic Freedom in Religious Colleges and Universities \| journal \= Law and Contemporary Problems \| publisher \= Duke University School of Law \| volume \= 53 \| issue \= 3: Summer 1990 \| issn \= 0023\-9186 \| date \=October 1990 \| pages \= 303–324 \| doi \= 10\.2307/1191799 \| jstor \= 1191799 }} In 1970, the AAUP had adopted a statement of *Interpretive Comments* in which the AAUP had stated, "Most church\-related institutions no longer need or desire the departure from the principle of academic freedom implied in the 1940 *Statement*, and we do not endorse such a departure".{{cite web\|last\=Hardy \|first\=Lee \|url\=http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2006/JF/Feat/hard.htm \|title\=The Value of Limitations \|publisher\=Aaup.org \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-24 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517051447/http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2006/JF/Feat/hard.htm \|archive\-date\=2011\-05\-17 }} In 1998, the AAUP voted to censure BYU, which remains on a list of censured institutions together with 46 other universities.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/about/censuredadmins/default.htm \|title\=Censure List \|publisher\=AAUP \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222211527/http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/about/censuredadmins/default.htm \|archive\-date\=22 December 2010 \|url\-status\=dead }} The AAUP's refusal to accommodate religiously affiliated institutions of higher learning in connection with desires to protect religious traditions in line with its own 1940 statement \- in contrast to that accommodation by the Northwest Association \- has been criticized. ### Case studies Soon after adopting their statement on academic freedom in 1992, BYU took actions which some have viewed as related to the implementation of the new academic freedom policy. For example, in late 1992, BYU's board of trustees vetoed without comment a BYU proposal to invite [Pulitzer Prize](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize "Pulitzer Prize") winner and [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") professor [Laurel Thatcher Ulrich](/wiki/Laurel_Thatcher_Ulrich "Laurel Thatcher Ulrich"), an active feminist, to address the annual BYU Women's Conference.Wilson, Robin. (March 24, 2006\). "A Well\-Behaved Scholar Makes History." *The Chronicle of Higher Education.* v. 52 (29\), page A12\. [http://chronicle.com/weekly/v52/i29/29a01201\.htm](http://chronicle.com/weekly/v52/i29/29a01201.htm) Since that time [Laurel Thatcher Ulrich](/wiki/Laurel_Thatcher_Ulrich "Laurel Thatcher Ulrich") has been invited and spoken at BYU including as recently as 2017\.[https://mi.byu.edu/ulrich\-lecture\-2017/](https://mi.byu.edu/ulrich-lecture-2017/) In some cases since 1992, BYU has dismissed, denied continuing status, or censured faculty members who have taken critical positions relating to official LDS Church policy or leadership, as well as those who for personal reasons did not pay a tithe to the LDS Church. In 1993, BYU revoked the continuing status to Cecilia Konchar Farr, who had publicly advocated a pro\-choice position on abortion. Farr was hired as an English instructor and some felt her positions of pro\-choice were irrelevant to her assignment with the school. David Knowlton, who had discussed the church's missionary system at an independent Mormon forum, as well as making disparaging remarks about LDS architecture did not have his contract renewed. Officially, BYU spokespeople generally framed the actions in the cases of Farr, Knowlton, and Houston as relating to the quality of the professors' scholarship, and sometimes to unspecified misbehavior, rather than the controversial content of the affected professor's academic activities.{{cite news \|url \= http://magazine.byu.edu/?act\=view\&a\=664 \|title \= The Issue of Academic Freedom: An Interview with Jim Gordon \|work \= BYU Magazine \|date \= Winter 1997}} In 1996, BYU dismissed Gail T. Houston, an English professor, despite positive votes from her English Department and the College Committee. One of the reasons for this action was her advocacy of prayer to Heavenly Mother.[Times and Seasons peace on removal of Houston](http://timesandseasons.org/index.php/2008/09/byu-in-the-memory-of-the-aaup/) Also in 1996, professor [Brian Evenson](/wiki/Brian_Evenson "Brian Evenson") resigned in protest after receiving a warning from BYU administration over some violent images in one of his short stories. Nevertheless, some critics viewed these dismissals as a kind of purge. Some of the professors dismissed for academic reasons claim that their publishing credentials were stronger than many of their colleagues. In 2006, part\-time faculty instructor [Jeffrey Nielsen](/wiki/Jeffrey_Nielsen "Jeffrey Nielsen")'s contract was not renewed after he wrote an op\-ed piece in the June 4 *[Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tribune "Salt Lake Tribune")* which criticized and opposed the LDS Church's stance on [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2006/06/13/AR2006061302010\_pf.html \|title\=Washington Post \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|date\=2006\-06\-14 \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-24}} Darron Smith, an African\-American, taught a course called "The African American Experience" from 1996 to 2006, when his adjunct faculty contract was not renewed.{{cite news \|last1\=Mueller \|first1\=Max Perry \|title\=Is Mormonism Still Racist? \|url\=https://slate.com/human\-interest/2012/03/mormon\-church\-and\-racism\-a\-new\-controversy\-about\-old\-teachings.html \|work\=Slate Magazine \|date\=2 March 2012 \|language\=en}} According to Smith, his termination was a direct response to his criticism of how the LDS Church has treated black people.{{cite web \|title\=022\-024: Black and Mormon \- The Darron Smith Story \|url\=https://www.mormonstories.org/podcast/mormon\-stories\-022\-023\-and\-024\-black\-and\-mormon\-the\-darron\-smith\-story/ \|website\=Mormon Stories\|date\=30 March 2006 }} In 2011, BYU placed [physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics") professor [Steven E. Jones](/wiki/Steven_E._Jones "Steven E. Jones") on paid leave in connection with an internal investigation that a paper he authored on the causes finding that the World Trade Center towers fell on 9/11 because of pre\-set explosives might not have met "scientific standards of peer review" and his failure of "appropriately distancing himself" from the University in his statements regarding his explosive theory.{{cite web\|url\=http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,650200587,00\.html \|title\=BYU professor in dispute over 9/11 will retire \|publisher\=Deseretnews.com \|date\=2006\-10\-22 \|access\-date\=2011\-01\-24}} Mr. Jones accepted early retirement while the investigation was in its early stages. In February 2012, [Randy L. Bott](/wiki/Randy_L._Bott "Randy L. Bott") made controversial racial statements that appeared in *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* where Bott pointed to a passage in Mormon scripture that suggested to him that Cain's descendants were marked with dark skin and were prohibited from holding the priesthood. These statements were censured or condemned by BYU Administrators and the LDS Church and the Professor retired from BYU shortly thereafter.{{citation \|url\= https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/race\-church \|title\= Official Statement {{ndash}} Race and the Church: All Are Alike Unto God\|work\= Newsroom (mormonnewsroom.org) \|date\= 29 February 2012\|publisher\= LDS Church \|access\-date\= 2013\-08\-22}}{{citation \|url\= http://universe.byu.edu/2012/02/29/professor\-didnt\-follow\-university\-media\-policy\-when\-speaking\-with\-washington\-post/ \|title\= Washington Post article on black priesthood ban spurs concern, outrage: Professor didn't follow university media policy when speaking with newspaper \|first\= Kate \|last\= Bennion \|date\= February 29, 2012 \|newspaper\= \[\[The Daily Universe]] \|access\-date\= 2013\-08\-22}}{{citation \|url\= http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765555339/LDS\-Church\-condemns\-past\-racism\-inside\-and\-outside\-the\-church.html?pg\=all \|first\= Joseph \|last\= Walker \|date\= February 29, 2012 \|title\= LDS Church condemns past racism 'inside and outside the church' \|newspaper\= \[\[Deseret News]] \|access\-date\= 2013\-08\-22}} In 2021, the [Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tribune "Salt Lake Tribune") noted the tension between faith and scholarship (such as openly teaching [evolution](/wiki/Evolution "Evolution")), and how the LDS Church now calls for a retrenchment which BYU professors fear.{{cite web \| first\=Peggy \| last\=Fletcher Stack \| title\=Can BYU serve two masters: faith and scholarship? \| website\=The Salt Lake Tribune \| date\=7 September 2021 \| url\=https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2021/09/07/can\-unique\-byu\-really\-be/ \| access\-date\=16 September 2021\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917044128if\_/https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2021/09/07/can\-unique\-byu\-really\-be/\| archive\-date\=17 September 2021\| url\-status\=live}}
[ "Academic freedom issues\n-----------------------", "[thumb\\|right\\|Looking North from the Kimball Tower toward Mount Timpanogos](/wiki/Image:BYU_North.jpg \"BYU North.jpg\")", "### University standards", "In a 1971 speech to a BYU faculty group, [Martin B. Hickman](/wiki/Martin_B._Hickman \"Martin B. Hickman\"), then the dean of BYU's College of Social Sciences, argued that the decision to join the BYU faculty reflected an acceptance of the values of the university and thus anyone who joined the faculty with this proper mindset would not have any academic freedom issues while there.[Ernest L. Wilkinson](/wiki/Ernest_L._Wilkinson \"Ernest L. Wilkinson\"), ed., *Brigham Young University: The First 100 Years*. Vol. 4, p. 63", "In 1992, BYU drafted a new Statement on Academic Freedom.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.byu.edu/fc/pages/refmapages/acadfree.html \\|title\\= Statement on Academic Freedom at BYU\\|website\\=www.byu.edu \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826205013/http://www.byu.edu/fc/pages/refmapages/acadfree.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 26, 2006}} After receiving comment from faculty and others, the document was implemented on September 14, 1992\\. This document specified that: \"Because the gospel encompasses all truth and affirms the full range of human modes of knowing, the scope of integration for LDS scholars is, in principle, as wide as truth itself.\"{{cite book\\|title\\=1999\\-2000 Undergraduate Catalog\\|date\\=Fall 1999\\|publisher\\=BYU\\|pages\\=xvii\\-xx\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/undergraduatecat19981999brig\\#page/n17/mode/2up}} However, citing BYU's role as a religious institution, the document allowed limitations to be placed upon \"expression with students or in public that:\n1. contradicts or opposes, rather than analyzes or discusses, fundamental Church doctrine or policy;\n2. deliberately attacks or derides the Church or its general leaders; or\n3. violates the Honor Code because the expression is dishonest, illegal, unchaste, profane, or unduly disrespectful of others.\n\"...The ultimate responsibility to determine harm to the University mission or the church, however, remains vested in the University's governing bodies—including the University president and central administration and, finally, the board of Trustees.\"", "Also in 1992, BYU began including a clause in its faculty contracts requiring Latter\\-day Saint faculty to \"accept the spiritual and temporal expectations of wholehearted Church membership\". In 1993, contracts further required Latter\\-day Saint faculty to \"maintain standards of conduct consistent with qualifying for temple privileges\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ce.byu.edu/ed/edweek/form1\\.pdf \\|title\\=BYU Division of Continuing Education \\|publisher\\=Ce.byu.edu \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-14 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517074103/http://ce.byu.edu/ed/edweek/form1\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-17 }} (referring to entry into [LDS Church temples](/wiki/Temple_%28LDS_Church%29 \"Temple (LDS Church)\"), for which one must meet standards of activity and behavior in the LDS Church). In 1996, Latter\\-day Saint faculty were required, as a condition of employment, to obtain the yearly endorsement of their local ecclesiastical leaders certifying that the faculty were temple\\-worthy.", "BYU does not allow off\\-campus groups to use the campus for protests or demonstrations. On\\-campus groups and students must apply for a permit.{{cite news\\|last\\=Walsh \\|first\\=Tad \\|title\\=Y. campus protests to be rather decorous \\|work\\=Deseret Morning News \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-04\\-04 \\|url\\=http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,660208720,00\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406211426/http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0%2C1249%2C660208720%2C00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=6 April 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Northwest Association", "In 1996, the Northwest Association of Schools and of Colleges and Universities (Northwest Association) reviewed BYU's academic freedom statement and renewed its accreditation. The Northwest Association specifically approved BYU's academic freedom statement. Such accreditation standards permit \"religious colleges and universities to place limitations on academic freedom so long as they publish those limitations candidly.\" *THE ISSUE OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM: AN INTERVIEW WITH JIM GORDON* [http://magazine.byu.edu/?act\\=view\\&a\\=664](http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=664) In addition, the Northwest Association investigated \"almost all\" of the allegations that the AAUP had asserted regarding other individuals, concluding that the University had not violated academic freedom.", "### American Association of University Professors", "BYU's academic freedom policies have been criticized by the [American Association of University Professors](/wiki/American_Association_of_University_Professors \"American Association of University Professors\") (AAUP). In 1997, they issued a [report](https://web.archive.org/web/20120921091553/http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/27EB0A08-8D25-4415-9E55-8081CC874AC5/0/Brigham.pdf) documenting the cases of several professors, concluding \"that infringements on academic freedom are distressingly common and that the climate for academic freedom is distressingly poor.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/27EB0A08\\-8D25\\-4415\\-9E55\\-8081CC874AC5/0/Brigham.pdf \\|title\\=Academic Freedom and Tenure: Brigham Young University \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921091553/http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/27EB0A08\\-8D25\\-4415\\-9E55\\-8081CC874AC5/0/Brigham.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Adams\\|first1\\=Jonathan\\|title\\=Repression at BYU\\|journal\\=Secular Humanist Bulletin\\|date\\=Spring 2007\\|volume\\=23\\|issue\\=1\\|url\\=https://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php/articles/3435}}", "The AAUP report also contained, as an appendix, a response authored by the BYU administration, which argued that BYU had the right to limit academic freedom in order to preserve the religious character of the school, a right implied by a 1940 AAUP statement and generally followed until 1970\\. In particular, BYU compared itself to [Gonzaga University](/wiki/Gonzaga_University \"Gonzaga University\"), a Jesuit institution which prohibited \"open espousal of viewpoints which contradict explicit principles of Catholic faith and morals.\"", "BYU also stated that the academic freedom judgement process lacked transparency and objectivity. The AAUP's decision remained, however. In 1965, the AAUP had stated that \"satisfactory conditions of academic freedom and tenure now prevail at Gonzaga.\"{{cite journal \\| last \\= McConnell \\| first \\= Michael W. \\| author\\-link \\= Michael W. McConnell \\| title \\= Academic Freedom in Religious Colleges and Universities \\| journal \\= Law and Contemporary Problems \\| publisher \\= Duke University School of Law \\| volume \\= 53 \\| issue \\= 3: Summer 1990 \\| issn \\= 0023\\-9186 \\| date \\=October 1990 \\| pages \\= 303–324 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/1191799 \\| jstor \\= 1191799 }}", "In 1970, the AAUP had adopted a statement of *Interpretive Comments* in which the AAUP had stated, \"Most church\\-related institutions no longer need or desire the departure from the principle of academic freedom implied in the 1940 *Statement*, and we do not endorse such a departure\".{{cite web\\|last\\=Hardy \\|first\\=Lee \\|url\\=http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2006/JF/Feat/hard.htm \\|title\\=The Value of Limitations \\|publisher\\=Aaup.org \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-24 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517051447/http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2006/JF/Feat/hard.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-17 }} In 1998, the AAUP voted to censure BYU, which remains on a list of censured institutions together with 46 other universities.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/about/censuredadmins/default.htm \\|title\\=Censure List \\|publisher\\=AAUP \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222211527/http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/about/censuredadmins/default.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "The AAUP's refusal to accommodate religiously affiliated institutions of higher learning in connection with desires to protect religious traditions in line with its own 1940 statement \\- in contrast to that accommodation by the Northwest Association \\- has been criticized.", "### Case studies", "Soon after adopting their statement on academic freedom in 1992, BYU took actions which some have viewed as related to the implementation of the new academic freedom policy. For example, in late 1992, BYU's board of trustees vetoed without comment a BYU proposal to invite [Pulitzer Prize](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize \"Pulitzer Prize\") winner and [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") professor [Laurel Thatcher Ulrich](/wiki/Laurel_Thatcher_Ulrich \"Laurel Thatcher Ulrich\"), an active feminist, to address the annual BYU Women's Conference.Wilson, Robin. (March 24, 2006\\). \"A Well\\-Behaved Scholar Makes History.\" *The Chronicle of Higher Education.* v. 52 (29\\), page A12\\. [http://chronicle.com/weekly/v52/i29/29a01201\\.htm](http://chronicle.com/weekly/v52/i29/29a01201.htm) Since that time [Laurel Thatcher Ulrich](/wiki/Laurel_Thatcher_Ulrich \"Laurel Thatcher Ulrich\") has been invited and spoken at BYU including as recently as 2017\\.[https://mi.byu.edu/ulrich\\-lecture\\-2017/](https://mi.byu.edu/ulrich-lecture-2017/)", "In some cases since 1992, BYU has dismissed, denied continuing status, or censured faculty members who have taken critical positions relating to official LDS Church policy or leadership, as well as those who for personal reasons did not pay a tithe to the LDS Church.", "In 1993, BYU revoked the continuing status to Cecilia Konchar Farr, who had publicly advocated a pro\\-choice position on abortion. Farr was hired as an English instructor and some felt her positions of pro\\-choice were irrelevant to her assignment with the school. David Knowlton, who had discussed the church's missionary system at an independent Mormon forum, as well as making disparaging remarks about LDS architecture did not have his contract renewed. Officially, BYU spokespeople generally framed the actions in the cases of Farr, Knowlton, and Houston as relating to the quality of the professors' scholarship, and sometimes to unspecified misbehavior, rather than the controversial content of the affected professor's academic activities.{{cite news \\|url \\= http://magazine.byu.edu/?act\\=view\\&a\\=664 \\|title \\= The Issue of Academic Freedom: An Interview with Jim Gordon \\|work \\= BYU Magazine \\|date \\= Winter 1997}}", "In 1996, BYU dismissed Gail T. Houston, an English professor, despite positive votes from her English Department and the College Committee. One of the reasons for this action was her advocacy of prayer to Heavenly Mother.[Times and Seasons peace on removal of Houston](http://timesandseasons.org/index.php/2008/09/byu-in-the-memory-of-the-aaup/) Also in 1996, professor [Brian Evenson](/wiki/Brian_Evenson \"Brian Evenson\") resigned in protest after receiving a warning from BYU administration over some violent images in one of his short stories. Nevertheless, some critics viewed these dismissals as a kind of purge. Some of the professors dismissed for academic reasons claim that their publishing credentials were stronger than many of their colleagues.", "In 2006, part\\-time faculty instructor [Jeffrey Nielsen](/wiki/Jeffrey_Nielsen \"Jeffrey Nielsen\")'s contract was not renewed after he wrote an op\\-ed piece in the June 4 *[Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tribune \"Salt Lake Tribune\")* which criticized and opposed the LDS Church's stance on [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2006/06/13/AR2006061302010\\_pf.html \\|title\\=Washington Post \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|date\\=2006\\-06\\-14 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-24}} Darron Smith, an African\\-American, taught a course called \"The African American Experience\" from 1996 to 2006, when his adjunct faculty contract was not renewed.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Mueller \\|first1\\=Max Perry \\|title\\=Is Mormonism Still Racist? \\|url\\=https://slate.com/human\\-interest/2012/03/mormon\\-church\\-and\\-racism\\-a\\-new\\-controversy\\-about\\-old\\-teachings.html \\|work\\=Slate Magazine \\|date\\=2 March 2012 \\|language\\=en}} According to Smith, his termination was a direct response to his criticism of how the LDS Church has treated black people.{{cite web \\|title\\=022\\-024: Black and Mormon \\- The Darron Smith Story \\|url\\=https://www.mormonstories.org/podcast/mormon\\-stories\\-022\\-023\\-and\\-024\\-black\\-and\\-mormon\\-the\\-darron\\-smith\\-story/ \\|website\\=Mormon Stories\\|date\\=30 March 2006 }}", "In 2011, BYU placed [physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\") professor [Steven E. Jones](/wiki/Steven_E._Jones \"Steven E. Jones\") on paid leave in connection with an internal investigation that a paper he authored on the causes finding that the World Trade Center towers fell on 9/11 because of pre\\-set explosives might not have met \"scientific standards of peer review\" and his failure of \"appropriately distancing himself\" from the University in his statements regarding his explosive theory.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,650200587,00\\.html \\|title\\=BYU professor in dispute over 9/11 will retire \\|publisher\\=Deseretnews.com \\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-24}} Mr. Jones accepted early retirement while the investigation was in its early stages.", "In February 2012, [Randy L. Bott](/wiki/Randy_L._Bott \"Randy L. Bott\") made controversial racial statements that appeared in *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* where Bott pointed to a passage in Mormon scripture that suggested to him that Cain's descendants were marked with dark skin and were prohibited from holding the priesthood. These statements were censured or condemned by BYU Administrators and the LDS Church and the Professor retired from BYU shortly thereafter.{{citation \\|url\\= https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/race\\-church \\|title\\= Official Statement {{ndash}} Race and the Church: All Are Alike Unto God\\|work\\= Newsroom (mormonnewsroom.org) \\|date\\= 29 February 2012\\|publisher\\= LDS Church \\|access\\-date\\= 2013\\-08\\-22}}{{citation \\|url\\= http://universe.byu.edu/2012/02/29/professor\\-didnt\\-follow\\-university\\-media\\-policy\\-when\\-speaking\\-with\\-washington\\-post/ \\|title\\= Washington Post article on black priesthood ban spurs concern, outrage: Professor didn't follow university media policy when speaking with newspaper \\|first\\= Kate \\|last\\= Bennion \\|date\\= February 29, 2012 \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Daily Universe]] \\|access\\-date\\= 2013\\-08\\-22}}{{citation \\|url\\= http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765555339/LDS\\-Church\\-condemns\\-past\\-racism\\-inside\\-and\\-outside\\-the\\-church.html?pg\\=all \\|first\\= Joseph \\|last\\= Walker \\|date\\= February 29, 2012 \\|title\\= LDS Church condemns past racism 'inside and outside the church' \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[Deseret News]] \\|access\\-date\\= 2013\\-08\\-22}}", "In 2021, the [Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Tribune \"Salt Lake Tribune\") noted the tension between faith and scholarship (such as openly teaching [evolution](/wiki/Evolution \"Evolution\")), and how the LDS Church now calls for a retrenchment which BYU professors fear.{{cite web \\| first\\=Peggy \\| last\\=Fletcher Stack \\| title\\=Can BYU serve two masters: faith and scholarship? \\| website\\=The Salt Lake Tribune \\| date\\=7 September 2021 \\| url\\=https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2021/09/07/can\\-unique\\-byu\\-really\\-be/ \\| access\\-date\\=16 September 2021\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917044128if\\_/https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2021/09/07/can\\-unique\\-byu\\-really\\-be/\\| archive\\-date\\=17 September 2021\\| url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
Season overview --------------- ### Pre\-season Real Madrid Castilla started the summer with key players leaving the team. On 10 June, [Real Madrid](/wiki/Real_Madrid_C.F. "Real Madrid C.F.") announced the signing of former loanee [Casemiro](/wiki/Casemiro "Casemiro") from [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_FC "São Paulo FC") for €6 million. On 13 June, [Juanfran](/wiki/Juanfran_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 "Juanfran (footballer, born 1988)") signed with [Real Betis](/wiki/Real_Betis "Real Betis") on a free transfer. On 30 June, loanees [Pedro Mosquera](/wiki/Pedro_Mosquera "Pedro Mosquera"), [Jota](/wiki/Jota_%28Spanish_footballer%29 "Jota (Spanish footballer)") and [Fabinho](/wiki/Fabinho_%28footballer%2C_born_1993%29 "Fabinho (footballer, born 1993)") were returned to [Getafe](/wiki/Getafe_CF "Getafe CF"), [Celta de Vigo](/wiki/Celta_de_Vigo "Celta de Vigo") and [Rio Ave](/wiki/Rio_Ave_F.C. "Rio Ave F.C.") respectively. On 5 July, [José Antonio Ríos](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_R%C3%ADos "José Antonio Ríos") signed with [Mirandés](/wiki/CD_Mirand%C3%A9s "CD Mirandés") on a free transfer. On 10 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\-year contract extension with [Nacho](/wiki/Nacho_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 "Nacho (footballer, born 1990)"). On 18 July, Real Madrid Castilla announced its first signing of the season in [Jorge Pulido](/wiki/Jorge_Pulido "Jorge Pulido") from [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid "Atlético Madrid"). On 24 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\-year contract extension with [Jesé](/wiki/Jes%C3%A9 "Jesé"). On 25 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\-year contract extension with [Denis Cheryshev](/wiki/Denis_Cheryshev "Denis Cheryshev"). On 27 July, Real Madrid Castilla received [Jaime Romero](/wiki/Jaime_Romero "Jaime Romero") from [Udinese](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio "Udinese Calcio") on loan.
[ "Season overview\n---------------", "### Pre\\-season", "Real Madrid Castilla started the summer with key players leaving the team. On 10 June, [Real Madrid](/wiki/Real_Madrid_C.F. \"Real Madrid C.F.\") announced the signing of former loanee [Casemiro](/wiki/Casemiro \"Casemiro\") from [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_FC \"São Paulo FC\") for €6 million.", "On 13 June, [Juanfran](/wiki/Juanfran_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 \"Juanfran (footballer, born 1988)\") signed with [Real Betis](/wiki/Real_Betis \"Real Betis\") on a free transfer.", "On 30 June, loanees [Pedro Mosquera](/wiki/Pedro_Mosquera \"Pedro Mosquera\"), [Jota](/wiki/Jota_%28Spanish_footballer%29 \"Jota (Spanish footballer)\") and [Fabinho](/wiki/Fabinho_%28footballer%2C_born_1993%29 \"Fabinho (footballer, born 1993)\") were returned to [Getafe](/wiki/Getafe_CF \"Getafe CF\"), [Celta de Vigo](/wiki/Celta_de_Vigo \"Celta de Vigo\") and [Rio Ave](/wiki/Rio_Ave_F.C. \"Rio Ave F.C.\") respectively.", "On 5 July, [José Antonio Ríos](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_R%C3%ADos \"José Antonio Ríos\") signed with [Mirandés](/wiki/CD_Mirand%C3%A9s \"CD Mirandés\") on a free transfer.", "On 10 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\\-year contract extension with [Nacho](/wiki/Nacho_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 \"Nacho (footballer, born 1990)\").", "On 18 July, Real Madrid Castilla announced its first signing of the season in [Jorge Pulido](/wiki/Jorge_Pulido \"Jorge Pulido\") from [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid \"Atlético Madrid\").", "On 24 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\\-year contract extension with [Jesé](/wiki/Jes%C3%A9 \"Jesé\").", "On 25 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\\-year contract extension with [Denis Cheryshev](/wiki/Denis_Cheryshev \"Denis Cheryshev\").", "On 27 July, Real Madrid Castilla received [Jaime Romero](/wiki/Jaime_Romero \"Jaime Romero\") from [Udinese](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio \"Udinese Calcio\") on loan.", "" ]
### Pre\-season Real Madrid Castilla started the summer with key players leaving the team. On 10 June, [Real Madrid](/wiki/Real_Madrid_C.F. "Real Madrid C.F.") announced the signing of former loanee [Casemiro](/wiki/Casemiro "Casemiro") from [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_FC "São Paulo FC") for €6 million. On 13 June, [Juanfran](/wiki/Juanfran_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 "Juanfran (footballer, born 1988)") signed with [Real Betis](/wiki/Real_Betis "Real Betis") on a free transfer. On 30 June, loanees [Pedro Mosquera](/wiki/Pedro_Mosquera "Pedro Mosquera"), [Jota](/wiki/Jota_%28Spanish_footballer%29 "Jota (Spanish footballer)") and [Fabinho](/wiki/Fabinho_%28footballer%2C_born_1993%29 "Fabinho (footballer, born 1993)") were returned to [Getafe](/wiki/Getafe_CF "Getafe CF"), [Celta de Vigo](/wiki/Celta_de_Vigo "Celta de Vigo") and [Rio Ave](/wiki/Rio_Ave_F.C. "Rio Ave F.C.") respectively. On 5 July, [José Antonio Ríos](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_R%C3%ADos "José Antonio Ríos") signed with [Mirandés](/wiki/CD_Mirand%C3%A9s "CD Mirandés") on a free transfer. On 10 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\-year contract extension with [Nacho](/wiki/Nacho_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 "Nacho (footballer, born 1990)"). On 18 July, Real Madrid Castilla announced its first signing of the season in [Jorge Pulido](/wiki/Jorge_Pulido "Jorge Pulido") from [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid "Atlético Madrid"). On 24 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\-year contract extension with [Jesé](/wiki/Jes%C3%A9 "Jesé"). On 25 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\-year contract extension with [Denis Cheryshev](/wiki/Denis_Cheryshev "Denis Cheryshev"). On 27 July, Real Madrid Castilla received [Jaime Romero](/wiki/Jaime_Romero "Jaime Romero") from [Udinese](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio "Udinese Calcio") on loan.
[ "### Pre\\-season", "Real Madrid Castilla started the summer with key players leaving the team. On 10 June, [Real Madrid](/wiki/Real_Madrid_C.F. \"Real Madrid C.F.\") announced the signing of former loanee [Casemiro](/wiki/Casemiro \"Casemiro\") from [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_FC \"São Paulo FC\") for €6 million.", "On 13 June, [Juanfran](/wiki/Juanfran_%28footballer%2C_born_1988%29 \"Juanfran (footballer, born 1988)\") signed with [Real Betis](/wiki/Real_Betis \"Real Betis\") on a free transfer.", "On 30 June, loanees [Pedro Mosquera](/wiki/Pedro_Mosquera \"Pedro Mosquera\"), [Jota](/wiki/Jota_%28Spanish_footballer%29 \"Jota (Spanish footballer)\") and [Fabinho](/wiki/Fabinho_%28footballer%2C_born_1993%29 \"Fabinho (footballer, born 1993)\") were returned to [Getafe](/wiki/Getafe_CF \"Getafe CF\"), [Celta de Vigo](/wiki/Celta_de_Vigo \"Celta de Vigo\") and [Rio Ave](/wiki/Rio_Ave_F.C. \"Rio Ave F.C.\") respectively.", "On 5 July, [José Antonio Ríos](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_R%C3%ADos \"José Antonio Ríos\") signed with [Mirandés](/wiki/CD_Mirand%C3%A9s \"CD Mirandés\") on a free transfer.", "On 10 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\\-year contract extension with [Nacho](/wiki/Nacho_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 \"Nacho (footballer, born 1990)\").", "On 18 July, Real Madrid Castilla announced its first signing of the season in [Jorge Pulido](/wiki/Jorge_Pulido \"Jorge Pulido\") from [Atlético Madrid](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Madrid \"Atlético Madrid\").", "On 24 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\\-year contract extension with [Jesé](/wiki/Jes%C3%A9 \"Jesé\").", "On 25 July, Real Madrid agreed a four\\-year contract extension with [Denis Cheryshev](/wiki/Denis_Cheryshev \"Denis Cheryshev\").", "On 27 July, Real Madrid Castilla received [Jaime Romero](/wiki/Jaime_Romero \"Jaime Romero\") from [Udinese](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio \"Udinese Calcio\") on loan.", "" ]
Features -------- {{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2023}} ### Display technology The F3 was the first mobile phone to use [electronic paper](/wiki/Electronic_paper "Electronic paper") in its screen. Motorola used the term ClearVision to describe the new display, which was manufactured using [E Ink](/wiki/E_Ink "E Ink")'s [electrophoretic](/wiki/Electrophoresis "Electrophoresis") imaging film.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.motorola.com/motoinfo/product/details.jsp?globalObjectId\=164\|title\=motorola MOTOFONE}} The electronic paper main display allowed for the phone's thinness (no glass), longer battery life, and outdoor viewability (paper\-like reflectivity). It had a backlight for the keypad and a slit that projects the backlight onto the screen so the display can be seen in darkness. The characteristics of the display were fairly restrictive. The text display contained only two lines of six characters each, making the use of [text messaging (SMS)](/wiki/Short_message_service "Short message service") and data services less practical than on standard LCD displays. The display used a fixed 'digital clock' style font, with no functionality for changing between upper case and lower case text. All SMSs sent by the F3 were received entirely in lower case, and each character of any SMS received by the F3 is displayed in whichever case made the most sense using the font. Also, the non\-alphabetic characters were severely limited due to this display, as the phone could only provide support for the following characters: * Comma (,) (periods . in incoming text messages are displayed as commas) * Hyphen (\-) * Question mark (?) * At\-sign (@) * Asterisk (\*) * (\+), to write this character, hold down the 0 key No other non\-alphanumeric characters could be entered, and on receiving an SMS any non\-alphabetic character not listed above was displayed as a hyphen. Although the display could be restrictive when it came to text applications, the display was very energy efficient and conducive to extremely long battery life. ### User interface Since the F3 had only two lines of fixed icons on the top and bottom of the display, as well as one line of six [14\-segment characters](/wiki/Fourteen-segment_display "Fourteen-segment display") and another line of six [7\-segment numbers](/wiki/7-segment_display "7-segment display") available on its display, the user interface was very different from the usual menu structure normally found on mobile phones. The only thing resembling a (flat) menu was accessed by pressing left/right on the central button: It allowed writing an SMS, reading a saved SMS, call history, choosing the ringtone (out of seven melodies), setting date and time, and setting the alarm clock. The menu was visualized by fixed icons in the bottom row, following the left/right pattern of the navigation button. The F3 had a few dedicated buttons for opening the address book (top right), canceling any action (the red button), dialing the currently displayed number (the green button) and an "action" button (top left). A few more functions were available by shortcuts: When making a call, pressing the action button twice switched the loudspeaker on/off, while pressing up/down controls the speaker volume. The same button used in standby toggled voice prompts, while pressing up/down controls ringtone volume. When the phone rung, due to incoming calls, the ringer could also be silenced by pressing up/down. All activated features (set alarm clock, activated vibration mode, roaming, ...) were indicated by simple icons in fixed positions in the top row, and every successful action acknowledged by an "OK" icon flashing on and off a few times. The only context\-sensitive button was the action button which was used for "OK" on options as well as choosing a number or address book entry when writing an SMS or for answering a received SMS. Reception strength (left) and battery status (right) were constantly displayed in two prominent strips above the actual display. Both were readable in any light condition and from considerable distances. ### Special features The F3 Motofone was designed for usage in [developing countries](/wiki/Developing_countries "Developing countries") and sported a display which coped well with both bright sunlight and very dim light. Voice prompts also explained the current function in a choice of languages, depending on region; a unit bought in Germany offered German, English and Italian. It was also fairly solid and rugged and could survive not only rough handling but also very dusty and/or damp conditions well, as the case had only two openings (a charger/headset jack and the battery cover) as well as a totally sealed keyboard. There are even videos on the Internet showing the F3 being thrown from a 3\-story building into tarmac, and being run over by a car on a gravel surface.[The Motofone is One Tough Phone!](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7o7Wnsc0x8) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731155134/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=U7o7Wnsc0x8 \|date\=July 31, 2013 }} The phone survived intact. The charger/headset jack for the F3 Motofone (and variants) was not a standard 2\.5 mm or 3\.5 mm headset port. It was a [DC connector](/wiki/DC_connector "DC connector") that can support mono sound quality. This is not well documented at Motorola, and internal documentation indicates the jack is a standard 2\.5 mm [TRS connector](/wiki/TRS_connector "TRS connector") jack. The jack shown on the Motorola site clearly has a pin in the center of the jack, prohibiting use of a standard 2\.5 mm plug. A mono headset was available as part number CFLN6103AA and the name of it is Motorola S215 Pedestrian Kit. This is a headset only and not an adapter. The F3 had two internal antennas to maximize reception even when partially shielded by a hand or other obstacles, and a loud maximum volume for ringtones and loudspeaker to facilitate usage in crowded city environments or public transport. The unique default ringing mode vibrates silently for several seconds, then rings at modest volume, then with full volume. A vibrate\-only mode and modes with fixed volume can also be set. To ease repairs or recycling, it can be opened by four [Torx](/wiki/Torx "Torx") screws on the back.
[ "Features\n--------", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2023}}", "### Display technology", "The F3 was the first mobile phone to use [electronic paper](/wiki/Electronic_paper \"Electronic paper\") in its screen. Motorola used the term ClearVision to describe the new display, which was manufactured using [E Ink](/wiki/E_Ink \"E Ink\")'s [electrophoretic](/wiki/Electrophoresis \"Electrophoresis\") imaging film.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.motorola.com/motoinfo/product/details.jsp?globalObjectId\\=164\\|title\\=motorola MOTOFONE}} The electronic paper main display allowed for the phone's thinness (no glass), longer battery life, and outdoor viewability (paper\\-like reflectivity). It had a backlight for the keypad and a slit that projects the backlight onto the screen so the display can be seen in darkness.", "The characteristics of the display were fairly restrictive. The text display contained only two lines of six characters each, making the use of [text messaging (SMS)](/wiki/Short_message_service \"Short message service\") and data services less practical than on standard LCD displays. The display used a fixed 'digital clock' style font, with no functionality for changing between upper case and lower case text. All SMSs sent by the F3 were received entirely in lower case, and each character of any SMS received by the F3 is displayed in whichever case made the most sense using the font. Also, the non\\-alphabetic characters were severely limited due to this display, as the phone could only provide support for the following characters:", "* Comma (,) (periods . in incoming text messages are displayed as commas)\n* Hyphen (\\-)\n* Question mark (?)\n* At\\-sign (@)\n* Asterisk (\\*)\n* (\\+), to write this character, hold down the 0 key", "No other non\\-alphanumeric characters could be entered, and on receiving an SMS any non\\-alphabetic character not listed above was displayed as a hyphen.", "Although the display could be restrictive when it came to text applications, the display was very energy efficient and conducive to extremely long battery life.", "### User interface", "Since the F3 had only two lines of fixed icons on the top and bottom of the display, as well as one line of six [14\\-segment characters](/wiki/Fourteen-segment_display \"Fourteen-segment display\") and another line of six [7\\-segment numbers](/wiki/7-segment_display \"7-segment display\") available on its display, the user interface was very different from the usual menu structure normally found on mobile phones. The only thing resembling a (flat) menu was accessed by pressing left/right on the central button: It allowed writing an SMS, reading a saved SMS, call history, choosing the ringtone (out of seven melodies), setting date and time, and setting the alarm clock. The menu was visualized by fixed icons in the bottom row, following the left/right pattern of the navigation button.", "The F3 had a few dedicated buttons for opening the address book (top right), canceling any action (the red button), dialing the currently displayed number (the green button) and an \"action\" button (top left). A few more functions were available by shortcuts: When making a call, pressing the action button twice switched the loudspeaker on/off, while pressing up/down controls the speaker volume. The same button used in standby toggled voice prompts, while pressing up/down controls ringtone volume. When the phone rung, due to incoming calls, the ringer could also be silenced by pressing up/down. All activated features (set alarm clock, activated vibration mode, roaming, ...) were indicated by simple icons in fixed positions in the top row, and every successful action acknowledged by an \"OK\" icon flashing on and off a few times. The only context\\-sensitive button was the action button which was used for \"OK\" on options as well as choosing a number or address book entry when writing an SMS or for answering a received SMS.", "Reception strength (left) and battery status (right) were constantly displayed in two prominent strips above the actual display. Both were readable in any light condition and from considerable distances.", "### Special features", "The F3 Motofone was designed for usage in [developing countries](/wiki/Developing_countries \"Developing countries\") and sported a display which coped well with both bright sunlight and very dim light. Voice prompts also explained the current function in a choice of languages, depending on region; a unit bought in Germany offered German, English and Italian. It was also fairly solid and rugged and could survive not only rough handling but also very dusty and/or damp conditions well, as the case had only two openings (a charger/headset jack and the battery cover) as well as a totally sealed keyboard. There are even videos on the Internet showing the F3 being thrown from a 3\\-story building into tarmac, and being run over by a car on a gravel surface.[The Motofone is One Tough Phone!](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7o7Wnsc0x8) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731155134/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=U7o7Wnsc0x8 \\|date\\=July 31, 2013 }} The phone survived intact.", "The charger/headset jack for the F3 Motofone (and variants) was not a standard 2\\.5 mm or 3\\.5 mm headset port. It was a [DC connector](/wiki/DC_connector \"DC connector\") that can support mono sound quality. This is not well documented at Motorola, and internal documentation indicates the jack is a standard 2\\.5 mm [TRS connector](/wiki/TRS_connector \"TRS connector\") jack. The jack shown on the Motorola site clearly has a pin in the center of the jack, prohibiting use of a standard 2\\.5 mm plug. A mono headset was available as part number CFLN6103AA and the name of it is Motorola S215 Pedestrian Kit. This is a headset only and not an adapter.", "The F3 had two internal antennas to maximize reception even when partially shielded by a hand or other obstacles, and a loud maximum volume for ringtones and loudspeaker to facilitate usage in crowded city environments or public transport. The unique default ringing mode vibrates silently for several seconds, then rings at modest volume, then with full volume. A vibrate\\-only mode and modes with fixed volume can also be set. To ease repairs or recycling, it can be opened by four [Torx](/wiki/Torx \"Torx\") screws on the back.", "" ]
Variants -------- {{Unreferenced section\|date\=July 2023}} The Motorola Motofone came in two two\-band variants: The F3 900/1800 [MHz](/wiki/MHz "MHz") [GSM](/wiki/GSM "GSM") for Europe and much of the rest of the world except the Americas; and the F3 u2 850/1900 [MHz](/wiki/MHz "MHz") [GSM](/wiki/GSM "GSM") for North America and a limited number of Central and South American countries. See [GSM frequency bands](/wiki/GSM_frequency_bands "GSM frequency bands") for specific country coverage. Both variants came in four different front cover colors: black, blue, red and a silverish grey. According to its very low price (starting from 20 to €30 /$) the F3/F3c was mainly sold with [prepaid](/wiki/Prepaid_mobile_phone "Prepaid mobile phone") (pay\-as\-you\-go) [SIM](/wiki/Subscriber_Identity_Module "Subscriber Identity Module") cards and it seems that the sellers often (but not always) implemented a [SIM\-lock](/wiki/SIM_lock "SIM lock"). However, for slightly more (starting at ca. €30\) it could also be bought without SIM\-lock or card, giving full freedom to choose any provider. In [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), this phone (without SIM\-lock) was sold for R$99\.00 as of February 2008 (approx. USD 57\.00\). The SIM\-locked version could be purchased for R$29\.00 (in telephone carrier stores). The F3 was at the time Brazil's cheapest cellphone. In [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") it could be purchased in Dec/2007 for a total of HUF 2000 (approx. USD 11\.58 (\~€7\.87\) at that time), with the price already including a prepaid card from [T\-Mobile](/wiki/T-Mobile_International_AG "T-Mobile International AG") with a balance of HUF 600 (approx. USD 3\.46 (\~€2\.35\) at that time). Prices for mobile\-phones in Hungary usually are higher than in other industrial nations. In the UK, this phone was being sold by Home Bargains (as of 29/04/2008\) and £\-Stretcher (as of 07/06/2008\) with a Virgin Mobile SIM (T\-Mobile network) for £7\.99 (££6\.99 \-Stretcher). The phones do not seem to have any sort of SIM network lock and have been successfully used with Orange, Vodafone and O2\. In [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") and the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), this phone was not available through Motorola's normal retail channels. Where available, the North American version was normally sold unlocked, with no SIM card. In [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), this phone was available virtually everywhere, from specialized stores to simple supermarkets, it sold both refurbished and new, for a very low price; this phone was for a time the cheapest in Mexico's Market. It was only offered in Prepaid form and most of the time with SIM Lock. Although this phone was being manufactured largely in India, it had (in mid\-2008\) become completely unavailable in major metropolitan areas such as Chennai or Madras. This indicated that Motorola was in fact actively phasing out the model in India due to poor sales, perhaps because of the popularity of text messaging in India, which is arguably oversimplified on the F3, anticipating its discontinuation in other countries by 2009\. ### F3c The F3c was available in Q4 2006, and was the [CDMA](/wiki/CDMA "CDMA") version of the F3\.{{Cite web \|title\=Motorola FONE F3 and F3c Preview \- Mobile Gazette \- Mobile Phone News \|url\=https://www.mobilegazette.com/motorola\-fone\-f3\-f3c\-06x07x26\.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-18 \|website\=www.mobilegazette.com}}
[ "Variants\n--------", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=July 2023}}\nThe Motorola Motofone came in two two\\-band variants: The F3 900/1800 [MHz](/wiki/MHz \"MHz\") [GSM](/wiki/GSM \"GSM\") for Europe and much of the rest of the world except the Americas; and the F3 u2 850/1900 [MHz](/wiki/MHz \"MHz\") [GSM](/wiki/GSM \"GSM\") for North America and a limited number of Central and South American countries. See [GSM frequency bands](/wiki/GSM_frequency_bands \"GSM frequency bands\") for specific country coverage.", "Both variants came in four different front cover colors: black, blue, red and a silverish grey.", "According to its very low price (starting from 20 to €30 /$) the F3/F3c was mainly sold with [prepaid](/wiki/Prepaid_mobile_phone \"Prepaid mobile phone\") (pay\\-as\\-you\\-go) [SIM](/wiki/Subscriber_Identity_Module \"Subscriber Identity Module\") cards and it seems that the sellers often (but not always) implemented a [SIM\\-lock](/wiki/SIM_lock \"SIM lock\"). However, for slightly more (starting at ca. €30\\) it could also be bought without SIM\\-lock or card, giving full freedom to choose any provider.", "In [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), this phone (without SIM\\-lock) was sold for R$99\\.00 as of February 2008 (approx. USD 57\\.00\\). The SIM\\-locked version could be purchased for R$29\\.00 (in telephone carrier stores). The F3 was at the time Brazil's cheapest cellphone.", "In [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\") it could be purchased in Dec/2007 for a total of HUF 2000 (approx. USD 11\\.58 (\\~€7\\.87\\) at that time), with the price already including a prepaid card from [T\\-Mobile](/wiki/T-Mobile_International_AG \"T-Mobile International AG\") with a balance of HUF 600 (approx. USD 3\\.46 (\\~€2\\.35\\) at that time). Prices for mobile\\-phones in Hungary usually are higher than in other industrial nations.", "In the UK, this phone was being sold by Home Bargains (as of 29/04/2008\\) and £\\-Stretcher (as of 07/06/2008\\) with a Virgin Mobile SIM (T\\-Mobile network) for £7\\.99 (££6\\.99 \\-Stretcher). The phones do not seem to have any sort of SIM network lock and have been successfully used with Orange, Vodafone and O2\\.", "In [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") and the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), this phone was not available through Motorola's normal retail channels. Where available, the North American version was normally sold unlocked, with no SIM card.", "In [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), this phone was available virtually everywhere, from specialized stores to simple supermarkets, it sold both refurbished and new, for a very low price; this phone was for a time the cheapest in Mexico's Market. It was only offered in Prepaid form and most of the time with SIM Lock.", "Although this phone was being manufactured largely in India, it had (in mid\\-2008\\) become completely unavailable in major metropolitan areas such as Chennai or Madras. This indicated that Motorola was in fact actively phasing out the model in India due to poor sales, perhaps because of the popularity of text messaging in India, which is arguably oversimplified on the F3, anticipating its discontinuation in other countries by 2009\\.", "### F3c", "The F3c was available in Q4 2006, and was the [CDMA](/wiki/CDMA \"CDMA\") version of the F3\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Motorola FONE F3 and F3c Preview \\- Mobile Gazette \\- Mobile Phone News \\|url\\=https://www.mobilegazette.com/motorola\\-fone\\-f3\\-f3c\\-06x07x26\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-18 \\|website\\=www.mobilegazette.com}}", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Origin Andrey Chibis was born in [Cheboksary](/wiki/Cheboksary "Cheboksary") on 19 March 1979\. His father, Vladimir Aleksandrovich Chibis, was the deputy general director of the Cheboksary Production Association named after V.I. Chapayev and lived with his parents in the Chapaevsky villageon Kirov Street.[Замминистра строительства и ЖКХ России Андрей Чибис посетил родную школу](http://www.chgtrk.ru/news/11525) // www.chgtrk.ru He also has a sister, Tatiana. Chibis studied well at school; after graduating from the Cheboksary Lyceum No. 1 in 1996, he entered the law faculty of the Cheboksary Cooperative Institute (branch) of the Moscow University of Consumer Cooperatives, from which he graduated in 2001\.[Выпускник Чебоксарского кооперативного института назначен заместителем министра строительства и ЖКХ](http://cheb.ruc.su/news/detail.php?ID=20366) // cheb.ruc.su In 1996 he was registered as an individual entrepreneur.В 16\-летнем возрасте был зарегистрирован в качестве индивидуального предпринимателя.Статус прекращен в 2005[ИП Чибис Андрей Владимирович](https://focus.kontur.ru/entity?query=305212814607643) // focus.kontur.ru While studying at the institute, he married a student of the same institute, Yevgenya Vladimirovna Romanova, a stepdaughter of the co\-owner and general director of Electropribor OJSC [Gennady Medvedev](/wiki/Gennady_Medvedev "Gennady Medvedev").[Андрей Чибис. Главный по ЖКХ и Заполярью](https://news-life.ru/murmansk-obl/195408101/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423130632/https://news\-life.ru/murmansk\-obl/195408101/ \|date\=2019\-04\-23 }} // news\-life.ru As a student, from 1999 to 2001 he was listed as a legal adviser of the State Unitary Subsidiary Enterprise "Taurus" FSUE "Cheboksary PO im. IN AND. Chapaev ", the director of which was his father. In 2000, in Cheboksary, together with his sister Tatyana and his wife, he was among the founders of Garant\-Consulting LLC.,[Чибис из Чебоксар стал птицей высокого полета — Правда ПФО](http://pravdapfo.ru/articles/chibis-iz-cheboksar-stal-pticey-vysokogo-poleta) // pravdapfo.ru specializing in real estate audit and appraisal; involved in the creation of JSC "Mortgage Corporation of the Chuvash Republic". From 2001 to 2002 \- postgraduate student of the Cheboksary Cooperative Institute. In November 2002, he was included in the composition of the co\-founders of the Regional Branch of the Public Organization "Russian Association for the Development of Small and Medium Business" \- the Chuvash Association for the Development of Small and Medium Business. From 2002 to 2004, he was listed as a lawyer at the Voronezh Inter\-Territorial Bar Association.[Чибис Андрей Владимирович](https://er.ru/persons/1650/) // er.ru He studied at the first stream of the "School of Governors" at the [Institute "Higher School of Public Administration" RANEPA](/wiki/Russian_Presidential_Academy_of_National_Economy_and_Public_Administration "Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration"). In 2004, he completed training at the [Chuvash State University](/wiki/Chuvash_State_University "Chuvash State University") named after I. N. Ulyanov under the program for training management personnel for organizations of the national economy of the Russia. ### Ryazan \- Cheboksary In 2004, Chibis left for Ryazan in a team with the former mayor of the city of Cheboksary, [Anatoly Igumnov](/wiki/Anatoly_Igumnov "Anatoly Igumnov"),[Технократ новой формации, который сделал себя сам: эксперты о врио губернатора Мурманской области Андрее Чибисе](http://club-rf.ru/51/detail/3012) // club\-rf.ru to participate in the election campaign of the candidate for the post of [Governor of Ryazan Oblast](/wiki/Governor_of_Ryazan_Oblast "Governor of Ryazan Oblast"), [Georgy Shpak](/wiki/Georgy_Shpak "Georgy Shpak"), as a lawyer at his campaign headquarters.[Губернатору Шпаку предъявлены старые требования](https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/561415) // www.kommersant.ru After Georgy Shpak's victory in the elections, Anatoly Igumnov was appointed assistant to the governor of Ryazan Oblast, and Chibis was appointed advisor to the governor of Ryazan Oblast on legal issues. The losing candidate for governor [Igor Morozov](/wiki/Igor_Morozov_%28politician%29 "Igor Morozov (politician)") tried to challenge the election results, claiming that Shpak's team used the "black cash" during the gubernatorial elections.[Депутат Морозов вскрыл чёрную кассу губернатора Шпака](https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/550788) // www.kommersant.ru In an interview with the *[Kommersant](/wiki/Kommersant "Kommersant")* newspaper, Chibis said that instead of submitting documents to the court, Igor Morozov demonstrates them to the “general public”, which “confirms the version that this is only a game and the creation of an information channel during the election campaign in the Ryazan Regional Duma". Later, Chibis was a witness at the trial, who examined the receipt of receipt by Chibis of funds for needs related to election work.[Андрей Чибис назначен врио губернатора Мурманской области](http://vidsboku.com/news/andrey-chibis-naznachen-vrio-gubernatora-murmanskoy-oblasti) // vidsboku.com In court, Chibis said that he had written the receipt in advance, just in case, but had actually received no money; emphasized that he did not receive money from Georgy Shpak for his work in the election headquarters \- it was interesting for him to work *'from the point of view of experience and improving his image'* . In Ryazan, Chibis participated in the creation of OJSC Ryazan Mortgage Corporation, and was the chairman of the board of directors of the corporation.[Вот они, инноваторы!](https://www.novayagazeta.ru/articles/2011/08/02/45334-vot-oni-innovatory) // www.novayagazeta.ru At the same time, Chibis was listed as an assistant to the State Duma deputy [Pavel Semyonov](/wiki/Pavel_Semyonov "Pavel Semyonov"). In 2005, as an adviser to the governor, he oversaw the elections to the Ryazan Regional Duma; was a member of the team representing the interests of [Mikhail Babich](/wiki/Mikhail_Babich "Mikhail Babich"), who was considered the main financier and organizer of the victory of Georgy Shpak in the second round of the 2004 elections.[Портрет предвыборной рязани](http://businesspress.ru/newspaper/article_mId_40_aId_334021.html) // businesspress.ru In 2005, he took part in a political campaign to approve Anatoly Igumnov as the mayor of Ryazan, but the deputies of the Ryazan City Council refused to support the proposed candidacy, because at the same time, many city council members announced "threats" from Chibis for refusing to support Igumnov.[Шпак проиграл в битве с рязанскими депутатами](https://utro.ru/amp/articles/2004/12/24/390290.shtml) // utro.ru Chibis wrote a letter of resignation and on 12 August 2005, and was dismissed from his post as adviser to the governor of Ryazan Oblast.;[Андрей Чибис уволен с должности советника рязанского губернатора](https://www.rzn.info/news/2005/8/15/1536.html) // www.rzn.info в дальнейшем вернулся в Чебоксары.[Генерал Шпак исчерпал терпение Кремля](https://lenta.ru/articles/2005/02/15/shpak/) // lenta.ru Returning to Cheboksary, Chibis headed the election campaign of Igumnov as a candidate for the post of mayor of Cheboksary[Бывший советник губернатора Андрей Чибис будет работать в крупной федеральной структуре в Москве](https://62.ru/text/gorod/159680.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415061822/https://62\.ru/text/gorod/159680\.html \|date\=2019\-04\-15 }} // 62\.ru In the course of the election campaign, Igumnov withdrew his candidacy and was subsequently appointed deputy minister of urban planning and development of public infrastructure of the [Chuvash Republic](/wiki/Chuvash_Republic "Chuvash Republic"). In 2005, Chibis was then appointed head of the Expert Department created for him in the Administration of the [President of the Chuvash Republic](/wiki/Head_of_the_Chuvash_Republic "Head of the Chuvash Republic"), headed by [Enver Ablyakimov](/wiki/Enver_Ablyakimov "Enver Ablyakimov"). In 2006, after defending a thesis on the topic "Heat supply agreement in Russian civil law" at the Volgograd Academy of the [Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia](/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_of_Russia "Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia"), he became a candidate of legal sciences; the dissertation was performed at the Department of Civil Law and Process of the Academy of Law and Management of the Federal Penitentiary Service.Научный руководитель — к. ю. н. Блинкова Елена Викторовна ### 2006—2013 In 2006, he was appointed head of the department for support of the national project "Affordable Housing" of the [Ministry of Regional Development of Russia](/wiki/Ministry_of_Regional_Development_%28Russia%29 "Ministry of Regional Development (Russia)").Since then in 2007, he was the head of the Department for the Development of the Affordable Housing Market of the [Federal Agency for Construction, Housing and Communal Services](/wiki/Rosstroy "Rosstroy"). While working in the Ministry of Regional Development, he was responsible for developing a Long\-term strategy for mass housing construction.{{Cite web\|url\=https://tass.ru/info/6242588\|title\=Биография врио губернатора Мурманской области Андрея Чибиса\|website\=ТАСС\|date\=2019\-03\-21}} From 2008 to 2011, Chibis was the chairman of the board of directors, and a member of the management board, and director for Legal and Corporate Issues of JSC Russian Communal Systems (RKS), which his area of responsibility included the legal block of the company.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.vladcomsys.ru/news195\|title\=Лучший PR\-менеджер и лучший юрист ГК "РЕНОВА" работают в РКС\|publisher\=www.vladcomsys.ru\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-18}} Since June 2009, he was in the National Union of Vodokanals, a non\-profit organization, as vice president of the association.{{Cite web\|url\=http://expert.ru/2011/02/11/privatizatsiya\-kanalizatsii/\|title\="Приватизация" канализации\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-18}} In May 2011, he was appointed executive director of the Institute for Socio\-Economic and Political Research (ISEPI), a non\-profit foundation, whose board of directors was chaired by [Nikolay Fyodorov](/wiki/Nikolay_Fyodorov_%28politician%29 "Nikolay Fyodorov (politician)"), a member of the Federation Council from the Chuvash Republic. In August 2011, he headed the Non\-Profit Partnership Housing and Utilities Development. From 2012 to 2013, he was president and co\-owner of ZhKKH\-Development LLC in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"). From August 2012 to 2014, he was listed as a member of the Expert Council under the Government of Russia, in which he headed the Working Group on the development of housing and communal services. In this position, he interacted with the apparatus of the Russian Government and with Deputy Prime Minister [Dmitry Kozak](/wiki/Dmitry_Kozak "Dmitry Kozak") in charge of the industry. ### Work in the Ministry of Construction of Russia From 6 December 2013 to 21 March 2019, Chibis was Deputy Minister of the [Ministry of Construction and Housing and Utilities](/wiki/Ministry_of_Construction%2C_Housing_and_Utilities_%28Russia%29 "Ministry of Construction, Housing and Utilities (Russia)"), in which he was responsible for housing and communal services, from 12 September 2014, at the same time, was the Chief State Housing Inspector of the Russia. In 2016, Chibis headed the project "Formation of a comfortable urban environment". In November 2018, Chibis, as head of the Smart City project, was appointed a “digital deputy minister” \- the deputy head of the Ministry of Construction of Russia responsible for digital development. Since December 2015, he was member of the Bureau of the Committee on Housing and Land Management of the [United Nations Economic Commission for Europe](/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Europe "United Nations Economic Commission for Europe"). In the Ministry of Construction of Russia, he oversaw the development of the Strategy for the Development of the Housing and Communal Services of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020, issues of creating a comfortable urban environment. Since November 2018, he was responsible in the department for the digitalization of the urban economy, as well as ensuring uninterrupted household and drinking water supply to [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea") and [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol "Sevastopol").[Биография врио губернатора Мурманской области Андрея Чибиса](https://tass.ru/info/6242588) // tass.ru
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Origin", "Andrey Chibis was born in [Cheboksary](/wiki/Cheboksary \"Cheboksary\") on 19 March 1979\\. His father, Vladimir Aleksandrovich Chibis, was the deputy general director of the Cheboksary Production Association named after V.I. Chapayev and lived with his parents in the Chapaevsky villageon Kirov Street.[Замминистра строительства и ЖКХ России Андрей Чибис посетил родную школу](http://www.chgtrk.ru/news/11525) // www.chgtrk.ru He also has a sister, Tatiana.", "Chibis studied well at school; after graduating from the Cheboksary Lyceum No. 1 in 1996, he entered the law faculty of the Cheboksary Cooperative Institute (branch) of the Moscow University of Consumer Cooperatives, from which he graduated in 2001\\.[Выпускник Чебоксарского кооперативного института назначен заместителем министра строительства и ЖКХ](http://cheb.ruc.su/news/detail.php?ID=20366) // cheb.ruc.su", "In 1996 he was registered as an individual entrepreneur.В 16\\-летнем возрасте был зарегистрирован в качестве индивидуального предпринимателя.Статус прекращен в 2005[ИП Чибис Андрей Владимирович](https://focus.kontur.ru/entity?query=305212814607643) // focus.kontur.ru While studying at the institute, he married a student of the same institute, Yevgenya Vladimirovna Romanova, a stepdaughter of the co\\-owner and general director of Electropribor OJSC [Gennady Medvedev](/wiki/Gennady_Medvedev \"Gennady Medvedev\").[Андрей Чибис. Главный по ЖКХ и Заполярью](https://news-life.ru/murmansk-obl/195408101/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423130632/https://news\\-life.ru/murmansk\\-obl/195408101/ \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-23 }} // news\\-life.ru As a student, from 1999 to 2001 he was listed as a legal adviser of the State Unitary Subsidiary Enterprise \"Taurus\" FSUE \"Cheboksary PO im. IN AND. Chapaev \", the director of which was his father.", "In 2000, in Cheboksary, together with his sister Tatyana and his wife, he was among the founders of Garant\\-Consulting LLC.,[Чибис из Чебоксар стал птицей высокого полета — Правда ПФО](http://pravdapfo.ru/articles/chibis-iz-cheboksar-stal-pticey-vysokogo-poleta) // pravdapfo.ru specializing in real estate audit and appraisal; involved in the creation of JSC \"Mortgage Corporation of the Chuvash Republic\". From 2001 to 2002 \\- postgraduate student of the Cheboksary Cooperative Institute. In November 2002, he was included in the composition of the co\\-founders of the Regional Branch of the Public Organization \"Russian Association for the Development of Small and Medium Business\" \\- the Chuvash Association for the Development of Small and Medium Business. From 2002 to 2004, he was listed as a lawyer at the Voronezh Inter\\-Territorial Bar Association.[Чибис Андрей Владимирович](https://er.ru/persons/1650/) // er.ru", "He studied at the first stream of the \"School of Governors\" at the [Institute \"Higher School of Public Administration\" RANEPA](/wiki/Russian_Presidential_Academy_of_National_Economy_and_Public_Administration \"Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration\"). In 2004, he completed training at the [Chuvash State University](/wiki/Chuvash_State_University \"Chuvash State University\") named after I. N. Ulyanov under the program for training management personnel for organizations of the national economy of the Russia.", "### Ryazan \\- Cheboksary", "In 2004, Chibis left for Ryazan in a team with the former mayor of the city of Cheboksary, [Anatoly Igumnov](/wiki/Anatoly_Igumnov \"Anatoly Igumnov\"),[Технократ новой формации, который сделал себя сам: эксперты о врио губернатора Мурманской области Андрее Чибисе](http://club-rf.ru/51/detail/3012) // club\\-rf.ru to participate in the election campaign of the candidate for the post of [Governor of Ryazan Oblast](/wiki/Governor_of_Ryazan_Oblast \"Governor of Ryazan Oblast\"), [Georgy Shpak](/wiki/Georgy_Shpak \"Georgy Shpak\"), as a lawyer at his campaign headquarters.[Губернатору Шпаку предъявлены старые требования](https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/561415) // www.kommersant.ru After Georgy Shpak's victory in the elections, Anatoly Igumnov was appointed assistant to the governor of Ryazan Oblast, and Chibis was appointed advisor to the governor of Ryazan Oblast on legal issues. The losing candidate for governor [Igor Morozov](/wiki/Igor_Morozov_%28politician%29 \"Igor Morozov (politician)\") tried to challenge the election results, claiming that Shpak's team used the \"black cash\" during the gubernatorial elections.[Депутат Морозов вскрыл чёрную кассу губернатора Шпака](https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/550788) // www.kommersant.ru In an interview with the *[Kommersant](/wiki/Kommersant \"Kommersant\")* newspaper, Chibis said that instead of submitting documents to the court, Igor Morozov demonstrates them to the “general public”, which “confirms the version that this is only a game and the creation of an information channel during the election campaign in the Ryazan Regional Duma\". Later, Chibis was a witness at the trial, who examined the receipt of receipt by Chibis of funds for needs related to election work.[Андрей Чибис назначен врио губернатора Мурманской области](http://vidsboku.com/news/andrey-chibis-naznachen-vrio-gubernatora-murmanskoy-oblasti) // vidsboku.com In court, Chibis said that he had written the receipt in advance, just in case, but had actually received no money; emphasized that he did not receive money from Georgy Shpak for his work in the election headquarters \\- it was interesting for him to work *'from the point of view of experience and improving his image'* .", "In Ryazan, Chibis participated in the creation of OJSC Ryazan Mortgage Corporation, and was the chairman of the board of directors of the corporation.[Вот они, инноваторы!](https://www.novayagazeta.ru/articles/2011/08/02/45334-vot-oni-innovatory) // www.novayagazeta.ru At the same time, Chibis was listed as an assistant to the State Duma deputy [Pavel Semyonov](/wiki/Pavel_Semyonov \"Pavel Semyonov\"). In 2005, as an adviser to the governor, he oversaw the elections to the Ryazan Regional Duma; was a member of the team representing the interests of [Mikhail Babich](/wiki/Mikhail_Babich \"Mikhail Babich\"), who was considered the main financier and organizer of the victory of Georgy Shpak in the second round of the 2004 elections.[Портрет предвыборной рязани](http://businesspress.ru/newspaper/article_mId_40_aId_334021.html) // businesspress.ru In 2005, he took part in a political campaign to approve Anatoly Igumnov as the mayor of Ryazan, but the deputies of the Ryazan City Council refused to support the proposed candidacy, because at the same time, many city council members announced \"threats\" from Chibis for refusing to support Igumnov.[Шпак проиграл в битве с рязанскими депутатами](https://utro.ru/amp/articles/2004/12/24/390290.shtml) // utro.ru Chibis wrote a letter of resignation and on 12 August 2005, and was dismissed from his post as adviser to the governor of Ryazan Oblast.;[Андрей Чибис уволен с должности советника рязанского губернатора](https://www.rzn.info/news/2005/8/15/1536.html) // www.rzn.info в дальнейшем вернулся в Чебоксары.[Генерал Шпак исчерпал терпение Кремля](https://lenta.ru/articles/2005/02/15/shpak/) // lenta.ru", "Returning to Cheboksary, Chibis headed the election campaign of Igumnov as a candidate for the post of mayor of Cheboksary[Бывший советник губернатора Андрей Чибис будет работать в крупной федеральной структуре в Москве](https://62.ru/text/gorod/159680.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415061822/https://62\\.ru/text/gorod/159680\\.html \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-15 }} // 62\\.ru In the course of the election campaign, Igumnov withdrew his candidacy and was subsequently appointed deputy minister of urban planning and development of public infrastructure of the [Chuvash Republic](/wiki/Chuvash_Republic \"Chuvash Republic\"). In 2005, Chibis was then appointed head of the Expert Department created for him in the Administration of the [President of the Chuvash Republic](/wiki/Head_of_the_Chuvash_Republic \"Head of the Chuvash Republic\"), headed by [Enver Ablyakimov](/wiki/Enver_Ablyakimov \"Enver Ablyakimov\"). In 2006, after defending a thesis on the topic \"Heat supply agreement in Russian civil law\" at the Volgograd Academy of the [Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia](/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_of_Russia \"Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia\"), he became a candidate of legal sciences; the dissertation was performed at the Department of Civil Law and Process of the Academy of Law and Management of the Federal Penitentiary Service.Научный руководитель — к. ю. н. Блинкова Елена Викторовна", "### 2006—2013", "In 2006, he was appointed head of the department for support of the national project \"Affordable Housing\" of the [Ministry of Regional Development of Russia](/wiki/Ministry_of_Regional_Development_%28Russia%29 \"Ministry of Regional Development (Russia)\").Since then in 2007, he was the head of the Department for the Development of the Affordable Housing Market of the [Federal Agency for Construction, Housing and Communal Services](/wiki/Rosstroy \"Rosstroy\"). While working in the Ministry of Regional Development, he was responsible for developing a Long\\-term strategy for mass housing construction.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://tass.ru/info/6242588\\|title\\=Биография врио губернатора Мурманской области Андрея Чибиса\\|website\\=ТАСС\\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-21}}", "From 2008 to 2011, Chibis was the chairman of the board of directors, and a member of the management board, and director for Legal and Corporate Issues of JSC Russian Communal Systems (RKS), which his area of responsibility included the legal block of the company.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vladcomsys.ru/news195\\|title\\=Лучший PR\\-менеджер и лучший юрист ГК \"РЕНОВА\" работают в РКС\\|publisher\\=www.vladcomsys.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-18}} Since June 2009, he was in the National Union of Vodokanals, a non\\-profit organization, as vice president of the association.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://expert.ru/2011/02/11/privatizatsiya\\-kanalizatsii/\\|title\\=\"Приватизация\" канализации\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-18}}", "In May 2011, he was appointed executive director of the Institute for Socio\\-Economic and Political Research (ISEPI), a non\\-profit foundation, whose board of directors was chaired by [Nikolay Fyodorov](/wiki/Nikolay_Fyodorov_%28politician%29 \"Nikolay Fyodorov (politician)\"), a member of the Federation Council from the Chuvash Republic. In August 2011, he headed the Non\\-Profit Partnership Housing and Utilities Development. From 2012 to 2013, he was president and co\\-owner of ZhKKH\\-Development LLC in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\").", "From August 2012 to 2014, he was listed as a member of the Expert Council under the Government of Russia, in which he headed the Working Group on the development of housing and communal services. In this position, he interacted with the apparatus of the Russian Government and with Deputy Prime Minister [Dmitry Kozak](/wiki/Dmitry_Kozak \"Dmitry Kozak\") in charge of the industry.", "### Work in the Ministry of Construction of Russia", "From 6 December 2013 to 21 March 2019, Chibis was Deputy Minister of the [Ministry of Construction and Housing and Utilities](/wiki/Ministry_of_Construction%2C_Housing_and_Utilities_%28Russia%29 \"Ministry of Construction, Housing and Utilities (Russia)\"), in which he was responsible for housing and communal services, from 12 September 2014, at the same time, was the Chief State Housing Inspector of the Russia.", "In 2016, Chibis headed the project \"Formation of a comfortable urban environment\". In November 2018, Chibis, as head of the Smart City project, was appointed a “digital deputy minister” \\- the deputy head of the Ministry of Construction of Russia responsible for digital development. Since December 2015, he was member of the Bureau of the Committee on Housing and Land Management of the [United Nations Economic Commission for Europe](/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Europe \"United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\").", "In the Ministry of Construction of Russia, he oversaw the development of the Strategy for the Development of the Housing and Communal Services of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020, issues of creating a comfortable urban environment. Since November 2018, he was responsible in the department for the digitalization of the urban economy, as well as ensuring uninterrupted household and drinking water supply to [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\") and [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol \"Sevastopol\").[Биография врио губернатора Мурманской области Андрея Чибиса](https://tass.ru/info/6242588) // tass.ru", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1870\= 325 \|1880\= 484 \|1890\= 610 \|1900\= 730 \|1910\= 614 \|1920\= 667 \|1930\= 679 \|1940\= 640 \|1950\= 689 \|1960\= 842 \|1970\= 941 \|1980\= 1025 \|1990\= 1165 \|2000\= 1201 \|2010\= 1326 \|2020\= 1354 \|estyear\=2023 \|estimate\=1352 \|estref\= \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 1,326 people, 525 households, and 369 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1441\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 592 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|643\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.5% of the population. There were 525 households, of which 36\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 16\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 7\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29\.7% were non\-families. 23\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.53 and the average family size was 2\.91\. The median age in the village was 35\.4 years. 27\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\.5% were from 25 to 44; 24\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47\.7% male and 52\.3% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 1,201 people, 489 households, and 328 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\|1,579\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 525 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|690\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\.50% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.08% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.33% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.08% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.92% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.50% of the population. There were 489 households, out of which 37\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 13\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\.9% were non\-families. 29\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.46 and the average family size was 3\.05\. In the village, the population was spread out, with 29\.0% under the age of 18, 9\.8% from 18 to 24, 30\.0% from 25 to 44, 19\.9% from 45 to 64, and 11\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 85\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\.0 males. The median income for a household in the village was $34,545, and the median income for a family was $39,044\. Males had a median income of $30,119 versus $21,053 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $15,789\. About 2\.8% of families and 6\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 5\.6% of those under age 18 and 15\.1% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1870\\= 325\n\\|1880\\= 484\n\\|1890\\= 610\n\\|1900\\= 730\n\\|1910\\= 614\n\\|1920\\= 667\n\\|1930\\= 679\n\\|1940\\= 640\n\\|1950\\= 689\n\\|1960\\= 842\n\\|1970\\= 941\n\\|1980\\= 1025\n\\|1990\\= 1165\n\\|2000\\= 1201\n\\|2010\\= 1326\n\\|2020\\= 1354\n\\|estyear\\=2023\n\\|estimate\\=1352\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 1,326 people, 525 households, and 369 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1441\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 592 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|643\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.5% of the population.", "There were 525 households, of which 36\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 16\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 7\\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29\\.7% were non\\-families. 23\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.53 and the average family size was 2\\.91\\.", "The median age in the village was 35\\.4 years. 27\\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\\.5% were from 25 to 44; 24\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13\\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47\\.7% male and 52\\.3% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 1,201 people, 489 households, and 328 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|1,579\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 525 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|690\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\\.50% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.08% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.33% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.08% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.92% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.50% of the population.", "There were 489 households, out of which 37\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 13\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\\.9% were non\\-families. 29\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.46 and the average family size was 3\\.05\\.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 29\\.0% under the age of 18, 9\\.8% from 18 to 24, 30\\.0% from 25 to 44, 19\\.9% from 45 to 64, and 11\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 85\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\\.0 males.", "The median income for a household in the village was $34,545, and the median income for a family was $39,044\\. Males had a median income of $30,119 versus $21,053 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $15,789\\. About 2\\.8% of families and 6\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 5\\.6% of those under age 18 and 15\\.1% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
History ------- ### 1969–1972 In early 1969 [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West "Leslie West"), formerly of the [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") [R\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues "Rhythm and blues") band [The Vagrants](/wiki/The_Vagrants "The Vagrants"), put together a band, Leslie West Mountain, with Norman Landsberg (keyboards, bass) and Ken Janick (drums) and began playing gigs and recording demos. Right around this time, former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)") collaborator/producer [Felix Pappalardi](/wiki/Felix_Pappalardi "Felix Pappalardi"), who had previously produced the Vagrants, expressed an interest in producing West's work. West, previously disgruntled and unsatisfied with the lack of success in his first project, found Cream to be a great inspiration. He began to feel disillusioned with the R\&B and blues scenes of the 1960s in which he had played. He envisioned a project that would take on a rawer and much harder style which he had begun to favor, with his newly\-developed guitar style inspired by hearing Cream's [Eric Clapton](/wiki/Eric_Clapton "Eric Clapton"). Pappalardi rejected the demos by the West\-Landsberg\-Janick trio, but took a suggestion that he play bass on West's solo album, *[Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28Leslie_West_album%29 "Mountain (Leslie West album)")*. The album also featured Landsberg and former [Remains](/wiki/The_Remains_%28band%29 "The Remains (band)") drummer [N.D. Smart](/wiki/N.D._Smart "N.D. Smart"). The album spotlighted West's raw vocals and melodic, bluesy guitar style, and Pappalardi's bass lines were prominent. According to West, when Pappalardi asked what would be next, West suggested the pair go on the road. Keyboardist [Steve Knight](/wiki/Steve_Knight_%28musician%29 "Steve Knight (musician)") (from [Devil's Anvil](/wiki/Devil%27s_Anvil "Devil's Anvil"), another of Pappalardi's productions) was added after Landsberg left to form another group, Hammer, with Janick. Naming themselves "Mountain", after West's 1969 solo album, West, Pappalardi, Smart, and Knight played shows on the west coast before getting to play their third concert as a working band at the 1969 [Woodstock Festival](/wiki/Woodstock_Festival "Woodstock Festival") in [Bethel, New York](/wiki/Bethel%2C_New_York "Bethel, New York").{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\|editor\=Colin Larkin\|editor\-link\=Colin Larkin (writer)\|publisher\=\[\[Virgin Books]]\|date\=1997\|edition\=Concise\|isbn\=1\-85227\-745\-9\|page\=881}} Mountain was received enthusiastically by the festival audience but the band did not appear in the [film of the event](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 "Woodstock (film)"), nor was their performance included on volume 1 of the festival's [live album](/wiki/Woodstock:Music_from_the_Original_Soundtrack_and_More "Music from the Original Soundtrack and More"). Their performances of "Blood of the Sun" (from West's album) and "Theme for an Imaginary Western" (a song they planned to record for *Climbing!* and written by former Cream bassist Jack Bruce) did appear on the second volume of Woodstock performances called "Woodstock II" (Neither of those "live" songs were recorded at Woodstock, however.) The 40th Anniversary Edition of *[Woodstock](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 "Woodstock (film)")* on DVD and Blu\-ray features filmed performances of "Beside The Sea" and "Southbound Train". Soon after Woodstock, Smart was replaced by Canadian [Laurence "Corky" Laing](/wiki/Corky_Laing "Corky Laing"), who was the drummer on *[Climbing!](/wiki/Climbing%21 "Climbing!")*, which was released in March 1970\. It led off with what became the band's signature song, "[Mississippi Queen](/wiki/Mississippi_Queen "Mississippi Queen")", which reached No. 21 in the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100"), and was featured in the 1971 cult film *[Vanishing Point](/wiki/Vanishing_Point_%281971_film%29 "Vanishing Point (1971 film)")*, while the album reached No. 17\. Mountain began a hectic touring schedule in the middle of which they recorded a follow\-up album, *[Nantucket Sleighride](/wiki/Nantucket_Sleighride_%28album%29 "Nantucket Sleighride (album)")*, released in January 1971\. This album reached No. 16 but failed to yield a hit single. The title track was used in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") as the theme to [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 "ITV (TV network)")'s Sunday political program *[Weekend World](/wiki/Weekend_World "Weekend World")*. After these early releases the band continued to receive a certain measure of critical acclaim but never again achieved great commercial success. After *Nantucket Sleighride*, the band produced *[Flowers of Evil](/wiki/Flowers_of_Evil_%28Mountain_album%29 "Flowers of Evil (Mountain album)")* (November 1971\) consisting of one side of studio material and one live side, culled from a concert at [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City")'s [Fillmore East](/wiki/Fillmore_East "Fillmore East"). Mountain disbanded in February 1972 after a tour of the UK. West has since cited a combination of drug abuse within the band and Pappalardi's road weariness and burgeoning hearing impairment as primary factors. A live album, *[Mountain Live: The Road Goes Ever On](/wiki/Mountain_Live:The_Road_Goes_Ever_On "The Road Goes Ever On"),* was issued in April 1972\. Pappalardi returned to studio work, while West and Laing formed [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing "West, Bruce and Laing") with former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)") bassist [Jack Bruce](/wiki/Jack_Bruce "Jack Bruce"). Their first American performance was a [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall") concert, prompting a bidding war that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records") won, and the new trio cut two studio albums and a live release over the next two years. After Bruce suddenly pulled out of the trio in 1973, West and Laing continued on briefly as Leslie West's Wild West Show, which also featured special guest [Mitch Ryder](/wiki/Mitch_Ryder "Mitch Ryder") plus NYC guitarist Peter Baron and bassist [Tom Robb](/wiki/Tom_Robb "Tom Robb") (formerly with [Mylon LeFevre](/wiki/Mylon_LeFevre "Mylon LeFevre")'s band and later with the [Marshall Tucker Band](/wiki/Marshall_Tucker_Band "Marshall Tucker Band")). ### Post\-1972 By August 1973, West and Pappalardi had reformed Mountain with Allan Schwartzberg on drums and [Bob Mann](/wiki/Bob_Mann_%28guitarist%29 "Bob Mann (guitarist)") (ex\-[Dreams](/wiki/Dreams_%28band%29 "Dreams (band)")) on keyboards and guitar; the new lineup toured Japan and produced a [double](/wiki/Double_album "Double album") live album, *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks_%28album%29 "Twin Peaks (album)")* (February 1974\), from the tour. The studio work *[Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_%28Mountain_album%29 "Avalanche (Mountain album)")* (July 1974\), for which Laing returned to play drums and David Perry became the new second guitarist (from November 1973 to September 1974\), would be Mountain's final album with Pappalardi as a participant; the group broke up again after playing a final show at [Felt Forum](/wiki/Felt_Forum "Felt Forum") in New York City on December 31, 1974\. On April 17, 1983 [Gail Collins Pappalardi](/wiki/Gail_Collins_Pappalardi "Gail Collins Pappalardi"), Pappalardi's wife and songwriting partner (she had designed many of the band's album covers and wrote many of their lyrics), shot Pappalardi in the neck in their fifth\-floor [East Side Manhattan](/wiki/East_Side_%28Manhattan%29 "East Side (Manhattan)") apartment and he died. After pursuing separate musical paths for almost a decade, West and Laing reunited Mountain, recruiting [Miller Anderson](/wiki/Miller_Anderson_%28musician%29 "Miller Anderson (musician)") (ex\-[Savoy Brown](/wiki/Savoy_Brown "Savoy Brown") \& [Keef Hartley](/wiki/Keef_Hartley "Keef Hartley")) on bass in 1981\. After Anderson had [travel visa](/wiki/Travel_visa "Travel visa") troubles, he was replaced in 1984 by [Mark Clarke](/wiki/Mark_Clarke_%28musician%29 "Mark Clarke (musician)") and the group recorded *[Go for Your Life](/wiki/Go_for_Your_Life_%28album%29 "Go for Your Life (album)")* (March 1985\). This line up played at the [Knebworth](/wiki/Knebworth "Knebworth") Fayre on June 22, 1985 alongside [Mama's Boys](/wiki/Mama%27s_Boys "Mama's Boys"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_%28band%29 "Blackfoot (band)"), [Meat Loaf](/wiki/Meat_Loaf "Meat Loaf"), [Scorpions](/wiki/Scorpions_%28band%29 "Scorpions (band)"), [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple "Deep Purple"), and others. *Go For Your Life* was dedicated to Pappalardi's memory. Shortly thereafter, the band performed with [Triumph](/wiki/Triumph_%28band%29 "Triumph (band)") at the Prairie Capital Convention Center in Illinois.{{cite magazine\|title\=Box Score Top Grossing Concerts\|magazine\=Billboard\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4yQEAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PT48\|date\=June 1, 1985\|publisher\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\|pages\=48–\|issn\=0006\-2510}} Mountain went dormant again until 1992, when West and Laing teamed up once again and brought in Richie Scarlet (known for his solo work and collaborations with [Ace Frehley](/wiki/Ace_Frehley "Ace Frehley")) to round out the lineup that had a live appearance in *[The Dennis Miller Show](/wiki/The_Dennis_Miller_Show "The Dennis Miller Show")*. Scarlet was replaced with Randy Coven in 1993 and in 1994 there was a Mountain lineup that included West, Laing, [Noel Redding](/wiki/Noel_Redding "Noel Redding") and occasional special guest guitarist [Elvin Bishop](/wiki/Elvin_Bishop "Elvin Bishop"). By 1995, the 1984–85 lineup of West, Laing and Mark Clarke was back, and recorded *[Man's World](/wiki/Man%27s_World_%28album%29 "Man's World (album)")* in 1996\. In 1998 things went quiet in the Mountain camp again until 2001\. That year, with Scarlet back in the lineup, the band toured, then recorded *[Mystic Fire](/wiki/Mystic_Fire "Mystic Fire")*, released in 2002\. In 2003 West and Laing authored a book of recollections, *Nantucket Sleighride and Other Mountain On\-the\-Road Stories*, detailing their time with the band at its peak and their subsequent careers. Mountain's video game debut came in 2007 on RedOctane's *[Guitar Hero III](/wiki/Guitar_Hero_III "Guitar Hero III")*, featuring "Mississippi Queen" as a playable track. The song is also featured in the Harmonix video game *[Rock Band](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 "Rock Band (video game)")*, although the version featured is a cover of the studio recording. Their final album was 2007's *[Masters of War](/wiki/Masters_of_War_%28album%29 "Masters of War (album)")*, featuring twelve [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan") [covers](/wiki/Cover_song "Cover song") and a guest appearance from [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne"). The band headed out on the road during October and November 2008 on a North American tour opening for [Joe Satriani](/wiki/Joe_Satriani "Joe Satriani"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.komodorock.com/tour\-news/tour\-dates/mountain\-announce\-north\-american\-tour\-200809047331/ \|title\=Mountain Announce US Tour \|publisher\=Komodorock.com \|date\=September 4, 2008 \|access\-date\=July 19, 2011}} and with former [Michael Schenker Group](/wiki/Michael_Schenker_Group "Michael Schenker Group") member Rev Jones on bass. A review of the [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues "House of Blues") date covered the Mountain set, including "Blowing in the Wind" from the *Masters of War* album, with enthusiasm. Of the Satriani set, the reviewer was also pleased with the [blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues") influence he felt Mountain brought to the evening, and with West joining in on a Satriani\-led closing "[Stormy Monday](/wiki/Stormy_Monday "Stormy Monday")" and "Going Down" blues jam.["Joe Satriani with Mountain – House of Blues, San Diego (CA) 11/12/08"](http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe-Satriani-with-Mountain-%E2%80%93-House-of-Blues,-San-Diego-(CA)-11-12-08.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419174817/http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe\-Satriani\-with\-Mountain\-%E2%80%93\-House\-of\-Blues,\-San\-Diego\-(CA)\-11\-12\-08\.htm \|date\=April 19, 2014 }} Posted by Aaron Mayagoitia, on *411mania.com*, on November 16, 2008\. Retrieved 2–8–09\. Fellow [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") native [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern "Howard Stern") has called Mountain one of his favourite bands and has occasionally played their music on his show. Other Mountain fans include [Randy Rhoads](/wiki/Randy_Rhoads "Randy Rhoads"),{{cite web\|url\=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/randy\-rhoads\-three\-favourite\-guitar\-players/ \|title\=Randy Rhoads' three favourite guitar players \|publisher\=faroutmagazine.co.uk \|access\-date\=June 5, 2022}} [John McLaughlin](/wiki/John_McLaughlin_%28musician%29 "John McLaughlin (musician)"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hit\-channel.com/john\-mclaughlin\-solomahavishnu\-orchestramiles\-davis/18283 \|title\=Interview:John McLaughlin (solo, Mahavishnu Orchestra, Miles Davis) \|publisher\=Hit\-channel.com \|access\-date\=November 1, 2015}} [Johnny Ramone](/wiki/Johnny_Ramone "Johnny Ramone"), [Clutch](/wiki/Clutch_%28band%29 "Clutch (band)"), [Karma to Burn](/wiki/Karma_to_Burn "Karma to Burn"), comedian [Dennis Miller](/wiki/Dennis_Miller "Dennis Miller"), and [John Frusciante](/wiki/John_Frusciante "John Frusciante") (the [Red Hot Chili Peppers](/wiki/Red_Hot_Chili_Peppers "Red Hot Chili Peppers") track "[Readymade](/wiki/Readymade_%28song%29 "Readymade (song)")" off 2006's *[Stadium Arcadium](/wiki/Stadium_Arcadium "Stadium Arcadium")* features a Mountain\-influenced riff{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/red\-hot\-chili\-peppers\-tattooed\-love\-boys\-112771/\|title \= Red Hot Chili Peppers: Tattooed Love Boys\|magazine \= \[\[Rolling Stone]]\|date \= 15 June 2006}}). [Martin Barre](/wiki/Martin_Barre "Martin Barre"), guitarist for [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 "Jethro Tull (band)") has stated in interviews that [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West "Leslie West") was a direct influence on his playing. [Beastie Boys](/wiki/Beastie_Boys "Beastie Boys") are also noted for their use of a brief sample of "Mississippi Queen" on the track "Lookin' Down the Barrel of a Gun" from their sample\-heavy 1989 album, *[Paul's Boutique](/wiki/Paul%27s_Boutique "Paul's Boutique")*. Mountain continued to perform occasionally with Leslie West, Corky Laing and Rev Jones.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.setlist.fm/setlists/mountain\-53d6bb49\.html\|title\=Mountain Concert Setlists\|website\=setlist.fm}} On June 20, 2011, West had his lower right leg amputated as a result of complications from [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes "Diabetes").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-lesliewest\-idUSTRE75K00V20110621\|title\=Rock guitarist Leslie West's lower leg amputated\|date\=June 21, 2011\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=August 27, 2011}} Following the surgery, West performed and recorded under his own name; his concerts featured many Mountain songs. Corky Laing formed a new project, Corky Laing Plays Mountain, in 2015\. This project included bassist/vocalist Joe Venti and guitarist/vocalist Phil Baker in 2015\. For their 2016 United States tour, Laing and Venti were joined by Richie Scarlet, now on lead guitar, and Ken Sidotti on keyboards. They performed Mountain music in addition to songs by [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing "West, Bruce and Laing") and [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)"). And in 2017, Mark Mikel was playing bass with Chris Shutters and Richie Scarlet on guitar in the lineup.{{Cite web\|url\=http://corkylaingworks.com/CURRENTPROJECTS\|title\=Current Projects\|website\=Corkylaingworks.com}} Mikel continued until touring was ceased in 2020 due to [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19").{{Cite web \|title\=CURRENT PROJECTS \|url\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\-projects \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-24 \|website\=Corky Laing \|language\=en}} Leslie West died on December 22, 2020, after suffering a heart attack. He was 75\.{{Cite web\|date\=December 23, 2020\|title\=Mountain's Leslie West Dies at 75\|url\=https://ultimateclassicrock.com/leslie\-west\-dies/\|access\-date\=December 23, 2020\|website\=Ultimate Classic Rock\|language\=en}} In 2021 Corky Laing's Mountain resumed touring with a lineup of Laing (drums, vocals), Joe Venti (bass, vocals) and Richie Scarlet (guitar, keyboards).{{Cite web \|title\=CURRENT PROJECTS \|url\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\-projects \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-24 \|website\=Corky Laing \|language\=en}}
[ "History\n-------", "### 1969–1972", "In early 1969 [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West \"Leslie West\"), formerly of the [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\") band [The Vagrants](/wiki/The_Vagrants \"The Vagrants\"), put together a band, Leslie West Mountain, with Norman Landsberg (keyboards, bass) and Ken Janick (drums) and began playing gigs and recording demos. Right around this time, former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\") collaborator/producer [Felix Pappalardi](/wiki/Felix_Pappalardi \"Felix Pappalardi\"), who had previously produced the Vagrants, expressed an interest in producing West's work. West, previously disgruntled and unsatisfied with the lack of success in his first project, found Cream to be a great inspiration. He began to feel disillusioned with the R\\&B and blues scenes of the 1960s in which he had played. He envisioned a project that would take on a rawer and much harder style which he had begun to favor, with his newly\\-developed guitar style inspired by hearing Cream's [Eric Clapton](/wiki/Eric_Clapton \"Eric Clapton\").", "Pappalardi rejected the demos by the West\\-Landsberg\\-Janick trio, but took a suggestion that he play bass on West's solo album, *[Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28Leslie_West_album%29 \"Mountain (Leslie West album)\")*. The album also featured Landsberg and former [Remains](/wiki/The_Remains_%28band%29 \"The Remains (band)\") drummer [N.D. Smart](/wiki/N.D._Smart \"N.D. Smart\"). The album spotlighted West's raw vocals and melodic, bluesy guitar style, and Pappalardi's bass lines were prominent. According to West, when Pappalardi asked what would be next, West suggested the pair go on the road. Keyboardist [Steve Knight](/wiki/Steve_Knight_%28musician%29 \"Steve Knight (musician)\") (from [Devil's Anvil](/wiki/Devil%27s_Anvil \"Devil's Anvil\"), another of Pappalardi's productions) was added after Landsberg left to form another group, Hammer, with Janick.", "Naming themselves \"Mountain\", after West's 1969 solo album, West, Pappalardi, Smart, and Knight played shows on the west coast before getting to play their third concert as a working band at the 1969 [Woodstock Festival](/wiki/Woodstock_Festival \"Woodstock Festival\") in [Bethel, New York](/wiki/Bethel%2C_New_York \"Bethel, New York\").{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\\|editor\\=Colin Larkin\\|editor\\-link\\=Colin Larkin (writer)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Virgin Books]]\\|date\\=1997\\|edition\\=Concise\\|isbn\\=1\\-85227\\-745\\-9\\|page\\=881}} Mountain was received enthusiastically by the festival audience but the band did not appear in the [film of the event](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 \"Woodstock (film)\"), nor was their performance included on volume 1 of the festival's [live album](/wiki/Woodstock:Music_from_the_Original_Soundtrack_and_More \"Music from the Original Soundtrack and More\"). Their performances of \"Blood of the Sun\" (from West's album) and \"Theme for an Imaginary Western\" (a song they planned to record for *Climbing!* and written by former Cream bassist Jack Bruce) did appear on the second volume of Woodstock performances called \"Woodstock II\" (Neither of those \"live\" songs were recorded at Woodstock, however.) The 40th Anniversary Edition of *[Woodstock](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 \"Woodstock (film)\")* on DVD and Blu\\-ray features filmed performances of \"Beside The Sea\" and \"Southbound Train\".", "Soon after Woodstock, Smart was replaced by Canadian [Laurence \"Corky\" Laing](/wiki/Corky_Laing \"Corky Laing\"), who was the drummer on *[Climbing!](/wiki/Climbing%21 \"Climbing!\")*, which was released in March 1970\\. It led off with what became the band's signature song, \"[Mississippi Queen](/wiki/Mississippi_Queen \"Mississippi Queen\")\", which reached No. 21 in the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\"), and was featured in the 1971 cult film *[Vanishing Point](/wiki/Vanishing_Point_%281971_film%29 \"Vanishing Point (1971 film)\")*, while the album reached No. 17\\.", "Mountain began a hectic touring schedule in the middle of which they recorded a follow\\-up album, *[Nantucket Sleighride](/wiki/Nantucket_Sleighride_%28album%29 \"Nantucket Sleighride (album)\")*, released in January 1971\\. This album reached No. 16 but failed to yield a hit single. The title track was used in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") as the theme to [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\")'s Sunday political program *[Weekend World](/wiki/Weekend_World \"Weekend World\")*. After these early releases the band continued to receive a certain measure of critical acclaim but never again achieved great commercial success.", "After *Nantucket Sleighride*, the band produced *[Flowers of Evil](/wiki/Flowers_of_Evil_%28Mountain_album%29 \"Flowers of Evil (Mountain album)\")* (November 1971\\) consisting of one side of studio material and one live side, culled from a concert at [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\")'s [Fillmore East](/wiki/Fillmore_East \"Fillmore East\").", "Mountain disbanded in February 1972 after a tour of the UK. West has since cited a combination of drug abuse within the band and Pappalardi's road weariness and burgeoning hearing impairment as primary factors. A live album, *[Mountain Live: The Road Goes Ever On](/wiki/Mountain_Live:The_Road_Goes_Ever_On \"The Road Goes Ever On\"),* was issued in April 1972\\.", "Pappalardi returned to studio work, while West and Laing formed [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing \"West, Bruce and Laing\") with former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\") bassist [Jack Bruce](/wiki/Jack_Bruce \"Jack Bruce\"). Their first American performance was a [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\") concert, prompting a bidding war that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\") won, and the new trio cut two studio albums and a live release over the next two years. After Bruce suddenly pulled out of the trio in 1973, West and Laing continued on briefly as Leslie West's Wild West Show, which also featured special guest [Mitch Ryder](/wiki/Mitch_Ryder \"Mitch Ryder\") plus NYC guitarist Peter Baron and bassist [Tom Robb](/wiki/Tom_Robb \"Tom Robb\") (formerly with [Mylon LeFevre](/wiki/Mylon_LeFevre \"Mylon LeFevre\")'s band and later with the [Marshall Tucker Band](/wiki/Marshall_Tucker_Band \"Marshall Tucker Band\")).", "### Post\\-1972", "By August 1973, West and Pappalardi had reformed Mountain with Allan Schwartzberg on drums and [Bob Mann](/wiki/Bob_Mann_%28guitarist%29 \"Bob Mann (guitarist)\") (ex\\-[Dreams](/wiki/Dreams_%28band%29 \"Dreams (band)\")) on keyboards and guitar; the new lineup toured Japan and produced a [double](/wiki/Double_album \"Double album\") live album, *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks_%28album%29 \"Twin Peaks (album)\")* (February 1974\\), from the tour. The studio work *[Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_%28Mountain_album%29 \"Avalanche (Mountain album)\")* (July 1974\\), for which Laing returned to play drums and David Perry became the new second guitarist (from November 1973 to September 1974\\), would be Mountain's final album with Pappalardi as a participant; the group broke up again after playing a final show at [Felt Forum](/wiki/Felt_Forum \"Felt Forum\") in New York City on December 31, 1974\\.", "On April 17, 1983 [Gail Collins Pappalardi](/wiki/Gail_Collins_Pappalardi \"Gail Collins Pappalardi\"), Pappalardi's wife and songwriting partner (she had designed many of the band's album covers and wrote many of their lyrics), shot Pappalardi in the neck in their fifth\\-floor [East Side Manhattan](/wiki/East_Side_%28Manhattan%29 \"East Side (Manhattan)\") apartment and he died.", "After pursuing separate musical paths for almost a decade, West and Laing reunited Mountain, recruiting [Miller Anderson](/wiki/Miller_Anderson_%28musician%29 \"Miller Anderson (musician)\") (ex\\-[Savoy Brown](/wiki/Savoy_Brown \"Savoy Brown\") \\& [Keef Hartley](/wiki/Keef_Hartley \"Keef Hartley\")) on bass in 1981\\. After Anderson had [travel visa](/wiki/Travel_visa \"Travel visa\") troubles, he was replaced in 1984 by [Mark Clarke](/wiki/Mark_Clarke_%28musician%29 \"Mark Clarke (musician)\") and the group recorded *[Go for Your Life](/wiki/Go_for_Your_Life_%28album%29 \"Go for Your Life (album)\")* (March 1985\\). This line up played at the [Knebworth](/wiki/Knebworth \"Knebworth\") Fayre on June 22, 1985 alongside [Mama's Boys](/wiki/Mama%27s_Boys \"Mama's Boys\"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_%28band%29 \"Blackfoot (band)\"), [Meat Loaf](/wiki/Meat_Loaf \"Meat Loaf\"), [Scorpions](/wiki/Scorpions_%28band%29 \"Scorpions (band)\"), [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple \"Deep Purple\"), and others. *Go For Your Life* was dedicated to Pappalardi's memory. Shortly thereafter, the band performed with [Triumph](/wiki/Triumph_%28band%29 \"Triumph (band)\") at the Prairie Capital Convention Center in Illinois.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Box Score Top Grossing Concerts\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4yQEAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PT48\\|date\\=June 1, 1985\\|publisher\\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\\|pages\\=48–\\|issn\\=0006\\-2510}}", "Mountain went dormant again until 1992, when West and Laing teamed up once again and brought in Richie Scarlet (known for his solo work and collaborations with [Ace Frehley](/wiki/Ace_Frehley \"Ace Frehley\")) to round out the lineup that had a live appearance in *[The Dennis Miller Show](/wiki/The_Dennis_Miller_Show \"The Dennis Miller Show\")*. Scarlet was replaced with Randy Coven in 1993 and in 1994 there was a Mountain lineup that included West, Laing, [Noel Redding](/wiki/Noel_Redding \"Noel Redding\") and occasional special guest guitarist [Elvin Bishop](/wiki/Elvin_Bishop \"Elvin Bishop\"). By 1995, the 1984–85 lineup of West, Laing and Mark Clarke was back, and recorded *[Man's World](/wiki/Man%27s_World_%28album%29 \"Man's World (album)\")* in 1996\\. In 1998 things went quiet in the Mountain camp again until 2001\\. That year, with Scarlet back in the lineup, the band toured, then recorded *[Mystic Fire](/wiki/Mystic_Fire \"Mystic Fire\")*, released in 2002\\.", "In 2003 West and Laing authored a book of recollections, *Nantucket Sleighride and Other Mountain On\\-the\\-Road Stories*, detailing their time with the band at its peak and their subsequent careers.", "Mountain's video game debut came in 2007 on RedOctane's *[Guitar Hero III](/wiki/Guitar_Hero_III \"Guitar Hero III\")*, featuring \"Mississippi Queen\" as a playable track. The song is also featured in the Harmonix video game *[Rock Band](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 \"Rock Band (video game)\")*, although the version featured is a cover of the studio recording.", "Their final album was 2007's *[Masters of War](/wiki/Masters_of_War_%28album%29 \"Masters of War (album)\")*, featuring twelve [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\") [covers](/wiki/Cover_song \"Cover song\") and a guest appearance from [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\").", "The band headed out on the road during October and November 2008 on a North American tour opening for [Joe Satriani](/wiki/Joe_Satriani \"Joe Satriani\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.komodorock.com/tour\\-news/tour\\-dates/mountain\\-announce\\-north\\-american\\-tour\\-200809047331/ \\|title\\=Mountain Announce US Tour \\|publisher\\=Komodorock.com \\|date\\=September 4, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2011}} and with former [Michael Schenker Group](/wiki/Michael_Schenker_Group \"Michael Schenker Group\") member Rev Jones on bass. A review of the [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues \"House of Blues\") date covered the Mountain set, including \"Blowing in the Wind\" from the *Masters of War* album, with enthusiasm. Of the Satriani set, the reviewer was also pleased with the [blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") influence he felt Mountain brought to the evening, and with West joining in on a Satriani\\-led closing \"[Stormy Monday](/wiki/Stormy_Monday \"Stormy Monday\")\" and \"Going Down\" blues jam.[\"Joe Satriani with Mountain – House of Blues, San Diego (CA) 11/12/08\"](http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe-Satriani-with-Mountain-%E2%80%93-House-of-Blues,-San-Diego-(CA)-11-12-08.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419174817/http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe\\-Satriani\\-with\\-Mountain\\-%E2%80%93\\-House\\-of\\-Blues,\\-San\\-Diego\\-(CA)\\-11\\-12\\-08\\.htm \\|date\\=April 19, 2014 }} Posted by Aaron Mayagoitia, on *411mania.com*, on November 16, 2008\\. Retrieved 2–8–09\\.", "Fellow [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") native [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern \"Howard Stern\") has called Mountain one of his favourite bands and has occasionally played their music on his show. Other Mountain fans include [Randy Rhoads](/wiki/Randy_Rhoads \"Randy Rhoads\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/randy\\-rhoads\\-three\\-favourite\\-guitar\\-players/ \\|title\\=Randy Rhoads' three favourite guitar players \\|publisher\\=faroutmagazine.co.uk \\|access\\-date\\=June 5, 2022}} [John McLaughlin](/wiki/John_McLaughlin_%28musician%29 \"John McLaughlin (musician)\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hit\\-channel.com/john\\-mclaughlin\\-solomahavishnu\\-orchestramiles\\-davis/18283 \\|title\\=Interview:John McLaughlin (solo, Mahavishnu Orchestra, Miles Davis) \\|publisher\\=Hit\\-channel.com \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2015}} [Johnny Ramone](/wiki/Johnny_Ramone \"Johnny Ramone\"), [Clutch](/wiki/Clutch_%28band%29 \"Clutch (band)\"), [Karma to Burn](/wiki/Karma_to_Burn \"Karma to Burn\"), comedian [Dennis Miller](/wiki/Dennis_Miller \"Dennis Miller\"), and [John Frusciante](/wiki/John_Frusciante \"John Frusciante\") (the [Red Hot Chili Peppers](/wiki/Red_Hot_Chili_Peppers \"Red Hot Chili Peppers\") track \"[Readymade](/wiki/Readymade_%28song%29 \"Readymade (song)\")\" off 2006's *[Stadium Arcadium](/wiki/Stadium_Arcadium \"Stadium Arcadium\")* features a Mountain\\-influenced riff{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/red\\-hot\\-chili\\-peppers\\-tattooed\\-love\\-boys\\-112771/\\|title \\= Red Hot Chili Peppers: Tattooed Love Boys\\|magazine \\= \\[\\[Rolling Stone]]\\|date \\= 15 June 2006}}). [Martin Barre](/wiki/Martin_Barre \"Martin Barre\"), guitarist for [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 \"Jethro Tull (band)\") has stated in interviews that [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West \"Leslie West\") was a direct influence on his playing.", "[Beastie Boys](/wiki/Beastie_Boys \"Beastie Boys\") are also noted for their use of a brief sample of \"Mississippi Queen\" on the track \"Lookin' Down the Barrel of a Gun\" from their sample\\-heavy 1989 album, *[Paul's Boutique](/wiki/Paul%27s_Boutique \"Paul's Boutique\")*.", "Mountain continued to perform occasionally with Leslie West, Corky Laing and Rev Jones.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.setlist.fm/setlists/mountain\\-53d6bb49\\.html\\|title\\=Mountain Concert Setlists\\|website\\=setlist.fm}} On June 20, 2011, West had his lower right leg amputated as a result of complications from [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes \"Diabetes\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-lesliewest\\-idUSTRE75K00V20110621\\|title\\=Rock guitarist Leslie West's lower leg amputated\\|date\\=June 21, 2011\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=August 27, 2011}} Following the surgery, West performed and recorded under his own name; his concerts featured many Mountain songs. Corky Laing formed a new project, Corky Laing Plays Mountain, in 2015\\. This project included bassist/vocalist Joe Venti and guitarist/vocalist Phil Baker in 2015\\. For their 2016 United States tour, Laing and Venti were joined by Richie Scarlet, now on lead guitar, and Ken Sidotti on keyboards. They performed Mountain music in addition to songs by [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing \"West, Bruce and Laing\") and [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\"). And in 2017, Mark Mikel was playing bass with Chris Shutters and Richie Scarlet on guitar in the lineup.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://corkylaingworks.com/CURRENTPROJECTS\\|title\\=Current Projects\\|website\\=Corkylaingworks.com}} Mikel continued until touring was ceased in 2020 due to [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=CURRENT PROJECTS \\|url\\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\\-projects \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-24 \\|website\\=Corky Laing \\|language\\=en}}", "Leslie West died on December 22, 2020, after suffering a heart attack. He was 75\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=December 23, 2020\\|title\\=Mountain's Leslie West Dies at 75\\|url\\=https://ultimateclassicrock.com/leslie\\-west\\-dies/\\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2020\\|website\\=Ultimate Classic Rock\\|language\\=en}}", "In 2021 Corky Laing's Mountain resumed touring with a lineup of Laing (drums, vocals), Joe Venti (bass, vocals) and Richie Scarlet (guitar, keyboards).{{Cite web \\|title\\=CURRENT PROJECTS \\|url\\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\\-projects \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-24 \\|website\\=Corky Laing \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
### 1969–1972 In early 1969 [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West "Leslie West"), formerly of the [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") [R\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues "Rhythm and blues") band [The Vagrants](/wiki/The_Vagrants "The Vagrants"), put together a band, Leslie West Mountain, with Norman Landsberg (keyboards, bass) and Ken Janick (drums) and began playing gigs and recording demos. Right around this time, former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)") collaborator/producer [Felix Pappalardi](/wiki/Felix_Pappalardi "Felix Pappalardi"), who had previously produced the Vagrants, expressed an interest in producing West's work. West, previously disgruntled and unsatisfied with the lack of success in his first project, found Cream to be a great inspiration. He began to feel disillusioned with the R\&B and blues scenes of the 1960s in which he had played. He envisioned a project that would take on a rawer and much harder style which he had begun to favor, with his newly\-developed guitar style inspired by hearing Cream's [Eric Clapton](/wiki/Eric_Clapton "Eric Clapton"). Pappalardi rejected the demos by the West\-Landsberg\-Janick trio, but took a suggestion that he play bass on West's solo album, *[Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28Leslie_West_album%29 "Mountain (Leslie West album)")*. The album also featured Landsberg and former [Remains](/wiki/The_Remains_%28band%29 "The Remains (band)") drummer [N.D. Smart](/wiki/N.D._Smart "N.D. Smart"). The album spotlighted West's raw vocals and melodic, bluesy guitar style, and Pappalardi's bass lines were prominent. According to West, when Pappalardi asked what would be next, West suggested the pair go on the road. Keyboardist [Steve Knight](/wiki/Steve_Knight_%28musician%29 "Steve Knight (musician)") (from [Devil's Anvil](/wiki/Devil%27s_Anvil "Devil's Anvil"), another of Pappalardi's productions) was added after Landsberg left to form another group, Hammer, with Janick. Naming themselves "Mountain", after West's 1969 solo album, West, Pappalardi, Smart, and Knight played shows on the west coast before getting to play their third concert as a working band at the 1969 [Woodstock Festival](/wiki/Woodstock_Festival "Woodstock Festival") in [Bethel, New York](/wiki/Bethel%2C_New_York "Bethel, New York").{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\|editor\=Colin Larkin\|editor\-link\=Colin Larkin (writer)\|publisher\=\[\[Virgin Books]]\|date\=1997\|edition\=Concise\|isbn\=1\-85227\-745\-9\|page\=881}} Mountain was received enthusiastically by the festival audience but the band did not appear in the [film of the event](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 "Woodstock (film)"), nor was their performance included on volume 1 of the festival's [live album](/wiki/Woodstock:Music_from_the_Original_Soundtrack_and_More "Music from the Original Soundtrack and More"). Their performances of "Blood of the Sun" (from West's album) and "Theme for an Imaginary Western" (a song they planned to record for *Climbing!* and written by former Cream bassist Jack Bruce) did appear on the second volume of Woodstock performances called "Woodstock II" (Neither of those "live" songs were recorded at Woodstock, however.) The 40th Anniversary Edition of *[Woodstock](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 "Woodstock (film)")* on DVD and Blu\-ray features filmed performances of "Beside The Sea" and "Southbound Train". Soon after Woodstock, Smart was replaced by Canadian [Laurence "Corky" Laing](/wiki/Corky_Laing "Corky Laing"), who was the drummer on *[Climbing!](/wiki/Climbing%21 "Climbing!")*, which was released in March 1970\. It led off with what became the band's signature song, "[Mississippi Queen](/wiki/Mississippi_Queen "Mississippi Queen")", which reached No. 21 in the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100"), and was featured in the 1971 cult film *[Vanishing Point](/wiki/Vanishing_Point_%281971_film%29 "Vanishing Point (1971 film)")*, while the album reached No. 17\. Mountain began a hectic touring schedule in the middle of which they recorded a follow\-up album, *[Nantucket Sleighride](/wiki/Nantucket_Sleighride_%28album%29 "Nantucket Sleighride (album)")*, released in January 1971\. This album reached No. 16 but failed to yield a hit single. The title track was used in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") as the theme to [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 "ITV (TV network)")'s Sunday political program *[Weekend World](/wiki/Weekend_World "Weekend World")*. After these early releases the band continued to receive a certain measure of critical acclaim but never again achieved great commercial success. After *Nantucket Sleighride*, the band produced *[Flowers of Evil](/wiki/Flowers_of_Evil_%28Mountain_album%29 "Flowers of Evil (Mountain album)")* (November 1971\) consisting of one side of studio material and one live side, culled from a concert at [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City")'s [Fillmore East](/wiki/Fillmore_East "Fillmore East"). Mountain disbanded in February 1972 after a tour of the UK. West has since cited a combination of drug abuse within the band and Pappalardi's road weariness and burgeoning hearing impairment as primary factors. A live album, *[Mountain Live: The Road Goes Ever On](/wiki/Mountain_Live:The_Road_Goes_Ever_On "The Road Goes Ever On"),* was issued in April 1972\. Pappalardi returned to studio work, while West and Laing formed [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing "West, Bruce and Laing") with former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)") bassist [Jack Bruce](/wiki/Jack_Bruce "Jack Bruce"). Their first American performance was a [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall") concert, prompting a bidding war that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records") won, and the new trio cut two studio albums and a live release over the next two years. After Bruce suddenly pulled out of the trio in 1973, West and Laing continued on briefly as Leslie West's Wild West Show, which also featured special guest [Mitch Ryder](/wiki/Mitch_Ryder "Mitch Ryder") plus NYC guitarist Peter Baron and bassist [Tom Robb](/wiki/Tom_Robb "Tom Robb") (formerly with [Mylon LeFevre](/wiki/Mylon_LeFevre "Mylon LeFevre")'s band and later with the [Marshall Tucker Band](/wiki/Marshall_Tucker_Band "Marshall Tucker Band")).
[ "### 1969–1972", "In early 1969 [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West \"Leslie West\"), formerly of the [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\") band [The Vagrants](/wiki/The_Vagrants \"The Vagrants\"), put together a band, Leslie West Mountain, with Norman Landsberg (keyboards, bass) and Ken Janick (drums) and began playing gigs and recording demos. Right around this time, former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\") collaborator/producer [Felix Pappalardi](/wiki/Felix_Pappalardi \"Felix Pappalardi\"), who had previously produced the Vagrants, expressed an interest in producing West's work. West, previously disgruntled and unsatisfied with the lack of success in his first project, found Cream to be a great inspiration. He began to feel disillusioned with the R\\&B and blues scenes of the 1960s in which he had played. He envisioned a project that would take on a rawer and much harder style which he had begun to favor, with his newly\\-developed guitar style inspired by hearing Cream's [Eric Clapton](/wiki/Eric_Clapton \"Eric Clapton\").", "Pappalardi rejected the demos by the West\\-Landsberg\\-Janick trio, but took a suggestion that he play bass on West's solo album, *[Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28Leslie_West_album%29 \"Mountain (Leslie West album)\")*. The album also featured Landsberg and former [Remains](/wiki/The_Remains_%28band%29 \"The Remains (band)\") drummer [N.D. Smart](/wiki/N.D._Smart \"N.D. Smart\"). The album spotlighted West's raw vocals and melodic, bluesy guitar style, and Pappalardi's bass lines were prominent. According to West, when Pappalardi asked what would be next, West suggested the pair go on the road. Keyboardist [Steve Knight](/wiki/Steve_Knight_%28musician%29 \"Steve Knight (musician)\") (from [Devil's Anvil](/wiki/Devil%27s_Anvil \"Devil's Anvil\"), another of Pappalardi's productions) was added after Landsberg left to form another group, Hammer, with Janick.", "Naming themselves \"Mountain\", after West's 1969 solo album, West, Pappalardi, Smart, and Knight played shows on the west coast before getting to play their third concert as a working band at the 1969 [Woodstock Festival](/wiki/Woodstock_Festival \"Woodstock Festival\") in [Bethel, New York](/wiki/Bethel%2C_New_York \"Bethel, New York\").{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]\\|editor\\=Colin Larkin\\|editor\\-link\\=Colin Larkin (writer)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Virgin Books]]\\|date\\=1997\\|edition\\=Concise\\|isbn\\=1\\-85227\\-745\\-9\\|page\\=881}} Mountain was received enthusiastically by the festival audience but the band did not appear in the [film of the event](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 \"Woodstock (film)\"), nor was their performance included on volume 1 of the festival's [live album](/wiki/Woodstock:Music_from_the_Original_Soundtrack_and_More \"Music from the Original Soundtrack and More\"). Their performances of \"Blood of the Sun\" (from West's album) and \"Theme for an Imaginary Western\" (a song they planned to record for *Climbing!* and written by former Cream bassist Jack Bruce) did appear on the second volume of Woodstock performances called \"Woodstock II\" (Neither of those \"live\" songs were recorded at Woodstock, however.) The 40th Anniversary Edition of *[Woodstock](/wiki/Woodstock_%28film%29 \"Woodstock (film)\")* on DVD and Blu\\-ray features filmed performances of \"Beside The Sea\" and \"Southbound Train\".", "Soon after Woodstock, Smart was replaced by Canadian [Laurence \"Corky\" Laing](/wiki/Corky_Laing \"Corky Laing\"), who was the drummer on *[Climbing!](/wiki/Climbing%21 \"Climbing!\")*, which was released in March 1970\\. It led off with what became the band's signature song, \"[Mississippi Queen](/wiki/Mississippi_Queen \"Mississippi Queen\")\", which reached No. 21 in the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\"), and was featured in the 1971 cult film *[Vanishing Point](/wiki/Vanishing_Point_%281971_film%29 \"Vanishing Point (1971 film)\")*, while the album reached No. 17\\.", "Mountain began a hectic touring schedule in the middle of which they recorded a follow\\-up album, *[Nantucket Sleighride](/wiki/Nantucket_Sleighride_%28album%29 \"Nantucket Sleighride (album)\")*, released in January 1971\\. This album reached No. 16 but failed to yield a hit single. The title track was used in the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") as the theme to [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\")'s Sunday political program *[Weekend World](/wiki/Weekend_World \"Weekend World\")*. After these early releases the band continued to receive a certain measure of critical acclaim but never again achieved great commercial success.", "After *Nantucket Sleighride*, the band produced *[Flowers of Evil](/wiki/Flowers_of_Evil_%28Mountain_album%29 \"Flowers of Evil (Mountain album)\")* (November 1971\\) consisting of one side of studio material and one live side, culled from a concert at [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\")'s [Fillmore East](/wiki/Fillmore_East \"Fillmore East\").", "Mountain disbanded in February 1972 after a tour of the UK. West has since cited a combination of drug abuse within the band and Pappalardi's road weariness and burgeoning hearing impairment as primary factors. A live album, *[Mountain Live: The Road Goes Ever On](/wiki/Mountain_Live:The_Road_Goes_Ever_On \"The Road Goes Ever On\"),* was issued in April 1972\\.", "Pappalardi returned to studio work, while West and Laing formed [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing \"West, Bruce and Laing\") with former [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\") bassist [Jack Bruce](/wiki/Jack_Bruce \"Jack Bruce\"). Their first American performance was a [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\") concert, prompting a bidding war that [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\") won, and the new trio cut two studio albums and a live release over the next two years. After Bruce suddenly pulled out of the trio in 1973, West and Laing continued on briefly as Leslie West's Wild West Show, which also featured special guest [Mitch Ryder](/wiki/Mitch_Ryder \"Mitch Ryder\") plus NYC guitarist Peter Baron and bassist [Tom Robb](/wiki/Tom_Robb \"Tom Robb\") (formerly with [Mylon LeFevre](/wiki/Mylon_LeFevre \"Mylon LeFevre\")'s band and later with the [Marshall Tucker Band](/wiki/Marshall_Tucker_Band \"Marshall Tucker Band\")).", "" ]
### Post\-1972 By August 1973, West and Pappalardi had reformed Mountain with Allan Schwartzberg on drums and [Bob Mann](/wiki/Bob_Mann_%28guitarist%29 "Bob Mann (guitarist)") (ex\-[Dreams](/wiki/Dreams_%28band%29 "Dreams (band)")) on keyboards and guitar; the new lineup toured Japan and produced a [double](/wiki/Double_album "Double album") live album, *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks_%28album%29 "Twin Peaks (album)")* (February 1974\), from the tour. The studio work *[Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_%28Mountain_album%29 "Avalanche (Mountain album)")* (July 1974\), for which Laing returned to play drums and David Perry became the new second guitarist (from November 1973 to September 1974\), would be Mountain's final album with Pappalardi as a participant; the group broke up again after playing a final show at [Felt Forum](/wiki/Felt_Forum "Felt Forum") in New York City on December 31, 1974\. On April 17, 1983 [Gail Collins Pappalardi](/wiki/Gail_Collins_Pappalardi "Gail Collins Pappalardi"), Pappalardi's wife and songwriting partner (she had designed many of the band's album covers and wrote many of their lyrics), shot Pappalardi in the neck in their fifth\-floor [East Side Manhattan](/wiki/East_Side_%28Manhattan%29 "East Side (Manhattan)") apartment and he died. After pursuing separate musical paths for almost a decade, West and Laing reunited Mountain, recruiting [Miller Anderson](/wiki/Miller_Anderson_%28musician%29 "Miller Anderson (musician)") (ex\-[Savoy Brown](/wiki/Savoy_Brown "Savoy Brown") \& [Keef Hartley](/wiki/Keef_Hartley "Keef Hartley")) on bass in 1981\. After Anderson had [travel visa](/wiki/Travel_visa "Travel visa") troubles, he was replaced in 1984 by [Mark Clarke](/wiki/Mark_Clarke_%28musician%29 "Mark Clarke (musician)") and the group recorded *[Go for Your Life](/wiki/Go_for_Your_Life_%28album%29 "Go for Your Life (album)")* (March 1985\). This line up played at the [Knebworth](/wiki/Knebworth "Knebworth") Fayre on June 22, 1985 alongside [Mama's Boys](/wiki/Mama%27s_Boys "Mama's Boys"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_%28band%29 "Blackfoot (band)"), [Meat Loaf](/wiki/Meat_Loaf "Meat Loaf"), [Scorpions](/wiki/Scorpions_%28band%29 "Scorpions (band)"), [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple "Deep Purple"), and others. *Go For Your Life* was dedicated to Pappalardi's memory. Shortly thereafter, the band performed with [Triumph](/wiki/Triumph_%28band%29 "Triumph (band)") at the Prairie Capital Convention Center in Illinois.{{cite magazine\|title\=Box Score Top Grossing Concerts\|magazine\=Billboard\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4yQEAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PT48\|date\=June 1, 1985\|publisher\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\|pages\=48–\|issn\=0006\-2510}} Mountain went dormant again until 1992, when West and Laing teamed up once again and brought in Richie Scarlet (known for his solo work and collaborations with [Ace Frehley](/wiki/Ace_Frehley "Ace Frehley")) to round out the lineup that had a live appearance in *[The Dennis Miller Show](/wiki/The_Dennis_Miller_Show "The Dennis Miller Show")*. Scarlet was replaced with Randy Coven in 1993 and in 1994 there was a Mountain lineup that included West, Laing, [Noel Redding](/wiki/Noel_Redding "Noel Redding") and occasional special guest guitarist [Elvin Bishop](/wiki/Elvin_Bishop "Elvin Bishop"). By 1995, the 1984–85 lineup of West, Laing and Mark Clarke was back, and recorded *[Man's World](/wiki/Man%27s_World_%28album%29 "Man's World (album)")* in 1996\. In 1998 things went quiet in the Mountain camp again until 2001\. That year, with Scarlet back in the lineup, the band toured, then recorded *[Mystic Fire](/wiki/Mystic_Fire "Mystic Fire")*, released in 2002\. In 2003 West and Laing authored a book of recollections, *Nantucket Sleighride and Other Mountain On\-the\-Road Stories*, detailing their time with the band at its peak and their subsequent careers. Mountain's video game debut came in 2007 on RedOctane's *[Guitar Hero III](/wiki/Guitar_Hero_III "Guitar Hero III")*, featuring "Mississippi Queen" as a playable track. The song is also featured in the Harmonix video game *[Rock Band](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 "Rock Band (video game)")*, although the version featured is a cover of the studio recording. Their final album was 2007's *[Masters of War](/wiki/Masters_of_War_%28album%29 "Masters of War (album)")*, featuring twelve [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan") [covers](/wiki/Cover_song "Cover song") and a guest appearance from [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne"). The band headed out on the road during October and November 2008 on a North American tour opening for [Joe Satriani](/wiki/Joe_Satriani "Joe Satriani"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.komodorock.com/tour\-news/tour\-dates/mountain\-announce\-north\-american\-tour\-200809047331/ \|title\=Mountain Announce US Tour \|publisher\=Komodorock.com \|date\=September 4, 2008 \|access\-date\=July 19, 2011}} and with former [Michael Schenker Group](/wiki/Michael_Schenker_Group "Michael Schenker Group") member Rev Jones on bass. A review of the [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues "House of Blues") date covered the Mountain set, including "Blowing in the Wind" from the *Masters of War* album, with enthusiasm. Of the Satriani set, the reviewer was also pleased with the [blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues") influence he felt Mountain brought to the evening, and with West joining in on a Satriani\-led closing "[Stormy Monday](/wiki/Stormy_Monday "Stormy Monday")" and "Going Down" blues jam.["Joe Satriani with Mountain – House of Blues, San Diego (CA) 11/12/08"](http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe-Satriani-with-Mountain-%E2%80%93-House-of-Blues,-San-Diego-(CA)-11-12-08.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419174817/http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe\-Satriani\-with\-Mountain\-%E2%80%93\-House\-of\-Blues,\-San\-Diego\-(CA)\-11\-12\-08\.htm \|date\=April 19, 2014 }} Posted by Aaron Mayagoitia, on *411mania.com*, on November 16, 2008\. Retrieved 2–8–09\. Fellow [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") native [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern "Howard Stern") has called Mountain one of his favourite bands and has occasionally played their music on his show. Other Mountain fans include [Randy Rhoads](/wiki/Randy_Rhoads "Randy Rhoads"),{{cite web\|url\=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/randy\-rhoads\-three\-favourite\-guitar\-players/ \|title\=Randy Rhoads' three favourite guitar players \|publisher\=faroutmagazine.co.uk \|access\-date\=June 5, 2022}} [John McLaughlin](/wiki/John_McLaughlin_%28musician%29 "John McLaughlin (musician)"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hit\-channel.com/john\-mclaughlin\-solomahavishnu\-orchestramiles\-davis/18283 \|title\=Interview:John McLaughlin (solo, Mahavishnu Orchestra, Miles Davis) \|publisher\=Hit\-channel.com \|access\-date\=November 1, 2015}} [Johnny Ramone](/wiki/Johnny_Ramone "Johnny Ramone"), [Clutch](/wiki/Clutch_%28band%29 "Clutch (band)"), [Karma to Burn](/wiki/Karma_to_Burn "Karma to Burn"), comedian [Dennis Miller](/wiki/Dennis_Miller "Dennis Miller"), and [John Frusciante](/wiki/John_Frusciante "John Frusciante") (the [Red Hot Chili Peppers](/wiki/Red_Hot_Chili_Peppers "Red Hot Chili Peppers") track "[Readymade](/wiki/Readymade_%28song%29 "Readymade (song)")" off 2006's *[Stadium Arcadium](/wiki/Stadium_Arcadium "Stadium Arcadium")* features a Mountain\-influenced riff{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/red\-hot\-chili\-peppers\-tattooed\-love\-boys\-112771/\|title \= Red Hot Chili Peppers: Tattooed Love Boys\|magazine \= \[\[Rolling Stone]]\|date \= 15 June 2006}}). [Martin Barre](/wiki/Martin_Barre "Martin Barre"), guitarist for [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 "Jethro Tull (band)") has stated in interviews that [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West "Leslie West") was a direct influence on his playing. [Beastie Boys](/wiki/Beastie_Boys "Beastie Boys") are also noted for their use of a brief sample of "Mississippi Queen" on the track "Lookin' Down the Barrel of a Gun" from their sample\-heavy 1989 album, *[Paul's Boutique](/wiki/Paul%27s_Boutique "Paul's Boutique")*. Mountain continued to perform occasionally with Leslie West, Corky Laing and Rev Jones.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.setlist.fm/setlists/mountain\-53d6bb49\.html\|title\=Mountain Concert Setlists\|website\=setlist.fm}} On June 20, 2011, West had his lower right leg amputated as a result of complications from [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes "Diabetes").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-lesliewest\-idUSTRE75K00V20110621\|title\=Rock guitarist Leslie West's lower leg amputated\|date\=June 21, 2011\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=August 27, 2011}} Following the surgery, West performed and recorded under his own name; his concerts featured many Mountain songs. Corky Laing formed a new project, Corky Laing Plays Mountain, in 2015\. This project included bassist/vocalist Joe Venti and guitarist/vocalist Phil Baker in 2015\. For their 2016 United States tour, Laing and Venti were joined by Richie Scarlet, now on lead guitar, and Ken Sidotti on keyboards. They performed Mountain music in addition to songs by [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing "West, Bruce and Laing") and [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)"). And in 2017, Mark Mikel was playing bass with Chris Shutters and Richie Scarlet on guitar in the lineup.{{Cite web\|url\=http://corkylaingworks.com/CURRENTPROJECTS\|title\=Current Projects\|website\=Corkylaingworks.com}} Mikel continued until touring was ceased in 2020 due to [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19").{{Cite web \|title\=CURRENT PROJECTS \|url\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\-projects \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-24 \|website\=Corky Laing \|language\=en}} Leslie West died on December 22, 2020, after suffering a heart attack. He was 75\.{{Cite web\|date\=December 23, 2020\|title\=Mountain's Leslie West Dies at 75\|url\=https://ultimateclassicrock.com/leslie\-west\-dies/\|access\-date\=December 23, 2020\|website\=Ultimate Classic Rock\|language\=en}} In 2021 Corky Laing's Mountain resumed touring with a lineup of Laing (drums, vocals), Joe Venti (bass, vocals) and Richie Scarlet (guitar, keyboards).{{Cite web \|title\=CURRENT PROJECTS \|url\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\-projects \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-24 \|website\=Corky Laing \|language\=en}}
[ "### Post\\-1972", "By August 1973, West and Pappalardi had reformed Mountain with Allan Schwartzberg on drums and [Bob Mann](/wiki/Bob_Mann_%28guitarist%29 \"Bob Mann (guitarist)\") (ex\\-[Dreams](/wiki/Dreams_%28band%29 \"Dreams (band)\")) on keyboards and guitar; the new lineup toured Japan and produced a [double](/wiki/Double_album \"Double album\") live album, *[Twin Peaks](/wiki/Twin_Peaks_%28album%29 \"Twin Peaks (album)\")* (February 1974\\), from the tour. The studio work *[Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_%28Mountain_album%29 \"Avalanche (Mountain album)\")* (July 1974\\), for which Laing returned to play drums and David Perry became the new second guitarist (from November 1973 to September 1974\\), would be Mountain's final album with Pappalardi as a participant; the group broke up again after playing a final show at [Felt Forum](/wiki/Felt_Forum \"Felt Forum\") in New York City on December 31, 1974\\.", "On April 17, 1983 [Gail Collins Pappalardi](/wiki/Gail_Collins_Pappalardi \"Gail Collins Pappalardi\"), Pappalardi's wife and songwriting partner (she had designed many of the band's album covers and wrote many of their lyrics), shot Pappalardi in the neck in their fifth\\-floor [East Side Manhattan](/wiki/East_Side_%28Manhattan%29 \"East Side (Manhattan)\") apartment and he died.", "After pursuing separate musical paths for almost a decade, West and Laing reunited Mountain, recruiting [Miller Anderson](/wiki/Miller_Anderson_%28musician%29 \"Miller Anderson (musician)\") (ex\\-[Savoy Brown](/wiki/Savoy_Brown \"Savoy Brown\") \\& [Keef Hartley](/wiki/Keef_Hartley \"Keef Hartley\")) on bass in 1981\\. After Anderson had [travel visa](/wiki/Travel_visa \"Travel visa\") troubles, he was replaced in 1984 by [Mark Clarke](/wiki/Mark_Clarke_%28musician%29 \"Mark Clarke (musician)\") and the group recorded *[Go for Your Life](/wiki/Go_for_Your_Life_%28album%29 \"Go for Your Life (album)\")* (March 1985\\). This line up played at the [Knebworth](/wiki/Knebworth \"Knebworth\") Fayre on June 22, 1985 alongside [Mama's Boys](/wiki/Mama%27s_Boys \"Mama's Boys\"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_%28band%29 \"Blackfoot (band)\"), [Meat Loaf](/wiki/Meat_Loaf \"Meat Loaf\"), [Scorpions](/wiki/Scorpions_%28band%29 \"Scorpions (band)\"), [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple \"Deep Purple\"), and others. *Go For Your Life* was dedicated to Pappalardi's memory. Shortly thereafter, the band performed with [Triumph](/wiki/Triumph_%28band%29 \"Triumph (band)\") at the Prairie Capital Convention Center in Illinois.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Box Score Top Grossing Concerts\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4yQEAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PT48\\|date\\=June 1, 1985\\|publisher\\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\\|pages\\=48–\\|issn\\=0006\\-2510}}", "Mountain went dormant again until 1992, when West and Laing teamed up once again and brought in Richie Scarlet (known for his solo work and collaborations with [Ace Frehley](/wiki/Ace_Frehley \"Ace Frehley\")) to round out the lineup that had a live appearance in *[The Dennis Miller Show](/wiki/The_Dennis_Miller_Show \"The Dennis Miller Show\")*. Scarlet was replaced with Randy Coven in 1993 and in 1994 there was a Mountain lineup that included West, Laing, [Noel Redding](/wiki/Noel_Redding \"Noel Redding\") and occasional special guest guitarist [Elvin Bishop](/wiki/Elvin_Bishop \"Elvin Bishop\"). By 1995, the 1984–85 lineup of West, Laing and Mark Clarke was back, and recorded *[Man's World](/wiki/Man%27s_World_%28album%29 \"Man's World (album)\")* in 1996\\. In 1998 things went quiet in the Mountain camp again until 2001\\. That year, with Scarlet back in the lineup, the band toured, then recorded *[Mystic Fire](/wiki/Mystic_Fire \"Mystic Fire\")*, released in 2002\\.", "In 2003 West and Laing authored a book of recollections, *Nantucket Sleighride and Other Mountain On\\-the\\-Road Stories*, detailing their time with the band at its peak and their subsequent careers.", "Mountain's video game debut came in 2007 on RedOctane's *[Guitar Hero III](/wiki/Guitar_Hero_III \"Guitar Hero III\")*, featuring \"Mississippi Queen\" as a playable track. The song is also featured in the Harmonix video game *[Rock Band](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 \"Rock Band (video game)\")*, although the version featured is a cover of the studio recording.", "Their final album was 2007's *[Masters of War](/wiki/Masters_of_War_%28album%29 \"Masters of War (album)\")*, featuring twelve [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\") [covers](/wiki/Cover_song \"Cover song\") and a guest appearance from [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\").", "The band headed out on the road during October and November 2008 on a North American tour opening for [Joe Satriani](/wiki/Joe_Satriani \"Joe Satriani\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.komodorock.com/tour\\-news/tour\\-dates/mountain\\-announce\\-north\\-american\\-tour\\-200809047331/ \\|title\\=Mountain Announce US Tour \\|publisher\\=Komodorock.com \\|date\\=September 4, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2011}} and with former [Michael Schenker Group](/wiki/Michael_Schenker_Group \"Michael Schenker Group\") member Rev Jones on bass. A review of the [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") [House of Blues](/wiki/House_of_Blues \"House of Blues\") date covered the Mountain set, including \"Blowing in the Wind\" from the *Masters of War* album, with enthusiasm. Of the Satriani set, the reviewer was also pleased with the [blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") influence he felt Mountain brought to the evening, and with West joining in on a Satriani\\-led closing \"[Stormy Monday](/wiki/Stormy_Monday \"Stormy Monday\")\" and \"Going Down\" blues jam.[\"Joe Satriani with Mountain – House of Blues, San Diego (CA) 11/12/08\"](http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe-Satriani-with-Mountain-%E2%80%93-House-of-Blues,-San-Diego-(CA)-11-12-08.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419174817/http://www.411mania.com/music/concerts/90482/Joe\\-Satriani\\-with\\-Mountain\\-%E2%80%93\\-House\\-of\\-Blues,\\-San\\-Diego\\-(CA)\\-11\\-12\\-08\\.htm \\|date\\=April 19, 2014 }} Posted by Aaron Mayagoitia, on *411mania.com*, on November 16, 2008\\. Retrieved 2–8–09\\.", "Fellow [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") native [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern \"Howard Stern\") has called Mountain one of his favourite bands and has occasionally played their music on his show. Other Mountain fans include [Randy Rhoads](/wiki/Randy_Rhoads \"Randy Rhoads\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/randy\\-rhoads\\-three\\-favourite\\-guitar\\-players/ \\|title\\=Randy Rhoads' three favourite guitar players \\|publisher\\=faroutmagazine.co.uk \\|access\\-date\\=June 5, 2022}} [John McLaughlin](/wiki/John_McLaughlin_%28musician%29 \"John McLaughlin (musician)\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hit\\-channel.com/john\\-mclaughlin\\-solomahavishnu\\-orchestramiles\\-davis/18283 \\|title\\=Interview:John McLaughlin (solo, Mahavishnu Orchestra, Miles Davis) \\|publisher\\=Hit\\-channel.com \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2015}} [Johnny Ramone](/wiki/Johnny_Ramone \"Johnny Ramone\"), [Clutch](/wiki/Clutch_%28band%29 \"Clutch (band)\"), [Karma to Burn](/wiki/Karma_to_Burn \"Karma to Burn\"), comedian [Dennis Miller](/wiki/Dennis_Miller \"Dennis Miller\"), and [John Frusciante](/wiki/John_Frusciante \"John Frusciante\") (the [Red Hot Chili Peppers](/wiki/Red_Hot_Chili_Peppers \"Red Hot Chili Peppers\") track \"[Readymade](/wiki/Readymade_%28song%29 \"Readymade (song)\")\" off 2006's *[Stadium Arcadium](/wiki/Stadium_Arcadium \"Stadium Arcadium\")* features a Mountain\\-influenced riff{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/red\\-hot\\-chili\\-peppers\\-tattooed\\-love\\-boys\\-112771/\\|title \\= Red Hot Chili Peppers: Tattooed Love Boys\\|magazine \\= \\[\\[Rolling Stone]]\\|date \\= 15 June 2006}}). [Martin Barre](/wiki/Martin_Barre \"Martin Barre\"), guitarist for [Jethro Tull](/wiki/Jethro_Tull_%28band%29 \"Jethro Tull (band)\") has stated in interviews that [Leslie West](/wiki/Leslie_West \"Leslie West\") was a direct influence on his playing.", "[Beastie Boys](/wiki/Beastie_Boys \"Beastie Boys\") are also noted for their use of a brief sample of \"Mississippi Queen\" on the track \"Lookin' Down the Barrel of a Gun\" from their sample\\-heavy 1989 album, *[Paul's Boutique](/wiki/Paul%27s_Boutique \"Paul's Boutique\")*.", "Mountain continued to perform occasionally with Leslie West, Corky Laing and Rev Jones.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.setlist.fm/setlists/mountain\\-53d6bb49\\.html\\|title\\=Mountain Concert Setlists\\|website\\=setlist.fm}} On June 20, 2011, West had his lower right leg amputated as a result of complications from [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes \"Diabetes\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-lesliewest\\-idUSTRE75K00V20110621\\|title\\=Rock guitarist Leslie West's lower leg amputated\\|date\\=June 21, 2011\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=August 27, 2011}} Following the surgery, West performed and recorded under his own name; his concerts featured many Mountain songs. Corky Laing formed a new project, Corky Laing Plays Mountain, in 2015\\. This project included bassist/vocalist Joe Venti and guitarist/vocalist Phil Baker in 2015\\. For their 2016 United States tour, Laing and Venti were joined by Richie Scarlet, now on lead guitar, and Ken Sidotti on keyboards. They performed Mountain music in addition to songs by [West, Bruce and Laing](/wiki/West%2C_Bruce_and_Laing \"West, Bruce and Laing\") and [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\"). And in 2017, Mark Mikel was playing bass with Chris Shutters and Richie Scarlet on guitar in the lineup.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://corkylaingworks.com/CURRENTPROJECTS\\|title\\=Current Projects\\|website\\=Corkylaingworks.com}} Mikel continued until touring was ceased in 2020 due to [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=CURRENT PROJECTS \\|url\\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\\-projects \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-24 \\|website\\=Corky Laing \\|language\\=en}}", "Leslie West died on December 22, 2020, after suffering a heart attack. He was 75\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=December 23, 2020\\|title\\=Mountain's Leslie West Dies at 75\\|url\\=https://ultimateclassicrock.com/leslie\\-west\\-dies/\\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2020\\|website\\=Ultimate Classic Rock\\|language\\=en}}", "In 2021 Corky Laing's Mountain resumed touring with a lineup of Laing (drums, vocals), Joe Venti (bass, vocals) and Richie Scarlet (guitar, keyboards).{{Cite web \\|title\\=CURRENT PROJECTS \\|url\\=https://www.corkylaingworks.com/current\\-projects \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-24 \\|website\\=Corky Laing \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
History ------- {{Main\|History of Kazakhstan}} {{More citations needed\|section\|date\=December 2018}} [thumb\|Central Asia, including modern Kazakhstan, during the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") when it was populated by [Iranic peoples](/wiki/Iranian_peoples "Iranian peoples").](/wiki/File:Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png "Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png") Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the [Paleolithic](/wiki/Paleolithic "Paleolithic") era.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yZHmpRGYtTEC\&q\=kazakhstan%2Bpaleolithic\&pg\=PA91\|title\=Early Paleolithic in South and East Asia\|last\=Ikawa\-Smith\|first\=Fumiko\|date\=1 January 1978\|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-081003\-5\|page\=91\|language\=en\|access\-date\=14 November 2020\|archive\-date\=17 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417174608/https://books.google.com/books?id\=yZHmpRGYtTEC\&q\=kazakhstan\+paleolithic\&pg\=PA91\|url\-status\=live}} The [Botai culture](/wiki/Botai_culture "Botai culture") (3700–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses. The Botai population derived most of their ancestry from a deeply European\-related population known as [Ancient North Eurasians](/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian "Ancient North Eurasian"), while also displaying some [Ancient East Asian](/wiki/Genetic_history_of_East_Asians "Genetic history of East Asians") admixture.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Jeong \|first1\=Choongwon \|last2\=Balanovsky \|first2\=Oleg \|last3\=Lukianova \|first3\=Elena \|last4\=Kahbatkyzy \|first4\=Nurzhibek \|last5\=Flegontov \|first5\=Pavel \|last6\=Zaporozhchenko \|first6\=Valery \|last7\=Immel \|first7\=Alexander \|last8\=Wang \|first8\=Chuan\-Chao \|last9\=Ixan \|first9\=Olzhas \|last10\=Khussainova \|first10\=Elmira \|last11\=Bekmanov \|first11\=Bakhytzhan \|date\=June 2019 \|title\=The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia \|journal\=Nature Ecology \& Evolution \|volume\=3 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=966–976 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41559\-019\-0878\-2 \|issn\=2397\-334X \|pmc\=6542712 \|pmid\=31036896 \|bibcode\=2019NatEE...3\..966J }} [Pastoralism](/wiki/Pastoralism "Pastoralism") developed during the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic"). The population was [Caucasoid](/wiki/Caucasian_race "Caucasian race") during the [Bronze](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") and [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") period.{{Cite journal \|last \= Ismagulov \|first \= O \|year \= 2010 \|title \= Physical Anthropology of Kazakh People and their Genesis \|journal \= Science of Central Asia \|url \= http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=category\&id\=4\&Itemid\=28 \|display\-authors \= etal \|access\-date \= 5 November 2022 \|archive\-date \= 10 February 2017 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170210124931/http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=7:physical\-anthropology\-of\-kazakh\-people\-and\-their\-genesis \|url\-status \= dead }}{{cite journal\|url\=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic\-herders\-left\-strong\-genetic\-mark\-europeans\-and\-asians\|first\=Ann\|last\=Gibbons\|date\=10 June 2015\|title\=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians\|journal\=Science\|publisher\=AAAS\|access\-date\=5 November 2022\|archive\-date\=2 September 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902191050/https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic\-herders\-left\-strong\-genetic\-mark\-europeans\-and\-asians\|url\-status\=live}} The Kazakh territory was a key constituent of the Eurasian trading [Steppe Route](/wiki/Steppe_Route "Steppe Route"), the ancestor of the terrestrial [Silk Roads](/wiki/Silk_Road_UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites "Silk Road UNESCO World Heritage Sites"). Archaeologists believe that humans first [domesticated the horse](/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse "Domestication of the horse") in the region's vast steppes. During recent prehistoric times, Central Asia was inhabited by groups such as the possibly Indo\-European [Afanasievo culture](/wiki/Afanasievo_culture "Afanasievo culture"),According to Allentoft et al. (2015\) and Haak et al. (2015\), later early [Indo\-Iranian](/wiki/Indo-Iranians "Indo-Iranians") cultures such as [Andronovo](/wiki/Andronovo_culture "Andronovo culture"),{{cite book \|last1\=Beckwith \|first1\=Christopher I. \|title\=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present \|date\=16 March 2009 \|publisher\=Princeton University Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-4008\-2994\-1 \|page\=49 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-Ue8BxLEMt4C \|postscript\=:}} "Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo\-Iranians." and later Indo\-Iranians such as the [Saka](/wiki/Saka "Saka") and [Massagetae](/wiki/Massagetae "Massagetae").{{harvnb\|Beckwith\|2009\|p\=68}} "Modern scholars have mostly used the name Saka to refer to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin"{{cite book \|last\=Dandamayev \|first\=M. A. \|author\-link\=Muhammad Dandamayev \|chapter\=Media and Achaemenid Iran \|editor1\-last\=Harmatta \|editor1\-first\=János \|editor1\-link\=János Harmatta \|year\=1994 \|title\=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9U6RlVVjpakC \|publisher\=UNESCO \|page\=37 \|isbn\=9231028464}} "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism." Other groups included the nomadic [Scythians](/wiki/Scythians "Scythians") and the Persian [Achaemenid Empire](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire "Achaemenid Empire") in the southern territory of the modern country. The Andronovo and [Srubnaya cultures](/wiki/Srubnaya_culture "Srubnaya culture"), precursors to the peoples of the [Scythian cultures](/wiki/Scythian_cultures "Scythian cultures"), were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the [Yamnaya](/wiki/Yamnaya_culture "Yamnaya culture") [Steppe herders](/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders "Western Steppe Herders") and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic.{{cite journal\|last1\=Narasimhan\|first1\=Vagheesh M.\|date\=2019\|title\=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia\|journal\=\[\[Science (journal)\|Science]]\|publisher\=\[\[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]\|volume\=365\|issue\=6457\|pages\= eaat7487\|biorxiv\=10\.1101/292581\|doi\=10\.1126/science.aat7487\|pmc\= 6822619\|pmid\= 31488661}} In 329 BC, [Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great "Alexander the Great") and his [Macedonian](/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians "Ancient Macedonians") army fought in the [Battle of Jaxartes](/wiki/Battle_of_Jaxartes "Battle of Jaxartes") against the [Scythians](/wiki/Scythians "Scythians") along the Jaxartes River, now known as the [Syr Darya](/wiki/Syr_Darya "Syr Darya") along the southern border of modern Kazakhstan. ### Cuman\-Kipchak and the Golden Horde {{main\|Cumania\|Golden Horde\|Turco\-Mongol tradition}} [thumb\|right\|[Cuman–Kipchak confederation](/wiki/Cumania "Cumania") in Eurasia circa 1200\. The Kazakhs are descendants of [Kipchaks](/wiki/Kipchaks "Kipchaks") and other Turkic and medieval Mongol tribes.](/wiki/File:Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png "Cumania (1200) eng.png") The main [migration](/wiki/Turkic_migration "Turkic migration") of [Turkic peoples](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples") occurred between the 5th and 11th centuries when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated the previous [Iranian](/wiki/Iranian_languages "Iranian languages")\-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largely [Iranian](/wiki/Indo-Iranians "Indo-Iranians"), into primarily of East Asian descent.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Damgaard \|first1\=Peter de Barros \|last2\=Marchi \|first2\=Nina \|last3\=Rasmussen \|first3\=Simon \|last4\=Peyrot \|first4\=Michaël \|last5\=Renaud \|first5\=Gabriel \|last6\=Korneliussen \|first6\=Thorfinn \|last7\=Moreno\-Mayar \|first7\=J. Víctor \|last8\=Pedersen \|first8\=Mikkel Winther \|last9\=Goldberg \|first9\=Amy \|last10\=Usmanova \|first10\=Emma \|last11\=Baimukhanov \|first11\=Nurbol \|date\=May 2018 \|title\=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes \|url\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586\-018\-0094\-2 \|journal\=\[\[Nature (journal)\|Nature]] \|language\=en \|volume\=557 \|issue\=7705 \|pages\=369–374 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41586\-018\-0094\-2 \|pmid\=29743675 \|bibcode\=2018Natur.557\..369D \|hdl\=1887/3202709 \|s2cid\=13670282 \|issn\=1476\-4687 \|quote\=The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large\-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia. \|hdl\-access\=free \|access\-date\=10 August 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221160318/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586\-018\-0094\-2 \|url\-status\=live }} The quotation is from pp. 4–5\. The [first Turkic Khaganate](/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate "First Turkic Khaganate") was founded by [Bumin](/wiki/Bumin_Qaghan "Bumin Qaghan") in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea. The [Göktürks](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks "Göktürks") drove before them various peoples: [Xionites](/wiki/Xionites "Xionites"), [Uar](/wiki/Uar_%28tribe%29 "Uar (tribe)"), [Oghurs](/wiki/Onogurs "Onogurs") and others. These seem to have merged into the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars "Pannonian Avars") and [Bulgars](/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria "Old Great Bulgaria"). Within 35 years, the [eastern half](/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate "Eastern Turkic Khaganate") and the [Western Turkic Khaganate](/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate "Western Turkic Khaganate") were independent. The Western Khaganate reached its peak in the early 7th century. The [Cumans](/wiki/Cuman_people "Cuman people") entered the steppes of modern\-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the [Kipchak](/wiki/Kipchak_people "Kipchak people") and established the vast Cuman\-Kipchak confederation. While ancient cities [Taraz](/wiki/Taraz "Taraz") (Aulie\-Ata) and [Hazrat\-e Turkestan](/wiki/Hazrat-e_Turkestan "Hazrat-e Turkestan") had long served as important way\-stations along the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road "Silk Road") connecting Asia and Europe, true political consolidation began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century. Under the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire "Mongol Empire"), the first strictly structured administrative districts (Ulus) were established. After the [division of the Mongol Empire](/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire "Division of the Mongol Empire") in 1259, the land that would become modern\-day Kazakhstan was ruled by the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde "Golden Horde"), also known as the Ulus of Jochi. During the Golden Horde period, a [Turco\-Mongol tradition](/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition "Turco-Mongol tradition") emerged among the ruling elite wherein [Turkicised](/wiki/Turkification "Turkification") descendants of [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan "Genghis Khan") followed [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") and continued to reign over the lands. ### Kazakh Khanate {{Main\|Kazakh Khanate}} In 1465, the [Kazakh Khanate](/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate "Kazakh Khanate") emerged as a result of the dissolution of the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde "Golden Horde"). Established by [Janibek Khan](/wiki/Janibek_Khan "Janibek Khan") and [Kerei Khan](/wiki/Kerei_Khan "Kerei Khan"), it continued to be ruled by the [Turco\-Mongol](/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition "Turco-Mongol tradition") clan of Tore ([Jochid](/wiki/Jochi "Jochi") dynasty). Throughout this period, traditional [nomadic](/wiki/Nomad "Nomad") life and a livestock\-based economy continued to dominate the [steppe](/wiki/Steppe "Steppe"). In the 15th century, a distinct [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakhs "Kazakhs") identity began to emerge among the [Turkic](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples") tribes. This was followed by the [Kazakh War of Independence](/wiki/Kazakh_War_of_Independence "Kazakh War of Independence"), where the Khanate gained its sovereignty from the [Shaybanids](/wiki/Shaybanids "Shaybanids"). The process was consolidated by the mid\-16th century with the appearance of the Kazakh [language](/wiki/Kazakh_language "Kazakh language"), culture, and economy. [thumb\|250px\|Approximate areas occupied by the three Kazakh jüz in the early 20th century | {{legend\|\#ccff99\|\[\[Junior Juz]]}} | {{legend\|\#fdd99b\|\[\[Middle Juz]]}} | {{legend\|\#ffaaaa\|\[\[Great Juz]]}} | | --- | --- | --- |](/wiki/File:%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B7.svg "Жуз.svg") Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever\-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh [emirs](/wiki/Emir "Emir") and the neighbouring [Persian\-speaking peoples](/wiki/Persian_language "Persian language") to the south. At its height, the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control [Cumania](/wiki/Cumania "Cumania"). The Kazakh Khanate's territories would expand deep into Central Asia. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) hordes (*[jüz](/wiki/J%C3%BCz "Jüz")*). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between east and west weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The [Khiva Khanate](/wiki/Khiva_Khanate "Khiva Khanate") used this opportunity and annexed the [Mangyshlak Peninsula](/wiki/Mangyshlak_Peninsula "Mangyshlak Peninsula"). Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival. During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought the [Oirats](/wiki/Oirats "Oirats"), a federation of western [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols "Mongols") tribes, including the [Dzungar](/wiki/Dzungar_people "Dzungar people").{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural\-life\#toc73648 \|title\=Kazakhstan to c. AD 1700 \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Britannica \|access\-date\=1 June 2010 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811050147/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural\-life\#toc73648 \|archive\-date\=11 August 2015}} The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 [war against the Dzungar Khanate](/wiki/Kazakh-Dzungar_Wars "Kazakh-Dzungar Wars"), following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territory. Under the leadership of [Abul Khair Khan](/wiki/Abul_Khair_Khan "Abul Khair Khan"), the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at the [Battle of Añyraqai](/wiki/Battle_of_A%C3%B1yraqai "Battle of Añyraqai") in 1729\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid\=306\&ah\=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 \|title\=Country Briefings: Kazakhstan \|newspaper\=The Economist \|access\-date\=1 June 2010 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208113054/http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid\=306\&ah\=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 \|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} [Ablai Khan](/wiki/Ablai_Khan "Ablai Khan") participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungar from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "*batyr*" ("hero") by the people. The Kazakhs suffered from the frequent raids against them by the Volga [Kalmyks](/wiki/Kalmyks "Kalmyks"). The [Kokand Khanate](/wiki/Kokand_Khanate "Kokand Khanate") used the weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan, including [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"), the formal capital in the first quarter of the 19th century. The [Emirate of Bukhara](/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara "Emirate of Bukhara") ruled [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent "Şymkent") before the Russians gained dominance.{{Cite web\|last\=January 2018\|first\=Assel Satubaldina in Tourism on 17\|date\=2018\-01\-17\|title\=Şymkent – the city of medieval culture and vibrant modern lifestyle\|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent\-the\-city\-of\-medieval\-culture\-and\-vibrant\-modern\-lifestyle/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=The Astana Times\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=7 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107122740/https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent\-the\-city\-of\-medieval\-culture\-and\-vibrant\-modern\-lifestyle/\|url\-status\=live}} ### Russian Kazakhstan [thumb\|[Ural Cossacks](/wiki/Ural_Cossacks "Ural Cossacks") skirmish with Kazakhs](/wiki/File:Battle_Cossacks_with_Kyrgyz_1826.JPG "Battle Cossacks with Kyrgyz 1826.JPG") [thumb\|Kazakh woman in wedding clothes, 19th century](/wiki/File:Kazakhs_19th_Century_4.jpg "Kazakhs 19th Century 4.jpg") In the first half of the 18th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") constructed the {{Interlanguage link\|Irtysh line\|ru\|Иртышская линия}}, a series of forty\-six forts and ninety\-six redoubts, including [Omsk](/wiki/Omsk "Omsk") (1716\), [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey "Semey") (1718\), [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar "Pavlodar") (1720\), [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg") (1743\) and [Petropavlovsk](/wiki/Petropavl "Petropavl") (1752\),"*Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness*". S. Sabol (2003\). Springer. p.27 {{ISBN\|0230599427}} to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory."*Central Asia, 130 Years of Russian Dominance: A Historical Overview*". Edward A. Allworth, Edward Allworth (1994\). Duke University Press. p. 10\. {{ISBN\|0822315211}} In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of [Pugachev's Rebellion](/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion "Pugachev's Rebellion"), which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and [Volga German](/wiki/Volga_Germans "Volga Germans") settlements.{{cite book \|last1\=Bodger \|first1\=Alan \|title\=The Kazakhs and the Pugachev Uprising in Russia, 1773\-1775 \|date\=1988 \|publisher\=Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University \|isbn\=9789999328128 \|page\=22}} In the 19th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The "[Great Game](/wiki/Great_Game "Great Game")" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the [Anglo\-Russian Convention of 1907](/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention_of_1907 "Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907"). The [tsars](/wiki/Tsar "Tsar") effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so\-called "Great Game" for dominance in the area against the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire"), which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost, [Orsk](/wiki/Orsk "Orsk"), in 1735\. Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations. Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock\-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture. From the 1890s onward, ever\-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began [colonizing](/wiki/Colonization "Colonization") the territory of present\-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of [Semirechye](/wiki/Jetisu "Jetisu"). The number of settlers rose still further once the [Trans\-Aral Railway](/wiki/Trans-Aral_Railway "Trans-Aral Railway") from [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg") to [Tashkent](/wiki/Tashkent "Tashkent") was completed in 1906\. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg "St. Petersburg") oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \|title\=Kazakhstan \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Britannica \|date\=16 December 1991 \|access\-date\=9 September 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \|archive\-date\=17 June 2015}} [Vasile Balabanov](/wiki/Vasile_Balabanov "Vasile Balabanov") was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time. The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"). The most serious uprising, the [Central Asian revolt](/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916 "Central Asian revolt of 1916"), occurred in 1916\. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and [Cossack](/wiki/Cossacks "Cossacks") settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\_761566451\_8/Kazakhstan.html\|title\=Kazakhstan\|encyclopedia\=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia\|date\=2005y\|archive\-date\=15 April 2005\|access\-date\=29 October 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050415185833/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\_761566451\_8/Kazakhstan.html\|url\-status\=dead}} Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919\. ### Kazakh SSR {{Main\|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic}} [thumb\|Stanitsa Sofiiskaya, [Talgar](/wiki/Talgar "Talgar"), 1920s](/wiki/File:Stanitsa_Sofiiskaya.jpg "Stanitsa Sofiiskaya.jpg") [thumb\|[Young Pioneers](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union "Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union") at a Young Pioneer camp in the Kazakh SSR](/wiki/File:Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg "Young Pioneers in Kazakh SSR.jpg") Following the [collapse of central government](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution") in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg") in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as "Kirghiz") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the [Alash Autonomy](/wiki/Alash_Autonomy "Alash Autonomy")) before eventually succumbing to the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks")' rule. On 26 August 1920, the [Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281920%E2%80%9325%29 "Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–25)") within the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic") (RSFSR) was established. The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present\-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian\-populated town of [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg"). In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the [Kazak ASSR](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of [Kyzylorda](/wiki/Kyzylorda "Kyzylorda"), and in April 1927 to [Alma\-Ata](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"). Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced [collectivisation](/wiki/Collectivisation "Collectivisation") in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought [famine](/wiki/Famine "Famine") and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: [Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33](/wiki/Famine_in_Kazakhstan_of_1932%E2%80%9333 "Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33")).{{cite journal \|url\= http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\.pdf\|url\-status\= dead\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20060903203830/http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\.pdf\|archive\-date\= 3 September 2006\|title\= The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin's Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives\|author\= Simon Ertz\|date\= 2005\|journal\= Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies\|volume\= 1\|pages\= 1–12\|access\-date\= 1 June 2010}}{{cite journal \|author\= Pianciola, Niccolò \|url\= http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\=1 \|title\= Famine in the Steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934 \|journal\= Cahiers du monde russe \|year\= 2004 \|volume\= 45 \|pages\= 137–192 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023090501/http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\=1 \|archive\-date\= 23 October 2015 \|df\= dmy\-all }} During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the [policies of political reprisals](/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union "Political repression in the Soviet Union") pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}} On 5 December 1936, the [Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan) was detached from the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic") (RSFSR) and made the [Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic"), a full [union republic](/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union "Republics of the Soviet Union") of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the [Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic"). The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during the 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans "Volga Germans") deported from the [Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Volga_German_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") in September–October 1941, and then later the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan "Greeks in Kazakhstan") and [Crimean Tatars](/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars "Deportation of the Crimean Tatars"). Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest [Soviet labour camps](/wiki/Gulag "Gulag") (the Gulag), including [ALZhIR](/wiki/Akmol "Akmol") camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people".[Children of the gulag live with amnesia](http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918){{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223853/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 \|date\=3 March 2016 }}, *Taipei Times*, 1 January 2007 Many moved due to the policy of [population transfer in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union "Population transfer in the Soviet Union") and others were forced into [involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Involuntary_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union "Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union"). [thumb\|The International Conference on Primary Health Care in 1978, known as the [Alma\-Ata Declaration](/wiki/Alma_Ata_Declaration "Alma Ata Declaration")](/wiki/File:International_conference_on_Primary_Health_Care_-_Conferencia_Internacional_sobre_Atenci%C3%B3n_Primaria_de_Salud_-_Almaty_-1978.jpg "International conference on Primary Health Care - Conferencia Internacional sobre Atención Primaria de Salud - Almaty -1978.jpg") The [Soviet\-German War](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Eastern Front (World War II)") (1941–1945\) led to an increase in industrialisation and [mineral extraction](/wiki/Mineral_extraction "Mineral extraction") in support of the war effort. At the time of [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin")'s death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leader [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev "Nikita Khrushchev") initiated the [Virgin Lands Campaign](/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign "Virgin Lands Campaign") designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain\-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev "Leonid Brezhnev") (in power 1964–1982\), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs "Kazakhs") had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. Ethnic [Russians](/wiki/Russians "Russians") accounted for 43 percent.Flynn, Moya (1994\). *\[{{GBurl\|id\=YLeAxHLmgR8C\|p\=15}} Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation: Reconstructing 'Homes' and 'Homelands']* Anthem Press. p. 15\. {{ISBN\|1\-84331\-117\-8}} In 1947, the USSR, as part of its [atomic bomb project](/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project "Soviet atomic bomb project"), founded an [atomic bomb test site](/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site "Semipalatinsk Test Site") near the north\-eastern town of [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey "Semey"), where the [first Soviet nuclear bomb](/wiki/RDS-1 "RDS-1") test was conducted in 1949\. Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for the nation's environment and population.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\-painful\-nuclear\-past\-looms\-large\-over\-its\-energy\-future/275795/\|title\=Kazakhstan's Painful Nuclear Past Looms Large Over Its Energy Future\|last\=Keenan\|first\=Jillian\|newspaper\=The Atlantic\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=27 January 2017\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202233241/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\-painful\-nuclear\-past\-looms\-large\-over\-its\-energy\-future/275795/\|archive\-date\=2 February 2017}} The [Anti\-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan](/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Kazakhstan "Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan") became a major political force in the late 1980s. In April 1961, [Baikonur](/wiki/Baikonur "Baikonur") became the springboard of [Vostok 1](/wiki/Vostok_1 "Vostok 1"), a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin "Yuri Gagarin") being the first human to enter space. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the [Jeltoqsan](/wiki/Jeltoqsan "Jeltoqsan") riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the [First Secretary](/wiki/General_Secretary "General Secretary") of the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kazakhstan "Communist Party of Kazakhstan") of the Kazakh SSR [Dinmukhamed Konayev](/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Konayev "Dinmukhamed Konayev") with [Gennady Kolbin](/wiki/Gennady_Kolbin "Gennady Kolbin") from the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR "Russian SFSR"). Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.{{Cite web\|last\=Putz\|first\=Catherine\|title\=1986: Kazakhstan's Other Independence Anniversary\|url\=https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\-kazakhstans\-other\-independence\-anniversary/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=thediplomat.com\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=28 March 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214923/https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\-kazakhstans\-other\-independence\-anniversary/\|url\-status\=live}} In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev")'s policy of *[glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost "Glasnost")* ("openness"). {{anchor\|Independence}} ### Independence On 25 October 1990, Kazakhstan declared its [sovereignty](/wiki/Sovereignty "Sovereignty") on its territory as a republic within the Soviet Union. Following the August 1991 aborted [coup attempt](/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt "1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt") in Moscow, Kazakhstan declared [independence](/wiki/Kazakhstani_Independence_Day "Kazakhstani Independence Day") on 16 December 1991, thus becoming the last Soviet republic to declare independence. Ten days later, the Soviet Union itself [ceased to exist](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union "Dissolution of the Soviet Union"). Kazakhstan's communist\-era leader, [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev "Nursultan Nazarbayev"), became the country's first President. Nazarbayev ruled in an authoritarian manner. An emphasis was placed on converting the country's economy to a market economy while political reforms lagged behind economic advances. By 2006, Kazakhstan was generating 60 percent of the GDP of Central Asia, primarily through its oil industry. In 1997, the government moved the capital to [Astana](/wiki/Astana "Astana"), renamed Nur\-Sultan on 23 March 2019,{{Cite news\|date\=2019\-03\-20\|title\=Nursultan: Kazakhstan renames capital Astana after ex\-president\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=BBC News\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-47638619\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|archive\-date\=25 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225212541/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-47638619\|url\-status\=live}} from [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"), Kazakhstan's largest city, where it had been established under the Soviet Union.{{Cite web\|title\=Capital change: A look at some countries that have moved their capitals – Nigeria: Lagos to Abuja\|url\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world\-news/capital\-change\-a\-look\-at\-some\-countries\-that\-have\-moved\-their\-capitals/kazakhstan\-almaty\-to\-nur\-sultan/slideshow/69183884\.cms\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=The Economic Times\|archive\-date\=20 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420174234/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world\-news/capital\-change\-a\-look\-at\-some\-countries\-that\-have\-moved\-their\-capitals/kazakhstan\-almaty\-to\-nur\-sultan/slideshow/69183884\.cms\|url\-status\=live}} [Elections to the Majilis](/wiki/Elections_in_Kazakhstan "Elections in Kazakhstan") in September 2004, yielded a lower house dominated by the pro\-government [Otan Party](/wiki/Nur-Otan "Nur-Otan"), headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian\-industrial bloc AIST and the [Asar Party](/wiki/Asar_Party "Asar Party"), founded by President Nazarbayev's daughter, won most of the remaining seats. The opposition parties which were officially registered and competed in the elections won a single seat. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe was monitoring the election, which it said fell short of international standards.{{Cite web\|title\=Parliamentary Elections, 19 September and 3 October 2004\|url\=https://www.osce.org/node/57857\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=\[\[osce.org]]\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=8 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108211859/https://www.osce.org/node/57857\|url\-status\=live}} In March 2011, Nazarbayev outlined the progress made toward democracy by Kazakhstan.Nazarbayev, Nursultan (28 March 2011\). [OP Ed: "Kazakhstan's steady progress toward democracy"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans-steady-progress-toward-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC_story.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210234358/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans\-steady\-progress\-toward\-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC\_story.html \|date\=10 December 2015 }}, *Washington Post* {{As of\|2010}}, Kazakhstan was reported on the [Democracy Index](/wiki/Democracy_Index "Democracy Index") by *[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist "The Economist")* as an [authoritarian regime](/wiki/Authoritarian_regime "Authoritarian regime"),{{cite web \|url\=https://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy\_Index\_2010\_web.pdf \|title\=Democracy Index 2010: Democracy in retreat \|publisher\=Economist Intelligence Unit \|date\=6 December 2010 \|access\-date\=26 January 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213120004/http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy\_Index\_2010\_web.pdf \|archive\-date\=13 December 2017 \|url\-status\=live }} which was still the case as of the 2022 report.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy\-index\-2022/ \|title\=Democracy Index 2022 \|access\-date\=14 April 2023 \|archive\-date\=10 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210003136/https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy\-index\-2022/ \|url\-status\=live }} On 19 March 2019, Nazarbayev announced his resignation from the presidency.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-47628854\|title\=Kazakh leader resigns after three decades\|work\=BBC News\|date\=19 March 2019\|access\-date\=19 March 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425061650/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-47628854\|archive\-date\=25 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan's senate speaker [Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev "Kassym-Jomart Tokayev") won the [2019 presidential election](/wiki/2019_Kazakh_presidential_election "2019 Kazakh presidential election") that was held on 9 June.{{cite news \|title\=Nazarbayev protégé wins Kazakhstan elections marred by protests \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/20190610\-kazakhstan\-presidential\-election\-tokayev\-nazarbayev\-protesters\-arrested \|work\=France 24 \|date\=10 June 2019 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=16 February 2022 \|archive\-date\=22 September 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922092114/https://www.france24\.com/en/20190610\-kazakhstan\-presidential\-election\-tokayev\-nazarbayev\-protesters\-arrested \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|title\=CEC announces preliminary results of 2019 Presidential Election in Kazakhstan \|url\=https://www.inform.kz/en/cec\-announces\-preliminary\-results\-of\-2019\-presidential\-election\-in\-kazakhstan\_a3536331 \|website\=inform.kz \|date\=10 June 2019 \|access\-date\=15 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815174133/https://www.inform.kz/en/cec\-announces\-preliminary\-results\-of\-2019\-presidential\-election\-in\-kazakhstan\_a3536331 \|archive\-date\=15 August 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} His first official act was to rename the capital after his predecessor.{{cite news \|title\=Kazakhstan renames capital as new president takes office \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/20190320\-kazakhstan\-capital\-new\-president\-astana\-nursultan \|work\=France 24 \|date\=20 March 2019 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=16 February 2022 \|archive\-date\=16 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216140002/https://www.france24\.com/en/20190320\-kazakhstan\-capital\-new\-president\-astana\-nursultan \|url\-status\=live }} In January 2022, the country plunged into [political unrest](/wiki/2022_Kazakhstan_unrest "2022 Kazakhstan unrest") following a spike in fuel prices.{{Cite web\|date\=2022\-01\-05\|title\=Kazakhstan protests: government resigns amid rare outbreak of unrest.\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan\-president\-declares\-state\-of\-emergency\-in\-protest\-hit\-areas\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-05\|website\=the Guardian\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=5 January 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105122522/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan\-president\-declares\-state\-of\-emergency\-in\-protest\-hit\-areas\|url\-status\=live}} In consequence, President Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev took over as head of the powerful Security Council, removing his predecessor Nursultan Nazarbayev from the post.{{cite news \|title\=Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev handed over security council job on his own will: Spokesman \|url\=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan\-s\-nazarbayev\-handed\-over\-security\-council\-job\-on\-his\-own\-will\-spokesman/2469352 \|work\=www.aa.com.tr \|access\-date\=16 February 2022 \|archive\-date\=16 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216143609/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan\-s\-nazarbayev\-handed\-over\-security\-council\-job\-on\-his\-own\-will\-spokesman/2469352 \|url\-status\=live }} In September 2022, the name of the country's capital was changed back to Astana from Nur\-Sultan.{{cite news \|title\=Kazakhstan to change name of capital from Nur\-sultan back to Astana \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan\-to\-change\-name\-of\-capital\-from\-nur\-sultan\-back\-to\-astana \|work\=the Guardian \|date\=14 September 2022 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=21 September 2022 \|archive\-date\=14 September 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914002239/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan\-to\-change\-name\-of\-capital\-from\-nur\-sultan\-back\-to\-astana \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "History\n-------", "{{Main\\|History of Kazakhstan}}\n{{More citations needed\\|section\\|date\\=December 2018}}\n[thumb\\|Central Asia, including modern Kazakhstan, during the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") when it was populated by [Iranic peoples](/wiki/Iranian_peoples \"Iranian peoples\").](/wiki/File:Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png \"Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png\")\nKazakhstan has been inhabited since the [Paleolithic](/wiki/Paleolithic \"Paleolithic\") era.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yZHmpRGYtTEC\\&q\\=kazakhstan%2Bpaleolithic\\&pg\\=PA91\\|title\\=Early Paleolithic in South and East Asia\\|last\\=Ikawa\\-Smith\\|first\\=Fumiko\\|date\\=1 January 1978\\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-081003\\-5\\|page\\=91\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417174608/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yZHmpRGYtTEC\\&q\\=kazakhstan\\+paleolithic\\&pg\\=PA91\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [Botai culture](/wiki/Botai_culture \"Botai culture\") (3700–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses. The Botai population derived most of their ancestry from a deeply European\\-related population known as [Ancient North Eurasians](/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian \"Ancient North Eurasian\"), while also displaying some [Ancient East Asian](/wiki/Genetic_history_of_East_Asians \"Genetic history of East Asians\") admixture.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Jeong \\|first1\\=Choongwon \\|last2\\=Balanovsky \\|first2\\=Oleg \\|last3\\=Lukianova \\|first3\\=Elena \\|last4\\=Kahbatkyzy \\|first4\\=Nurzhibek \\|last5\\=Flegontov \\|first5\\=Pavel \\|last6\\=Zaporozhchenko \\|first6\\=Valery \\|last7\\=Immel \\|first7\\=Alexander \\|last8\\=Wang \\|first8\\=Chuan\\-Chao \\|last9\\=Ixan \\|first9\\=Olzhas \\|last10\\=Khussainova \\|first10\\=Elmira \\|last11\\=Bekmanov \\|first11\\=Bakhytzhan \\|date\\=June 2019 \\|title\\=The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia \\|journal\\=Nature Ecology \\& Evolution \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=966–976 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41559\\-019\\-0878\\-2 \\|issn\\=2397\\-334X \\|pmc\\=6542712 \\|pmid\\=31036896 \\|bibcode\\=2019NatEE...3\\..966J }} [Pastoralism](/wiki/Pastoralism \"Pastoralism\") developed during the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\"). The population was [Caucasoid](/wiki/Caucasian_race \"Caucasian race\") during the [Bronze](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") and [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") period.{{Cite journal\n \\|last \\= Ismagulov\n \\|first \\= O\n \\|year \\= 2010\n \\|title \\= Physical Anthropology of Kazakh People and their Genesis\n \\|journal \\= Science of Central Asia\n \\|url \\= http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=category\\&id\\=4\\&Itemid\\=28\n \\|display\\-authors \\= etal\n \\|access\\-date \\= 5 November 2022\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 10 February 2017\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170210124931/http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=7:physical\\-anthropology\\-of\\-kazakh\\-people\\-and\\-their\\-genesis\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n}}{{cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic\\-herders\\-left\\-strong\\-genetic\\-mark\\-europeans\\-and\\-asians\\|first\\=Ann\\|last\\=Gibbons\\|date\\=10 June 2015\\|title\\=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians\\|journal\\=Science\\|publisher\\=AAAS\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=2 September 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902191050/https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic\\-herders\\-left\\-strong\\-genetic\\-mark\\-europeans\\-and\\-asians\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The Kazakh territory was a key constituent of the Eurasian trading [Steppe Route](/wiki/Steppe_Route \"Steppe Route\"), the ancestor of the terrestrial [Silk Roads](/wiki/Silk_Road_UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites \"Silk Road UNESCO World Heritage Sites\"). Archaeologists believe that humans first [domesticated the horse](/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse \"Domestication of the horse\") in the region's vast steppes. During recent prehistoric times, Central Asia was inhabited by groups such as the possibly Indo\\-European [Afanasievo culture](/wiki/Afanasievo_culture \"Afanasievo culture\"),According to Allentoft et al. (2015\\) and Haak et al. (2015\\), later early [Indo\\-Iranian](/wiki/Indo-Iranians \"Indo-Iranians\") cultures such as [Andronovo](/wiki/Andronovo_culture \"Andronovo culture\"),{{cite book \\|last1\\=Beckwith \\|first1\\=Christopher I. \\|title\\=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present \\|date\\=16 March 2009 \\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4008\\-2994\\-1 \\|page\\=49 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-Ue8BxLEMt4C \\|postscript\\=:}} \"Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo\\-Iranians.\" and later Indo\\-Iranians such as the [Saka](/wiki/Saka \"Saka\") and [Massagetae](/wiki/Massagetae \"Massagetae\").{{harvnb\\|Beckwith\\|2009\\|p\\=68}} \"Modern scholars have mostly used the name Saka to refer to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Dandamayev \\|first\\=M. A. \\|author\\-link\\=Muhammad Dandamayev \\|chapter\\=Media and Achaemenid Iran \\|editor1\\-last\\=Harmatta \\|editor1\\-first\\=János \\|editor1\\-link\\=János Harmatta \\|year\\=1994 \\|title\\=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9U6RlVVjpakC \\|publisher\\=UNESCO \\|page\\=37 \\|isbn\\=9231028464}} \"In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism.\" Other groups included the nomadic [Scythians](/wiki/Scythians \"Scythians\") and the Persian [Achaemenid Empire](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire \"Achaemenid Empire\") in the southern territory of the modern country. The Andronovo and [Srubnaya cultures](/wiki/Srubnaya_culture \"Srubnaya culture\"), precursors to the peoples of the [Scythian cultures](/wiki/Scythian_cultures \"Scythian cultures\"), were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the [Yamnaya](/wiki/Yamnaya_culture \"Yamnaya culture\") [Steppe herders](/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders \"Western Steppe Herders\") and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Narasimhan\\|first1\\=Vagheesh M.\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Science (journal)\\|Science]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]\\|volume\\=365\\|issue\\=6457\\|pages\\= eaat7487\\|biorxiv\\=10\\.1101/292581\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.aat7487\\|pmc\\= 6822619\\|pmid\\= 31488661}}", "In 329 BC, [Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great \"Alexander the Great\") and his [Macedonian](/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians \"Ancient Macedonians\") army fought in the [Battle of Jaxartes](/wiki/Battle_of_Jaxartes \"Battle of Jaxartes\") against the [Scythians](/wiki/Scythians \"Scythians\") along the Jaxartes River, now known as the [Syr Darya](/wiki/Syr_Darya \"Syr Darya\") along the southern border of modern Kazakhstan.", "### Cuman\\-Kipchak and the Golden Horde", "{{main\\|Cumania\\|Golden Horde\\|Turco\\-Mongol tradition}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Cuman–Kipchak confederation](/wiki/Cumania \"Cumania\") in Eurasia circa 1200\\. The Kazakhs are descendants of [Kipchaks](/wiki/Kipchaks \"Kipchaks\") and other Turkic and medieval Mongol tribes.](/wiki/File:Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png \"Cumania (1200) eng.png\")", "The main [migration](/wiki/Turkic_migration \"Turkic migration\") of [Turkic peoples](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\") occurred between the 5th and 11th centuries when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated the previous [Iranian](/wiki/Iranian_languages \"Iranian languages\")\\-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largely [Iranian](/wiki/Indo-Iranians \"Indo-Iranians\"), into primarily of East Asian descent.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Damgaard \\|first1\\=Peter de Barros \\|last2\\=Marchi \\|first2\\=Nina \\|last3\\=Rasmussen \\|first3\\=Simon \\|last4\\=Peyrot \\|first4\\=Michaël \\|last5\\=Renaud \\|first5\\=Gabriel \\|last6\\=Korneliussen \\|first6\\=Thorfinn \\|last7\\=Moreno\\-Mayar \\|first7\\=J. Víctor \\|last8\\=Pedersen \\|first8\\=Mikkel Winther \\|last9\\=Goldberg \\|first9\\=Amy \\|last10\\=Usmanova \\|first10\\=Emma \\|last11\\=Baimukhanov \\|first11\\=Nurbol \\|date\\=May 2018 \\|title\\=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes \\|url\\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586\\-018\\-0094\\-2 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Nature (journal)\\|Nature]] \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=557 \\|issue\\=7705 \\|pages\\=369–374 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41586\\-018\\-0094\\-2 \\|pmid\\=29743675 \\|bibcode\\=2018Natur.557\\..369D \\|hdl\\=1887/3202709 \\|s2cid\\=13670282 \\|issn\\=1476\\-4687 \\|quote\\=The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large\\-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia. \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221160318/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586\\-018\\-0094\\-2 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The quotation is from pp. 4–5\\.", "The [first Turkic Khaganate](/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate \"First Turkic Khaganate\") was founded by [Bumin](/wiki/Bumin_Qaghan \"Bumin Qaghan\") in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea. The [Göktürks](/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks \"Göktürks\") drove before them various peoples: [Xionites](/wiki/Xionites \"Xionites\"), [Uar](/wiki/Uar_%28tribe%29 \"Uar (tribe)\"), [Oghurs](/wiki/Onogurs \"Onogurs\") and others. These seem to have merged into the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars \"Pannonian Avars\") and [Bulgars](/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria \"Old Great Bulgaria\"). Within 35 years, the [eastern half](/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate \"Eastern Turkic Khaganate\") and the [Western Turkic Khaganate](/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate \"Western Turkic Khaganate\") were independent. The Western Khaganate reached its peak in the early 7th century.", "The [Cumans](/wiki/Cuman_people \"Cuman people\") entered the steppes of modern\\-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the [Kipchak](/wiki/Kipchak_people \"Kipchak people\") and established the vast Cuman\\-Kipchak confederation. While ancient cities [Taraz](/wiki/Taraz \"Taraz\") (Aulie\\-Ata) and [Hazrat\\-e Turkestan](/wiki/Hazrat-e_Turkestan \"Hazrat-e Turkestan\") had long served as important way\\-stations along the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road \"Silk Road\") connecting Asia and Europe, true political consolidation began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century. Under the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire \"Mongol Empire\"), the first strictly structured administrative districts (Ulus) were established. After the [division of the Mongol Empire](/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire \"Division of the Mongol Empire\") in 1259, the land that would become modern\\-day Kazakhstan was ruled by the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde \"Golden Horde\"), also known as the Ulus of Jochi. During the Golden Horde period, a [Turco\\-Mongol tradition](/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition \"Turco-Mongol tradition\") emerged among the ruling elite wherein [Turkicised](/wiki/Turkification \"Turkification\") descendants of [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\") followed [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") and continued to reign over the lands.", "### Kazakh Khanate", "{{Main\\|Kazakh Khanate}}", "In 1465, the [Kazakh Khanate](/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate \"Kazakh Khanate\") emerged as a result of the dissolution of the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde \"Golden Horde\"). Established by [Janibek Khan](/wiki/Janibek_Khan \"Janibek Khan\") and [Kerei Khan](/wiki/Kerei_Khan \"Kerei Khan\"), it continued to be ruled by the [Turco\\-Mongol](/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition \"Turco-Mongol tradition\") clan of Tore ([Jochid](/wiki/Jochi \"Jochi\") dynasty). Throughout this period, traditional [nomadic](/wiki/Nomad \"Nomad\") life and a livestock\\-based economy continued to dominate the [steppe](/wiki/Steppe \"Steppe\"). In the 15th century, a distinct [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakhs \"Kazakhs\") identity began to emerge among the [Turkic](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\") tribes. This was followed by the [Kazakh War of Independence](/wiki/Kazakh_War_of_Independence \"Kazakh War of Independence\"), where the Khanate gained its sovereignty from the [Shaybanids](/wiki/Shaybanids \"Shaybanids\"). The process was consolidated by the mid\\-16th century with the appearance of the Kazakh [language](/wiki/Kazakh_language \"Kazakh language\"), culture, and economy.", "[thumb\\|250px\\|Approximate areas occupied by the three Kazakh jüz in the early 20th century", "| {{legend\\|\\#ccff99\\|\\[\\[Junior Juz]]}} | {{legend\\|\\#fdd99b\\|\\[\\[Middle Juz]]}} | {{legend\\|\\#ffaaaa\\|\\[\\[Great Juz]]}} |\n| --- | --- | --- |](/wiki/File:%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B7.svg \"Жуз.svg\")", "Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever\\-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh [emirs](/wiki/Emir \"Emir\") and the neighbouring [Persian\\-speaking peoples](/wiki/Persian_language \"Persian language\") to the south. At its height, the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control [Cumania](/wiki/Cumania \"Cumania\"). The Kazakh Khanate's territories would expand deep into Central Asia. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) hordes (*[jüz](/wiki/J%C3%BCz \"Jüz\")*). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between east and west weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The [Khiva Khanate](/wiki/Khiva_Khanate \"Khiva Khanate\") used this opportunity and annexed the [Mangyshlak Peninsula](/wiki/Mangyshlak_Peninsula \"Mangyshlak Peninsula\"). Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival.", "During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought the [Oirats](/wiki/Oirats \"Oirats\"), a federation of western [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols \"Mongols\") tribes, including the [Dzungar](/wiki/Dzungar_people \"Dzungar people\").{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural\\-life\\#toc73648 \\|title\\=Kazakhstan to c. AD 1700 \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Britannica \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811050147/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural\\-life\\#toc73648 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 August 2015}} The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 [war against the Dzungar Khanate](/wiki/Kazakh-Dzungar_Wars \"Kazakh-Dzungar Wars\"), following their \"Great Disaster\" invasion of Kazakh territory. Under the leadership of [Abul Khair Khan](/wiki/Abul_Khair_Khan \"Abul Khair Khan\"), the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at the [Battle of Añyraqai](/wiki/Battle_of_A%C3%B1yraqai \"Battle of Añyraqai\") in 1729\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid\\=306\\&ah\\=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 \\|title\\=Country Briefings: Kazakhstan \\|newspaper\\=The Economist \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208113054/http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid\\=306\\&ah\\=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}}", "[Ablai Khan](/wiki/Ablai_Khan \"Ablai Khan\") participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungar from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a \"*batyr*\" (\"hero\") by the people. The Kazakhs suffered from the frequent raids against them by the Volga [Kalmyks](/wiki/Kalmyks \"Kalmyks\"). The [Kokand Khanate](/wiki/Kokand_Khanate \"Kokand Khanate\") used the weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan, including [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\"), the formal capital in the first quarter of the 19th century. The [Emirate of Bukhara](/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara \"Emirate of Bukhara\") ruled [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent \"Şymkent\") before the Russians gained dominance.{{Cite web\\|last\\=January 2018\\|first\\=Assel Satubaldina in Tourism on 17\\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-17\\|title\\=Şymkent – the city of medieval culture and vibrant modern lifestyle\\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent\\-the\\-city\\-of\\-medieval\\-culture\\-and\\-vibrant\\-modern\\-lifestyle/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=The Astana Times\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107122740/https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent\\-the\\-city\\-of\\-medieval\\-culture\\-and\\-vibrant\\-modern\\-lifestyle/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Russian Kazakhstan", "[thumb\\|[Ural Cossacks](/wiki/Ural_Cossacks \"Ural Cossacks\") skirmish with Kazakhs](/wiki/File:Battle_Cossacks_with_Kyrgyz_1826.JPG \"Battle Cossacks with Kyrgyz 1826.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Kazakh woman in wedding clothes, 19th century](/wiki/File:Kazakhs_19th_Century_4.jpg \"Kazakhs 19th Century 4.jpg\")", "In the first half of the 18th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") constructed the {{Interlanguage link\\|Irtysh line\\|ru\\|Иртышская линия}}, a series of forty\\-six forts and ninety\\-six redoubts, including [Omsk](/wiki/Omsk \"Omsk\") (1716\\), [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey \"Semey\") (1718\\), [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar \"Pavlodar\") (1720\\), [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\") (1743\\) and [Petropavlovsk](/wiki/Petropavl \"Petropavl\") (1752\\),\"*Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness*\". S. Sabol (2003\\). Springer. p.27 {{ISBN\\|0230599427}} to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory.\"*Central Asia, 130 Years of Russian Dominance: A Historical Overview*\". Edward A. Allworth, Edward Allworth (1994\\). Duke University Press. p. 10\\. {{ISBN\\|0822315211}} In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of [Pugachev's Rebellion](/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion \"Pugachev's Rebellion\"), which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and [Volga German](/wiki/Volga_Germans \"Volga Germans\") settlements.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bodger \\|first1\\=Alan \\|title\\=The Kazakhs and the Pugachev Uprising in Russia, 1773\\-1775 \\|date\\=1988 \\|publisher\\=Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University \\|isbn\\=9789999328128 \\|page\\=22}} In the 19th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The \"[Great Game](/wiki/Great_Game \"Great Game\")\" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the [Anglo\\-Russian Convention of 1907](/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention_of_1907 \"Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907\"). The [tsars](/wiki/Tsar \"Tsar\") effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.", "The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so\\-called \"Great Game\" for dominance in the area against the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"), which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost, [Orsk](/wiki/Orsk \"Orsk\"), in 1735\\. Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations.", "Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock\\-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture.", "From the 1890s onward, ever\\-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began [colonizing](/wiki/Colonization \"Colonization\") the territory of present\\-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of [Semirechye](/wiki/Jetisu \"Jetisu\"). The number of settlers rose still further once the [Trans\\-Aral Railway](/wiki/Trans-Aral_Railway \"Trans-Aral Railway\") from [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\") to [Tashkent](/wiki/Tashkent \"Tashkent\") was completed in 1906\\. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg \"St. Petersburg\") oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \\|title\\=Kazakhstan \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Britannica \\|date\\=16 December 1991 \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2015}} [Vasile Balabanov](/wiki/Vasile_Balabanov \"Vasile Balabanov\") was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time.", "The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"). The most serious uprising, the [Central Asian revolt](/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916 \"Central Asian revolt of 1916\"), occurred in 1916\\. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and [Cossack](/wiki/Cossacks \"Cossacks\") settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\\_761566451\\_8/Kazakhstan.html\\|title\\=Kazakhstan\\|encyclopedia\\=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia\\|date\\=2005y\\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2005\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050415185833/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\\_761566451\\_8/Kazakhstan.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919\\.", "### Kazakh SSR", "{{Main\\|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic}}\n[thumb\\|Stanitsa Sofiiskaya, [Talgar](/wiki/Talgar \"Talgar\"), 1920s](/wiki/File:Stanitsa_Sofiiskaya.jpg \"Stanitsa Sofiiskaya.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Young Pioneers](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union\") at a Young Pioneer camp in the Kazakh SSR](/wiki/File:Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg \"Young Pioneers in Kazakh SSR.jpg\")", "Following the [collapse of central government](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\") in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\") in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as \"Kirghiz\") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the [Alash Autonomy](/wiki/Alash_Autonomy \"Alash Autonomy\")) before eventually succumbing to the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\")' rule. On 26 August 1920, the [Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281920%E2%80%9325%29 \"Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–25)\") within the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic \"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic\") (RSFSR) was established. The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present\\-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian\\-populated town of [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\"). In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the [Kazak ASSR](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of [Kyzylorda](/wiki/Kyzylorda \"Kyzylorda\"), and in April 1927 to [Alma\\-Ata](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\").", "Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced [collectivisation](/wiki/Collectivisation \"Collectivisation\") in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought [famine](/wiki/Famine \"Famine\") and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: [Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33](/wiki/Famine_in_Kazakhstan_of_1932%E2%80%9333 \"Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33\")).{{cite journal \\|url\\= http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20060903203830/http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\= 3 September 2006\\|title\\= The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin's Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives\\|author\\= Simon Ertz\\|date\\= 2005\\|journal\\= Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies\\|volume\\= 1\\|pages\\= 1–12\\|access\\-date\\= 1 June 2010}}{{cite journal \\|author\\= Pianciola, Niccolò \\|url\\= http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\\=1 \\|title\\= Famine in the Steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934 \\|journal\\= Cahiers du monde russe \\|year\\= 2004 \\|volume\\= 45 \\|pages\\= 137–192 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023090501/http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\= 23 October 2015 \\|df\\= dmy\\-all }} During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the [policies of political reprisals](/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Political repression in the Soviet Union\") pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}", "On 5 December 1936, the [Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan) was detached from the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic \"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic\") (RSFSR) and made the [Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic\"), a full [union republic](/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Republics of the Soviet Union\") of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the [Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic\").", "The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during the 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans \"Volga Germans\") deported from the [Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Volga_German_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") in September–October 1941, and then later the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan \"Greeks in Kazakhstan\") and [Crimean Tatars](/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars \"Deportation of the Crimean Tatars\"). Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest [Soviet labour camps](/wiki/Gulag \"Gulag\") (the Gulag), including [ALZhIR](/wiki/Akmol \"Akmol\") camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered \"enemies of the people\".[Children of the gulag live with amnesia](http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918){{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223853/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 \\|date\\=3 March 2016 }}, *Taipei Times*, 1 January 2007 Many moved due to the policy of [population transfer in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Population transfer in the Soviet Union\") and others were forced into [involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Involuntary_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union\").", "[thumb\\|The International Conference on Primary Health Care in 1978, known as the [Alma\\-Ata Declaration](/wiki/Alma_Ata_Declaration \"Alma Ata Declaration\")](/wiki/File:International_conference_on_Primary_Health_Care_-_Conferencia_Internacional_sobre_Atenci%C3%B3n_Primaria_de_Salud_-_Almaty_-1978.jpg \"International conference on Primary Health Care - Conferencia Internacional sobre Atención Primaria de Salud - Almaty -1978.jpg\")", "The [Soviet\\-German War](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Eastern Front (World War II)\") (1941–1945\\) led to an increase in industrialisation and [mineral extraction](/wiki/Mineral_extraction \"Mineral extraction\") in support of the war effort. At the time of [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\")'s death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leader [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev \"Nikita Khrushchev\") initiated the [Virgin Lands Campaign](/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign \"Virgin Lands Campaign\") designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain\\-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev \"Leonid Brezhnev\") (in power 1964–1982\\), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs \"Kazakhs\") had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. Ethnic [Russians](/wiki/Russians \"Russians\") accounted for 43 percent.Flynn, Moya (1994\\). *\\[{{GBurl\\|id\\=YLeAxHLmgR8C\\|p\\=15}} Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation: Reconstructing 'Homes' and 'Homelands']* Anthem Press. p. 15\\. {{ISBN\\|1\\-84331\\-117\\-8}}", "In 1947, the USSR, as part of its [atomic bomb project](/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project \"Soviet atomic bomb project\"), founded an [atomic bomb test site](/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site \"Semipalatinsk Test Site\") near the north\\-eastern town of [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey \"Semey\"), where the [first Soviet nuclear bomb](/wiki/RDS-1 \"RDS-1\") test was conducted in 1949\\. Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for the nation's environment and population.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\\-painful\\-nuclear\\-past\\-looms\\-large\\-over\\-its\\-energy\\-future/275795/\\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Painful Nuclear Past Looms Large Over Its Energy Future\\|last\\=Keenan\\|first\\=Jillian\\|newspaper\\=The Atlantic\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202233241/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\\-painful\\-nuclear\\-past\\-looms\\-large\\-over\\-its\\-energy\\-future/275795/\\|archive\\-date\\=2 February 2017}} The [Anti\\-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan](/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Kazakhstan \"Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan\") became a major political force in the late 1980s.", "In April 1961, [Baikonur](/wiki/Baikonur \"Baikonur\") became the springboard of [Vostok 1](/wiki/Vostok_1 \"Vostok 1\"), a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin \"Yuri Gagarin\") being the first human to enter space.", "In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the [Jeltoqsan](/wiki/Jeltoqsan \"Jeltoqsan\") riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the [First Secretary](/wiki/General_Secretary \"General Secretary\") of the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kazakhstan \"Communist Party of Kazakhstan\") of the Kazakh SSR [Dinmukhamed Konayev](/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Konayev \"Dinmukhamed Konayev\") with [Gennady Kolbin](/wiki/Gennady_Kolbin \"Gennady Kolbin\") from the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR \"Russian SFSR\"). Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Putz\\|first\\=Catherine\\|title\\=1986: Kazakhstan's Other Independence Anniversary\\|url\\=https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\\-kazakhstans\\-other\\-independence\\-anniversary/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=thediplomat.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=28 March 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214923/https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\\-kazakhstans\\-other\\-independence\\-anniversary/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\")'s policy of *[glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost \"Glasnost\")* (\"openness\").", "{{anchor\\|Independence}}", "### Independence", "On 25 October 1990, Kazakhstan declared its [sovereignty](/wiki/Sovereignty \"Sovereignty\") on its territory as a republic within the Soviet Union. Following the August 1991 aborted [coup attempt](/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt \"1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt\") in Moscow, Kazakhstan declared [independence](/wiki/Kazakhstani_Independence_Day \"Kazakhstani Independence Day\") on 16 December 1991, thus becoming the last Soviet republic to declare independence. Ten days later, the Soviet Union itself [ceased to exist](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Dissolution of the Soviet Union\").", "Kazakhstan's communist\\-era leader, [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev \"Nursultan Nazarbayev\"), became the country's first President. Nazarbayev ruled in an authoritarian manner. An emphasis was placed on converting the country's economy to a market economy while political reforms lagged behind economic advances. By 2006, Kazakhstan was generating 60 percent of the GDP of Central Asia, primarily through its oil industry.", "In 1997, the government moved the capital to [Astana](/wiki/Astana \"Astana\"), renamed Nur\\-Sultan on 23 March 2019,{{Cite news\\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-20\\|title\\=Nursultan: Kazakhstan renames capital Astana after ex\\-president\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=BBC News\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-47638619\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=25 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225212541/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-47638619\\|url\\-status\\=live}} from [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\"), Kazakhstan's largest city, where it had been established under the Soviet Union.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Capital change: A look at some countries that have moved their capitals – Nigeria: Lagos to Abuja\\|url\\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world\\-news/capital\\-change\\-a\\-look\\-at\\-some\\-countries\\-that\\-have\\-moved\\-their\\-capitals/kazakhstan\\-almaty\\-to\\-nur\\-sultan/slideshow/69183884\\.cms\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=The Economic Times\\|archive\\-date\\=20 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420174234/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world\\-news/capital\\-change\\-a\\-look\\-at\\-some\\-countries\\-that\\-have\\-moved\\-their\\-capitals/kazakhstan\\-almaty\\-to\\-nur\\-sultan/slideshow/69183884\\.cms\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n[Elections to the Majilis](/wiki/Elections_in_Kazakhstan \"Elections in Kazakhstan\") in September 2004, yielded a lower house dominated by the pro\\-government [Otan Party](/wiki/Nur-Otan \"Nur-Otan\"), headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian\\-industrial bloc AIST and the [Asar Party](/wiki/Asar_Party \"Asar Party\"), founded by President Nazarbayev's daughter, won most of the remaining seats. The opposition parties which were officially registered and competed in the elections won a single seat. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe was monitoring the election, which it said fell short of international standards.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Parliamentary Elections, 19 September and 3 October 2004\\|url\\=https://www.osce.org/node/57857\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=\\[\\[osce.org]]\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108211859/https://www.osce.org/node/57857\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In March 2011, Nazarbayev outlined the progress made toward democracy by Kazakhstan.Nazarbayev, Nursultan (28 March 2011\\). [OP Ed: \"Kazakhstan's steady progress toward democracy\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans-steady-progress-toward-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC_story.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210234358/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans\\-steady\\-progress\\-toward\\-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC\\_story.html \\|date\\=10 December 2015 }}, *Washington Post* {{As of\\|2010}}, Kazakhstan was reported on the [Democracy Index](/wiki/Democracy_Index \"Democracy Index\") by *[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist \"The Economist\")* as an [authoritarian regime](/wiki/Authoritarian_regime \"Authoritarian regime\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy\\_Index\\_2010\\_web.pdf \\|title\\=Democracy Index 2010: Democracy in retreat \\|publisher\\=Economist Intelligence Unit \\|date\\=6 December 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213120004/http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy\\_Index\\_2010\\_web.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} which was still the case as of the 2022 report.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy\\-index\\-2022/ \\|title\\=Democracy Index 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210003136/https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy\\-index\\-2022/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\nOn 19 March 2019, Nazarbayev announced his resignation from the presidency.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-47628854\\|title\\=Kazakh leader resigns after three decades\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=19 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425061650/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-47628854\\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Kazakhstan's senate speaker [Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev \"Kassym-Jomart Tokayev\") won the [2019 presidential election](/wiki/2019_Kazakh_presidential_election \"2019 Kazakh presidential election\") that was held on 9 June.{{cite news \\|title\\=Nazarbayev protégé wins Kazakhstan elections marred by protests \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/20190610\\-kazakhstan\\-presidential\\-election\\-tokayev\\-nazarbayev\\-protesters\\-arrested \\|work\\=France 24 \\|date\\=10 June 2019 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 September 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922092114/https://www.france24\\.com/en/20190610\\-kazakhstan\\-presidential\\-election\\-tokayev\\-nazarbayev\\-protesters\\-arrested \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|title\\=CEC announces preliminary results of 2019 Presidential Election in Kazakhstan \\|url\\=https://www.inform.kz/en/cec\\-announces\\-preliminary\\-results\\-of\\-2019\\-presidential\\-election\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\_a3536331 \\|website\\=inform.kz \\|date\\=10 June 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=15 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815174133/https://www.inform.kz/en/cec\\-announces\\-preliminary\\-results\\-of\\-2019\\-presidential\\-election\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\_a3536331 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} His first official act was to rename the capital after his predecessor.{{cite news \\|title\\=Kazakhstan renames capital as new president takes office \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/20190320\\-kazakhstan\\-capital\\-new\\-president\\-astana\\-nursultan \\|work\\=France 24 \\|date\\=20 March 2019 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216140002/https://www.france24\\.com/en/20190320\\-kazakhstan\\-capital\\-new\\-president\\-astana\\-nursultan \\|url\\-status\\=live }} \nIn January 2022, the country plunged into [political unrest](/wiki/2022_Kazakhstan_unrest \"2022 Kazakhstan unrest\") following a spike in fuel prices.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-05\\|title\\=Kazakhstan protests: government resigns amid rare outbreak of unrest.\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan\\-president\\-declares\\-state\\-of\\-emergency\\-in\\-protest\\-hit\\-areas\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=the Guardian\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=5 January 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105122522/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan\\-president\\-declares\\-state\\-of\\-emergency\\-in\\-protest\\-hit\\-areas\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In consequence, President Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev took over as head of the powerful Security Council, removing his predecessor Nursultan Nazarbayev from the post.{{cite news \\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev handed over security council job on his own will: Spokesman \\|url\\=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan\\-s\\-nazarbayev\\-handed\\-over\\-security\\-council\\-job\\-on\\-his\\-own\\-will\\-spokesman/2469352 \\|work\\=www.aa.com.tr \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216143609/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan\\-s\\-nazarbayev\\-handed\\-over\\-security\\-council\\-job\\-on\\-his\\-own\\-will\\-spokesman/2469352 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In September 2022, the name of the country's capital was changed back to Astana from Nur\\-Sultan.{{cite news \\|title\\=Kazakhstan to change name of capital from Nur\\-sultan back to Astana \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan\\-to\\-change\\-name\\-of\\-capital\\-from\\-nur\\-sultan\\-back\\-to\\-astana \\|work\\=the Guardian \\|date\\=14 September 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 September 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914002239/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan\\-to\\-change\\-name\\-of\\-capital\\-from\\-nur\\-sultan\\-back\\-to\\-astana \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
### Russian Kazakhstan [thumb\|[Ural Cossacks](/wiki/Ural_Cossacks "Ural Cossacks") skirmish with Kazakhs](/wiki/File:Battle_Cossacks_with_Kyrgyz_1826.JPG "Battle Cossacks with Kyrgyz 1826.JPG") [thumb\|Kazakh woman in wedding clothes, 19th century](/wiki/File:Kazakhs_19th_Century_4.jpg "Kazakhs 19th Century 4.jpg") In the first half of the 18th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") constructed the {{Interlanguage link\|Irtysh line\|ru\|Иртышская линия}}, a series of forty\-six forts and ninety\-six redoubts, including [Omsk](/wiki/Omsk "Omsk") (1716\), [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey "Semey") (1718\), [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar "Pavlodar") (1720\), [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg") (1743\) and [Petropavlovsk](/wiki/Petropavl "Petropavl") (1752\),"*Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness*". S. Sabol (2003\). Springer. p.27 {{ISBN\|0230599427}} to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory."*Central Asia, 130 Years of Russian Dominance: A Historical Overview*". Edward A. Allworth, Edward Allworth (1994\). Duke University Press. p. 10\. {{ISBN\|0822315211}} In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of [Pugachev's Rebellion](/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion "Pugachev's Rebellion"), which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and [Volga German](/wiki/Volga_Germans "Volga Germans") settlements.{{cite book \|last1\=Bodger \|first1\=Alan \|title\=The Kazakhs and the Pugachev Uprising in Russia, 1773\-1775 \|date\=1988 \|publisher\=Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University \|isbn\=9789999328128 \|page\=22}} In the 19th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The "[Great Game](/wiki/Great_Game "Great Game")" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the [Anglo\-Russian Convention of 1907](/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention_of_1907 "Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907"). The [tsars](/wiki/Tsar "Tsar") effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so\-called "Great Game" for dominance in the area against the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire"), which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost, [Orsk](/wiki/Orsk "Orsk"), in 1735\. Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations. Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock\-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture. From the 1890s onward, ever\-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began [colonizing](/wiki/Colonization "Colonization") the territory of present\-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of [Semirechye](/wiki/Jetisu "Jetisu"). The number of settlers rose still further once the [Trans\-Aral Railway](/wiki/Trans-Aral_Railway "Trans-Aral Railway") from [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg") to [Tashkent](/wiki/Tashkent "Tashkent") was completed in 1906\. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg "St. Petersburg") oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \|title\=Kazakhstan \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Britannica \|date\=16 December 1991 \|access\-date\=9 September 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \|archive\-date\=17 June 2015}} [Vasile Balabanov](/wiki/Vasile_Balabanov "Vasile Balabanov") was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time. The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"). The most serious uprising, the [Central Asian revolt](/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916 "Central Asian revolt of 1916"), occurred in 1916\. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and [Cossack](/wiki/Cossacks "Cossacks") settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\_761566451\_8/Kazakhstan.html\|title\=Kazakhstan\|encyclopedia\=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia\|date\=2005y\|archive\-date\=15 April 2005\|access\-date\=29 October 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050415185833/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\_761566451\_8/Kazakhstan.html\|url\-status\=dead}} Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919\.
[ "### Russian Kazakhstan", "[thumb\\|[Ural Cossacks](/wiki/Ural_Cossacks \"Ural Cossacks\") skirmish with Kazakhs](/wiki/File:Battle_Cossacks_with_Kyrgyz_1826.JPG \"Battle Cossacks with Kyrgyz 1826.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Kazakh woman in wedding clothes, 19th century](/wiki/File:Kazakhs_19th_Century_4.jpg \"Kazakhs 19th Century 4.jpg\")", "In the first half of the 18th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") constructed the {{Interlanguage link\\|Irtysh line\\|ru\\|Иртышская линия}}, a series of forty\\-six forts and ninety\\-six redoubts, including [Omsk](/wiki/Omsk \"Omsk\") (1716\\), [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey \"Semey\") (1718\\), [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar \"Pavlodar\") (1720\\), [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\") (1743\\) and [Petropavlovsk](/wiki/Petropavl \"Petropavl\") (1752\\),\"*Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness*\". S. Sabol (2003\\). Springer. p.27 {{ISBN\\|0230599427}} to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory.\"*Central Asia, 130 Years of Russian Dominance: A Historical Overview*\". Edward A. Allworth, Edward Allworth (1994\\). Duke University Press. p. 10\\. {{ISBN\\|0822315211}} In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of [Pugachev's Rebellion](/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion \"Pugachev's Rebellion\"), which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and [Volga German](/wiki/Volga_Germans \"Volga Germans\") settlements.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bodger \\|first1\\=Alan \\|title\\=The Kazakhs and the Pugachev Uprising in Russia, 1773\\-1775 \\|date\\=1988 \\|publisher\\=Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University \\|isbn\\=9789999328128 \\|page\\=22}} In the 19th century, the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The \"[Great Game](/wiki/Great_Game \"Great Game\")\" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the [Anglo\\-Russian Convention of 1907](/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention_of_1907 \"Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907\"). The [tsars](/wiki/Tsar \"Tsar\") effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.", "The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so\\-called \"Great Game\" for dominance in the area against the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"), which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost, [Orsk](/wiki/Orsk \"Orsk\"), in 1735\\. Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations.", "Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock\\-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture.", "From the 1890s onward, ever\\-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began [colonizing](/wiki/Colonization \"Colonization\") the territory of present\\-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of [Semirechye](/wiki/Jetisu \"Jetisu\"). The number of settlers rose still further once the [Trans\\-Aral Railway](/wiki/Trans-Aral_Railway \"Trans-Aral Railway\") from [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\") to [Tashkent](/wiki/Tashkent \"Tashkent\") was completed in 1906\\. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg \"St. Petersburg\") oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \\|title\\=Kazakhstan \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Britannica \\|date\\=16 December 1991 \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan \\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2015}} [Vasile Balabanov](/wiki/Vasile_Balabanov \"Vasile Balabanov\") was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time.", "The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"). The most serious uprising, the [Central Asian revolt](/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916 \"Central Asian revolt of 1916\"), occurred in 1916\\. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and [Cossack](/wiki/Cossacks \"Cossacks\") settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\\_761566451\\_8/Kazakhstan.html\\|title\\=Kazakhstan\\|encyclopedia\\=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia\\|date\\=2005y\\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2005\\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050415185833/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia\\_761566451\\_8/Kazakhstan.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919\\.", "" ]
### Kazakh SSR {{Main\|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic}} [thumb\|Stanitsa Sofiiskaya, [Talgar](/wiki/Talgar "Talgar"), 1920s](/wiki/File:Stanitsa_Sofiiskaya.jpg "Stanitsa Sofiiskaya.jpg") [thumb\|[Young Pioneers](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union "Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union") at a Young Pioneer camp in the Kazakh SSR](/wiki/File:Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg "Young Pioneers in Kazakh SSR.jpg") Following the [collapse of central government](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution") in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg") in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as "Kirghiz") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the [Alash Autonomy](/wiki/Alash_Autonomy "Alash Autonomy")) before eventually succumbing to the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks")' rule. On 26 August 1920, the [Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281920%E2%80%9325%29 "Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–25)") within the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic") (RSFSR) was established. The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present\-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian\-populated town of [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg "Orenburg"). In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the [Kazak ASSR](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of [Kyzylorda](/wiki/Kyzylorda "Kyzylorda"), and in April 1927 to [Alma\-Ata](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"). Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced [collectivisation](/wiki/Collectivisation "Collectivisation") in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought [famine](/wiki/Famine "Famine") and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: [Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33](/wiki/Famine_in_Kazakhstan_of_1932%E2%80%9333 "Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33")).{{cite journal \|url\= http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\.pdf\|url\-status\= dead\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20060903203830/http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\.pdf\|archive\-date\= 3 September 2006\|title\= The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin's Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives\|author\= Simon Ertz\|date\= 2005\|journal\= Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies\|volume\= 1\|pages\= 1–12\|access\-date\= 1 June 2010}}{{cite journal \|author\= Pianciola, Niccolò \|url\= http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\=1 \|title\= Famine in the Steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934 \|journal\= Cahiers du monde russe \|year\= 2004 \|volume\= 45 \|pages\= 137–192 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023090501/http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\=1 \|archive\-date\= 23 October 2015 \|df\= dmy\-all }} During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the [policies of political reprisals](/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union "Political repression in the Soviet Union") pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}} On 5 December 1936, the [Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan) was detached from the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic") (RSFSR) and made the [Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic"), a full [union republic](/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union "Republics of the Soviet Union") of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the [Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic"). The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during the 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans "Volga Germans") deported from the [Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Volga_German_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") in September–October 1941, and then later the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan "Greeks in Kazakhstan") and [Crimean Tatars](/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars "Deportation of the Crimean Tatars"). Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest [Soviet labour camps](/wiki/Gulag "Gulag") (the Gulag), including [ALZhIR](/wiki/Akmol "Akmol") camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people".[Children of the gulag live with amnesia](http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918){{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223853/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 \|date\=3 March 2016 }}, *Taipei Times*, 1 January 2007 Many moved due to the policy of [population transfer in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union "Population transfer in the Soviet Union") and others were forced into [involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Involuntary_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union "Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union"). [thumb\|The International Conference on Primary Health Care in 1978, known as the [Alma\-Ata Declaration](/wiki/Alma_Ata_Declaration "Alma Ata Declaration")](/wiki/File:International_conference_on_Primary_Health_Care_-_Conferencia_Internacional_sobre_Atenci%C3%B3n_Primaria_de_Salud_-_Almaty_-1978.jpg "International conference on Primary Health Care - Conferencia Internacional sobre Atención Primaria de Salud - Almaty -1978.jpg") The [Soviet\-German War](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Eastern Front (World War II)") (1941–1945\) led to an increase in industrialisation and [mineral extraction](/wiki/Mineral_extraction "Mineral extraction") in support of the war effort. At the time of [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin")'s death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leader [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev "Nikita Khrushchev") initiated the [Virgin Lands Campaign](/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign "Virgin Lands Campaign") designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain\-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev "Leonid Brezhnev") (in power 1964–1982\), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs "Kazakhs") had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. Ethnic [Russians](/wiki/Russians "Russians") accounted for 43 percent.Flynn, Moya (1994\). *\[{{GBurl\|id\=YLeAxHLmgR8C\|p\=15}} Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation: Reconstructing 'Homes' and 'Homelands']* Anthem Press. p. 15\. {{ISBN\|1\-84331\-117\-8}} In 1947, the USSR, as part of its [atomic bomb project](/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project "Soviet atomic bomb project"), founded an [atomic bomb test site](/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site "Semipalatinsk Test Site") near the north\-eastern town of [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey "Semey"), where the [first Soviet nuclear bomb](/wiki/RDS-1 "RDS-1") test was conducted in 1949\. Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for the nation's environment and population.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\-painful\-nuclear\-past\-looms\-large\-over\-its\-energy\-future/275795/\|title\=Kazakhstan's Painful Nuclear Past Looms Large Over Its Energy Future\|last\=Keenan\|first\=Jillian\|newspaper\=The Atlantic\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=27 January 2017\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202233241/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\-painful\-nuclear\-past\-looms\-large\-over\-its\-energy\-future/275795/\|archive\-date\=2 February 2017}} The [Anti\-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan](/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Kazakhstan "Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan") became a major political force in the late 1980s. In April 1961, [Baikonur](/wiki/Baikonur "Baikonur") became the springboard of [Vostok 1](/wiki/Vostok_1 "Vostok 1"), a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin "Yuri Gagarin") being the first human to enter space. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the [Jeltoqsan](/wiki/Jeltoqsan "Jeltoqsan") riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the [First Secretary](/wiki/General_Secretary "General Secretary") of the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kazakhstan "Communist Party of Kazakhstan") of the Kazakh SSR [Dinmukhamed Konayev](/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Konayev "Dinmukhamed Konayev") with [Gennady Kolbin](/wiki/Gennady_Kolbin "Gennady Kolbin") from the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR "Russian SFSR"). Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.{{Cite web\|last\=Putz\|first\=Catherine\|title\=1986: Kazakhstan's Other Independence Anniversary\|url\=https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\-kazakhstans\-other\-independence\-anniversary/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=thediplomat.com\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=28 March 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214923/https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\-kazakhstans\-other\-independence\-anniversary/\|url\-status\=live}} In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev")'s policy of *[glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost "Glasnost")* ("openness"). {{anchor\|Independence}}
[ "### Kazakh SSR", "{{Main\\|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic}}\n[thumb\\|Stanitsa Sofiiskaya, [Talgar](/wiki/Talgar \"Talgar\"), 1920s](/wiki/File:Stanitsa_Sofiiskaya.jpg \"Stanitsa Sofiiskaya.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Young Pioneers](/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union\") at a Young Pioneer camp in the Kazakh SSR](/wiki/File:Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg \"Young Pioneers in Kazakh SSR.jpg\")", "Following the [collapse of central government](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\") in [Petrograd](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\") in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as \"Kirghiz\") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the [Alash Autonomy](/wiki/Alash_Autonomy \"Alash Autonomy\")) before eventually succumbing to the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\")' rule. On 26 August 1920, the [Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281920%E2%80%9325%29 \"Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–25)\") within the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic \"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic\") (RSFSR) was established. The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present\\-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian\\-populated town of [Orenburg](/wiki/Orenburg \"Orenburg\"). In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the [Kazak ASSR](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of [Kyzylorda](/wiki/Kyzylorda \"Kyzylorda\"), and in April 1927 to [Alma\\-Ata](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\").", "Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced [collectivisation](/wiki/Collectivisation \"Collectivisation\") in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought [famine](/wiki/Famine \"Famine\") and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: [Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33](/wiki/Famine_in_Kazakhstan_of_1932%E2%80%9333 \"Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33\")).{{cite journal \\|url\\= http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20060903203830/http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\= 3 September 2006\\|title\\= The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin's Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives\\|author\\= Simon Ertz\\|date\\= 2005\\|journal\\= Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies\\|volume\\= 1\\|pages\\= 1–12\\|access\\-date\\= 1 June 2010}}{{cite journal \\|author\\= Pianciola, Niccolò \\|url\\= http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\\=1 \\|title\\= Famine in the Steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934 \\|journal\\= Cahiers du monde russe \\|year\\= 2004 \\|volume\\= 45 \\|pages\\= 137–192 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023090501/http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\= 23 October 2015 \\|df\\= dmy\\-all }} During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the [policies of political reprisals](/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Political repression in the Soviet Union\") pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}", "On 5 December 1936, the [Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan) was detached from the [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic \"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic\") (RSFSR) and made the [Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic\"), a full [union republic](/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Republics of the Soviet Union\") of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the [Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic\").", "The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during the 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans \"Volga Germans\") deported from the [Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Volga_German_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") in September–October 1941, and then later the [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan \"Greeks in Kazakhstan\") and [Crimean Tatars](/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars \"Deportation of the Crimean Tatars\"). Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest [Soviet labour camps](/wiki/Gulag \"Gulag\") (the Gulag), including [ALZhIR](/wiki/Akmol \"Akmol\") camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered \"enemies of the people\".[Children of the gulag live with amnesia](http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918){{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223853/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 \\|date\\=3 March 2016 }}, *Taipei Times*, 1 January 2007 Many moved due to the policy of [population transfer in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Population transfer in the Soviet Union\") and others were forced into [involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Involuntary_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union\").", "[thumb\\|The International Conference on Primary Health Care in 1978, known as the [Alma\\-Ata Declaration](/wiki/Alma_Ata_Declaration \"Alma Ata Declaration\")](/wiki/File:International_conference_on_Primary_Health_Care_-_Conferencia_Internacional_sobre_Atenci%C3%B3n_Primaria_de_Salud_-_Almaty_-1978.jpg \"International conference on Primary Health Care - Conferencia Internacional sobre Atención Primaria de Salud - Almaty -1978.jpg\")", "The [Soviet\\-German War](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Eastern Front (World War II)\") (1941–1945\\) led to an increase in industrialisation and [mineral extraction](/wiki/Mineral_extraction \"Mineral extraction\") in support of the war effort. At the time of [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\")'s death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leader [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev \"Nikita Khrushchev\") initiated the [Virgin Lands Campaign](/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign \"Virgin Lands Campaign\") designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain\\-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev \"Leonid Brezhnev\") (in power 1964–1982\\), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs \"Kazakhs\") had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. Ethnic [Russians](/wiki/Russians \"Russians\") accounted for 43 percent.Flynn, Moya (1994\\). *\\[{{GBurl\\|id\\=YLeAxHLmgR8C\\|p\\=15}} Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation: Reconstructing 'Homes' and 'Homelands']* Anthem Press. p. 15\\. {{ISBN\\|1\\-84331\\-117\\-8}}", "In 1947, the USSR, as part of its [atomic bomb project](/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project \"Soviet atomic bomb project\"), founded an [atomic bomb test site](/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site \"Semipalatinsk Test Site\") near the north\\-eastern town of [Semipalatinsk](/wiki/Semey \"Semey\"), where the [first Soviet nuclear bomb](/wiki/RDS-1 \"RDS-1\") test was conducted in 1949\\. Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for the nation's environment and population.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\\-painful\\-nuclear\\-past\\-looms\\-large\\-over\\-its\\-energy\\-future/275795/\\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Painful Nuclear Past Looms Large Over Its Energy Future\\|last\\=Keenan\\|first\\=Jillian\\|newspaper\\=The Atlantic\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202233241/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans\\-painful\\-nuclear\\-past\\-looms\\-large\\-over\\-its\\-energy\\-future/275795/\\|archive\\-date\\=2 February 2017}} The [Anti\\-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan](/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Kazakhstan \"Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan\") became a major political force in the late 1980s.", "In April 1961, [Baikonur](/wiki/Baikonur \"Baikonur\") became the springboard of [Vostok 1](/wiki/Vostok_1 \"Vostok 1\"), a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin \"Yuri Gagarin\") being the first human to enter space.", "In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the [Jeltoqsan](/wiki/Jeltoqsan \"Jeltoqsan\") riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the [First Secretary](/wiki/General_Secretary \"General Secretary\") of the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kazakhstan \"Communist Party of Kazakhstan\") of the Kazakh SSR [Dinmukhamed Konayev](/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Konayev \"Dinmukhamed Konayev\") with [Gennady Kolbin](/wiki/Gennady_Kolbin \"Gennady Kolbin\") from the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR \"Russian SFSR\"). Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Putz\\|first\\=Catherine\\|title\\=1986: Kazakhstan's Other Independence Anniversary\\|url\\=https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\\-kazakhstans\\-other\\-independence\\-anniversary/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=thediplomat.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=28 March 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214923/https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986\\-kazakhstans\\-other\\-independence\\-anniversary/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\")'s policy of *[glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost \"Glasnost\")* (\"openness\").", "{{anchor\\|Independence}}", "" ]
Geography --------- {{Main\|Geography of Kazakhstan\|List of cities in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|right\|Satellite image of Kazakhstan (November 2004\)](/wiki/File:Kazakhstan_BMNG.jpg "Kazakhstan BMNG.jpg") As it extends across both sides of the [Ural River](/wiki/Ural_River "Ural River"), considered the dividing line separating Europe and Asia, Kazakhstan is one of only two [landlocked countries](/wiki/Landlocked_country "Landlocked country") in the world that [has territory in two continents](/wiki/Transcontinental_countries "Transcontinental countries") (the other is [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan")). With an area of {{convert\|2700000\|km2}}{{spaced ndash}}equivalent in size to Western Europe{{spaced ndash}}Kazakhstan is the ninth\-largest country and largest landlocked country in the world. While it was part of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"), Kazakhstan lost some of its territory to China's [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang "Xinjiang") province,{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=i1SpCwAAQBAJ\&q\=kazakhstan%2Blost%2Bsome%2Bof%2Bits%2Bterritory%2Bto%2Brussia%2Band%2Bchina\&pg\=PT85\|title\=Xinjiang – China's Northwest Frontier\|last\=Warikoo\|first\=K.\|date\=2 March 2016\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-317\-29028\-5\|language\=en\|access\-date\=14 November 2020\|archive\-date\=17 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417184150/https://books.google.com/books?id\=i1SpCwAAQBAJ\&q\=kazakhstan\+lost\+some\+of\+its\+territory\+to\+russia\+and\+china\&pg\=PT85\|url\-status\=live}} and some to Uzbekistan's [Karakalpakstan](/wiki/Karakalpakstan "Karakalpakstan") autonomous republic during Soviet years. [thumb\|The [Kazakh Steppe](/wiki/Kazakh_Steppe "Kazakh Steppe") is part of the [Eurasian Steppe](/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe "Eurasian Steppe") Belt (in {{Colorsample\|\#AAEEFF}} on the map).](/wiki/File:Eurasian_steppe_belt.jpg "Eurasian steppe belt.jpg") It shares borders of {{convert\|6846\|km}} with Russia, {{convert\|2203\|km}} with [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan"), {{convert\|1533\|km}} with China, {{convert\|1051\|km}} with [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan"), and {{convert\|379\|km}} with [Turkmenistan](/wiki/Turkmenistan "Turkmenistan"). Major cities include [Astana](/wiki/Astana "Astana"), [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"), [Qarağandy](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy "Qarağandy"), [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent "Şymkent"), [Atyrau](/wiki/Atyrau "Atyrau"), and [Öskemen](/wiki/%C3%96skemen "Öskemen"). It lies between latitudes [40°](/wiki/40th_parallel_north "40th parallel north") and [56° N](/wiki/56th_parallel_north "56th parallel north"), and longitudes [46°](/wiki/46th_meridian_east "46th meridian east") and [88° E](/wiki/88th_meridian_east "88th meridian east"). While located primarily in Asia, a [small portion](/wiki/European_Kazakhstan "European Kazakhstan") of Kazakhstan is also located west of the [Urals](/wiki/Urals "Urals") in Eastern Europe.{{cite encyclopedia\|title\=Kazakhstan – MSN Encarta \|url\=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid\=761566451 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601203047/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid\=761566451 \|archive\-date\= 1 June 2008 \|url\-status\=dead}} Kazakhstan's terrain extends west to east from the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea "Caspian Sea") to the [Altay Mountains](/wiki/Altay_Mountains "Altay Mountains") and north to south from the plains of [Western Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia") to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. The [Kazakh Steppe](/wiki/Kazakh_Steppe "Kazakh Steppe") (plain), with an area of around {{convert\|804500\|km2}}, occupies one\-third of the country and is the world's largest dry [steppe](/wiki/Steppe "Steppe") region. The steppe is characterised by large areas of [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland "Grassland") and sandy regions. Major seas, lakes and rivers include [Lake Balkhash](/wiki/Lake_Balkhash "Lake Balkhash"), [Lake Zaysan](/wiki/Lake_Zaysan "Lake Zaysan"), the [Charyn River and gorge](/wiki/Charyn_Canyon "Charyn Canyon"), the [Ili](/wiki/Ili_River "Ili River"), [Irtysh](/wiki/Irtysh_River "Irtysh River"), [Ishim](/wiki/Ishim_River "Ishim River"), [Ural](/wiki/Ural_River "Ural River") and [Syr Darya](/wiki/Syr_Darya "Syr Darya") rivers, and the [Aral Sea](/wiki/Aral_Sea "Aral Sea") until it largely dried up in one of the world's worst environmental disasters.{{cite news\|author\=Daily Telegraph\|title\=Aral Sea 'one of the planet's worst environmental disasters'\| url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral\-Sea\-one\-of\-the\-planets\-worst\-environmental\-disasters.html\|date\=5 April 2010\|access\-date\=1 May 2010\| location\=London\|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408214552/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral\-Sea\-one\-of\-the\-planets\-worst\-environmental\-disasters.html\|archive\-date\=8 April 2010 \|url\-status\=dead}} [thumb\|The Kazakh Steppe in the early spring](/wiki/File:Steppe_of_western_Kazakhstan_in_the_early_spring.jpg "Steppe of western Kazakhstan in the early spring.jpg") The [Charyn Canyon](/wiki/Charyn_Canyon "Charyn Canyon") is {{convert\|80\|km}} long, cutting through a red [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone") plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern [Tian Shan](/wiki/Tian_Shan "Tian Shan") ("Heavenly Mountains", {{convert\|200\|km\|0\|abbr\=on}} east of Almaty) at {{coord\|43\|21\|1\.16\|N\|79\|4\|49\.28\|E\|}}. The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of between {{convert\|150\|and\|300\|m\|ft\|abbr\=off}}. The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare [ash tree](/wiki/Ash_tree "Ash tree"), *Fraxinus sogdiana*, which survived the [Ice Age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period "Last Glacial Period") there and has now also grown in some other areas.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.3390/d15060769\|title\=Anatomical Structure and Phytochemical Composition of a Rare Species Fraxinus sogdiana Bunge (Oleaceae) Growing in Different Soils in Kazakhstan\|journal\=Diversity\|date\=2023 \|doi\-access\=free \|last1\=Aldibekova \|first1\=Almagul \|last2\=Kurmanbayeva \|first2\=Meruyert \|last3\=Aksoy \|first3\=Ahmet \|last4\=Permitina \|first4\=Valeria \|last5\=Dimeyeva \|first5\=Liliya \|last6\=Zverev \|first6\=Nikolai \|volume\=15 \|issue\=6 \|page\=769 }} [Bigach crater](/wiki/Bigach_crater "Bigach crater"), at {{coord\|48\|30\|N\|82\|00\|E\|}}, is a [Pliocene](/wiki/Pliocene "Pliocene") or [Miocene](/wiki/Miocene "Miocene") [asteroid](/wiki/Asteroid "Asteroid") [impact crater](/wiki/Impact_crater "Impact crater"), {{convert\|8\|km\|0\|abbr\=on}} in diameter and estimated to be 5±3 million years old. Kazakhstan's [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty") region is also home to the [Mynzhylky mountain plateau](/wiki/Mynzhylky_mountain_plateau "Mynzhylky mountain plateau"). ### Natural resources {{See also\|Energy in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|[Qarağandy Region](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy_Region "Qarağandy Region")](/wiki/File:Reserve_Karkaraly.jpg "Reserve Karkaraly.jpg") Kazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources. Development of petroleum, natural gas, and mineral extractions has attracted most of the over $40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57 percent of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13 percent of gross domestic product). According to some estimates,[Mineral Wealth](https://web.archive.org/web/20070507024507/http://www.homestead.com/prosites-kazakhembus/MineralWealth.html). homestead.com Kazakhstan has the second largest [uranium](/wiki/Uranium "Uranium"), [chromium](/wiki/Chromium "Chromium"), lead, and [zinc](/wiki/Zinc "Zinc") reserves; the third largest [manganese](/wiki/Manganese "Manganese") reserves; the fifth largest copper reserves; and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. It is also an exporter of diamonds. Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.International Crisis Group. (May 2007\). [Central Asia's Energy Risks, Asia Report No. 133](http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/central-asia/133-central-asias-energy-risks.aspx) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225435/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/central\-asia/133\-central\-asias\-energy\-risks.aspx \|date\=3 March 2016 }} One such location is the [Tokarevskoye gas condensate field](/wiki/Tokarevskoye_gas_condensate_field "Tokarevskoye gas condensate field"). In total, there are 160 deposits with over {{convert\|2\.7\|e9t\|e9lt\|abbr\=off}} of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on the [Caspian shore](/wiki/Caspian_Sea "Caspian Sea") are only a small part of a much larger deposit. It is said that {{convert\|3\.5\|e9t\|e9lt\|abbr\=off}} of oil and {{convert\|2\.5\|e9m3\|e9cuft\|abbr\=off}} of gas could be found in that area. Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is {{convert\|6\.1\|e9t\|e9lt\|abbr\=off}}. However, there are only three [refineries](/wiki/Oil_refinery "Oil refinery") within the country, situated in [Atyrau](/wiki/Atirau "Atirau"),{{cite web\|url\=http://kazworld.info/?p\=58130\|title\=Company Overview of Atyrau Refinery LLP – KazWorld.info\|work\=kazworld.info\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026232217/http://kazworld.info/?p\=58130\|archive\-date\=26 October 2016}} [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar "Pavlodar"), and [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent "Şymkent"). These are not capable of processing the total crude output, so much of it is exported to Russia. According to the US [Energy Information Administration](/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration "Energy Information Administration"), Kazakhstan was producing approximately {{convert\|1540000\|oilbbl}} of oil per day in 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/STEO\_Query/steotables.cfm?periodType\=Annual\&startYear\=2005\&startMonth\=1\&endYear\=2009\&endMonth\=12\&tableNumber\=29 \|archive\-url\=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090409081928/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/STEO\_Query/steotables.cfm?periodType\=Annual\&startYear\=2005\&startMonth\=1\&endYear\=2009\&endMonth\=12\&tableNumber\=29 \|archive\-date\= 9 April 2009 \|title\=Table 3b. Non\-OPEC Petroleum Supply \|work\=U.S. Energy Information Administration. Independent Statistics and Analysis. \|publisher\=Tonto.eia.doe.gov \|date\=11 May 2010 \|access\-date\=1 June 2010 \|url\-status\=dead}} Kazakhstan also possesses large deposits of [phosphorite](/wiki/Phosphorite "Phosphorite"). Two of the largest deposits include the Karatau basin with 650 million tonnes of P2O5 and the Chilisai deposit of the [Aqtobe phosphorite basin](/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD "Актобинский фосфоритоносный бассейн") located in northwestern Kazakhstan, with resources of 500–800{{nbsp}}million tonnes of 9 percent ore.[Chilisai Phosphate Project Ore Reserve Update](http://www.sunkarresources.com/en/news/chilisai_Phosphate_Project_ore_reserve_update/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402211127/http://www.sunkarresources.com/en/news/chilisai\_phosphate\_project\_ore\_reserve\_update \|date\=2 April 2016 }} // SUNKAR RESOURCES PLC[THE MINERAL INDUSTRY OF KAZAKHSTAN—1997](http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9422097.pdf#page=7) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303091425/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9422097\.pdf \|date\=3 March 2013 }} // USGS: Phosphate Rock – Reserves On 17 October 2013, the [Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative](/wiki/Extractive_Industries_Transparency_Initiative "Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative") (EITI) accepted Kazakhstan as "EITI Compliant", meaning that the country has a basic and functional process to ensure the regular disclosure of natural resource revenues.[Kazakhstan accepted as 'EITI Compliant'](http://eiti.org/news/kazakhstan-accepted-eiti-compliant) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/https://eiti.org/news/kazakhstan\-accepted\-eiti\-compliant \|date\=1 January 2016 }}. EITI (17 October 2013\). Retrieved 8 March 2014\. ### Climate [thumb\|328x328px\|Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1\-km resolution for Kazakhstan 1991–2020](/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_KAZ_1991%E2%80%932020.svg "Koppen-Geiger Map v2 KAZ 1991–2020.svg") Kazakhstan has an "extreme" [continental](/wiki/Continental_climate "Continental climate") and [cold steppe climate](/wiki/Cold_steppe "Cold steppe"), and sits solidly inside the [Eurasian steppe](/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe "Eurasian Steppe"), featuring the [Kazakh steppe](/wiki/Kazakh_Steppe "Kazakh Steppe"), with hot summers and very cold winters. Indeed, Astana is the second coldest capital city in the world after [Ulaanbaatar](/wiki/Ulaanbaatar "Ulaanbaatar"). [Precipitation](/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29 "Precipitation (meteorology)") varies between arid and semi\-arid conditions, the winter being particularly dry.{{cite web\|title\=The Coldest Capital Cities In The World\|url\=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the\-coldest\-capital\-cities\-in\-the\-world.html\|website\=WorldAtlas.com\|access\-date\=15 January 2017\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108040732/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the\-coldest\-capital\-cities\-in\-the\-world.html\|archive\-date\=8 January 2017}} | \+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for large cities in Kazakhstan{{cite web\|url\=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c\=KZ\&name\=Kazakhstan\|title\=Kazakhstan climate information\|publisher\=Weatherbase\|access\-date\=4 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102193331/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c\=KZ\&name\=Kazakhstan\|archive\-date\=2 January 2016}} | | --- | | Location | July (°C) | July (°F) | January (°C) | January (°F) | | [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty") | 30/18 | 86/64 | 0/−8 | 33/17 | | [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent "Şymkent") | 32/17 | 91/66 | 4/−4 | 39/23 | | [Qarağandy](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy "Qarağandy") | 27/14 | 80/57 | −8/−17 | 16/1 | | [Astana](/wiki/Astana "Astana") | 27/15 | 80/59 | −10/−18 | 14/−1 | | [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar "Pavlodar") | 28/15 | 82/59 | −11/−20 | 12/−5 | | [Aqtobe](/wiki/Aqtobe "Aqtobe") | 30/15 | 86/61 | −8/−16 | 17/2 | ### Wildlife {{Main\|Wildlife of Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|upright\|[Corsac fox](/wiki/Corsac_fox "Corsac fox")](/wiki/File:Vulpes_corsac.jpg "Vulpes corsac.jpg") There are ten [nature reserves](/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_Kazakhstan "List of protected areas of Kazakhstan") and ten [national parks](/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Kazakhstan "List of national parks of Kazakhstan") in Kazakhstan that provide safe haven for many rare and endangered plants and animals. In total there are twenty five [areas of conservancy](/wiki/Conservancy_areas_of_Kazakhstan "Conservancy areas of Kazakhstan"). Common plants are *[Astragalus](/wiki/Astragalus_%28plant%29 "Astragalus (plant)")*, *[Gagea](/wiki/Gagea "Gagea")*, *[Allium](/wiki/Allium "Allium")*, *[Carex](/wiki/Carex "Carex")* and *[Oxytropis](/wiki/Oxytropis "Oxytropis")*; endangered plant species include native wild apple (*[Malus sieversii](/wiki/Malus_sieversii "Malus sieversii")*), wild grape (*[Vitis vinifera](/wiki/Vitis_vinifera "Vitis vinifera")*) and several wild [tulip](/wiki/Tulip "Tulip") species (e.g., *[Tulipa greigii](/wiki/Tulipa_greigii "Tulipa greigii")*) and rare onion species *[Allium karataviense](/wiki/Allium_karataviense "Allium karataviense")*, also *[Iris willmottiana](/wiki/Iris_willmottiana "Iris willmottiana")* and *[Tulipa kaufmanniana](/wiki/Tulipa_kaufmanniana "Tulipa kaufmanniana")*.A.F. Kovshar (Ed.): *Monitoring biologicheskogo raznoobraziya Zapovednika Aksu\-Dzhabagly*. In: *Tethys Biodiversity Research*. Tom 1, S. 17–21\.{{cite web \|title\=Celestial Silk Road 5th–21st June 2016 \|url\=http://www.viranatura.com/Product\_100001\_Celestial\-Silk\-Road\-5th\-21st\-June\-2016 \|publisher\=viranatura.com \|access\-date\=26 May 2015 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305045058/http://www.viranatura.com/Product\_100001\_Celestial\-Silk\-Road\-5th\-21st\-June\-2016 \|archive\-date\=5 March 2016}} Kazakhstan had a 2019 [Forest Landscape Integrity Index](/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index "Forest Landscape Integrity Index") mean score of 8\.23/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries.{{cite journal\|last1\=Grantham\|first1\=H. S.\|last2\=Duncan\|first2\=A.\|last3\=Evans\|first3\=T. D.\|last4\=Jones\|first4\=K. R.\|last5\=Beyer\|first5\=H. L.\|last6\=Schuster\|first6\=R.\|last7\=Walston\|first7\=J.\|last8\=Ray\|first8\=J. C.\|last9\=Robinson\|first9\=J. G.\|last10\=Callow\|first10\=M.\|last11\=Clements\|first11\=T.\|last12\=Costa\|first12\=H. M.\|last13\=DeGemmis\|first13\=A.\|last14\=Elsen\|first14\=P. R.\|last15\=Ervin\|first15\=J.\|last16\=Franco\|first16\=P.\|last17\=Goldman\|first17\=E.\|last18\=Goetz\|first18\=S.\|last19\=Hansen\|first19\=A.\|last20\=Hofsvang\|first20\=E.\|last21\=Jantz\|first21\=P.\|last22\=Jupiter\|first22\=S.\|last23\=Kang\|first23\=A.\|last24\=Langhammer\|first24\=P.\|last25\=Laurance\|first25\=W. F.\|last26\=Lieberman\|first26\=S.\|last27\=Linkie\|first27\=M.\|last28\=Malhi\|first28\=Y.\|last29\=Maxwell\|first29\=S.\|last30\=Mendez\|first30\=M.\|last31\=Mittermeier\|first31\=R.\|last32\=Murray\|first32\=N. J.\|last33\=Possingham\|first33\=H.\|last34\=Radachowsky\|first34\=J.\|last35\=Saatchi\|first35\=S.\|last36\=Samper\|first36\=C.\|last37\=Silverman\|first37\=J.\|last38\=Shapiro\|first38\=A.\|last39\=Strassburg\|first39\=B.\|last40\=Stevens\|first40\=T.\|last41\=Stokes\|first41\=E.\|last42\=Taylor\|first42\=R.\|last43\=Tear\|first43\=T.\|last44\=Tizard\|first44\=R.\|last45\=Venter\|first45\=O.\|last46\=Visconti\|first46\=P.\|last47\=Wang\|first47\=S.\|last48\=Watson\|first48\=J. E. M.\|title\=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material\|journal\=Nature Communications\|volume\=11\|issue\=1\|year\=2020\|page\=5978\|issn\=2041\-1723\|doi\=10\.1038/s41467\-020\-19493\-3\|pmid\=33293507\|pmc\=7723057\|bibcode\=2020NatCo..11\.5978G \|doi\-access\=free}} Common mammals include the [wolf](/wiki/Wolf "Wolf"), [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox "Red fox"), [corsac fox](/wiki/Corsac_fox "Corsac fox"), [moose](/wiki/Moose "Moose"), [argali](/wiki/Argali "Argali") (the largest species of sheep), [Eurasian lynx](/wiki/Eurasian_lynx "Eurasian lynx"), [Pallas's cat](/wiki/Pallas%27s_cat "Pallas's cat"), and [snow leopards](/wiki/Snow_leopards "Snow leopards"), several of which are protected. Kazakhstan's Red Book of Protected Species lists 125 vertebrates including many birds and mammals, and 404 plants including fungi, algae and lichens.{{cite web\|title\=Red Book\|url\=http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/kazakh/nav/species/red.htm\|publisher\=\[\[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)\|access\-date\=8 December 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205173757/http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/kazakh/nav/species/red.htm\|archive\-date\=5 February 2017}} [Przewalski's horse](/wiki/Przewalski%27s_horse "Przewalski's horse") has been reintroduced to the steppes after nearly 200 years.{{cite web \|date\=14 June 2024 \|title\=Wild Przewalski's horses return to Kazakhstan after 200 years \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/6/14/wild\-przewalskis\-horses\-return\-to\-kazakhstan\-after\-200\-years}}
[ "Geography\n---------", "{{Main\\|Geography of Kazakhstan\\|List of cities in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Satellite image of Kazakhstan (November 2004\\)](/wiki/File:Kazakhstan_BMNG.jpg \"Kazakhstan BMNG.jpg\")", "As it extends across both sides of the [Ural River](/wiki/Ural_River \"Ural River\"), considered the dividing line separating Europe and Asia, Kazakhstan is one of only two [landlocked countries](/wiki/Landlocked_country \"Landlocked country\") in the world that [has territory in two continents](/wiki/Transcontinental_countries \"Transcontinental countries\") (the other is [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\")).", "With an area of {{convert\\|2700000\\|km2}}{{spaced ndash}}equivalent in size to Western Europe{{spaced ndash}}Kazakhstan is the ninth\\-largest country and largest landlocked country in the world. While it was part of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), Kazakhstan lost some of its territory to China's [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\") province,{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=i1SpCwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=kazakhstan%2Blost%2Bsome%2Bof%2Bits%2Bterritory%2Bto%2Brussia%2Band%2Bchina\\&pg\\=PT85\\|title\\=Xinjiang – China's Northwest Frontier\\|last\\=Warikoo\\|first\\=K.\\|date\\=2 March 2016\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-317\\-29028\\-5\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417184150/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=i1SpCwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=kazakhstan\\+lost\\+some\\+of\\+its\\+territory\\+to\\+russia\\+and\\+china\\&pg\\=PT85\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and some to Uzbekistan's [Karakalpakstan](/wiki/Karakalpakstan \"Karakalpakstan\") autonomous republic during Soviet years.", "[thumb\\|The [Kazakh Steppe](/wiki/Kazakh_Steppe \"Kazakh Steppe\") is part of the [Eurasian Steppe](/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe \"Eurasian Steppe\") Belt (in {{Colorsample\\|\\#AAEEFF}} on the map).](/wiki/File:Eurasian_steppe_belt.jpg \"Eurasian steppe belt.jpg\")", "It shares borders of {{convert\\|6846\\|km}} with Russia, {{convert\\|2203\\|km}} with [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\"), {{convert\\|1533\\|km}} with China, {{convert\\|1051\\|km}} with [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\"), and {{convert\\|379\\|km}} with [Turkmenistan](/wiki/Turkmenistan \"Turkmenistan\"). Major cities include [Astana](/wiki/Astana \"Astana\"), [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\"), [Qarağandy](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy \"Qarağandy\"), [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent \"Şymkent\"), [Atyrau](/wiki/Atyrau \"Atyrau\"), and [Öskemen](/wiki/%C3%96skemen \"Öskemen\"). It lies between latitudes [40°](/wiki/40th_parallel_north \"40th parallel north\") and [56° N](/wiki/56th_parallel_north \"56th parallel north\"), and longitudes [46°](/wiki/46th_meridian_east \"46th meridian east\") and [88° E](/wiki/88th_meridian_east \"88th meridian east\"). While located primarily in Asia, a [small portion](/wiki/European_Kazakhstan \"European Kazakhstan\") of Kazakhstan is also located west of the [Urals](/wiki/Urals \"Urals\") in Eastern Europe.{{cite encyclopedia\\|title\\=Kazakhstan – MSN Encarta \\|url\\=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid\\=761566451 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601203047/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid\\=761566451 \\|archive\\-date\\= 1 June 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Kazakhstan's terrain extends west to east from the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea \"Caspian Sea\") to the [Altay Mountains](/wiki/Altay_Mountains \"Altay Mountains\") and north to south from the plains of [Western Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\") to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. The [Kazakh Steppe](/wiki/Kazakh_Steppe \"Kazakh Steppe\") (plain), with an area of around {{convert\\|804500\\|km2}}, occupies one\\-third of the country and is the world's largest dry [steppe](/wiki/Steppe \"Steppe\") region. The steppe is characterised by large areas of [grasslands](/wiki/Grassland \"Grassland\") and sandy regions. Major seas, lakes and rivers include [Lake Balkhash](/wiki/Lake_Balkhash \"Lake Balkhash\"), [Lake Zaysan](/wiki/Lake_Zaysan \"Lake Zaysan\"), the [Charyn River and gorge](/wiki/Charyn_Canyon \"Charyn Canyon\"), the [Ili](/wiki/Ili_River \"Ili River\"), [Irtysh](/wiki/Irtysh_River \"Irtysh River\"), [Ishim](/wiki/Ishim_River \"Ishim River\"), [Ural](/wiki/Ural_River \"Ural River\") and [Syr Darya](/wiki/Syr_Darya \"Syr Darya\") rivers, and the [Aral Sea](/wiki/Aral_Sea \"Aral Sea\") until it largely dried up in one of the world's worst environmental disasters.{{cite news\\|author\\=Daily Telegraph\\|title\\=Aral Sea 'one of the planet's worst environmental disasters'\\| url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral\\-Sea\\-one\\-of\\-the\\-planets\\-worst\\-environmental\\-disasters.html\\|date\\=5 April 2010\\|access\\-date\\=1 May 2010\\| location\\=London\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408214552/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral\\-Sea\\-one\\-of\\-the\\-planets\\-worst\\-environmental\\-disasters.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n[thumb\\|The Kazakh Steppe in the early spring](/wiki/File:Steppe_of_western_Kazakhstan_in_the_early_spring.jpg \"Steppe of western Kazakhstan in the early spring.jpg\")\nThe [Charyn Canyon](/wiki/Charyn_Canyon \"Charyn Canyon\") is {{convert\\|80\\|km}} long, cutting through a red [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\") plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern [Tian Shan](/wiki/Tian_Shan \"Tian Shan\") (\"Heavenly Mountains\", {{convert\\|200\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} east of Almaty) at {{coord\\|43\\|21\\|1\\.16\\|N\\|79\\|4\\|49\\.28\\|E\\|}}. The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of between {{convert\\|150\\|and\\|300\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=off}}. The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare [ash tree](/wiki/Ash_tree \"Ash tree\"), *Fraxinus sogdiana*, which survived the [Ice Age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period \"Last Glacial Period\") there and has now also grown in some other areas.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.3390/d15060769\\|title\\=Anatomical Structure and Phytochemical Composition of a Rare Species Fraxinus sogdiana Bunge (Oleaceae) Growing in Different Soils in Kazakhstan\\|journal\\=Diversity\\|date\\=2023 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|last1\\=Aldibekova \\|first1\\=Almagul \\|last2\\=Kurmanbayeva \\|first2\\=Meruyert \\|last3\\=Aksoy \\|first3\\=Ahmet \\|last4\\=Permitina \\|first4\\=Valeria \\|last5\\=Dimeyeva \\|first5\\=Liliya \\|last6\\=Zverev \\|first6\\=Nikolai \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=6 \\|page\\=769 }} [Bigach crater](/wiki/Bigach_crater \"Bigach crater\"), at {{coord\\|48\\|30\\|N\\|82\\|00\\|E\\|}}, is a [Pliocene](/wiki/Pliocene \"Pliocene\") or [Miocene](/wiki/Miocene \"Miocene\") [asteroid](/wiki/Asteroid \"Asteroid\") [impact crater](/wiki/Impact_crater \"Impact crater\"), {{convert\\|8\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} in diameter and estimated to be 5±3 million years old.", "Kazakhstan's [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\") region is also home to the [Mynzhylky mountain plateau](/wiki/Mynzhylky_mountain_plateau \"Mynzhylky mountain plateau\").", "### Natural resources", "{{See also\\|Energy in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|[Qarağandy Region](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy_Region \"Qarağandy Region\")](/wiki/File:Reserve_Karkaraly.jpg \"Reserve Karkaraly.jpg\")", "Kazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources. Development of petroleum, natural gas, and mineral extractions has attracted most of the over $40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57 percent of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13 percent of gross domestic product). According to some estimates,[Mineral Wealth](https://web.archive.org/web/20070507024507/http://www.homestead.com/prosites-kazakhembus/MineralWealth.html). homestead.com Kazakhstan has the second largest [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\"), [chromium](/wiki/Chromium \"Chromium\"), lead, and [zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\") reserves; the third largest [manganese](/wiki/Manganese \"Manganese\") reserves; the fifth largest copper reserves; and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. It is also an exporter of diamonds. Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.International Crisis Group. (May 2007\\). [Central Asia's Energy Risks, Asia Report No. 133](http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/central-asia/133-central-asias-energy-risks.aspx) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225435/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/central\\-asia/133\\-central\\-asias\\-energy\\-risks.aspx \\|date\\=3 March 2016 }} One such location is the [Tokarevskoye gas condensate field](/wiki/Tokarevskoye_gas_condensate_field \"Tokarevskoye gas condensate field\").", "In total, there are 160 deposits with over {{convert\\|2\\.7\\|e9t\\|e9lt\\|abbr\\=off}} of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on the [Caspian shore](/wiki/Caspian_Sea \"Caspian Sea\") are only a small part of a much larger deposit. It is said that {{convert\\|3\\.5\\|e9t\\|e9lt\\|abbr\\=off}} of oil and {{convert\\|2\\.5\\|e9m3\\|e9cuft\\|abbr\\=off}} of gas could be found in that area. Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is {{convert\\|6\\.1\\|e9t\\|e9lt\\|abbr\\=off}}. However, there are only three [refineries](/wiki/Oil_refinery \"Oil refinery\") within the country, situated in [Atyrau](/wiki/Atirau \"Atirau\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kazworld.info/?p\\=58130\\|title\\=Company Overview of Atyrau Refinery LLP – KazWorld.info\\|work\\=kazworld.info\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026232217/http://kazworld.info/?p\\=58130\\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2016}} [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar \"Pavlodar\"), and [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent \"Şymkent\"). These are not capable of processing the total crude output, so much of it is exported to Russia. According to the US [Energy Information Administration](/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration \"Energy Information Administration\"), Kazakhstan was producing approximately {{convert\\|1540000\\|oilbbl}} of oil per day in 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/STEO\\_Query/steotables.cfm?periodType\\=Annual\\&startYear\\=2005\\&startMonth\\=1\\&endYear\\=2009\\&endMonth\\=12\\&tableNumber\\=29 \\|archive\\-url\\=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090409081928/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/STEO\\_Query/steotables.cfm?periodType\\=Annual\\&startYear\\=2005\\&startMonth\\=1\\&endYear\\=2009\\&endMonth\\=12\\&tableNumber\\=29 \\|archive\\-date\\= 9 April 2009 \\|title\\=Table 3b. Non\\-OPEC Petroleum Supply \\|work\\=U.S. Energy Information Administration. Independent Statistics and Analysis. \\|publisher\\=Tonto.eia.doe.gov \\|date\\=11 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Kazakhstan also possesses large deposits of [phosphorite](/wiki/Phosphorite \"Phosphorite\"). Two of the largest deposits include the Karatau basin with 650 million tonnes of P2O5 and the Chilisai deposit of the [Aqtobe phosphorite basin](/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD \"Актобинский фосфоритоносный бассейн\") located in northwestern Kazakhstan, with resources of 500–800{{nbsp}}million tonnes of 9 percent ore.[Chilisai Phosphate Project Ore Reserve Update](http://www.sunkarresources.com/en/news/chilisai_Phosphate_Project_ore_reserve_update/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402211127/http://www.sunkarresources.com/en/news/chilisai\\_phosphate\\_project\\_ore\\_reserve\\_update \\|date\\=2 April 2016 }} // SUNKAR RESOURCES PLC[THE MINERAL INDUSTRY OF KAZAKHSTAN—1997](http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9422097.pdf#page=7) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303091425/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9422097\\.pdf \\|date\\=3 March 2013 }} // USGS: Phosphate Rock – Reserves", "On 17 October 2013, the [Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative](/wiki/Extractive_Industries_Transparency_Initiative \"Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative\") (EITI) accepted Kazakhstan as \"EITI Compliant\", meaning that the country has a basic and functional process to ensure the regular disclosure of natural resource revenues.[Kazakhstan accepted as 'EITI Compliant'](http://eiti.org/news/kazakhstan-accepted-eiti-compliant) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/https://eiti.org/news/kazakhstan\\-accepted\\-eiti\\-compliant \\|date\\=1 January 2016 }}. EITI (17 October 2013\\). Retrieved 8 March 2014\\.", "### Climate", "[thumb\\|328x328px\\|Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1\\-km resolution for Kazakhstan 1991–2020](/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_KAZ_1991%E2%80%932020.svg \"Koppen-Geiger Map v2 KAZ 1991–2020.svg\")\nKazakhstan has an \"extreme\" [continental](/wiki/Continental_climate \"Continental climate\") and [cold steppe climate](/wiki/Cold_steppe \"Cold steppe\"), and sits solidly inside the [Eurasian steppe](/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe \"Eurasian Steppe\"), featuring the [Kazakh steppe](/wiki/Kazakh_Steppe \"Kazakh Steppe\"), with hot summers and very cold winters. Indeed, Astana is the second coldest capital city in the world after [Ulaanbaatar](/wiki/Ulaanbaatar \"Ulaanbaatar\"). [Precipitation](/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29 \"Precipitation (meteorology)\") varies between arid and semi\\-arid conditions, the winter being particularly dry.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Coldest Capital Cities In The World\\|url\\=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the\\-coldest\\-capital\\-cities\\-in\\-the\\-world.html\\|website\\=WorldAtlas.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108040732/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the\\-coldest\\-capital\\-cities\\-in\\-the\\-world.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2017}}", "| \\+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for large cities in Kazakhstan{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c\\=KZ\\&name\\=Kazakhstan\\|title\\=Kazakhstan climate information\\|publisher\\=Weatherbase\\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102193331/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c\\=KZ\\&name\\=Kazakhstan\\|archive\\-date\\=2 January 2016}} |\n| --- |\n| Location | July (°C) | July (°F) | January (°C) | January (°F) |\n| [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\") | 30/18 | 86/64 | 0/−8 | 33/17 |\n| [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent \"Şymkent\") | 32/17 | 91/66 | 4/−4 | 39/23 |\n| [Qarağandy](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy \"Qarağandy\") | 27/14 | 80/57 | −8/−17 | 16/1 |\n| [Astana](/wiki/Astana \"Astana\") | 27/15 | 80/59 | −10/−18 | 14/−1 |\n| [Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar \"Pavlodar\") | 28/15 | 82/59 | −11/−20 | 12/−5 |\n| [Aqtobe](/wiki/Aqtobe \"Aqtobe\") | 30/15 | 86/61 | −8/−16 | 17/2 |", "", "### Wildlife", "{{Main\\|Wildlife of Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Corsac fox](/wiki/Corsac_fox \"Corsac fox\")](/wiki/File:Vulpes_corsac.jpg \"Vulpes corsac.jpg\")", "There are ten [nature reserves](/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_Kazakhstan \"List of protected areas of Kazakhstan\") and ten [national parks](/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Kazakhstan \"List of national parks of Kazakhstan\") in Kazakhstan that provide safe haven for many rare and endangered plants and animals. In total there are twenty five [areas of conservancy](/wiki/Conservancy_areas_of_Kazakhstan \"Conservancy areas of Kazakhstan\"). Common plants are *[Astragalus](/wiki/Astragalus_%28plant%29 \"Astragalus (plant)\")*, *[Gagea](/wiki/Gagea \"Gagea\")*, *[Allium](/wiki/Allium \"Allium\")*, *[Carex](/wiki/Carex \"Carex\")* and *[Oxytropis](/wiki/Oxytropis \"Oxytropis\")*; endangered plant species include native wild apple (*[Malus sieversii](/wiki/Malus_sieversii \"Malus sieversii\")*), wild grape (*[Vitis vinifera](/wiki/Vitis_vinifera \"Vitis vinifera\")*) and several wild [tulip](/wiki/Tulip \"Tulip\") species (e.g., *[Tulipa greigii](/wiki/Tulipa_greigii \"Tulipa greigii\")*) and rare onion species *[Allium karataviense](/wiki/Allium_karataviense \"Allium karataviense\")*, also *[Iris willmottiana](/wiki/Iris_willmottiana \"Iris willmottiana\")* and *[Tulipa kaufmanniana](/wiki/Tulipa_kaufmanniana \"Tulipa kaufmanniana\")*.A.F. Kovshar (Ed.): *Monitoring biologicheskogo raznoobraziya Zapovednika Aksu\\-Dzhabagly*. In: *Tethys Biodiversity Research*. Tom 1, S. 17–21\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Celestial Silk Road 5th–21st June 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.viranatura.com/Product\\_100001\\_Celestial\\-Silk\\-Road\\-5th\\-21st\\-June\\-2016 \\|publisher\\=viranatura.com \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305045058/http://www.viranatura.com/Product\\_100001\\_Celestial\\-Silk\\-Road\\-5th\\-21st\\-June\\-2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016}} Kazakhstan had a 2019 [Forest Landscape Integrity Index](/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index \"Forest Landscape Integrity Index\") mean score of 8\\.23/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Grantham\\|first1\\=H. S.\\|last2\\=Duncan\\|first2\\=A.\\|last3\\=Evans\\|first3\\=T. D.\\|last4\\=Jones\\|first4\\=K. R.\\|last5\\=Beyer\\|first5\\=H. L.\\|last6\\=Schuster\\|first6\\=R.\\|last7\\=Walston\\|first7\\=J.\\|last8\\=Ray\\|first8\\=J. C.\\|last9\\=Robinson\\|first9\\=J. G.\\|last10\\=Callow\\|first10\\=M.\\|last11\\=Clements\\|first11\\=T.\\|last12\\=Costa\\|first12\\=H. M.\\|last13\\=DeGemmis\\|first13\\=A.\\|last14\\=Elsen\\|first14\\=P. R.\\|last15\\=Ervin\\|first15\\=J.\\|last16\\=Franco\\|first16\\=P.\\|last17\\=Goldman\\|first17\\=E.\\|last18\\=Goetz\\|first18\\=S.\\|last19\\=Hansen\\|first19\\=A.\\|last20\\=Hofsvang\\|first20\\=E.\\|last21\\=Jantz\\|first21\\=P.\\|last22\\=Jupiter\\|first22\\=S.\\|last23\\=Kang\\|first23\\=A.\\|last24\\=Langhammer\\|first24\\=P.\\|last25\\=Laurance\\|first25\\=W. F.\\|last26\\=Lieberman\\|first26\\=S.\\|last27\\=Linkie\\|first27\\=M.\\|last28\\=Malhi\\|first28\\=Y.\\|last29\\=Maxwell\\|first29\\=S.\\|last30\\=Mendez\\|first30\\=M.\\|last31\\=Mittermeier\\|first31\\=R.\\|last32\\=Murray\\|first32\\=N. J.\\|last33\\=Possingham\\|first33\\=H.\\|last34\\=Radachowsky\\|first34\\=J.\\|last35\\=Saatchi\\|first35\\=S.\\|last36\\=Samper\\|first36\\=C.\\|last37\\=Silverman\\|first37\\=J.\\|last38\\=Shapiro\\|first38\\=A.\\|last39\\=Strassburg\\|first39\\=B.\\|last40\\=Stevens\\|first40\\=T.\\|last41\\=Stokes\\|first41\\=E.\\|last42\\=Taylor\\|first42\\=R.\\|last43\\=Tear\\|first43\\=T.\\|last44\\=Tizard\\|first44\\=R.\\|last45\\=Venter\\|first45\\=O.\\|last46\\=Visconti\\|first46\\=P.\\|last47\\=Wang\\|first47\\=S.\\|last48\\=Watson\\|first48\\=J. E. M.\\|title\\=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material\\|journal\\=Nature Communications\\|volume\\=11\\|issue\\=1\\|year\\=2020\\|page\\=5978\\|issn\\=2041\\-1723\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41467\\-020\\-19493\\-3\\|pmid\\=33293507\\|pmc\\=7723057\\|bibcode\\=2020NatCo..11\\.5978G \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "Common mammals include the [wolf](/wiki/Wolf \"Wolf\"), [red fox](/wiki/Red_fox \"Red fox\"), [corsac fox](/wiki/Corsac_fox \"Corsac fox\"), [moose](/wiki/Moose \"Moose\"), [argali](/wiki/Argali \"Argali\") (the largest species of sheep), [Eurasian lynx](/wiki/Eurasian_lynx \"Eurasian lynx\"), [Pallas's cat](/wiki/Pallas%27s_cat \"Pallas's cat\"), and [snow leopards](/wiki/Snow_leopards \"Snow leopards\"), several of which are protected.\nKazakhstan's Red Book of Protected Species lists 125 vertebrates including many birds and mammals, and 404 plants including fungi, algae and lichens.{{cite web\\|title\\=Red Book\\|url\\=http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/kazakh/nav/species/red.htm\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205173757/http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/kazakh/nav/species/red.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2017}}", "[Przewalski's horse](/wiki/Przewalski%27s_horse \"Przewalski's horse\") has been reintroduced to the steppes after nearly 200 years.{{cite web \\|date\\=14 June 2024 \\|title\\=Wild Przewalski's horses return to Kazakhstan after 200 years \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/6/14/wild\\-przewalskis\\-horses\\-return\\-to\\-kazakhstan\\-after\\-200\\-years}}", "" ]
Government and politics ----------------------- {{Main\|Government of Kazakhstan\|Politics of Kazakhstan}} ### Political system Officially, Kazakhstan is a democratic, secular, constitutional [unitary republic](/wiki/Unitary_republic "Unitary republic"); [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev "Nursultan Nazarbayev") led the country from 1991 to 2019\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/02/07/yes\-kazakhstan\-should\-change\-its\-name\-this\-map\-shows\-why/\|title\=Yes, Kazakhstan should change its name. This map shows why.\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|access\-date\=11 August 2017\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811145614/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/02/07/yes\-kazakhstan\-should\-change\-its\-name\-this\-map\-shows\-why/\|archive\-date\=11 August 2017}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-47628854\|title\=Kazakh leader resigns after three decades\|date\=19 March 2019\|access\-date\=19 March 2019\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425061650/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-47628854\|archive\-date\=25 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}} He was succeeded by [Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev "Kassym-Jomart Tokayev").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\-03\-19/president\-of\-kazakhstan\-nursultan\-nazarbayev\-resigns\|title\=Kazakhstan's Leader Nazarbayev Resigns After Three Decades in Power\|last\=Auyezov\|first\=Olzhas\|date\=19 March 2019\|website\=US News\|access\-date\=1 April 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401081832/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\-03\-19/president\-of\-kazakhstan\-nursultan\-nazarbayev\-resigns\|archive\-date\=1 April 2019\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|title\=Nazarbayev ally wins big in Kazakhstan election after hundreds arrested\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds\-arrested\-as\-kazakhs\-protest\-against\-rigged\-election\|agency\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=12 July 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712033625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds\-arrested\-as\-kazakhs\-protest\-against\-rigged\-election\|archive\-date\=12 July 2019\|url\-status\=live}} The president may veto legislation that has been passed by the [parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Kazakhstan "Parliament of Kazakhstan") and is also the [commander\-in\-chief](/wiki/Commander-in-chief "Commander-in-chief") of the [armed forces](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan "Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan"). The prime minister chairs the cabinet of ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and sixteen ministers in the cabinet.{{Cite web\|title\=About Republic of Kazakhstan {{!}} CIS Legislation\|url\=https://cis\-legislation.com/cis/kazakhstan/index.html\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=cis\-legislation.com\|archive\-date\=9 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109232202/https://cis\-legislation.com/cis/kazakhstan/index.html\|url\-status\=live}} | [120px](/wiki/File:Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev_%282022-06-17%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "Kassym-Jomart Tokayev (2022-06-17) (cropped).jpg") | [120px](/wiki/File:Oljas_Bektenov_%282024-02-06%2C_cropped%29.jpg "Oljas Bektenov (2024-02-06, cropped).jpg") | | --- | --- | | [Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev "Kassym-Jomart Tokayev")[President](/wiki/President_of_Kazakhstan "President of Kazakhstan") | [Oljas Bektenov](/wiki/Oljas_Bektenov "Oljas Bektenov")[Prime Minister of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Kazakhstan "Prime Minister of Kazakhstan") | Kazakhstan has a [bicameral](/wiki/Bicameral "Bicameral") parliament composed of the *[Majilis](/wiki/Majilis "Majilis")* (the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house "Lower house")) and [senate](/wiki/Senate_of_Kazakhstan "Senate of Kazakhstan") (the [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house")).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.akorda.kz/en/category/kazakhstan \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323103659/http://akorda.kz/en/category/kazakhstan \|archive\-date\=23 March 2013 \|title\=Official site of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan – Kazakhstan \|publisher\=Akorda.kz \|access\-date\=26 March 2013}} Single\-mandate districts popularly elect 107 seats in the *Majilis*; there also are ten members elected by party\-list vote. The senate has 48 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies ([mäslihats](/wiki/M%C3%A4slihat "Mäslihat")) of Kazakhstan's sixteen principal [administrative divisions](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Kazakhstan "Administrative divisions of Kazakhstan") (fourteen regions plus the cities of Astana, Almaty, and Şymkent). The president appoints the remaining fifteen senators. *Majilis* deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the parliament. In 2020, [Freedom House](/wiki/Freedom_House "Freedom House") rated Kazakhstan as a "consolidated [authoritarian](/wiki/Authoritarian "Authoritarian") regime", stating that [freedom of speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech "Freedom of speech") is not respected and "Kazakhstan's electoral laws do not provide for [free and fair elections](/wiki/Free_and_fair_election "Free and fair election")."{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan: Nations in Transit 2020 Country Report \|url\=https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/nations\-transit/2020 \|website\=Freedom House \|access\-date\=30 May 2021 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212641/https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/nations\-transit/2020 \|url\-status\=live }} ### Political reforms Reforms have begun to be implemented after the election of Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev in June 2019\. Tokayev supports a culture of opposition, public assembly, and loosening rules on forming political parties.{{cite news \|title\=Kazakhstan to Liberalize Rules on Protests and Political Parties \|url\=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\-12\-20/kazakhstan\-to\-liberalize\-rules\-on\-protests\-and\-political\-parties \|agency\=REUTERS \|publisher\=USNews \|access\-date\=24 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224202342/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\-12\-20/kazakhstan\-to\-liberalize\-rules\-on\-protests\-and\-political\-parties \|archive\-date\=24 December 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} In June 2019, Tokayev established the National Council of Public Trust as a public platform for national conversation regarding government policies and reforms.{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan President Tokayev's initiatives on public safety, rule of law, human rights \|url\=http://www.iran\-daily.com/News/263944\.html \|website\=iran\-daily.com \|access\-date\=8 April 2020 \|date\=5 January 2020 \|archive\-date\=14 January 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114194339/http://www.iran\-daily.com/News/263944\.html \|url\-status\=live }} [50px](/wiki/File:CC_BY_icon.svg "CC BY icon.svg") Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4\.0 International License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\.0/ \|date\=16 October 2017 }}. In July 2019, the President of Kazakhstan announced a concept of a 'listening state' that quickly and efficiently responds to all constructive requests of the country's citizens.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/commentary/long\-take/first\-glimpses\-of\-tokayevs\-kazakhstan/\|title\=First glimpses of Tokayev's Kazakhstan: The listening state?\|date\=17 September 2019\|website\=Atlantic Council\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=7 April 2020\|archive\-date\=20 September 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920081417/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/commentary/long\-take/first\-glimpses\-of\-tokayevs\-kazakhstan/\|url\-status\=live}} A law will be passed to allow representatives from other parties to hold chair positions on some Parliamentary committees, to foster alternative views and opinions.{{when\|date\=March 2022}} The minimum membership threshold needed to register a political party will be reduced from 40,000 to 20,000 members. Special places for peaceful rallies in central areas will be allocated and a new draft law outlining the rights and obligations of organisers, participants and observers will be passed. In an effort to increase public safety, President Tokayev has strengthened the penalties for those who commit crimes against individuals. On 17 September 2022, Tokayev signed a decree that limits presidential tenure to one term of seven years.{{Cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan limits presidential term, renames capital \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/17/kazakhstan\-limits\-presidential\-term\-renames\-capital \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-21 \|website\=aljazeera.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=17 September 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220917174621/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/17/kazakhstan\-limits\-presidential\-term\-renames\-capital \|url\-status\=live }} He furthermore announced the preparation of a new reform package to "decentralize" and "distribute" power between government institutions. The reform package also seeks to modify the electoral system and increase the decision\-making authorities of Kazakhstan's regions.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-11\-18 \|title\=Tokayev bites the reform bullet \|url\=https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/11/19/tokayev\-bites\-the\-reform\-bullet/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-21 \|website\=East Asia Forum \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221081643/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/11/19/tokayev\-bites\-the\-reform\-bullet/ \|url\-status\=live }} The powers of the parliament were expanded at the expense of those of the president, relatives of whom are now also barred from holding government positions, while the Constitutional Court was restored and the death penalty abolished.{{Cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan: Voters back reforms to reject founder's legacy \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan\-voters\-back\-reforms\-to\-reject\-founders\-legacy/a\-62037144 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-21 \|website\=dw.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221081812/https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan\-voters\-back\-reforms\-to\-reject\-founders\-legacy/a\-62037144 \|url\-status\=live }} ### Administrative divisions {{Main\|Regions of Kazakhstan\|Districts of Kazakhstan}} Kazakhstan is divided into seventeen [regions](/wiki/Regions_of_Kazakhstan "Regions of Kazakhstan") ({{langx\|kk\|облыстар}}, {{lang\|kk\-latn\|oblystar}}; {{langx\|ru\|link\=no\|области}}, {{lang\|ru\-latn\|oblasti}}) plus three cities (Almaty, Astana and Şymkent) which are independent of the region in which they are situated. The regions are subdivided into 177 [districts](/wiki/Districts_of_Kazakhstan "Districts of Kazakhstan") ({{langx\|kk\|аудандар}}, {{lang\|kk\-latn\|audandar}}; {{langx\|ru\|link\=no\|районы}}, {{lang\|ru\-latn\|rayony}}).{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan, Unitary County\|url\=https://www.oecd.org/regional/regional\-policy/profile\-Kazakhzstan.pdf\|publisher\=www.oecd.org\|access\-date\=6 February 2018\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206190320/https://www.oecd.org/regional/regional\-policy/profile\-Kazakhzstan.pdf\|archive\-date\=6 February 2018}} The districts are further subdivided into rural districts at the lowest level of administration, which include all rural settlements and villages without an associated municipal government.{{cite web\|title\=On Administrative\-Territorial Division of the Republic of Kazakhstan, The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 8 December 1993\|url\=http://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z930004200\_\|website\=Adilet\|publisher\=Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan Republican Center of Legal Information\|access\-date\=7 February 2018\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207124434/http://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z930004200\_\|archive\-date\=7 February 2018}} {{anchor\|special status cities}} The cities of [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty") and [Astana](/wiki/Astana "Astana") have status "state importance" and do not belong to any region. The city of [Baikonur](/wiki/Baikonur "Baikonur") has a special status because it is being leased until 2050 to Russia for the [Baikonur cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_cosmodrome "Baikonur cosmodrome").[Kazakhstan](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132304/https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/countries/kazakhstan \|date\=9 January 2021 }} . *CIA World Factbook*. In June 2018 the city of [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent "Şymkent") became a "city of republican significance".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda\_news/akorda\_other\_events/publichnoe\-podpisanie\-ukaza\-o\-nekotoryh\-voprosah\-administrativno\-territorialnogo\-ustroistva\-respubliki\-kazahstan \|script\-title\=ru:Публичное подписание Указа "О некоторых вопросах административно\-территориального устройства Республики Казахстан" \|trans\-title\=Public signing of the Decree "On some issues of the administrative and territorial structure of the Republic of Kazakhstan" \|date\=19 June 2018 \|publisher\=President of Kazakhstan \|language\=ru \|access\-date\=21 June 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20180620020328/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda\_news/akorda\_other\_events/publichnoe\-podpisanie\-ukaza\-o\-nekotoryh\-voprosah\-administrativno\-territorialnogo\-ustroistva\-respubliki\-kazahstan \|archive\-date\=20 June 2018 \|url\-status\=live }} Each region is headed by an [äkim](/wiki/Akim "Akim") (regional governor) appointed by the president. District *äkimi* are appointed by regional *akim*s. Kazakhstan's government relocated its capital from Almaty, established under the Soviet Union, to Astana on 10 December 1997\.{{Cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan renames capital to honour ex\-leader\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/23/kazakhstan\-renames\-capital\-to\-honour\-ex\-leader\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=aljazeera.com\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=8 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108232741/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/23/kazakhstan\-renames\-capital\-to\-honour\-ex\-leader\|url\-status\=live}} ### Municipal divisions Municipalities exist at each level of administrative division in Kazakhstan. Cities of republican, regional, and district significance are designated as urban inhabited localities; all others are designated rural. At the highest level are the cities of Almaty and Astana, which are classified as *cities of republican significance* on the administrative level equal to that of a region. At the intermediate level are *cities of regional significance* on the administrative level equal to that of a district. Cities of these two levels may be divided into city districts. At the lowest level are *cities of district significance*, and over two\-thousand *villages and rural settlements* ({{lang\|ru\-latn\|aul}}) on the administrative level equal to that of rural districts. ### Urban centres {{Largest cities \| country \= Kazakhstan \| stat\_ref \= {{Cite web\|url\=http://stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId\=ESTAT305821\|title\=Обложка\|website\=stat.gov.kz\|access\-date\=7 December 2021\|archive\-date\=13 June 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613081608/http://stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId\=ESTAT305821\|url\-status\=dead}} \| list\_by\_pop \= \| div\_name \= Region \| div\_link \= \|city\_1 \= Almaty \|div\_1 \= Almaty \|pop\_1 \= 1,854,656 \|img\_1 \= View of Almaty from the hills.png \|city\_2 \= Astana \|div\_2 \= Astana \|pop\_2 \= 1,078,384 \|img\_2 \= Astana 020000, Kazakhstan \- panoramio (15\).jpg \|city\_3 \= Şymkent \|div\_3 \= Shymkent{{!}}Shymkent \|pop\_3 \= 1,009,086 \|img\_3 \= Unnamed Road, Kazakhstan \- panoramio (44\).jpg \|city\_4 \= Qarağandy \|div\_4 \= Qarağandy Region{{!}}Qarağandy \|pop\_4 \= 497,712 \|img\_4 \= Qaraghandy, Kazakhstan.jpg \|city\_5 \= Aqtobe \|div\_5 \= Aqtobe Region{{!}}Aqtobe \|pop\_5 \= 487,994 \|city\_6 \= Taraz \|div\_6 \= Jambyl Region{{!}}Jambyl \|pop\_6 \= 357,791 \|city\_7 \= Pavlodar \|div\_7 \= Pavlodar Region{{!}}Pavlodar \|pop\_7 \= 333,989 \|city\_8 \= Öskemen \|div\_8 \= East Kazakhstan Region{{!}}East Kazakhstan \|pop\_8 \= 331,614 \|city\_9 \= Semey \|div\_9 \= Abai Region{{!}}Abai \|pop\_9 \= 323,138 \|city\_10 \= Atyrau \|div\_10 \= Atyrau Region{{!}}Atyrau \|pop\_10 \= 269,720 }} ### Foreign relations {{Main\|Foreign relations of Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|President [Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev "Nursultan Nazarbayev") with U.S. President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") and Russian President [Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev "Dmitry Medvedev") in 2012](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_South_Korea%2C_March_2012-15.jpeg "Dmitry Medvedev in South Korea, March 2012-15.jpeg") Kazakhstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the [Economic Cooperation Organization](/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization "Economic Cooperation Organization") and the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation"). The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), Kyrgyzstan and [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan "Tajikistan") established the [Eurasian Economic Community](/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Community "Eurasian Economic Community") in 2000, to revive earlier efforts to harmonise trade tariffs and to create a free trade zone under a customs union. On 1 December 2007, it was announced that Kazakhstan had been chosen to chair the [Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe") for the year 2010\. Kazakhstan was elected a member of the [UN Human Rights Council](/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Council "UN Human Rights Council") for the first time on 12 November 2012\.{{cite news \|url\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\_sub/Kazakhstan\-became\-member\-of\-UN\-Human\-Rights\-Council\-\-14431/ \|title\=Kazakhstan became member of UN Human Rights Council \|work\=Tengrinews.kz English \|date\=13 November 2012 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\_sub/Kazakhstan\-became\-member\-of\-UN\-Human\-Rights\-Council\-\-14431/ \|archive\-date\=1 January 2016}} Kazakhstan is also a member of the United Nations, [Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe"), [Euro\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council "Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council"), [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council "Turkic Council"), and [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation") (OIC). It is an active participant in the [North Atlantic Treaty Organisation](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization "North Atlantic Treaty Organization") [Partnership for Peace](/wiki/Partnership_for_Peace "Partnership for Peace") program.{{cite web\|author\=North Atlantic Treaty Organization\|title\=Signatures of Partnership for Peace Framework Document\|date\=5 October 2006\|url\=http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\-cntr.htm\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129213256/http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\-cntr.htm\|archive\-date\=29 November 2006}} In 1999, Kazakhstan had applied for observer status at the [Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly"). The official response of the Assembly was that because Kazakhstan is partially located in Europe,{{cite web\|url\=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\-Xref\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\=9998\|title\=Situation in Kazakhstan and its relations with the Council of Europe\|last\=Iwiński\|first\=Tadeusz\|date\=7 July 2006\|website\=Council of Europe – Parliamentary Assembly\|access\-date\=14 February 2020\|quote\=For its part, the Assembly might decide, already at this stage, to interpret Rule 59 of its Rules of procedure, concerning special guests, in such a way as to include the Eurasian States. Two Council of Europe member States, Turkey and Russia, belong geographically to both Europe and Asia and are therefore Eurasian. Strictly speaking, the three South Caucasus States, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are located in Asia, yet their membership of political Europe is no longer in doubt. \[...] This being the case, Kazakhstan, as a Eurasian State participating in the OSCE and a signatory to the International covenant on civil and political rights and the International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, would meet the criteria laid down in Rule 59, making it eligible to apply for special guest status with the Assembly.\|archive\-date\=9 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233442/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\-Xref\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\=9998\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\-cornell\-engvall\-kazakhstan\-in\-europe\-why\-not.pdf\|title\=Kazakhstan in Europe: Why Not?\|last1\=Cornell\|first1\=Svante\|last2\=Engvall\|first2\=Johan\|date\=2017\|website\=Institute for Security \& Development Policy\|access\-date\=15 February 2020\|quote\=However, by 2006, a Rapporteur for the Political Affairs Committee concluded that because of Kazakhstan's nature as a European country, the country should be considered 'eligible to apply for a special guest status.'\|archive\-date\=24 October 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024154030/https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\-cornell\-engvall\-kazakhstan\-in\-europe\-why\-not.pdf\|url\-status\=live}} it could apply for full membership, but that it would not be granted any status whatsoever at the council until its democracy and human rights records improved. Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the "multi\-vector foreign policy" ({{langx\|kk\|көпвекторлы сыртқы саясат}}), seeking equally good relations with its two large neighbours, Russia and China, as well as with the United States and the rest of the Western world.{{cite news \|last\=Blank \|first\=Stephen \|title\=Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in a Time of Turmoil \|publisher\=EurasiaNet \|date\=27 April 2005 \|url\=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\.shtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045839/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\.shtml \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|access\-date\=9 April 2009 }}{{cite news \|last\=Cohen \|first\=Ariel \|title\=Kazakh foreign minister insists balanced foreign policy remains intact \|publisher\=Business News Europe \|date\=7 October 2008 \|url\=http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817020006/http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \|archive\-date\=17 August 2009}} Russia leases approximately {{convert\|6000\|km2\|0\|abbr\=out}} of territory enclosing the [Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome "Baikonur Cosmodrome") space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle [Buran](/wiki/Buran_%28spacecraft%29 "Buran (spacecraft)") and the well\-known space station [Mir](/wiki/Mir "Mir"). On 11 April 2010, presidents Nazarbayev and [Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan. They pledged to intensify bilateral co\-operation to promote nuclear safety and non\-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.[Joint Statement on the meeting between President Obama and Kazakhstan president Nazarbayev \| The White House](https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/joint-statement-meeting-between-president-obama-and-kazakhstan-president-nazarbayev) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216172644/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\-press\-office/joint\-statement\-meeting\-between\-president\-obama\-and\-kazakhstan\-president\-nazarbayev \|date\=16 February 2017 }}. Whitehouse.gov (11 April 2010\). Retrieved 14 January 2013\. Since 2014, the Kazakhstani government has been bidding for a non\-permanent member seat on the UN Security Council for 2017–2018\.{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan, UN Continue Building on Two\-Decades of Cooperation\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\-un\-continue\-building\-two\-decades\-cooperation/\|website\=Astanatimes.com\|date\=27 October 2014 \|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170610/http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\-un\-continue\-building\-two\-decades\-cooperation/\|archive\-date\=19 February 2016}} On 28 June 2016 Kazakhstan was elected as a non\-permanent member to serve on the UN Security Council for a two\-year term.{{cite web\|title\=Sweden, Bolivia, Ethiopia and Kazakhstan elected to Security Council\|url\=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\=54350\#.WDczqbXXfYU\|website\=un.org\| date\=28 June 2016 \|access\-date\=23 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125045313/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\=54350\#.WDczqbXXfYU\|archive\-date\=25 November 2016}} [thumb\|Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev, [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan"), [Xi Jinping](/wiki/Xi_Jinping "Xi Jinping") and other leaders at the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") summit in Samarkand, 16 September 2022](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organization_member_states_Summit_gets_underway_in_Samarkand_02.jpg "Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states Summit gets underway in Samarkand 02.jpg") Kazakhstan has supported UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire.{{cite news\|title\=Kazakh peacekeepers in Western Sahara\|url\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\-peacekeepers\-in\-Western\-Sahara\-257039/\|publisher\=Tengrinews\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108204101/http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\-peacekeepers\-in\-Western\-Sahara\-257039/\|archive\-date\=8 November 2014}} In March 2014, the Ministry of Defense chose 20 Kazakhstani military men as observers for the UN peacekeeping missions. The military personnel, ranking from captain to colonel, had to go through specialised UN training; they had to be fluent in English and skilled in using specialised military vehicles. In 2014, Kazakhstan gave Ukraine humanitarian aid during the conflict with Russian\-backed rebels. In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine. In January 2015, to help the humanitarian crisis, Kazakhstan sent $400,000 of aid to [Ukraine's southeastern regions](/wiki/Novorossiya_%28confederation%29 "Novorossiya (confederation)").{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan delivers humanitarian aid to Ukraine \|url\=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\-delivers\-humanitarian\-aid\-ukraine \|work\=Global Post \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230451/https://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\-delivers\-humanitarian\-aid\-ukraine \|archive\-date\=5 February 2015}} President Nazarbayev said of the war in Ukraine, "The fratricidal war has brought true devastation to eastern Ukraine, and it is a common task to stop the war there, strengthen Ukraine's independence and secure territorial integrity of Ukraine."{{cite news\|title\=Nazarbayev Offers to Mediate in Ukraine, Stresses Kazakhstan's Economic Resilience\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\-offers\-mediate\-ukraine\-stresses\-kazakhstans\-economic\-resilience/\|work\=The Astana Times\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208182750/http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\-offers\-mediate\-ukraine\-stresses\-kazakhstans\-economic\-resilience/\|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} Experts believe that no matter how the Ukraine crisis develops, Kazakhstan's relations with the European Union will remain normal.{{cite web\|title\=Nazarbayev as Mediator\|url\=http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\=57771\|publisher\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Moscow Center\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208144059/http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\=57771\|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} It is believed that Nazarbayev's mediation is positively received by both Russia and Ukraine. Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 26 January 2015: "We are firmly convinced that there is no alternative to peace negotiations as a way to resolve the crisis in south\-eastern Ukraine."{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan Urges Peaceful Resolution to Ukraine Conflict, Reiterates Minsk Agreements\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\-urges\-peaceful\-resolution\-ukraine\-conflict\-reiterates\-minsk\-agreements/\|work\=The Astana Times\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208154047/http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\-urges\-peaceful\-resolution\-ukraine\-conflict\-reiterates\-minsk\-agreements/\|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} In 2018, Kazakhstan signed the UN [treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons](/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons "Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons").{{cite web \|url\=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\=TREATY\&mtdsg\_no\=XXVI\-9\&chapter\=26\&clang\=\_en \|title\=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons \|publisher\=United Nations Treaty Collection \|date\=7 July 2017 \|access\-date\=16 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\=TREATY\&mtdsg\_no\=XXVI\-9\&chapter\=26\&clang\=\_en \|archive\-date\=6 August 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} [thumb\|President [Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev "Kassym-Jomart Tokayev") with Russian President [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin"), 28 November 2022](/wiki/File:Putin-Tokayev_meeting_%282022-11-28%29_01.jpg "Putin-Tokayev meeting (2022-11-28) 01.jpg") On 6 March 2020, the Concept of the Foreign Policy of Kazakhstan for 2020–2030 was announced. The document outlines the following main points: * An open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive in nature and maintains its endurance by continuing the course of the First President – the country at a new stage of development; * Protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and environmental protection; * Promotion of the country's economic interests in the international arena, including the implementation of state policy to attract investment; * Maintaining international peace and security; * Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which primarily involves strengthening mutually beneficial ties with key partners – Russia, China, the United States, Central Asian states and the EU countries, as well as through multilateral structures – the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and others.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\|title\=President approves new concept of Kazakhstan's foreign policy for 2020–2030\|last\=INFORM.KZ\|date\=9 March 2020\|website\=inform.kz\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=7 April 2020\|archive\-date\=7 April 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407103930/https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\|url\-status\=live}} [thumb\|Member states of the [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization "Collective Security Treaty Organization") (CSTO)](/wiki/File:CSTOMap.png "CSTOMap.png") Kazakhstan's memberships of international organisations include: * [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States") (CIS) * [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization "Collective Security Treaty Organization") (CSTO) * [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") * [Euro\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council "Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council") * [Individual Partnership Action Plan](/wiki/Individual_Partnership_Action_Plan "Individual Partnership Action Plan"), with [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO"), Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova"), [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina") and [Montenegro](/wiki/Montenegro "Montenegro") * [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council "Turkic Council") and the [TÜRKSOY](/wiki/T%C3%9CRKSOY "TÜRKSOY") community. (The national language, [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language "Kazakh language"), is related to the other [Turkic languages](/wiki/Turkic_languages "Turkic languages"), with which it shares cultural and [historical ties](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples")) * United Nations * [Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe") (OSCE) * [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO"), where Kazakhstan is a member of its [World Heritage Committee](/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee "World Heritage Committee"){{cite web \|title\=Twelve new members elected to World Heritage Committee \|url\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082/ \|publisher\=UNESCO \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218004512/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082 \|archive\-date\=18 February 2016}} * [Nuclear Suppliers Group](/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Group "Nuclear Suppliers Group") as a participating government * [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization"){{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan and the WTO\|url\=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\_e/countries\_e/kazakhstan\_e.htm\|website\=World Trade Organization\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\_e/countries\_e/kazakhstan\_e.htm\|archive\-date\=1 July 2017}} * [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organization of Islamic Cooperation") (OIC){{cite web\|title\=Member States\|url\=http://www.oic\-oci.org/states/?lan\=en\|website\=OIC\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609063319/http://www.oic\-oci.org/states/?lan\=en\|archive\-date\=9 June 2017}} Based on these principles, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Kazakhstan has increasingly pursued an independent foreign policy, defined by its own foreign policy objectives and ambitions{{Cite web \|last\=Sanchez \|first\=Wilder Alejandro \|date\=May 2020 \|title\=A Rising Global Player: Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in the 2020s \|url\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\_200514\_cable%2051\_v1\.pdf \|website\=Wilson Center \|access\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082204/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\_200514\_cable%2051\_v1\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Umarov \|first\=Temur \|title\=Kazakhstan Is Breaking Out of Russia's Grip \|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\-russia\-ukraine\-war/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-21 \|website\=Foreign Policy \|date\=16 September 2022 \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=23 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223102832/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\-russia\-ukraine\-war/ \|url\-status\=live }} through which the country attempts to balance its relations with "all the major powers and an equally principled aversion towards excessive dependence in any field upon any one of them, while also opening the country up economically to all who are willing to invest there."{{Cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan asserts its independent foreign policy \|url\=https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\-asserts\-its\-independent\-foreign\-policy/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-21 \|website\=trendsresearch.org \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082345/https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\-asserts\-its\-independent\-foreign\-policy/ \|url\-status\=dead }} Kazakhstan is the 59th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [Global Peace Index](/wiki/Global_Peace_Index "Global Peace Index").{{Cite web \|title\=2024 Global Peace Index \|url\=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp\-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI\-2024\-web.pdf}} ### Military {{Main\|Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan}} [right\|thumb\|[Kazakhstan Republican Guard](/wiki/Republican_Guard_%28Kazakhstan%29 "Republican Guard (Kazakhstan)")](/wiki/File:Kazakhstan_Republican_Guard.JPEG "Kazakhstan Republican Guard.JPEG") [thumb\|A Kazakhstan [Sukhoi Su\-27](/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-27 "Sukhoi Su-27")](/wiki/File:A_Kazakh_Sukhoi_Su-27P%28modified%29.jpg "A Kazakh Sukhoi Su-27P(modified).jpg") Most of Kazakhstan's military was inherited from the [Soviet Armed Forces](/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces "Soviet Armed Forces")' [Turkestan Military District](/wiki/Turkestan_Military_District "Turkestan Military District"). These units became the core of Kazakhstan's new military. It acquired all the units of the [40th Army](/wiki/40th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "40th Army (Soviet Union)") (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including six land\-force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air\-landing brigades, two rocket brigades, two artillery regiments, and a large amount of equipment that had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the [Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe](/wiki/Treaty_on_Conventional_Armed_Forces_in_Europe "Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe"). Since the late 20th century, the Kazakhstan Army has focused on expanding the number of its armoured units. Since 1990, armoured units have expanded from 500 to 1,613 in 2005\. The Kazakh air force is composed mostly of Soviet\-era planes, including 41 [MiG\-29s](/wiki/MiG-29 "MiG-29"), 44 [MiG\-31s](/wiki/MiG-31 "MiG-31"), 37 [Su\-24s](/wiki/Su-24 "Su-24") and 60 [Su\-27s](/wiki/Su-27 "Su-27"). A small naval force is maintained on the Caspian Sea.{{Cite web\|last\=Putz\|first\=Catherine\|title\=Yes, Kazakhstan Has a Navy\|url\=https://thediplomat.com/2015/04/yes\-kazakhstan\-has\-a\-navy/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=thediplomat.com\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=7 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107065311/https://thediplomat.com/2015/04/yes\-kazakhstan\-has\-a\-navy/\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan sent 29 military engineers to [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") to assist the [US post\-invasion mission in Iraq](/wiki/History_of_Iraq_%282003%E2%80%932011%29 "History of Iraq (2003–2011)").{{Cite news \|date\=2008\-10\-21\|title\=Kazakhstan withdraws soldiers from Iraq\|language\=en\|work\=Reuters\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-iraq\-kazakhstan\-idUSTRE49K4UL20081021\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|archive\-date\=22 December 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222181157/http://www.reuters.com/article/us\-iraq\-kazakhstan\-idUSTRE49K4UL20081021\|url\-status\=live}} During the second Iraq War, Kazakhstani troops dismantled 4 million mines and other explosives, helped provide medical care to more than 5,000 coalition members and civilians, and purified {{convert\|718\|m3\|abbr\=out}} of water.{{cite web \|title\=Steppe Eagle military exercises cover broad spectrum of scenarios \|url\=http://www.kazakhembus.com/content/steppe\-eagle\-military\-exercises\-cover\-broad\-spectrum\-scenarios \|publisher\=Central Asia Newswire \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208141550/http://www.kazakhembus.com/content/steppe\-eagle\-military\-exercises\-cover\-broad\-spectrum\-scenarios \|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} Kazakhstan's [National Security Committee](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan "National Security Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan") (UQK) was established on 13 June 1992\. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered the most important part of KNB. Its director is [Nurtai Abykayev](/wiki/Nurtai_Abykayev "Nurtai Abykayev"). Since 2002, the joint tactical peacekeeping exercise "Steppe Eagle" has been hosted by the Kazakhstan government. "Steppe Eagle" focuses on building coalitions and gives participating nations the opportunity to work together. During the Steppe Eagle exercises, the [KAZBAT](/wiki/KAZBAT "KAZBAT") peacekeeping battalion operates within a multinational force under a unified command within multidisciplinary peacekeeping operations, with NATO and the U.S. Military.{{cite news\|title\=Steppe Eagle – 2015 Multinational Peacekeeping Exercises to be Held in April and June\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2015/02/steppe\-eagle\-2015\-multinational\-peacekeeping\-exercises\-held\-april\-june/\|work\=The Astana Times\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208095229/http://astanatimes.com/2015/02/steppe\-eagle\-2015\-multinational\-peacekeeping\-exercises\-held\-april\-june/\|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} In December 2013, Kazakhstan announced it will send officers to support United Nations Peacekeeping forces in Haiti, Western Sahara, Ivory Coast and Liberia.{{cite news \|title\=Kazakhstan to Join U.N. Peacekeeping for First Time \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2013/12/20/world/20reuters\-kazakhstan\-un.html?partner\=rss\&emc\=rss\&\_r\=0 \|work\=The New York Times}} ### Human rights {{Main\|Human rights in Kazakhstan}} The [Economist Intelligence Unit](/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit "Economist Intelligence Unit") has consistently ranked Kazakhstan as an "authoritarian regime" in its [Democracy Index](/wiki/Democracy_Index "Democracy Index"), ranking it 128th out of 167 countries for 2020\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.economist.com/graphic\-detail/2021/02/02/global\-democracy\-has\-a\-very\-bad\-year\|title\=Global democracy has a very bad year\|newspaper\=\[\[The Economist]]\|date\=2 February 2021\|access\-date\=22 March 2021\|archive\-date\=26 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726221509/https://www.economist.com/graphic\-detail/2021/02/02/global\-democracy\-has\-a\-very\-bad\-year\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.economist.com/graphic\-detail/2020/01/22/global\-democracy\-has\-another\-bad\-year\|title\=Global democracy has another bad year\|newspaper\=The Economist\|date\=22 January 2020\|access\-date\=22 March 2021\|archive\-date\=23 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323135217/https://www.economist.com/graphic\-detail/2020/01/22/global\-democracy\-has\-another\-bad\-year\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan was ranked 122nd out of 180 countries in [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders "Reporters Without Borders")' [Press Freedom Index](/wiki/Press_Freedom_Index "Press Freedom Index") for 2022; previously it ranked 155th for 2021\.{{cite web\|url\=https://rsf.org/en/kazakhstan\|title\=Kazakhstan\|work\=Reporters Without Borders\|access\-date\=8 June 2022\|archive\-date\=3 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303184703/https://rsf.org/en/kazakhstan\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan's human rights situation has been described as poor by independent observers. In its 2015 report of human rights in the country, [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch") said that "Kazakhstan heavily restricts freedom of assembly, speech, and religion."[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"), [World Report 2015: Kazakhstan](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020227/https://www.hrw.org/world\-report/2015/country\-chapters/kazakhstan \|date\=28 October 2016 }}, accessed October 2015\. It has also described the government as authoritarian.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/05/kazakhstan\-elections\-and\-transition\-wasnt\|title\=The Kazakhstan elections and the transition that wasn't\|website\=hrw.org\|date\=5 June 2019\|access\-date\=22 March 2021\|archive\-date\=1 March 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011034/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/05/kazakhstan\-elections\-and\-transition\-wasnt\|url\-status\=live}} In 2014, authorities closed newspapers, jailed or fined dozens of people after peaceful but unsanctioned protests, and fined or detained worshipers for practising religion outside state controls. Government critics, including opposition leader [Vladimir Kozlov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kozlov_%28politician%29 "Vladimir Kozlov (politician)"), remained in detention after unfair trials. In mid\-2014, Kazakhstan adopted new criminal, criminal executive, criminal procedural, and administrative codes, and a new law on trade unions, which contain articles restricting fundamental freedoms and are incompatible with international standards. Torture remains common in places of detention."[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"), [World Report 2015: Kazakhstan](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020227/https://www.hrw.org/world\-report/2015/country\-chapters/kazakhstan \|date\=28 October 2016 }}, accessed September 2016\. However, Kazakhstan has achieved significant progress in reducing the prison population.{{Citation\|last1\=Trochev\|first1\=Alexei\|title\=Trials and Tribulations: Kazakhstan's Criminal Justice Reforms\|date\=2019\|url\=http://link.springer.com/10\.1007/978\-981\-13\-6693\-2\_5\|work\=Kazakhstan and the Soviet Legacy\|pages\=75–99\|editor\-last\=Caron\|editor\-first\=Jean\-François\|place\=Singapore\|publisher\=Springer Singapore\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-981\-13\-6693\-2\_5\|isbn\=978\-981\-13\-6692\-5\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-04\|last2\=Slade\|first2\=Gavin\|s2cid\=159320888}} The 2016 Human Rights Watch report commented that Kazakhstan "took few meaningful steps to tackle a worsening human rights record in 2015, maintaining a focus on economic development over political reform."[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"), [World Report 2016: Kazakhstan](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/kazakhstan) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914160847/https://www.hrw.org/world\-report/2016/country\-chapters/kazakhstan \|date\=14 September 2016 }}, accessed September 2016\. Some critics of the government have been [arrested](/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation%23Efforts_to_combat_misinformation "COVID-19 misinformation#Efforts to combat misinformation") for allegedly spreading [false information](/wiki/False_information "False information") about the [COVID\-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan").{{cite news \|title\=Kazakh Opposition Activist Detained For 'Spreading False Information' \|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan\-suraev\-opposition\-activist\-detained\-false\-information\-toqaev/30563253\.html \|work\=Human Rights Watch \|date\=18 April 2020 \|access\-date\=2 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=28 July 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728232222/https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan\-suraev\-opposition\-activist\-detained\-false\-information\-toqaev/30563253\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Various police reforms, like creation of local police service and zero\-tolerance policing, aimed at bringing police closer to local communities have not improved cooperation between police and ordinary citizens.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Slade\|first1\=Gavin\|last2\=Trochev\|first2\=Alexei\|last3\=Talgatova\|first3\=Malika\|date\=2020\-12\-02\|title\=The Limits of Authoritarian Modernisation: Zero Tolerance Policing in Kazakhstan\|url\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.1080/09668136\.2020\.1844867\|journal\=Europe\-Asia Studies\|volume\=73\|language\=en\|pages\=178–199\|doi\=10\.1080/09668136\.2020\.1844867\|s2cid\=229420067\|issn\=0966\-8136\|access\-date\=4 December 2020\|archive\-date\=19 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119120806/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.1080/09668136\.2020\.1844867\|url\-status\=live}} According to a U.S. government report released in 2014, in Kazakhstan: > The law does not require police to inform detainees that they have the [right to an attorney](/wiki/Right_to_an_attorney "Right to an attorney"), and police did not do so. Human rights observers alleged that law enforcement officials dissuaded detainees from seeing an attorney, gathered evidence through preliminary questioning before a detainee's attorney arrived, and in some cases used corrupt defense attorneys to gather evidence. \[...] The law does not adequately provide for an [independent judiciary](/wiki/Independent_judiciary "Independent judiciary"). The executive branch sharply limited judicial independence. Prosecutors enjoyed a quasi\-judicial role and had the authority to suspend court decisions. Corruption was evident at every stage of the judicial process. Although judges were among the most highly paid government employees, lawyers and human rights monitors alleged that judges, prosecutors, and other officials solicited [bribes](/wiki/Bribes "Bribes") in exchange for favorable rulings in the majority of criminal cases.["Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2013: Kazakhstan"](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2013&dlid=220395#wrapper) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618054438/https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year\=2013\&dlid\=220395\#wrapper \|date\=18 June 2020 }}, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. Retrieved 1 November 2015\. Kazakhstan's global rank in the [World Justice Project](/wiki/World_Justice_Project "World Justice Project")'s 2015 Rule of Law Index was 65 out of 102; the country scored well on "Order and Security" (global rank 32/102\), and poorly on "Constraints on Government Powers" (global rank 93/102\), "Open Government" (85/102\) and "Fundamental Rights" (84/102, with a downward trend marking a deterioration in conditions).{{cite web\|title\=Rule of Law Index 2015\|url\=http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/\#groups/KAZ\|website\=World Justice Project\|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429071718/http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/\#groups/KAZ\|archive\-date\=29 April 2015}} The [ABA Rule of Law Initiative](/wiki/ABA_Rule_of_Law_Initiative "ABA Rule of Law Initiative") of the American Bar Association has programs to train justice sector professionals in Kazakhstan.{{cite web \|title\=Rule of Law in Kazakhstan \|url\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan.html \|publisher\=American Bar Association \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225822/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan.html \|archive\-date\=3 March 2016}}{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan Background \|url\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan/background.html \|publisher\=American Bar Association \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231239/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan/background.html \|archive\-date\=3 March 2016}} Kazakhstan's Supreme Court has taken steps to modernise and to increase transparency and oversight over the country's legal system. With funding from the US Agency for International Development, the ABA Rule of Law Initiative began a new program in April 2012 to strengthen the independence and accountability of Kazakhstan's judiciary.{{cite web\|title\=Judicial Reform\|url\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan/news.html\|publisher\=American Bar Association\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230348/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan/news.html\|archive\-date\=3 March 2016}} In an effort to increase transparency in the criminal justice and court system, and improve human rights, Kazakhstan intended to digitise all investigative, prosecutorial and court records by 2018\.{{cite news\|title\=Kazakh criminal justice system to be digitised by 2018\|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2017/11/kazakh\-criminal\-justice\-system\-to\-be\-digitised\-by\-2018/\|agency\=The Astana Times\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034931/https://astanatimes.com/2017/11/kazakh\-criminal\-justice\-system\-to\-be\-digitised\-by\-2018/\|archive\-date\=1 December 2017}} Many criminal cases are closed before trial on the basis of reconciliation between the defendant and the victim because they simplify the work of the law\-enforcement officers, release the defendant from punishment, and pay little regard to the victim's rights.{{Cite journal\|last\=Trochev\|first\=Alexei\|date\=2017\|title\=Between Convictions and Reconciliations: Processing Criminal Cases in Kazakhstani Courts\|url\=https://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Trochev\-final.pdf\|journal\=Cornell Journal of International Law\|volume\=50\|pages\=107–145\|access\-date\=4 December 2020\|archive\-date\=20 July 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720082506/https://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Trochev\-final.pdf\|url\-status\=live}} Homosexuality has been legal in Kazakhstan since 1997, although it is still socially unacceptable in most areas.{{cite book\|title\=Kazakhstan \|date\=7 September 2018 \|publisher\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \|isbn\=978\-1\-78477\-092\-1\|page\= 40 \|author1\=Paul Brummell }} Discrimination against [LGBT people](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Kazakhstan "LGBT rights in Kazakhstan") in Kazakhstan is widespread.{{cite news \|title\=Kazakhstan: LGBT Community Living in Fear \|url\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/23/kazakhstan\-lgbt\-community\-living\-fear \|work\=Human Rights Watch \|date\=23 July 2015 \|access\-date\=16 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727005543/https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/23/kazakhstan\-lgbt\-community\-living\-fear \|archive\-date\=27 July 2019 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|title\=Life in the Closet: The LGBT Community in Central Asia \|url\=https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/life\-in\-the\-closet\-the\-lgbt\-community\-in\-central\-asia/ \|work\=The Diplomat \|date\=29 January 2019 \|access\-date\=16 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802051901/https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/life\-in\-the\-closet\-the\-lgbt\-community\-in\-central\-asia/ \|archive\-date\=2 August 2019 \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Government and politics\n-----------------------", "{{Main\\|Government of Kazakhstan\\|Politics of Kazakhstan}}", "### Political system", "Officially, Kazakhstan is a democratic, secular, constitutional [unitary republic](/wiki/Unitary_republic \"Unitary republic\"); [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev \"Nursultan Nazarbayev\") led the country from 1991 to 2019\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/02/07/yes\\-kazakhstan\\-should\\-change\\-its\\-name\\-this\\-map\\-shows\\-why/\\|title\\=Yes, Kazakhstan should change its name. This map shows why.\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811145614/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/02/07/yes\\-kazakhstan\\-should\\-change\\-its\\-name\\-this\\-map\\-shows\\-why/\\|archive\\-date\\=11 August 2017}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-47628854\\|title\\=Kazakh leader resigns after three decades\\|date\\=19 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2019\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425061650/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-47628854\\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He was succeeded by [Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev \"Kassym-Jomart Tokayev\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\\-03\\-19/president\\-of\\-kazakhstan\\-nursultan\\-nazarbayev\\-resigns\\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Leader Nazarbayev Resigns After Three Decades in Power\\|last\\=Auyezov\\|first\\=Olzhas\\|date\\=19 March 2019\\|website\\=US News\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401081832/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\\-03\\-19/president\\-of\\-kazakhstan\\-nursultan\\-nazarbayev\\-resigns\\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Nazarbayev ally wins big in Kazakhstan election after hundreds arrested\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds\\-arrested\\-as\\-kazakhs\\-protest\\-against\\-rigged\\-election\\|agency\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712033625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds\\-arrested\\-as\\-kazakhs\\-protest\\-against\\-rigged\\-election\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The president may veto legislation that has been passed by the [parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Kazakhstan \"Parliament of Kazakhstan\") and is also the [commander\\-in\\-chief](/wiki/Commander-in-chief \"Commander-in-chief\") of the [armed forces](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan \"Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan\"). The prime minister chairs the cabinet of ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and sixteen ministers in the cabinet.{{Cite web\\|title\\=About Republic of Kazakhstan {{!}} CIS Legislation\\|url\\=https://cis\\-legislation.com/cis/kazakhstan/index.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=cis\\-legislation.com\\|archive\\-date\\=9 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109232202/https://cis\\-legislation.com/cis/kazakhstan/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "| [120px](/wiki/File:Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev_%282022-06-17%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Kassym-Jomart Tokayev (2022-06-17) (cropped).jpg\") | [120px](/wiki/File:Oljas_Bektenov_%282024-02-06%2C_cropped%29.jpg \"Oljas Bektenov (2024-02-06, cropped).jpg\") |\n| --- | --- |\n| [Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev \"Kassym-Jomart Tokayev\")[President](/wiki/President_of_Kazakhstan \"President of Kazakhstan\") | [Oljas Bektenov](/wiki/Oljas_Bektenov \"Oljas Bektenov\")[Prime Minister of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Kazakhstan \"Prime Minister of Kazakhstan\") |", "", "Kazakhstan has a [bicameral](/wiki/Bicameral \"Bicameral\") parliament composed of the *[Majilis](/wiki/Majilis \"Majilis\")* (the [lower house](/wiki/Lower_house \"Lower house\")) and [senate](/wiki/Senate_of_Kazakhstan \"Senate of Kazakhstan\") (the [upper house](/wiki/Upper_house \"Upper house\")).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.akorda.kz/en/category/kazakhstan \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323103659/http://akorda.kz/en/category/kazakhstan \\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2013 \\|title\\=Official site of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan – Kazakhstan \\|publisher\\=Akorda.kz \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2013}} Single\\-mandate districts popularly elect 107 seats in the *Majilis*; there also are ten members elected by party\\-list vote. The senate has 48 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies ([mäslihats](/wiki/M%C3%A4slihat \"Mäslihat\")) of Kazakhstan's sixteen principal [administrative divisions](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Kazakhstan \"Administrative divisions of Kazakhstan\") (fourteen regions plus the cities of Astana, Almaty, and Şymkent). The president appoints the remaining fifteen senators. *Majilis* deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the parliament.\nIn 2020, [Freedom House](/wiki/Freedom_House \"Freedom House\") rated Kazakhstan as a \"consolidated [authoritarian](/wiki/Authoritarian \"Authoritarian\") regime\", stating that [freedom of speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech \"Freedom of speech\") is not respected and \"Kazakhstan's electoral laws do not provide for [free and fair elections](/wiki/Free_and_fair_election \"Free and fair election\").\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan: Nations in Transit 2020 Country Report \\|url\\=https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/nations\\-transit/2020 \\|website\\=Freedom House \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2021 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212641/https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/nations\\-transit/2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Political reforms", "Reforms have begun to be implemented after the election of Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev in June 2019\\. Tokayev supports a culture of opposition, public assembly, and loosening rules on forming political parties.{{cite news \\|title\\=Kazakhstan to Liberalize Rules on Protests and Political Parties \\|url\\=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\\-12\\-20/kazakhstan\\-to\\-liberalize\\-rules\\-on\\-protests\\-and\\-political\\-parties \\|agency\\=REUTERS \\|publisher\\=USNews \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224202342/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019\\-12\\-20/kazakhstan\\-to\\-liberalize\\-rules\\-on\\-protests\\-and\\-political\\-parties \\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In June 2019, Tokayev established the National Council of Public Trust as a public platform for national conversation regarding government policies and reforms.{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan President Tokayev's initiatives on public safety, rule of law, human rights \\|url\\=http://www.iran\\-daily.com/News/263944\\.html \\|website\\=iran\\-daily.com \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2020 \\|date\\=5 January 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114194339/http://www.iran\\-daily.com/News/263944\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [50px](/wiki/File:CC_BY_icon.svg \"CC BY icon.svg\") Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4\\.0 International License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\\.0/ \\|date\\=16 October 2017 }}. In July 2019, the President of Kazakhstan announced a concept of a 'listening state' that quickly and efficiently responds to all constructive requests of the country's citizens.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/commentary/long\\-take/first\\-glimpses\\-of\\-tokayevs\\-kazakhstan/\\|title\\=First glimpses of Tokayev's Kazakhstan: The listening state?\\|date\\=17 September 2019\\|website\\=Atlantic Council\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=20 September 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920081417/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/commentary/long\\-take/first\\-glimpses\\-of\\-tokayevs\\-kazakhstan/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} A law will be passed to allow representatives from other parties to hold chair positions on some Parliamentary committees, to foster alternative views and opinions.{{when\\|date\\=March 2022}} The minimum membership threshold needed to register a political party will be reduced from 40,000 to 20,000 members. Special places for peaceful rallies in central areas will be allocated and a new draft law outlining the rights and obligations of organisers, participants and observers will be passed. In an effort to increase public safety, President Tokayev has strengthened the penalties for those who commit crimes against individuals.", "On 17 September 2022, Tokayev signed a decree that limits presidential tenure to one term of seven years.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan limits presidential term, renames capital \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/17/kazakhstan\\-limits\\-presidential\\-term\\-renames\\-capital \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=aljazeera.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=17 September 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220917174621/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/17/kazakhstan\\-limits\\-presidential\\-term\\-renames\\-capital \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He furthermore announced the preparation of a new reform package to \"decentralize\" and \"distribute\" power between government institutions. The reform package also seeks to modify the electoral system and increase the decision\\-making authorities of Kazakhstan's regions.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-18 \\|title\\=Tokayev bites the reform bullet \\|url\\=https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/11/19/tokayev\\-bites\\-the\\-reform\\-bullet/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=East Asia Forum \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221081643/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/11/19/tokayev\\-bites\\-the\\-reform\\-bullet/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The powers of the parliament were expanded at the expense of those of the president, relatives of whom are now also barred from holding government positions, while the Constitutional Court was restored and the death penalty abolished.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan: Voters back reforms to reject founder's legacy \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan\\-voters\\-back\\-reforms\\-to\\-reject\\-founders\\-legacy/a\\-62037144 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=dw.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221081812/https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan\\-voters\\-back\\-reforms\\-to\\-reject\\-founders\\-legacy/a\\-62037144 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Administrative divisions", "{{Main\\|Regions of Kazakhstan\\|Districts of Kazakhstan}}", "Kazakhstan is divided into seventeen [regions](/wiki/Regions_of_Kazakhstan \"Regions of Kazakhstan\") ({{langx\\|kk\\|облыстар}}, {{lang\\|kk\\-latn\\|oblystar}}; {{langx\\|ru\\|link\\=no\\|области}}, {{lang\\|ru\\-latn\\|oblasti}}) plus three cities (Almaty, Astana and Şymkent) which are independent of the region in which they are situated. The regions are subdivided into 177 [districts](/wiki/Districts_of_Kazakhstan \"Districts of Kazakhstan\") ({{langx\\|kk\\|аудандар}}, {{lang\\|kk\\-latn\\|audandar}}; {{langx\\|ru\\|link\\=no\\|районы}}, {{lang\\|ru\\-latn\\|rayony}}).{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan, Unitary County\\|url\\=https://www.oecd.org/regional/regional\\-policy/profile\\-Kazakhzstan.pdf\\|publisher\\=www.oecd.org\\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206190320/https://www.oecd.org/regional/regional\\-policy/profile\\-Kazakhzstan.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=6 February 2018}} The districts are further subdivided into rural districts at the lowest level of administration, which include all rural settlements and villages without an associated municipal government.{{cite web\\|title\\=On Administrative\\-Territorial Division of the Republic of Kazakhstan, The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 8 December 1993\\|url\\=http://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z930004200\\_\\|website\\=Adilet\\|publisher\\=Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan Republican Center of Legal Information\\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207124434/http://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z930004200\\_\\|archive\\-date\\=7 February 2018}}", "{{anchor\\|special status cities}}\nThe cities of [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\") and [Astana](/wiki/Astana \"Astana\") have status \"state importance\" and do not belong to any region. The city of [Baikonur](/wiki/Baikonur \"Baikonur\") has a special status because it is being leased until 2050 to Russia for the [Baikonur cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_cosmodrome \"Baikonur cosmodrome\").[Kazakhstan](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132304/https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/countries/kazakhstan \\|date\\=9 January 2021 }} . *CIA World Factbook*. In June 2018 the city of [Şymkent](/wiki/%C5%9Eymkent \"Şymkent\") became a \"city of republican significance\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda\\_news/akorda\\_other\\_events/publichnoe\\-podpisanie\\-ukaza\\-o\\-nekotoryh\\-voprosah\\-administrativno\\-territorialnogo\\-ustroistva\\-respubliki\\-kazahstan \\|script\\-title\\=ru:Публичное подписание Указа \"О некоторых вопросах административно\\-территориального устройства Республики Казахстан\" \\|trans\\-title\\=Public signing of the Decree \"On some issues of the administrative and territorial structure of the Republic of Kazakhstan\" \\|date\\=19 June 2018 \\|publisher\\=President of Kazakhstan \\|language\\=ru \\|access\\-date\\=21 June 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20180620020328/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/akorda\\_news/akorda\\_other\\_events/publichnoe\\-podpisanie\\-ukaza\\-o\\-nekotoryh\\-voprosah\\-administrativno\\-territorialnogo\\-ustroistva\\-respubliki\\-kazahstan \\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Each region is headed by an [äkim](/wiki/Akim \"Akim\") (regional governor) appointed by the president. District *äkimi* are appointed by regional *akim*s. Kazakhstan's government relocated its capital from Almaty, established under the Soviet Union, to Astana on 10 December 1997\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan renames capital to honour ex\\-leader\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/23/kazakhstan\\-renames\\-capital\\-to\\-honour\\-ex\\-leader\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=aljazeera.com\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108232741/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/23/kazakhstan\\-renames\\-capital\\-to\\-honour\\-ex\\-leader\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Municipal divisions", "Municipalities exist at each level of administrative division in Kazakhstan. Cities of republican, regional, and district significance are designated as urban inhabited localities; all others are designated rural. At the highest level are the cities of Almaty and Astana, which are classified as *cities of republican significance* on the administrative level equal to that of a region. At the intermediate level are *cities of regional significance* on the administrative level equal to that of a district. Cities of these two levels may be divided into city districts. At the lowest level are *cities of district significance*, and over two\\-thousand *villages and rural settlements* ({{lang\\|ru\\-latn\\|aul}}) on the administrative level equal to that of rural districts.", "### Urban centres", "{{Largest cities\n\\| country \\= Kazakhstan\n\\| stat\\_ref \\= {{Cite web\\|url\\=http://stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId\\=ESTAT305821\\|title\\=Обложка\\|website\\=stat.gov.kz\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613081608/http://stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId\\=ESTAT305821\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n\\| list\\_by\\_pop \\= \n\\| div\\_name \\= Region\n\\| div\\_link \\=\n\\|city\\_1 \\= Almaty\n\\|div\\_1 \\= Almaty\n\\|pop\\_1 \\= 1,854,656\n\\|img\\_1 \\= View of Almaty from the hills.png\n\\|city\\_2 \\= Astana\n\\|div\\_2 \\= Astana\n\\|pop\\_2 \\= 1,078,384\n\\|img\\_2 \\= Astana 020000, Kazakhstan \\- panoramio (15\\).jpg\n\\|city\\_3 \\= Şymkent\n\\|div\\_3 \\= Shymkent{{!}}Shymkent\n\\|pop\\_3 \\= 1,009,086\n\\|img\\_3 \\= Unnamed Road, Kazakhstan \\- panoramio (44\\).jpg\n\\|city\\_4 \\= Qarağandy\n\\|div\\_4 \\= Qarağandy Region{{!}}Qarağandy\n\\|pop\\_4 \\= 497,712\n\\|img\\_4 \\= Qaraghandy, Kazakhstan.jpg\n\\|city\\_5 \\= Aqtobe\n\\|div\\_5 \\= Aqtobe Region{{!}}Aqtobe\n\\|pop\\_5 \\= 487,994\n\\|city\\_6 \\= Taraz\n\\|div\\_6 \\= Jambyl Region{{!}}Jambyl\n\\|pop\\_6 \\= 357,791\n\\|city\\_7 \\= Pavlodar\n\\|div\\_7 \\= Pavlodar Region{{!}}Pavlodar\n\\|pop\\_7 \\= 333,989\n\\|city\\_8 \\= Öskemen\n\\|div\\_8 \\= East Kazakhstan Region{{!}}East Kazakhstan\n\\|pop\\_8 \\= 331,614\n\\|city\\_9 \\= Semey\n\\|div\\_9 \\= Abai Region{{!}}Abai\n\\|pop\\_9 \\= 323,138\n\\|city\\_10 \\= Atyrau\n\\|div\\_10 \\= Atyrau Region{{!}}Atyrau\n\\|pop\\_10 \\= 269,720", "}}", "### Foreign relations", "{{Main\\|Foreign relations of Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|President [Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev \"Nursultan Nazarbayev\") with U.S. President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") and Russian President [Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev \"Dmitry Medvedev\") in 2012](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_South_Korea%2C_March_2012-15.jpeg \"Dmitry Medvedev in South Korea, March 2012-15.jpeg\")", "Kazakhstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the [Economic Cooperation Organization](/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization \"Economic Cooperation Organization\") and the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\"). The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), Kyrgyzstan and [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan \"Tajikistan\") established the [Eurasian Economic Community](/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Community \"Eurasian Economic Community\") in 2000, to revive earlier efforts to harmonise trade tariffs and to create a free trade zone under a customs union. On 1 December 2007, it was announced that Kazakhstan had been chosen to chair the [Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\") for the year 2010\\. Kazakhstan was elected a member of the [UN Human Rights Council](/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Council \"UN Human Rights Council\") for the first time on 12 November 2012\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\\_sub/Kazakhstan\\-became\\-member\\-of\\-UN\\-Human\\-Rights\\-Council\\-\\-14431/ \\|title\\=Kazakhstan became member of UN Human Rights Council \\|work\\=Tengrinews.kz English \\|date\\=13 November 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\\_sub/Kazakhstan\\-became\\-member\\-of\\-UN\\-Human\\-Rights\\-Council\\-\\-14431/ \\|archive\\-date\\=1 January 2016}}", "Kazakhstan is also a member of the United Nations, [Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe\"), [Euro\\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council \"Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council\"), [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council \"Turkic Council\"), and [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\") (OIC). It is an active participant in the [North Atlantic Treaty Organisation](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization \"North Atlantic Treaty Organization\") [Partnership for Peace](/wiki/Partnership_for_Peace \"Partnership for Peace\") program.{{cite web\\|author\\=North Atlantic Treaty Organization\\|title\\=Signatures of Partnership for Peace Framework Document\\|date\\=5 October 2006\\|url\\=http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\\-cntr.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129213256/http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\\-cntr.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2006}}", "In 1999, Kazakhstan had applied for observer status at the [Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly \"Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly\"). The official response of the Assembly was that because Kazakhstan is partially located in Europe,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\\-Xref\\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\\=9998\\|title\\=Situation in Kazakhstan and its relations with the Council of Europe\\|last\\=Iwiński\\|first\\=Tadeusz\\|date\\=7 July 2006\\|website\\=Council of Europe – Parliamentary Assembly\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2020\\|quote\\=For its part, the Assembly might decide, already at this stage, to interpret Rule 59 of its Rules of procedure, concerning special guests, in such a way as to include the Eurasian States. Two Council of Europe member States, Turkey and Russia, belong geographically to both Europe and Asia and are therefore Eurasian. Strictly speaking, the three South Caucasus States, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are located in Asia, yet their membership of political Europe is no longer in doubt. \\[...] This being the case, Kazakhstan, as a Eurasian State participating in the OSCE and a signatory to the International covenant on civil and political rights and the International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, would meet the criteria laid down in Rule 59, making it eligible to apply for special guest status with the Assembly.\\|archive\\-date\\=9 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233442/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\\-Xref\\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\\=9998\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\\-cornell\\-engvall\\-kazakhstan\\-in\\-europe\\-why\\-not.pdf\\|title\\=Kazakhstan in Europe: Why Not?\\|last1\\=Cornell\\|first1\\=Svante\\|last2\\=Engvall\\|first2\\=Johan\\|date\\=2017\\|website\\=Institute for Security \\& Development Policy\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2020\\|quote\\=However, by 2006, a Rapporteur for the Political Affairs Committee concluded that because of Kazakhstan's nature as a European country, the country should be considered 'eligible to apply for a special guest status.'\\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024154030/https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\\-cornell\\-engvall\\-kazakhstan\\-in\\-europe\\-why\\-not.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live}} it could apply for full membership, but that it would not be granted any status whatsoever at the council until its democracy and human rights records improved.", "Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the \"multi\\-vector foreign policy\" ({{langx\\|kk\\|көпвекторлы сыртқы саясат}}), seeking equally good relations with its two large neighbours, Russia and China, as well as with the United States and the rest of the Western world.{{cite news \\|last\\=Blank \\|first\\=Stephen \\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in a Time of Turmoil \\|publisher\\=EurasiaNet \\|date\\=27 April 2005 \\|url\\=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045839/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2009 }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Cohen \\|first\\=Ariel \\|title\\=Kazakh foreign minister insists balanced foreign policy remains intact \\|publisher\\=Business News Europe \\|date\\=7 October 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817020006/http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 August 2009}} Russia leases approximately {{convert\\|6000\\|km2\\|0\\|abbr\\=out}} of territory enclosing the [Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome \"Baikonur Cosmodrome\") space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle [Buran](/wiki/Buran_%28spacecraft%29 \"Buran (spacecraft)\") and the well\\-known space station [Mir](/wiki/Mir \"Mir\").", "On 11 April 2010, presidents Nazarbayev and [Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan. They pledged to intensify bilateral co\\-operation to promote nuclear safety and non\\-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.[Joint Statement on the meeting between President Obama and Kazakhstan president Nazarbayev \\| The White House](https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/joint-statement-meeting-between-president-obama-and-kazakhstan-president-nazarbayev) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216172644/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\\-press\\-office/joint\\-statement\\-meeting\\-between\\-president\\-obama\\-and\\-kazakhstan\\-president\\-nazarbayev \\|date\\=16 February 2017 }}. Whitehouse.gov (11 April 2010\\). Retrieved 14 January 2013\\.", "Since 2014, the Kazakhstani government has been bidding for a non\\-permanent member seat on the UN Security Council for 2017–2018\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan, UN Continue Building on Two\\-Decades of Cooperation\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\\-un\\-continue\\-building\\-two\\-decades\\-cooperation/\\|website\\=Astanatimes.com\\|date\\=27 October 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170610/http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\\-un\\-continue\\-building\\-two\\-decades\\-cooperation/\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2016}} On 28 June 2016 Kazakhstan was elected as a non\\-permanent member to serve on the UN Security Council for a two\\-year term.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sweden, Bolivia, Ethiopia and Kazakhstan elected to Security Council\\|url\\=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\\=54350\\#.WDczqbXXfYU\\|website\\=un.org\\| date\\=28 June 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125045313/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\\=54350\\#.WDczqbXXfYU\\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2016}}\n[thumb\\|Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev, [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\"), [Xi Jinping](/wiki/Xi_Jinping \"Xi Jinping\") and other leaders at the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\") summit in Samarkand, 16 September 2022](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organization_member_states_Summit_gets_underway_in_Samarkand_02.jpg \"Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states Summit gets underway in Samarkand 02.jpg\")\nKazakhstan has supported UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakh peacekeepers in Western Sahara\\|url\\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\\-peacekeepers\\-in\\-Western\\-Sahara\\-257039/\\|publisher\\=Tengrinews\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108204101/http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\\-peacekeepers\\-in\\-Western\\-Sahara\\-257039/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2014}} In March 2014, the Ministry of Defense chose 20 Kazakhstani military men as observers for the UN peacekeeping missions. The military personnel, ranking from captain to colonel, had to go through specialised UN training; they had to be fluent in English and skilled in using specialised military vehicles.", "In 2014, Kazakhstan gave Ukraine humanitarian aid during the conflict with Russian\\-backed rebels. In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine. In January 2015, to help the humanitarian crisis, Kazakhstan sent $400,000 of aid to [Ukraine's southeastern regions](/wiki/Novorossiya_%28confederation%29 \"Novorossiya (confederation)\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan delivers humanitarian aid to Ukraine \\|url\\=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\\-delivers\\-humanitarian\\-aid\\-ukraine \\|work\\=Global Post \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230451/https://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\\-delivers\\-humanitarian\\-aid\\-ukraine \\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2015}} President Nazarbayev said of the war in Ukraine, \"The fratricidal war has brought true devastation to eastern Ukraine, and it is a common task to stop the war there, strengthen Ukraine's independence and secure territorial integrity of Ukraine.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Nazarbayev Offers to Mediate in Ukraine, Stresses Kazakhstan's Economic Resilience\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\\-offers\\-mediate\\-ukraine\\-stresses\\-kazakhstans\\-economic\\-resilience/\\|work\\=The Astana Times\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208182750/http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\\-offers\\-mediate\\-ukraine\\-stresses\\-kazakhstans\\-economic\\-resilience/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}} Experts believe that no matter how the Ukraine crisis develops, Kazakhstan's relations with the European Union will remain normal.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nazarbayev as Mediator\\|url\\=http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\\=57771\\|publisher\\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Moscow Center\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208144059/http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\\=57771\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}} It is believed that Nazarbayev's mediation is positively received by both Russia and Ukraine.", "Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 26 January 2015: \"We are firmly convinced that there is no alternative to peace negotiations as a way to resolve the crisis in south\\-eastern Ukraine.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan Urges Peaceful Resolution to Ukraine Conflict, Reiterates Minsk Agreements\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\\-urges\\-peaceful\\-resolution\\-ukraine\\-conflict\\-reiterates\\-minsk\\-agreements/\\|work\\=The Astana Times\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208154047/http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\\-urges\\-peaceful\\-resolution\\-ukraine\\-conflict\\-reiterates\\-minsk\\-agreements/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}} In 2018, Kazakhstan signed the UN [treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons](/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons \"Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\\=TREATY\\&mtdsg\\_no\\=XXVI\\-9\\&chapter\\=26\\&clang\\=\\_en \\|title\\=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons \\|publisher\\=United Nations Treaty Collection \\|date\\=7 July 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=16 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\\=TREATY\\&mtdsg\\_no\\=XXVI\\-9\\&chapter\\=26\\&clang\\=\\_en \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "[thumb\\|President [Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev \"Kassym-Jomart Tokayev\") with Russian President [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\"), 28 November 2022](/wiki/File:Putin-Tokayev_meeting_%282022-11-28%29_01.jpg \"Putin-Tokayev meeting (2022-11-28) 01.jpg\")", "On 6 March 2020, the Concept of the Foreign Policy of Kazakhstan for 2020–2030 was announced. The document outlines the following main points:", "* An open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive in nature and maintains its endurance by continuing the course of the First President – the country at a new stage of development;\n* Protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and environmental protection;\n* Promotion of the country's economic interests in the international arena, including the implementation of state policy to attract investment;\n* Maintaining international peace and security;\n* Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which primarily involves strengthening mutually beneficial ties with key partners – Russia, China, the United States, Central Asian states and the EU countries, as well as through multilateral structures – the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and others.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\\|title\\=President approves new concept of Kazakhstan's foreign policy for 2020–2030\\|last\\=INFORM.KZ\\|date\\=9 March 2020\\|website\\=inform.kz\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407103930/https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "[thumb\\|Member states of the [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization \"Collective Security Treaty Organization\") (CSTO)](/wiki/File:CSTOMap.png \"CSTOMap.png\")", "Kazakhstan's memberships of international organisations include:", "* [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\") (CIS)\n* [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization \"Collective Security Treaty Organization\") (CSTO)\n* [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\")\n* [Euro\\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council \"Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council\")\n* [Individual Partnership Action Plan](/wiki/Individual_Partnership_Action_Plan \"Individual Partnership Action Plan\"), with [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\"), Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova \"Moldova\"), [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\") and [Montenegro](/wiki/Montenegro \"Montenegro\")\n* [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council \"Turkic Council\") and the [TÜRKSOY](/wiki/T%C3%9CRKSOY \"TÜRKSOY\") community. (The national language, [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language \"Kazakh language\"), is related to the other [Turkic languages](/wiki/Turkic_languages \"Turkic languages\"), with which it shares cultural and [historical ties](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\"))\n* United Nations\n* [Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\") (OSCE)\n* [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\"), where Kazakhstan is a member of its [World Heritage Committee](/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee \"World Heritage Committee\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Twelve new members elected to World Heritage Committee \\|url\\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082/ \\|publisher\\=UNESCO \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218004512/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2016}}\n* [Nuclear Suppliers Group](/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Group \"Nuclear Suppliers Group\") as a participating government\n* [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization \"World Trade Organization\"){{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan and the WTO\\|url\\=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\\_e/countries\\_e/kazakhstan\\_e.htm\\|website\\=World Trade Organization\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\\_e/countries\\_e/kazakhstan\\_e.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2017}}\n* [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organization of Islamic Cooperation\") (OIC){{cite web\\|title\\=Member States\\|url\\=http://www.oic\\-oci.org/states/?lan\\=en\\|website\\=OIC\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609063319/http://www.oic\\-oci.org/states/?lan\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2017}}\nBased on these principles, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Kazakhstan has increasingly pursued an independent foreign policy, defined by its own foreign policy objectives and ambitions{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sanchez \\|first\\=Wilder Alejandro \\|date\\=May 2020 \\|title\\=A Rising Global Player: Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in the 2020s \\|url\\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\\_200514\\_cable%2051\\_v1\\.pdf \\|website\\=Wilson Center \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082204/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\\_200514\\_cable%2051\\_v1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Umarov \\|first\\=Temur \\|title\\=Kazakhstan Is Breaking Out of Russia's Grip \\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\\-russia\\-ukraine\\-war/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Foreign Policy \\|date\\=16 September 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223102832/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\\-russia\\-ukraine\\-war/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} through which the country attempts to balance its relations with \"all the major powers and an equally principled aversion towards excessive dependence in any field upon any one of them, while also opening the country up economically to all who are willing to invest there.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan asserts its independent foreign policy \\|url\\=https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\\-asserts\\-its\\-independent\\-foreign\\-policy/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=trendsresearch.org \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082345/https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\\-asserts\\-its\\-independent\\-foreign\\-policy/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Kazakhstan is the 59th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [Global Peace Index](/wiki/Global_Peace_Index \"Global Peace Index\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=2024 Global Peace Index \\|url\\=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI\\-2024\\-web.pdf}}", "### Military", "{{Main\\|Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|[Kazakhstan Republican Guard](/wiki/Republican_Guard_%28Kazakhstan%29 \"Republican Guard (Kazakhstan)\")](/wiki/File:Kazakhstan_Republican_Guard.JPEG \"Kazakhstan Republican Guard.JPEG\")\n[thumb\\|A Kazakhstan [Sukhoi Su\\-27](/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-27 \"Sukhoi Su-27\")](/wiki/File:A_Kazakh_Sukhoi_Su-27P%28modified%29.jpg \"A Kazakh Sukhoi Su-27P(modified).jpg\")", "Most of Kazakhstan's military was inherited from the [Soviet Armed Forces](/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces \"Soviet Armed Forces\")' [Turkestan Military District](/wiki/Turkestan_Military_District \"Turkestan Military District\"). These units became the core of Kazakhstan's new military. It acquired all the units of the [40th Army](/wiki/40th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"40th Army (Soviet Union)\") (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including six land\\-force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air\\-landing brigades, two rocket brigades, two artillery regiments, and a large amount of equipment that had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the [Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe](/wiki/Treaty_on_Conventional_Armed_Forces_in_Europe \"Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe\"). Since the late 20th century, the Kazakhstan Army has focused on expanding the number of its armoured units. Since 1990, armoured units have expanded from 500 to 1,613 in 2005\\.", "The Kazakh air force is composed mostly of Soviet\\-era planes, including 41 [MiG\\-29s](/wiki/MiG-29 \"MiG-29\"), 44 [MiG\\-31s](/wiki/MiG-31 \"MiG-31\"), 37 [Su\\-24s](/wiki/Su-24 \"Su-24\") and 60 [Su\\-27s](/wiki/Su-27 \"Su-27\"). A small naval force is maintained on the Caspian Sea.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Putz\\|first\\=Catherine\\|title\\=Yes, Kazakhstan Has a Navy\\|url\\=https://thediplomat.com/2015/04/yes\\-kazakhstan\\-has\\-a\\-navy/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=thediplomat.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107065311/https://thediplomat.com/2015/04/yes\\-kazakhstan\\-has\\-a\\-navy/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Kazakhstan sent 29 military engineers to [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") to assist the [US post\\-invasion mission in Iraq](/wiki/History_of_Iraq_%282003%E2%80%932011%29 \"History of Iraq (2003–2011)\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=2008\\-10\\-21\\|title\\=Kazakhstan withdraws soldiers from Iraq\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=Reuters\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-iraq\\-kazakhstan\\-idUSTRE49K4UL20081021\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222181157/http://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-iraq\\-kazakhstan\\-idUSTRE49K4UL20081021\\|url\\-status\\=live}} During the second Iraq War, Kazakhstani troops dismantled 4 million mines and other explosives, helped provide medical care to more than 5,000 coalition members and civilians, and purified {{convert\\|718\\|m3\\|abbr\\=out}} of water.{{cite web \\|title\\=Steppe Eagle military exercises cover broad spectrum of scenarios \\|url\\=http://www.kazakhembus.com/content/steppe\\-eagle\\-military\\-exercises\\-cover\\-broad\\-spectrum\\-scenarios \\|publisher\\=Central Asia Newswire \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208141550/http://www.kazakhembus.com/content/steppe\\-eagle\\-military\\-exercises\\-cover\\-broad\\-spectrum\\-scenarios \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}}", "Kazakhstan's [National Security Committee](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan \"National Security Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan\") (UQK) was established on 13 June 1992\\. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered the most important part of KNB. Its director is [Nurtai Abykayev](/wiki/Nurtai_Abykayev \"Nurtai Abykayev\").", "Since 2002, the joint tactical peacekeeping exercise \"Steppe Eagle\" has been hosted by the Kazakhstan government. \"Steppe Eagle\" focuses on building coalitions and gives participating nations the opportunity to work together. During the Steppe Eagle exercises, the [KAZBAT](/wiki/KAZBAT \"KAZBAT\") peacekeeping battalion operates within a multinational force under a unified command within multidisciplinary peacekeeping operations, with NATO and the U.S. Military.{{cite news\\|title\\=Steppe Eagle – 2015 Multinational Peacekeeping Exercises to be Held in April and June\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2015/02/steppe\\-eagle\\-2015\\-multinational\\-peacekeeping\\-exercises\\-held\\-april\\-june/\\|work\\=The Astana Times\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208095229/http://astanatimes.com/2015/02/steppe\\-eagle\\-2015\\-multinational\\-peacekeeping\\-exercises\\-held\\-april\\-june/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}}", "In December 2013, Kazakhstan announced it will send officers to support United Nations Peacekeeping forces in Haiti, Western Sahara, Ivory Coast and Liberia.{{cite news \\|title\\=Kazakhstan to Join U.N. Peacekeeping for First Time \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2013/12/20/world/20reuters\\-kazakhstan\\-un.html?partner\\=rss\\&emc\\=rss\\&\\_r\\=0 \\|work\\=The New York Times}}", "### Human rights", "{{Main\\|Human rights in Kazakhstan}}", "The [Economist Intelligence Unit](/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit \"Economist Intelligence Unit\") has consistently ranked Kazakhstan as an \"authoritarian regime\" in its [Democracy Index](/wiki/Democracy_Index \"Democracy Index\"), ranking it 128th out of 167 countries for 2020\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/graphic\\-detail/2021/02/02/global\\-democracy\\-has\\-a\\-very\\-bad\\-year\\|title\\=Global democracy has a very bad year\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Economist]]\\|date\\=2 February 2021\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=26 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726221509/https://www.economist.com/graphic\\-detail/2021/02/02/global\\-democracy\\-has\\-a\\-very\\-bad\\-year\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/graphic\\-detail/2020/01/22/global\\-democracy\\-has\\-another\\-bad\\-year\\|title\\=Global democracy has another bad year\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|date\\=22 January 2020\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323135217/https://www.economist.com/graphic\\-detail/2020/01/22/global\\-democracy\\-has\\-another\\-bad\\-year\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Kazakhstan was ranked 122nd out of 180 countries in [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders \"Reporters Without Borders\")' [Press Freedom Index](/wiki/Press_Freedom_Index \"Press Freedom Index\") for 2022; previously it ranked 155th for 2021\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://rsf.org/en/kazakhstan\\|title\\=Kazakhstan\\|work\\=Reporters Without Borders\\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303184703/https://rsf.org/en/kazakhstan\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Kazakhstan's human rights situation has been described as poor by independent observers. In its 2015 report of human rights in the country, [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\") said that \"Kazakhstan heavily restricts freedom of assembly, speech, and religion.\"[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\"), [World Report 2015: Kazakhstan](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020227/https://www.hrw.org/world\\-report/2015/country\\-chapters/kazakhstan \\|date\\=28 October 2016 }}, accessed October 2015\\. It has also described the government as authoritarian.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/05/kazakhstan\\-elections\\-and\\-transition\\-wasnt\\|title\\=The Kazakhstan elections and the transition that wasn't\\|website\\=hrw.org\\|date\\=5 June 2019\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=1 March 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011034/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/05/kazakhstan\\-elections\\-and\\-transition\\-wasnt\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2014, authorities closed newspapers, jailed or fined dozens of people after peaceful but unsanctioned protests, and fined or detained worshipers for practising religion outside state controls. Government critics, including opposition leader [Vladimir Kozlov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kozlov_%28politician%29 \"Vladimir Kozlov (politician)\"), remained in detention after unfair trials. In mid\\-2014, Kazakhstan adopted new criminal, criminal executive, criminal procedural, and administrative codes, and a new law on trade unions, which contain articles restricting fundamental freedoms and are incompatible with international standards. Torture remains common in places of detention.\"[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\"), [World Report 2015: Kazakhstan](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/kazakhstan) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020227/https://www.hrw.org/world\\-report/2015/country\\-chapters/kazakhstan \\|date\\=28 October 2016 }}, accessed September 2016\\. However, Kazakhstan has achieved significant progress in reducing the prison population.{{Citation\\|last1\\=Trochev\\|first1\\=Alexei\\|title\\=Trials and Tribulations: Kazakhstan's Criminal Justice Reforms\\|date\\=2019\\|url\\=http://link.springer.com/10\\.1007/978\\-981\\-13\\-6693\\-2\\_5\\|work\\=Kazakhstan and the Soviet Legacy\\|pages\\=75–99\\|editor\\-last\\=Caron\\|editor\\-first\\=Jean\\-François\\|place\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Springer Singapore\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-981\\-13\\-6693\\-2\\_5\\|isbn\\=978\\-981\\-13\\-6692\\-5\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-04\\|last2\\=Slade\\|first2\\=Gavin\\|s2cid\\=159320888}} The 2016 Human Rights Watch report commented that Kazakhstan \"took few meaningful steps to tackle a worsening human rights record in 2015, maintaining a focus on economic development over political reform.\"[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\"), [World Report 2016: Kazakhstan](https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/kazakhstan) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914160847/https://www.hrw.org/world\\-report/2016/country\\-chapters/kazakhstan \\|date\\=14 September 2016 }}, accessed September 2016\\. Some critics of the government have been [arrested](/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation%23Efforts_to_combat_misinformation \"COVID-19 misinformation#Efforts to combat misinformation\") for allegedly spreading [false information](/wiki/False_information \"False information\") about the [COVID\\-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan \"COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Kazakh Opposition Activist Detained For 'Spreading False Information' \\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan\\-suraev\\-opposition\\-activist\\-detained\\-false\\-information\\-toqaev/30563253\\.html \\|work\\=Human Rights Watch \\|date\\=18 April 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728232222/https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan\\-suraev\\-opposition\\-activist\\-detained\\-false\\-information\\-toqaev/30563253\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Various police reforms, like creation of local police service and zero\\-tolerance policing, aimed at bringing police closer to local communities have not improved cooperation between police and ordinary citizens.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Slade\\|first1\\=Gavin\\|last2\\=Trochev\\|first2\\=Alexei\\|last3\\=Talgatova\\|first3\\=Malika\\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-02\\|title\\=The Limits of Authoritarian Modernisation: Zero Tolerance Policing in Kazakhstan\\|url\\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.1080/09668136\\.2020\\.1844867\\|journal\\=Europe\\-Asia Studies\\|volume\\=73\\|language\\=en\\|pages\\=178–199\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/09668136\\.2020\\.1844867\\|s2cid\\=229420067\\|issn\\=0966\\-8136\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=19 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119120806/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.1080/09668136\\.2020\\.1844867\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "According to a U.S. government report released in 2014, in Kazakhstan:", "", "> The law does not require police to inform detainees that they have the [right to an attorney](/wiki/Right_to_an_attorney \"Right to an attorney\"), and police did not do so. Human rights observers alleged that law enforcement officials dissuaded detainees from seeing an attorney, gathered evidence through preliminary questioning before a detainee's attorney arrived, and in some cases used corrupt defense attorneys to gather evidence. \\[...]", "The law does not adequately provide for an [independent judiciary](/wiki/Independent_judiciary \"Independent judiciary\"). The executive branch sharply limited judicial independence. Prosecutors enjoyed a quasi\\-judicial role and had the authority to suspend court decisions. Corruption was evident at every stage of the judicial process. Although judges were among the most highly paid government employees, lawyers and human rights monitors alleged that judges, prosecutors, and other officials solicited [bribes](/wiki/Bribes \"Bribes\") in exchange for favorable rulings in the majority of criminal cases.[\"Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2013: Kazakhstan\"](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2013&dlid=220395#wrapper) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618054438/https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year\\=2013\\&dlid\\=220395\\#wrapper \\|date\\=18 June 2020 }}, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. Retrieved 1 November 2015\\.\nKazakhstan's global rank in the [World Justice Project](/wiki/World_Justice_Project \"World Justice Project\")'s 2015 Rule of Law Index was 65 out of 102; the country scored well on \"Order and Security\" (global rank 32/102\\), and poorly on \"Constraints on Government Powers\" (global rank 93/102\\), \"Open Government\" (85/102\\) and \"Fundamental Rights\" (84/102, with a downward trend marking a deterioration in conditions).{{cite web\\|title\\=Rule of Law Index 2015\\|url\\=http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/\\#groups/KAZ\\|website\\=World Justice Project\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429071718/http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/\\#groups/KAZ\\|archive\\-date\\=29 April 2015}}", "The [ABA Rule of Law Initiative](/wiki/ABA_Rule_of_Law_Initiative \"ABA Rule of Law Initiative\") of the American Bar Association has programs to train justice sector professionals in Kazakhstan.{{cite web \\|title\\=Rule of Law in Kazakhstan \\|url\\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan.html \\|publisher\\=American Bar Association \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225822/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan.html \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan Background \\|url\\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan/background.html \\|publisher\\=American Bar Association \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231239/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan/background.html \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016}}", "Kazakhstan's Supreme Court has taken steps to modernise and to increase transparency and oversight over the country's legal system. With funding from the US Agency for International Development, the ABA Rule of Law Initiative began a new program in April 2012 to strengthen the independence and accountability of Kazakhstan's judiciary.{{cite web\\|title\\=Judicial Reform\\|url\\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan/news.html\\|publisher\\=American Bar Association\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230348/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan/news.html\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016}}", "In an effort to increase transparency in the criminal justice and court system, and improve human rights, Kazakhstan intended to digitise all investigative, prosecutorial and court records by 2018\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakh criminal justice system to be digitised by 2018\\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2017/11/kazakh\\-criminal\\-justice\\-system\\-to\\-be\\-digitised\\-by\\-2018/\\|agency\\=The Astana Times\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034931/https://astanatimes.com/2017/11/kazakh\\-criminal\\-justice\\-system\\-to\\-be\\-digitised\\-by\\-2018/\\|archive\\-date\\=1 December 2017}} Many criminal cases are closed before trial on the basis of reconciliation between the defendant and the victim because they simplify the work of the law\\-enforcement officers, release the defendant from punishment, and pay little regard to the victim's rights.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Trochev\\|first\\=Alexei\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=Between Convictions and Reconciliations: Processing Criminal Cases in Kazakhstani Courts\\|url\\=https://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Trochev\\-final.pdf\\|journal\\=Cornell Journal of International Law\\|volume\\=50\\|pages\\=107–145\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=20 July 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720082506/https://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Trochev\\-final.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Homosexuality has been legal in Kazakhstan since 1997, although it is still socially unacceptable in most areas.{{cite book\\|title\\=Kazakhstan \\|date\\=7 September 2018 \\|publisher\\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78477\\-092\\-1\\|page\\= 40 \\|author1\\=Paul Brummell }} Discrimination against [LGBT people](/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Kazakhstan \"LGBT rights in Kazakhstan\") in Kazakhstan is widespread.{{cite news \\|title\\=Kazakhstan: LGBT Community Living in Fear \\|url\\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/23/kazakhstan\\-lgbt\\-community\\-living\\-fear \\|work\\=Human Rights Watch \\|date\\=23 July 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=16 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727005543/https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/23/kazakhstan\\-lgbt\\-community\\-living\\-fear \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Life in the Closet: The LGBT Community in Central Asia \\|url\\=https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/life\\-in\\-the\\-closet\\-the\\-lgbt\\-community\\-in\\-central\\-asia/ \\|work\\=The Diplomat \\|date\\=29 January 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=16 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802051901/https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/life\\-in\\-the\\-closet\\-the\\-lgbt\\-community\\-in\\-central\\-asia/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
### Foreign relations {{Main\|Foreign relations of Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|President [Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev "Nursultan Nazarbayev") with U.S. President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") and Russian President [Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev "Dmitry Medvedev") in 2012](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_South_Korea%2C_March_2012-15.jpeg "Dmitry Medvedev in South Korea, March 2012-15.jpeg") Kazakhstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the [Economic Cooperation Organization](/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization "Economic Cooperation Organization") and the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation"). The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), Kyrgyzstan and [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan "Tajikistan") established the [Eurasian Economic Community](/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Community "Eurasian Economic Community") in 2000, to revive earlier efforts to harmonise trade tariffs and to create a free trade zone under a customs union. On 1 December 2007, it was announced that Kazakhstan had been chosen to chair the [Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe") for the year 2010\. Kazakhstan was elected a member of the [UN Human Rights Council](/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Council "UN Human Rights Council") for the first time on 12 November 2012\.{{cite news \|url\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\_sub/Kazakhstan\-became\-member\-of\-UN\-Human\-Rights\-Council\-\-14431/ \|title\=Kazakhstan became member of UN Human Rights Council \|work\=Tengrinews.kz English \|date\=13 November 2012 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\_sub/Kazakhstan\-became\-member\-of\-UN\-Human\-Rights\-Council\-\-14431/ \|archive\-date\=1 January 2016}} Kazakhstan is also a member of the United Nations, [Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe"), [Euro\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council "Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council"), [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council "Turkic Council"), and [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation") (OIC). It is an active participant in the [North Atlantic Treaty Organisation](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization "North Atlantic Treaty Organization") [Partnership for Peace](/wiki/Partnership_for_Peace "Partnership for Peace") program.{{cite web\|author\=North Atlantic Treaty Organization\|title\=Signatures of Partnership for Peace Framework Document\|date\=5 October 2006\|url\=http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\-cntr.htm\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129213256/http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\-cntr.htm\|archive\-date\=29 November 2006}} In 1999, Kazakhstan had applied for observer status at the [Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly"). The official response of the Assembly was that because Kazakhstan is partially located in Europe,{{cite web\|url\=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\-Xref\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\=9998\|title\=Situation in Kazakhstan and its relations with the Council of Europe\|last\=Iwiński\|first\=Tadeusz\|date\=7 July 2006\|website\=Council of Europe – Parliamentary Assembly\|access\-date\=14 February 2020\|quote\=For its part, the Assembly might decide, already at this stage, to interpret Rule 59 of its Rules of procedure, concerning special guests, in such a way as to include the Eurasian States. Two Council of Europe member States, Turkey and Russia, belong geographically to both Europe and Asia and are therefore Eurasian. Strictly speaking, the three South Caucasus States, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are located in Asia, yet their membership of political Europe is no longer in doubt. \[...] This being the case, Kazakhstan, as a Eurasian State participating in the OSCE and a signatory to the International covenant on civil and political rights and the International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, would meet the criteria laid down in Rule 59, making it eligible to apply for special guest status with the Assembly.\|archive\-date\=9 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233442/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\-Xref\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\=9998\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\-cornell\-engvall\-kazakhstan\-in\-europe\-why\-not.pdf\|title\=Kazakhstan in Europe: Why Not?\|last1\=Cornell\|first1\=Svante\|last2\=Engvall\|first2\=Johan\|date\=2017\|website\=Institute for Security \& Development Policy\|access\-date\=15 February 2020\|quote\=However, by 2006, a Rapporteur for the Political Affairs Committee concluded that because of Kazakhstan's nature as a European country, the country should be considered 'eligible to apply for a special guest status.'\|archive\-date\=24 October 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024154030/https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\-cornell\-engvall\-kazakhstan\-in\-europe\-why\-not.pdf\|url\-status\=live}} it could apply for full membership, but that it would not be granted any status whatsoever at the council until its democracy and human rights records improved. Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the "multi\-vector foreign policy" ({{langx\|kk\|көпвекторлы сыртқы саясат}}), seeking equally good relations with its two large neighbours, Russia and China, as well as with the United States and the rest of the Western world.{{cite news \|last\=Blank \|first\=Stephen \|title\=Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in a Time of Turmoil \|publisher\=EurasiaNet \|date\=27 April 2005 \|url\=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\.shtml \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045839/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\.shtml \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|access\-date\=9 April 2009 }}{{cite news \|last\=Cohen \|first\=Ariel \|title\=Kazakh foreign minister insists balanced foreign policy remains intact \|publisher\=Business News Europe \|date\=7 October 2008 \|url\=http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817020006/http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \|archive\-date\=17 August 2009}} Russia leases approximately {{convert\|6000\|km2\|0\|abbr\=out}} of territory enclosing the [Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome "Baikonur Cosmodrome") space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle [Buran](/wiki/Buran_%28spacecraft%29 "Buran (spacecraft)") and the well\-known space station [Mir](/wiki/Mir "Mir"). On 11 April 2010, presidents Nazarbayev and [Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan. They pledged to intensify bilateral co\-operation to promote nuclear safety and non\-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.[Joint Statement on the meeting between President Obama and Kazakhstan president Nazarbayev \| The White House](https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/joint-statement-meeting-between-president-obama-and-kazakhstan-president-nazarbayev) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216172644/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\-press\-office/joint\-statement\-meeting\-between\-president\-obama\-and\-kazakhstan\-president\-nazarbayev \|date\=16 February 2017 }}. Whitehouse.gov (11 April 2010\). Retrieved 14 January 2013\. Since 2014, the Kazakhstani government has been bidding for a non\-permanent member seat on the UN Security Council for 2017–2018\.{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan, UN Continue Building on Two\-Decades of Cooperation\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\-un\-continue\-building\-two\-decades\-cooperation/\|website\=Astanatimes.com\|date\=27 October 2014 \|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170610/http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\-un\-continue\-building\-two\-decades\-cooperation/\|archive\-date\=19 February 2016}} On 28 June 2016 Kazakhstan was elected as a non\-permanent member to serve on the UN Security Council for a two\-year term.{{cite web\|title\=Sweden, Bolivia, Ethiopia and Kazakhstan elected to Security Council\|url\=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\=54350\#.WDczqbXXfYU\|website\=un.org\| date\=28 June 2016 \|access\-date\=23 November 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125045313/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\=54350\#.WDczqbXXfYU\|archive\-date\=25 November 2016}} [thumb\|Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev, [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan"), [Xi Jinping](/wiki/Xi_Jinping "Xi Jinping") and other leaders at the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") summit in Samarkand, 16 September 2022](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organization_member_states_Summit_gets_underway_in_Samarkand_02.jpg "Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states Summit gets underway in Samarkand 02.jpg") Kazakhstan has supported UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire.{{cite news\|title\=Kazakh peacekeepers in Western Sahara\|url\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\-peacekeepers\-in\-Western\-Sahara\-257039/\|publisher\=Tengrinews\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108204101/http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\-peacekeepers\-in\-Western\-Sahara\-257039/\|archive\-date\=8 November 2014}} In March 2014, the Ministry of Defense chose 20 Kazakhstani military men as observers for the UN peacekeeping missions. The military personnel, ranking from captain to colonel, had to go through specialised UN training; they had to be fluent in English and skilled in using specialised military vehicles. In 2014, Kazakhstan gave Ukraine humanitarian aid during the conflict with Russian\-backed rebels. In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine. In January 2015, to help the humanitarian crisis, Kazakhstan sent $400,000 of aid to [Ukraine's southeastern regions](/wiki/Novorossiya_%28confederation%29 "Novorossiya (confederation)").{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan delivers humanitarian aid to Ukraine \|url\=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\-delivers\-humanitarian\-aid\-ukraine \|work\=Global Post \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230451/https://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\-delivers\-humanitarian\-aid\-ukraine \|archive\-date\=5 February 2015}} President Nazarbayev said of the war in Ukraine, "The fratricidal war has brought true devastation to eastern Ukraine, and it is a common task to stop the war there, strengthen Ukraine's independence and secure territorial integrity of Ukraine."{{cite news\|title\=Nazarbayev Offers to Mediate in Ukraine, Stresses Kazakhstan's Economic Resilience\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\-offers\-mediate\-ukraine\-stresses\-kazakhstans\-economic\-resilience/\|work\=The Astana Times\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208182750/http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\-offers\-mediate\-ukraine\-stresses\-kazakhstans\-economic\-resilience/\|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} Experts believe that no matter how the Ukraine crisis develops, Kazakhstan's relations with the European Union will remain normal.{{cite web\|title\=Nazarbayev as Mediator\|url\=http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\=57771\|publisher\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Moscow Center\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208144059/http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\=57771\|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} It is believed that Nazarbayev's mediation is positively received by both Russia and Ukraine. Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 26 January 2015: "We are firmly convinced that there is no alternative to peace negotiations as a way to resolve the crisis in south\-eastern Ukraine."{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan Urges Peaceful Resolution to Ukraine Conflict, Reiterates Minsk Agreements\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\-urges\-peaceful\-resolution\-ukraine\-conflict\-reiterates\-minsk\-agreements/\|work\=The Astana Times\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208154047/http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\-urges\-peaceful\-resolution\-ukraine\-conflict\-reiterates\-minsk\-agreements/\|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} In 2018, Kazakhstan signed the UN [treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons](/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons "Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons").{{cite web \|url\=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\=TREATY\&mtdsg\_no\=XXVI\-9\&chapter\=26\&clang\=\_en \|title\=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons \|publisher\=United Nations Treaty Collection \|date\=7 July 2017 \|access\-date\=16 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\=TREATY\&mtdsg\_no\=XXVI\-9\&chapter\=26\&clang\=\_en \|archive\-date\=6 August 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} [thumb\|President [Kassym\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev "Kassym-Jomart Tokayev") with Russian President [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin"), 28 November 2022](/wiki/File:Putin-Tokayev_meeting_%282022-11-28%29_01.jpg "Putin-Tokayev meeting (2022-11-28) 01.jpg") On 6 March 2020, the Concept of the Foreign Policy of Kazakhstan for 2020–2030 was announced. The document outlines the following main points: * An open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive in nature and maintains its endurance by continuing the course of the First President – the country at a new stage of development; * Protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and environmental protection; * Promotion of the country's economic interests in the international arena, including the implementation of state policy to attract investment; * Maintaining international peace and security; * Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which primarily involves strengthening mutually beneficial ties with key partners – Russia, China, the United States, Central Asian states and the EU countries, as well as through multilateral structures – the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and others.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\|title\=President approves new concept of Kazakhstan's foreign policy for 2020–2030\|last\=INFORM.KZ\|date\=9 March 2020\|website\=inform.kz\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=7 April 2020\|archive\-date\=7 April 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407103930/https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\|url\-status\=live}} [thumb\|Member states of the [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization "Collective Security Treaty Organization") (CSTO)](/wiki/File:CSTOMap.png "CSTOMap.png") Kazakhstan's memberships of international organisations include: * [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States") (CIS) * [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization "Collective Security Treaty Organization") (CSTO) * [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") * [Euro\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council "Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council") * [Individual Partnership Action Plan](/wiki/Individual_Partnership_Action_Plan "Individual Partnership Action Plan"), with [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO"), Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova"), [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina") and [Montenegro](/wiki/Montenegro "Montenegro") * [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council "Turkic Council") and the [TÜRKSOY](/wiki/T%C3%9CRKSOY "TÜRKSOY") community. (The national language, [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language "Kazakh language"), is related to the other [Turkic languages](/wiki/Turkic_languages "Turkic languages"), with which it shares cultural and [historical ties](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples")) * United Nations * [Organization for Security and Co\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe") (OSCE) * [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO"), where Kazakhstan is a member of its [World Heritage Committee](/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee "World Heritage Committee"){{cite web \|title\=Twelve new members elected to World Heritage Committee \|url\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082/ \|publisher\=UNESCO \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218004512/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082 \|archive\-date\=18 February 2016}} * [Nuclear Suppliers Group](/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Group "Nuclear Suppliers Group") as a participating government * [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization"){{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan and the WTO\|url\=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\_e/countries\_e/kazakhstan\_e.htm\|website\=World Trade Organization\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\_e/countries\_e/kazakhstan\_e.htm\|archive\-date\=1 July 2017}} * [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organization of Islamic Cooperation") (OIC){{cite web\|title\=Member States\|url\=http://www.oic\-oci.org/states/?lan\=en\|website\=OIC\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609063319/http://www.oic\-oci.org/states/?lan\=en\|archive\-date\=9 June 2017}} Based on these principles, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Kazakhstan has increasingly pursued an independent foreign policy, defined by its own foreign policy objectives and ambitions{{Cite web \|last\=Sanchez \|first\=Wilder Alejandro \|date\=May 2020 \|title\=A Rising Global Player: Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in the 2020s \|url\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\_200514\_cable%2051\_v1\.pdf \|website\=Wilson Center \|access\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082204/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\_200514\_cable%2051\_v1\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Umarov \|first\=Temur \|title\=Kazakhstan Is Breaking Out of Russia's Grip \|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\-russia\-ukraine\-war/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-21 \|website\=Foreign Policy \|date\=16 September 2022 \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=23 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223102832/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\-russia\-ukraine\-war/ \|url\-status\=live }} through which the country attempts to balance its relations with "all the major powers and an equally principled aversion towards excessive dependence in any field upon any one of them, while also opening the country up economically to all who are willing to invest there."{{Cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan asserts its independent foreign policy \|url\=https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\-asserts\-its\-independent\-foreign\-policy/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-21 \|website\=trendsresearch.org \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=21 December 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082345/https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\-asserts\-its\-independent\-foreign\-policy/ \|url\-status\=dead }} Kazakhstan is the 59th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [Global Peace Index](/wiki/Global_Peace_Index "Global Peace Index").{{Cite web \|title\=2024 Global Peace Index \|url\=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp\-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI\-2024\-web.pdf}}
[ "### Foreign relations", "{{Main\\|Foreign relations of Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|President [Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev \"Nursultan Nazarbayev\") with U.S. President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") and Russian President [Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev \"Dmitry Medvedev\") in 2012](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_in_South_Korea%2C_March_2012-15.jpeg \"Dmitry Medvedev in South Korea, March 2012-15.jpeg\")", "Kazakhstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the [Economic Cooperation Organization](/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization \"Economic Cooperation Organization\") and the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\"). The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), Kyrgyzstan and [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan \"Tajikistan\") established the [Eurasian Economic Community](/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Community \"Eurasian Economic Community\") in 2000, to revive earlier efforts to harmonise trade tariffs and to create a free trade zone under a customs union. On 1 December 2007, it was announced that Kazakhstan had been chosen to chair the [Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\") for the year 2010\\. Kazakhstan was elected a member of the [UN Human Rights Council](/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Council \"UN Human Rights Council\") for the first time on 12 November 2012\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\\_sub/Kazakhstan\\-became\\-member\\-of\\-UN\\-Human\\-Rights\\-Council\\-\\-14431/ \\|title\\=Kazakhstan became member of UN Human Rights Council \\|work\\=Tengrinews.kz English \\|date\\=13 November 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics\\_sub/Kazakhstan\\-became\\-member\\-of\\-UN\\-Human\\-Rights\\-Council\\-\\-14431/ \\|archive\\-date\\=1 January 2016}}", "Kazakhstan is also a member of the United Nations, [Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe\"), [Euro\\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council \"Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council\"), [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council \"Turkic Council\"), and [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\") (OIC). It is an active participant in the [North Atlantic Treaty Organisation](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization \"North Atlantic Treaty Organization\") [Partnership for Peace](/wiki/Partnership_for_Peace \"Partnership for Peace\") program.{{cite web\\|author\\=North Atlantic Treaty Organization\\|title\\=Signatures of Partnership for Peace Framework Document\\|date\\=5 October 2006\\|url\\=http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\\-cntr.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129213256/http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig\\-cntr.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2006}}", "In 1999, Kazakhstan had applied for observer status at the [Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly \"Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly\"). The official response of the Assembly was that because Kazakhstan is partially located in Europe,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\\-Xref\\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\\=9998\\|title\\=Situation in Kazakhstan and its relations with the Council of Europe\\|last\\=Iwiński\\|first\\=Tadeusz\\|date\\=7 July 2006\\|website\\=Council of Europe – Parliamentary Assembly\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2020\\|quote\\=For its part, the Assembly might decide, already at this stage, to interpret Rule 59 of its Rules of procedure, concerning special guests, in such a way as to include the Eurasian States. Two Council of Europe member States, Turkey and Russia, belong geographically to both Europe and Asia and are therefore Eurasian. Strictly speaking, the three South Caucasus States, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are located in Asia, yet their membership of political Europe is no longer in doubt. \\[...] This being the case, Kazakhstan, as a Eurasian State participating in the OSCE and a signatory to the International covenant on civil and political rights and the International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, would meet the criteria laid down in Rule 59, making it eligible to apply for special guest status with the Assembly.\\|archive\\-date\\=9 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233442/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H\\-Xref\\-ViewHTML.asp?FileID\\=9998\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\\-cornell\\-engvall\\-kazakhstan\\-in\\-europe\\-why\\-not.pdf\\|title\\=Kazakhstan in Europe: Why Not?\\|last1\\=Cornell\\|first1\\=Svante\\|last2\\=Engvall\\|first2\\=Johan\\|date\\=2017\\|website\\=Institute for Security \\& Development Policy\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2020\\|quote\\=However, by 2006, a Rapporteur for the Political Affairs Committee concluded that because of Kazakhstan's nature as a European country, the country should be considered 'eligible to apply for a special guest status.'\\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024154030/https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/10/2017\\-cornell\\-engvall\\-kazakhstan\\-in\\-europe\\-why\\-not.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live}} it could apply for full membership, but that it would not be granted any status whatsoever at the council until its democracy and human rights records improved.", "Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the \"multi\\-vector foreign policy\" ({{langx\\|kk\\|көпвекторлы сыртқы саясат}}), seeking equally good relations with its two large neighbours, Russia and China, as well as with the United States and the rest of the Western world.{{cite news \\|last\\=Blank \\|first\\=Stephen \\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in a Time of Turmoil \\|publisher\\=EurasiaNet \\|date\\=27 April 2005 \\|url\\=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045839/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2009 }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Cohen \\|first\\=Ariel \\|title\\=Kazakh foreign minister insists balanced foreign policy remains intact \\|publisher\\=Business News Europe \\|date\\=7 October 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817020006/http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 August 2009}} Russia leases approximately {{convert\\|6000\\|km2\\|0\\|abbr\\=out}} of territory enclosing the [Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome \"Baikonur Cosmodrome\") space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle [Buran](/wiki/Buran_%28spacecraft%29 \"Buran (spacecraft)\") and the well\\-known space station [Mir](/wiki/Mir \"Mir\").", "On 11 April 2010, presidents Nazarbayev and [Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan. They pledged to intensify bilateral co\\-operation to promote nuclear safety and non\\-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.[Joint Statement on the meeting between President Obama and Kazakhstan president Nazarbayev \\| The White House](https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/joint-statement-meeting-between-president-obama-and-kazakhstan-president-nazarbayev) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216172644/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\\-press\\-office/joint\\-statement\\-meeting\\-between\\-president\\-obama\\-and\\-kazakhstan\\-president\\-nazarbayev \\|date\\=16 February 2017 }}. Whitehouse.gov (11 April 2010\\). Retrieved 14 January 2013\\.", "Since 2014, the Kazakhstani government has been bidding for a non\\-permanent member seat on the UN Security Council for 2017–2018\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan, UN Continue Building on Two\\-Decades of Cooperation\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\\-un\\-continue\\-building\\-two\\-decades\\-cooperation/\\|website\\=Astanatimes.com\\|date\\=27 October 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170610/http://astanatimes.com/2014/10/kazakhstan\\-un\\-continue\\-building\\-two\\-decades\\-cooperation/\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2016}} On 28 June 2016 Kazakhstan was elected as a non\\-permanent member to serve on the UN Security Council for a two\\-year term.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sweden, Bolivia, Ethiopia and Kazakhstan elected to Security Council\\|url\\=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\\=54350\\#.WDczqbXXfYU\\|website\\=un.org\\| date\\=28 June 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125045313/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID\\=54350\\#.WDczqbXXfYU\\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2016}}\n[thumb\\|Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev, [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\"), [Xi Jinping](/wiki/Xi_Jinping \"Xi Jinping\") and other leaders at the [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\") summit in Samarkand, 16 September 2022](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organization_member_states_Summit_gets_underway_in_Samarkand_02.jpg \"Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states Summit gets underway in Samarkand 02.jpg\")\nKazakhstan has supported UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakh peacekeepers in Western Sahara\\|url\\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\\-peacekeepers\\-in\\-Western\\-Sahara\\-257039/\\|publisher\\=Tengrinews\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108204101/http://en.tengrinews.kz/military/Kazakh\\-peacekeepers\\-in\\-Western\\-Sahara\\-257039/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2014}} In March 2014, the Ministry of Defense chose 20 Kazakhstani military men as observers for the UN peacekeeping missions. The military personnel, ranking from captain to colonel, had to go through specialised UN training; they had to be fluent in English and skilled in using specialised military vehicles.", "In 2014, Kazakhstan gave Ukraine humanitarian aid during the conflict with Russian\\-backed rebels. In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine. In January 2015, to help the humanitarian crisis, Kazakhstan sent $400,000 of aid to [Ukraine's southeastern regions](/wiki/Novorossiya_%28confederation%29 \"Novorossiya (confederation)\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan delivers humanitarian aid to Ukraine \\|url\\=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\\-delivers\\-humanitarian\\-aid\\-ukraine \\|work\\=Global Post \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230451/https://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/agencia\\-efe/150111/kazakhstan\\-delivers\\-humanitarian\\-aid\\-ukraine \\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2015}} President Nazarbayev said of the war in Ukraine, \"The fratricidal war has brought true devastation to eastern Ukraine, and it is a common task to stop the war there, strengthen Ukraine's independence and secure territorial integrity of Ukraine.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Nazarbayev Offers to Mediate in Ukraine, Stresses Kazakhstan's Economic Resilience\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\\-offers\\-mediate\\-ukraine\\-stresses\\-kazakhstans\\-economic\\-resilience/\\|work\\=The Astana Times\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208182750/http://astanatimes.com/2014/12/nazarbayev\\-offers\\-mediate\\-ukraine\\-stresses\\-kazakhstans\\-economic\\-resilience/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}} Experts believe that no matter how the Ukraine crisis develops, Kazakhstan's relations with the European Union will remain normal.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nazarbayev as Mediator\\|url\\=http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\\=57771\\|publisher\\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Moscow Center\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208144059/http://carnegie.ru/commentary/?fa\\=57771\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}} It is believed that Nazarbayev's mediation is positively received by both Russia and Ukraine.", "Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 26 January 2015: \"We are firmly convinced that there is no alternative to peace negotiations as a way to resolve the crisis in south\\-eastern Ukraine.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan Urges Peaceful Resolution to Ukraine Conflict, Reiterates Minsk Agreements\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\\-urges\\-peaceful\\-resolution\\-ukraine\\-conflict\\-reiterates\\-minsk\\-agreements/\\|work\\=The Astana Times\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208154047/http://astanatimes.com/2015/01/kazakhstan\\-urges\\-peaceful\\-resolution\\-ukraine\\-conflict\\-reiterates\\-minsk\\-agreements/\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}} In 2018, Kazakhstan signed the UN [treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons](/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons \"Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\\=TREATY\\&mtdsg\\_no\\=XXVI\\-9\\&chapter\\=26\\&clang\\=\\_en \\|title\\=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons \\|publisher\\=United Nations Treaty Collection \\|date\\=7 July 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=16 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src\\=TREATY\\&mtdsg\\_no\\=XXVI\\-9\\&chapter\\=26\\&clang\\=\\_en \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "[thumb\\|President [Kassym\\-Jomart Tokayev](/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev \"Kassym-Jomart Tokayev\") with Russian President [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\"), 28 November 2022](/wiki/File:Putin-Tokayev_meeting_%282022-11-28%29_01.jpg \"Putin-Tokayev meeting (2022-11-28) 01.jpg\")", "On 6 March 2020, the Concept of the Foreign Policy of Kazakhstan for 2020–2030 was announced. The document outlines the following main points:", "* An open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive in nature and maintains its endurance by continuing the course of the First President – the country at a new stage of development;\n* Protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and environmental protection;\n* Promotion of the country's economic interests in the international arena, including the implementation of state policy to attract investment;\n* Maintaining international peace and security;\n* Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which primarily involves strengthening mutually beneficial ties with key partners – Russia, China, the United States, Central Asian states and the EU countries, as well as through multilateral structures – the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and others.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\\|title\\=President approves new concept of Kazakhstan's foreign policy for 2020–2030\\|last\\=INFORM.KZ\\|date\\=9 March 2020\\|website\\=inform.kz\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407103930/https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3622809\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "[thumb\\|Member states of the [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization \"Collective Security Treaty Organization\") (CSTO)](/wiki/File:CSTOMap.png \"CSTOMap.png\")", "Kazakhstan's memberships of international organisations include:", "* [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\") (CIS)\n* [Collective Security Treaty Organization](/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization \"Collective Security Treaty Organization\") (CSTO)\n* [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation](/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation \"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation\")\n* [Euro\\-Atlantic Partnership Council](/wiki/Euro-Atlantic_Partnership_Council \"Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council\")\n* [Individual Partnership Action Plan](/wiki/Individual_Partnership_Action_Plan \"Individual Partnership Action Plan\"), with [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\"), Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova \"Moldova\"), [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\") and [Montenegro](/wiki/Montenegro \"Montenegro\")\n* [Turkic Council](/wiki/Turkic_Council \"Turkic Council\") and the [TÜRKSOY](/wiki/T%C3%9CRKSOY \"TÜRKSOY\") community. (The national language, [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language \"Kazakh language\"), is related to the other [Turkic languages](/wiki/Turkic_languages \"Turkic languages\"), with which it shares cultural and [historical ties](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\"))\n* United Nations\n* [Organization for Security and Co\\-operation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\") (OSCE)\n* [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\"), where Kazakhstan is a member of its [World Heritage Committee](/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee \"World Heritage Committee\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Twelve new members elected to World Heritage Committee \\|url\\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082/ \\|publisher\\=UNESCO \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218004512/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1082 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2016}}\n* [Nuclear Suppliers Group](/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Group \"Nuclear Suppliers Group\") as a participating government\n* [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization \"World Trade Organization\"){{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan and the WTO\\|url\\=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\\_e/countries\\_e/kazakhstan\\_e.htm\\|website\\=World Trade Organization\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\\_e/countries\\_e/kazakhstan\\_e.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2017}}\n* [Organization of Islamic Cooperation](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organization of Islamic Cooperation\") (OIC){{cite web\\|title\\=Member States\\|url\\=http://www.oic\\-oci.org/states/?lan\\=en\\|website\\=OIC\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609063319/http://www.oic\\-oci.org/states/?lan\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2017}}\nBased on these principles, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Kazakhstan has increasingly pursued an independent foreign policy, defined by its own foreign policy objectives and ambitions{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sanchez \\|first\\=Wilder Alejandro \\|date\\=May 2020 \\|title\\=A Rising Global Player: Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in the 2020s \\|url\\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\\_200514\\_cable%2051\\_v1\\.pdf \\|website\\=Wilson Center \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082204/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/KI\\_200514\\_cable%2051\\_v1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Umarov \\|first\\=Temur \\|title\\=Kazakhstan Is Breaking Out of Russia's Grip \\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\\-russia\\-ukraine\\-war/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=Foreign Policy \\|date\\=16 September 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223102832/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/16/kazakhstan\\-russia\\-ukraine\\-war/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} through which the country attempts to balance its relations with \"all the major powers and an equally principled aversion towards excessive dependence in any field upon any one of them, while also opening the country up economically to all who are willing to invest there.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan asserts its independent foreign policy \\|url\\=https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\\-asserts\\-its\\-independent\\-foreign\\-policy/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-21 \\|website\\=trendsresearch.org \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221082345/https://trendsresearch.org/insight/kazakhstan\\-asserts\\-its\\-independent\\-foreign\\-policy/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Kazakhstan is the 59th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [Global Peace Index](/wiki/Global_Peace_Index \"Global Peace Index\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=2024 Global Peace Index \\|url\\=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI\\-2024\\-web.pdf}}", "" ]
Economy ------- {{Main\|Economy of Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|GDP per capita development in Kazakhstan since 1973](/wiki/File:Kazakstan_GDP_per_capita_1973%E2%80%932022.png "Kazakstan GDP per capita 1973–2022.png") In 2018, Kazakhstan had a GDP of $179\.332 billion and an annual growth rate of 4\.5 percent. Per capita, Kazakhstan's GDP stood at $9,686\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://stat.gov.kz/official/dynamic\|title\=stat.gov.kz\|website\=stat.gov.kz\|access\-date\=7 April 2020\|archive\-date\=17 October 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017035705/https://stat.gov.kz/official/dynamic\|url\-status\=live}} Buoyed by high world [crude oil](/wiki/Crude_oil "Crude oil") prices, GDP growth figures were between 8\.9 percent and 13\.5 percent from 2000 to 2007 before decreasing to 1 to 3 percent in [2008 and 2009](/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis "2007–2008 financial crisis"), and then rising again from 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531180249/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG \|archive\-date\=31 May 2011 \|title\=GDP growth (annual %) \|work\=The World Bank. World Bank.org \|access\-date\=1 June 2010 \|url\-status\=live}} Other major exports of Kazakhstan include wheat, textiles, and livestock. Kazakhstan is a leading exporter of [uranium](/wiki/Uranium "Uranium").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/news/2/%E2%84%96\_1\_in\_the\_world \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722142342/http://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/news/2/%E2%84%96\_1\_in\_the\_world \|archive\-date\=22 July 2011 \|title\=№ 1 in the world \|work\=The Atomic Company Kazatomprom, Kazatomprom.kz \|date\=30 December 2009 \|access\-date\=1 June 2010 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web \|url\=https://world\-nuclear.org/information\-library/country\-profiles/others/uranium\-in\-central\-asia.aspx\#:\~:text\=Uranium%20and%20Nuclear%20Power%20in%20Kazakhstan%20%28Updated%20June,2019%2C%20Kazakhstan%20produced%2043%25%20of%20the%20world%27s%20uranium. \|title\=Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan \|publisher\=world\-nuclear.org \|date\=June 2022 \|access\-date\=13 Jan 2023 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326045234/http://www.world\-nuclear.org/info/Country\-Profiles/Countries\-G\-N/Kazakhstan/ \|archive\-date\=26 March 2013}} Kazakhstan's economy grew by 4\.6 percent in 2014\.{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan: The Latest Emerging Opportunity\|url\=http://www.bricplusnews.com/business/kazakhstan\-the\-latest\-emerging\-opportunity/\|publisher\=BRIC Plus\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620181513/http://www.bricplusnews.com/business/kazakhstan\-the\-latest\-emerging\-opportunity/\|archive\-date\=20 June 2015}} The country experienced a slowdown in economic growth from 2014 sparked by falling [oil prices](/wiki/Price_of_oil "Price of oil") and the effects of the [Ukrainian crisis](/wiki/Ukrainian_crisis "Ukrainian crisis").[Kazakhs battle to stave off chill blowing in from Russian steppe](http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c4a55aa6-dd04-11e3-b73c-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3mCiNSOzr) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519084837/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c4a55aa6\-dd04\-11e3\-b73c\-00144feabdc0\.html\#axzz3mCiNSOzr \|date\=19 May 2020 }}, [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times"), 21 May 2014 The country devalued its currency by 19 percent in February 2014\."Tenge Fever", [The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist "The Economist"), 22 February 2014 Another 22 percent devaluation occurred in August 2015\.[Kazakhstan's currency plunges](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/21/business/international/kazakhstans-currency-plunges.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205174742/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/21/business/international/kazakhstans\-currency\-plunges.html \|date\=5 February 2017 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, 21 August 2015 Kazakhstan was the first former Soviet Republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund, 7 years ahead of schedule.{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan profile\|url\=https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/kazakhstan/47484\.htm\|website\=State.gov\|publisher\=US State Department\|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804164708/https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/kazakhstan/47484\.htm\|archive\-date\=4 August 2019\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan weathered the global financial crisis {{Citation needed\|date\=October 2015}} by combining fiscal relaxation with monetary stabilisation. In 2009, the government introduced large\-scale support measures such as the recapitalisation of banks and support for the real estate and agricultural sectors, as well as for [small and medium enterprises](/wiki/Small_and_medium_enterprise "Small and medium enterprise") (SMEs). The total value of the stimulus programs amounted to $21 billion, or 20 per cent of the country's GDP, with $4 billion going to stabilise the financial sector.{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan unveils $21bn rescue package\|url\=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/209897de\-ba5a\-11dd\-aecd\-0000779fd18c,Authorised\=false.html?\_i\_location\=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F209897de\-ba5a\-11dd\-aecd\-0000779fd18c.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk\&siteedition\=uk\&\_i\_referer\=\#axzz3tPa3koLN\|work\=Financial Times\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016002103/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/209897de\-ba5a\-11dd\-aecd\-0000779fd18c,Authorised\=false.html?\_i\_location\=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F209897de\-ba5a\-11dd\-aecd\-0000779fd18c.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk\&siteedition\=uk\&\_i\_referer\=\#axzz3tPa3koLN\|archive\-date\=16 October 2015}} During the global economic crisis, Kazakhstan's economy contracted by 1\.2 percent in 2009, while the annual growth rate subsequently increased to 7\.5 percent and 5 percent in 2011 and 2012, respectively.{{cite web\|title\=IMF Executive Board Article IV consultation1 with Kazakhstan\|url\=https://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2013/pr13308\.htm\|website\=Imf.org\|publisher\=International Monetary Fund\|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183248/https://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2013/pr13308\.htm\|archive\-date\=3 March 2016}} Kazakhstan's government continued to follow a conservative fiscal policy by controlling budget spending and accumulating oil revenue savings in its Oil Fund – Samruk\-Kazyna. The global financial crisis forced Kazakhstan to increase its public borrowing to support the economy. Public debt increased to 13\.4 per cent in 2013 from 8\.7 per cent in 2008\. Between 2012 and 2013, the government achieved an overall fiscal surplus of 4\.5 per cent.{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan Profile\|url\=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan\|publisher\=The World Bank\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911201346/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan\|archive\-date\=11 September 2014}} In March 2002, the [U.S. Department of Commerce](/wiki/US_Department_of_Commerce "US Department of Commerce") granted Kazakhstan [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy "Market economy") status under [US trade law](/wiki/Trade_Act_of_2002 "Trade Act of 2002"). This change in status recognised substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency [convertibility](/wiki/Convertibility "Convertibility"), wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the [CIS](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States") to receive an investment grade [credit rating](/wiki/Credit_rating "Credit rating") from a major international [credit rating agency](/wiki/Credit_rating_agency "Credit rating agency").{{Cite book \|title\=Kazakhstan Investment and Business Guide Volume 1 Strategic and Practical Information \|publisher\=IBP, Inc. \|year\=2015 \|isbn\=9781514528488 \|pages\=51}} By late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22\.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4\.2 billion, 14 percent of GDP. There has been a reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP. The ratio of total governmental debt to GDP was 21\.7 percent in 2000, 17\.5 percent in 2001, and 15\.4 percent in 2002\. In 2019, it rose to 19\.2 percent.{{Cite web\|title\=Fitch Affirms Kazakhstan at "BBB"; Outlook Stable\|url\=https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/fitch\-affirms\-kazakhstan\-at\-bbb\-outlook\-stable\-21\-08\-2020\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=fitchratings.com\|archive\-date\=8 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108071514/https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/fitch\-affirms\-kazakhstan\-at\-bbb\-outlook\-stable\-21\-08\-2020\|url\-status\=live}} [thumb\|[Aqtau](/wiki/Aqtau "Aqtau") is Kazakhstan's only seaport on the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea "Caspian Sea").](/wiki/File:Yacht_club_in_Aktau.jpg "Yacht club in Aktau.jpg") On 29 November 2003, the Law on Changes to Tax Code which reduced [tax rates](/wiki/Tax_rates_around_the_world "Tax rates around the world") was adopted. The [value added tax](/wiki/Value_added_tax "Value added tax") fell from 16% to 15%, the social tax, payable by all employers, from 21 percent to 20 percent, and the personal [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax "Income tax") from 30 percent to 20 percent. On 7 July 2006, the personal income tax was reduced even further to a flat rate of 5 percent for personal income in the form of dividends and 10 percent for other personal income. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on 20 June 2003, and a new customs code on 5 April 2003\. Kazakhstan instituted a pension reform program in 1998\. By January 2012, the pension assets were about $17 billion (KZT 2\.5 trillion). There are 11 saving pension funds in the country. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state\-owned fund, was [privatised](/wiki/Privatization "Privatization") in 2006\. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates pension funds. The growing demand of pension funds for investment outlets triggered the development of the debt [securities](/wiki/Security_%28finance%29 "Security (finance)") market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 "Bond (finance)"), including the government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The government of Kazakhstan was studying a project to create a unified national pension fund and transfer all the accounts from the private pension funds into it.{{cite news \|title\=Unified Pension Fund Recommended in Kazakhstan \|url\=http://gca.satrapia.com/\+unified\-pension\-fund\-recommended\-in\-kazakhstan\+ \|newspaper\=The Gazette of Central Asia \|date\=23 January 2013 \|publisher\=Satrapia \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208121242/http://gca.satrapia.com/\+unified\-pension\-fund\-recommended\-in\-kazakhstan\+ \|archive\-date\=8 December 2015}} Kazakhstan climbed to 41st on the 2018 Economic Freedom Index published by *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")* and [The Heritage Foundation](/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation "The Heritage Foundation").{{cite web\|title\=Economic Freedom Index\|url\=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking \|publisher\=\[\[The Heritage Foundation]] \|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026110910/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking\|archive\-date\=26 October 2017}} ### Foreign trade [thumb\|upright\=1\.6\|A map of Kazakhstan's imports, 2013](/wiki/File:2013Kazakhstani_imports.PNG "2013Kazakhstani imports.PNG") Kazakhstan's increased role in [global trade](/wiki/Global_trade "Global trade") and central positioning on the [new Silk Road](/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative "Belt and Road Initiative") gave the country the potential to open its markets to billions of people.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pri.org/stories/2020\-09\-14/chinas\-new\-silk\-road\-traverses\-kazakhstan\-some\-kazakhs\-are\-skeptical\-chinese\|publisher\=pri.org\|title\=China's new Silk Road traverses Kazakhstan. But some Kazakhs are skeptical of Chinese influence\|date\=14 September 2020 \|access\-date\=2021\-05\-27\|archive\-date\=8 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508141306/https://www.pri.org/stories/2020\-09\-14/chinas\-new\-silk\-road\-traverses\-kazakhstan\-some\-kazakhs\-are\-skeptical\-chinese\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan joined the [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization") in 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\_e/countries\_e/kazakhstan\_e.htm\|publisher\=WTO.org\|title\=WTO: Kazakhstan\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-28\|archive\-date\=1 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\_e/countries\_e/kazakhstan\_e.htm\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan's [foreign trade](/wiki/Foreign_trade "Foreign trade") turnover in 2018 was $93\.5 billion, which is 19\.7 percent more than in 2017\. Export in 2018 reached $67 billion (up 25\.7 percent in comparison to 2017\) and import was $32\.5 billion (up 9\.9 percent in comparison to 2017\).{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover rises by 19\.7% in 2018 \|url\=https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\-s\-foreign\-trade\-turnover\-rises\-by\-19\-7\-in\-2018\_a3497852 \|website\=Kazinform \|date\=13 February 2019 \|access\-date\=29 October 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029200840/https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\-s\-foreign\-trade\-turnover\-rises\-by\-19\-7\-in\-2018\_a3497852 \|archive\-date\=29 October 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} Exports accounted for 40\.1 percent of Kazakhstan's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018\. Kazakhstan exports 800 products to 120 countries.{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan increased exports nearly 25 percent in 2018 \|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2019/04/kazakhstan\-increased\-exports\-nearly\-25\-percent\-in\-2018/ \|website\=astanatimes.com \|date\=18 April 2019 \|access\-date\=27 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806005648/https://astanatimes.com/2019/04/kazakhstan\-increased\-exports\-nearly\-25\-percent\-in\-2018/ \|archive\-date\=6 August 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} ### Agriculture {{Main\|Agriculture in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|right\|Grain fields near [Kökşetau](/wiki/K%C3%B6k%C5%9Fetau "Kökşetau")](/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%283264-2448%29.jpg "Песня жаворонка(3264-2448).jpg") [Agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kazakhstan "Agriculture in Kazakhstan") accounts for approximately 5 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP. Grain, potatoes, grapes, vegetables, melons and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than {{convert\|846000\|km2\|sqmi}}. The available agricultural land consists of {{convert\|205000\|km2\|sqmi\|abbr\=on}} of arable land and {{convert\|611000\|km2\|sqmi\|abbr\=on}} of [pasture](/wiki/Pasture "Pasture") and hay land. Over 80 percent of the country's total area is classified as agricultural land, including almost 70 percent occupied by pasture. Its arable land has the second highest availability per inhabitant (1\.5 hectares).{{cite web\|title\=Arable Land per inhabitant World Bank database.\|url\=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC\|publisher\=The World Bank\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210004356/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC\|archive\-date\=10 February 2015}} Chief livestock products are [dairy products](/wiki/Dairy_product "Dairy product"), leather, meat, and [wool](/wiki/Wool "Wool"). The country's major crops include wheat, [barley](/wiki/Barley "Barley"), cotton, and rice. Wheat exports, a major source of [hard currency](/wiki/Hard_currency "Hard currency"), rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17\.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2\.8% higher compared to 2002\. Kazakhstani agriculture still has many environmental problems from mismanagement during its years in the Soviet Union. Some [Kazakh wine](/wiki/Kazakh_wine "Kazakh wine") is produced in the mountains to the east of Almaty.{{Cite web\|last\=Shepard\|first\=Wade\|title\=How Kazakhstan Is Becoming The Next Frontier For World\-Class Wine\|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/02/29/could\-kazakhstan\-become\-the\-next\-frontier\-for\-world\-class\-wine/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=\[\[Forbes]] \|language\=en\|archive\-date\=7 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107122830/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/02/29/could\-kazakhstan\-become\-the\-next\-frontier\-for\-world\-class\-wine/\|url\-status\=live}} ### Energy [thumb\|Kazakhstan has one of the largest proven [oil reserves](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Kazakhstan "Energy policy of Kazakhstan") in the Caspian Sea region.](/wiki/File:Caspian_region_oil_and_natural_gas_infrastructure.png "Caspian region oil and natural gas infrastructure.png") Energy has been the leading economic sector. Production of crude oil and [natural gas condensate](/wiki/Natural_gas_condensate "Natural gas condensate") from the [oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Oil_and_gas_basins_of_Kazakhstan "Oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan") amounted to {{convert\|79\.2\|e6t\|e6LT e6ST\|lk\=out\|abbr\=off}} in 2012 up from {{convert\|51\.2\|e6t\|e6LT e6ST\|abbr\=off}} in 2003\. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44\.3 million tons in 2003, 13 percent higher than in 2002\. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003, amounted to {{convert\|13\.9\|e9m3\|e9cuft\|lk\=out\|abbr\=off}}, up 22\.7 percent compared to 2002, including natural gas production of {{convert\|7\.3\|e9m3\|e9cuft\|abbr\=off}}. Kazakhstan holds about {{convert\|4\|e9t\|e9LT e9ST\|abbr\=off}} of proven recoverable oil reserves and {{convert\|2000\|km3\|cumi\|abbr\=off}} of gas. Kazakhstan is the 19th largest oil\-producing nation in the world.{{Cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan energy profile – Analysis\|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan\-energy\-profile\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=IEA\|date\=15 April 2020 \|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=8 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108085609/https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan\-energy\-profile\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan's oil exports in 2003, were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65 percent of overall exports and 24 percent of the GDP. Major oil and gas fields and recoverable [oil reserves](/wiki/Oil_reserves "Oil reserves") are [Tengiz](/wiki/Tengiz_Field "Tengiz Field") with {{convert\|7\|Goilbbl\|e9m3\|abbr\=off}}; [Karachaganak](/wiki/Karachaganak_Field "Karachaganak Field") with {{convert\|8\|Goilbbl\|e9m3\|abbr\=off}} and {{convert\|1350\|km3\|cumi\|abbr\=off}} of natural gas; and [Kashagan](/wiki/Kashagan_Field "Kashagan Field") with 7 to {{convert\|9\|Goilbbl\|e9m3\|abbr\=off}}. [KazMunayGas](/wiki/KazMunayGas "KazMunayGas") (KMG), the national oil and gas company, was created in 2002 to represent the interests of the state in the oil and gas industry. The [Tengiz Field](/wiki/Tengiz_Field "Tengiz Field") was jointly developed in 1993 as a 40\-year [Tengizchevroil](/wiki/Tengizchevroil "Tengizchevroil") venture between [Chevron Texaco](/wiki/Chevron_Texaco "Chevron Texaco") (50 percent), US [ExxonMobil](/wiki/ExxonMobil "ExxonMobil") (25 percent), [KazMunayGas](/wiki/KazMunayGas "KazMunayGas") (20 percent), and [LukArco](/wiki/LukArco "LukArco") (5 percent).{{Citation \|title\=Chevron\-led Kazakh oil firm hits record output in 2013 \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/oil\-kazakhstan\-tengizchevroil\-idUSL5N0L11CD20140127 \|year\=2014 \|publication\-place\=International \|publisher\=\[\[Reuters]] \|access\-date\=7 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=7 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107181047/https://www.reuters.com/article/oil\-kazakhstan\-tengizchevroil\-idUSL5N0L11CD20140127 \|url\-status\=live }} The [Karachaganak](/wiki/Karachaganak_Field "Karachaganak Field") natural gas and gas condensate field is being developed by [BG](/wiki/BG_Group "BG Group"), [Agip](/wiki/Agip "Agip"), ChevronTexaco, and [Lukoil](/wiki/Lukoil "Lukoil").{{cite news \|url\= http://www.ogj.com/articles/2012/06/karachaganak\-field\-agreement\-takes\-effect.html \|title\= Karachaganak field agreement takes effect \|publisher\= \[\[PennWell Corporation]] \|newspaper\= \[\[Oil \& Gas Journal]] \|date\= 2012\-06\-28 \|access\-date\= 7 January 2022 \|archive\-date\= 7 January 2022 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220107183535/https://www.ogj.com/articles/2012/06/karachaganak\-field\-agreement\-takes\-effect.html \|url\-status\= live }} Also [Chinese](/wiki/China "China") oil companies are involved in Kazakhstan's oil industry.{{cite news \|title\=Tracing the Chinese Footprints in Kazakhstan's Oil and Gas Industry \|url\=https://thediplomat.com/2020/12/tracing\-the\-chinese\-footprints\-in\-kazakhstans\-oil\-and\-gas\-industry/ \|work\=The Diplomat \|date\=12 December 2020 \|access\-date\=7 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=7 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107181048/https://thediplomat.com/2020/12/tracing\-the\-chinese\-footprints\-in\-kazakhstans\-oil\-and\-gas\-industry/ \|url\-status\=live }} Kazakhstan launched the Green Economy Plan in 2013\. It committed Kazakhstan to meet 50 percent of its energy needs from alternative and renewable sources by 2050\.{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan: Green economy reforms gain momentum \|url\=https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/kazakhstan\-\-green\-economy\-reforms\-gain\-momentum.html \|website\=UNDP \|access\-date\=27 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127212947/https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/kazakhstan\-\-green\-economy\-reforms\-gain\-momentum.html \|archive\-date\=27 November 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} The green economy was projected to increase GDP by 3 percent and create some 500,000 jobs.{{Cite journal\|last\=Uyzbayeva\|first\=Aigerim\|date\=February 2015\|title\=Towards Achieving Energy Efficicency in Kazakhstan\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281963073\|journal\=International Conference on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology (ICEERET2015\)\|volume\=9\|via\=ResearchGate\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012043609/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281963073\_Towards\_Achieving\_Energy\_Efficicency\_in\_Kazakhstan\|archive\-date\=12 October 2017}} The government set prices for energy produced from renewable sources. The price of 1 kilowatt\-hour for energy produced by wind power plants was set at 22\.68 tenge ($0\.12\), for 1 kilowatt\-hour produced by small hydro\-power plants 16\.71 tenges ($0\.09\), and from biogas plants 32\.23 tenges ($0\.18\).{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan Sets Prices for Energy From Renewable Sources\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014\-06\-13/kazakhstan\-sets\-prices\-for\-energy\-from\-renewable\-sources\|publisher\=Bloomberg News\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309165647/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014\-06\-13/kazakhstan\-sets\-prices\-for\-energy\-from\-renewable\-sources\|archive\-date\=9 March 2017}} ### Infrastructure {{Main\|Transport in Kazakhstan\|Telecommunications in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|Map of Kazakhstan railway network](/wiki/File:Railway_Map_of_Kazakhstan_%28kk%29.png "Railway Map of Kazakhstan (kk).png") [thumb\|Train 22 Kyzylorda – Semipalatinsk, hauled by a Kazakhstan Temir Zholy 2TE10U diesel locomotive. Picture taken near Aynabulak, Kazakhstan.](/wiki/File:KTZ_2TE10U_Aynabulak.jpg "KTZ 2TE10U Aynabulak.jpg") Railways provide 68 percent of all cargo and passenger traffic to over 57 percent of the country. There are {{convert\|15333\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} in common carrier service, excluding industrial lines.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/\|title\=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency\|website\=cia.gov\|access\-date\=25 September 2017\|archive\-date\=9 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132304/https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/countries/kazakhstan\|url\-status\=live}}{{convert\|15333\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} of {{Track gauge\|1520mm\|lk\=on}} gauge, {{convert\|4000\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} electrified, in 2012\. Most cities are connected by railroad; high\-speed trains go from [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty") (the southernmost city) to [Petropavl](/wiki/Petropavl "Petropavl") (the northernmost city) in about 18 hours. [Kazakhstan Temir Zholy](/wiki/Kazakhstan_Temir_Zholy "Kazakhstan Temir Zholy") (KTZ) is the national railway company. KTZ cooperates with French locomotive manufacturer [Alstom](/wiki/Alstom "Alstom") in developing Kazakhstan's railway infrastructure. As of 2018, Alstom has more than 600 staff and two joint ventures with KTZ and its subsidiary in Kazakhstan.{{cite web\|title\=Loco manufacturer obtains first IRIS certification in Kazakhstan\|url\=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/business/single\-view/view/loco\-manufacturer\-obtains\-first\-iris\-certification\-in\-kazakhstan.html\|website\=railwaygazette.com\|access\-date\=12 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011411/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/business/single\-view/view/loco\-manufacturer\-obtains\-first\-iris\-certification\-in\-kazakhstan.html\|archive\-date\=13 May 2018\|url\-status\=live}} In July 2017, Alstom opened its first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan. It is the only repairing centre in Central Asia and the Caucasus.{{cite web\|title\=Alstom inaugurated first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan\|url\=http://www.raillynews.com/2017/alstom\-inaugurated\-first\-locomotive\-repairing\-centre\-kazakhstan/\|website\=raillynews.com\|access\-date\=12 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011359/http://www.raillynews.com/2017/alstom\-inaugurated\-first\-locomotive\-repairing\-centre\-kazakhstan/\|archive\-date\=13 May 2018\|url\-status\=live}} [Astana Nurly Zhol railway station](/wiki/Astana_Nurly_Zhol_railway_station "Astana Nurly Zhol railway station"), the most modern railway station in Kazakhstan, was opened in Astana on 31 May 2017\. According to Kazakhstan Railways (KTZ), the 120,000m2 station was expected to be used by 54 trains and would have the capacity to handle 35,000 passengers a day.{{cite web\|title\=Astana Nurly Zhol station inaugurated\|url\=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/asia/astana\-nurly\-zhol\-station\-opens.html\|website\=railjournal.com\|date\=2 June 2017\|access\-date\=12 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513012912/http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/asia/astana\-nurly\-zhol\-station\-opens.html\|archive\-date\=13 May 2018\|url\-status\=live}} There is a small {{convert\| 8\.56\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} [metro](/wiki/Rapid_transit "Rapid transit") system in [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"). Second and third metro lines were planned for the future. The second line would intersect with the first line at [Alatau](/wiki/Alatau_%28Almaty_Metro%29 "Alatau (Almaty Metro)") and [Zhibek Zholy](/wiki/Zhibek_Zholy_%28Almaty_Metro%29 "Zhibek Zholy (Almaty Metro)") stations.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.urbanrail.net/as/alma/almaty.htm\|title\=urbanrail.net\|access\-date\=25 September 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425050228/http://www.urbanrail.net/as/alma/almaty.htm\|archive\-date\=25 April 2015}} The [Astana Metro](/wiki/Astana_Metro "Astana Metro") system has been under construction, but was abandoned at one point in 2013\.{{cite web\|url\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/industry\_infrastructure/No\-Light\-Rail\-Transport\-for\-Astana\-24346/\|title\=No Light Rail Transport for Astana\|website\=Tengrinews.kz\|date\=28 November 2013 \|access\-date\=25 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926042415/https://en.tengrinews.kz/industry\_infrastructure/No\-Light\-Rail\-Transport\-for\-Astana\-24346/\|archive\-date\=26 September 2017\|url\-status\=live}} In May 2015, an agreement was signed for the project to be resumed.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/news/asia/single\-view/view/astana\-light\-rail\-framework\-agreement\-signed.html\|title\=Astana light rail framework agreement signed\|first\=DVV Media\|last\=UK\|access\-date\=25 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702011816/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/news/asia/single\-view/view/astana\-light\-rail\-framework\-agreement\-signed.html\|archive\-date\=2 July 2017\|url\-status\=live}} There is an {{convert\|86\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} tram network, which began service in 1965 with, as of 2012, 20 regular and three special routes.[Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar "Pavlodar") The [Khorgos Gateway](/wiki/Khorgos_Gateway "Khorgos Gateway") dry port is one of Kazakhstan's primary [dry ports](/wiki/Dry_port "Dry port") for handling trans\-Eurasian trains, which travel more than {{convert\|9000\|km\|abbr\=on}} between China and Europe. The Khorgos Gateway dry port is surrounded by Khorgos Eastern Gate SEZ which officially commenced operations in December 2016\.{{cite web\|title\=Khorgos: The New Silk Road's Central Station Comes To Life\|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/02/20/khorgos\-the\-new\-silk\-roads\-central\-station\-comes\-to\-life/2/\#4770e6ab5322\|website\=forbes.com\|access\-date\=12 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513012524/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/02/20/khorgos\-the\-new\-silk\-roads\-central\-station\-comes\-to\-life/2/\#4770e6ab5322\|archive\-date\=13 May 2018\|url\-status\=live}} In 2009, the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") [blacklisted](/wiki/Blacklist "Blacklist") all Kazakh air carriers with a sole exception of [Air Astana](/wiki/Air_Astana "Air Astana").{{Cite web\|last\=Anonymous\|date\=2016\-09\-22\|title\=Aviation Safety: Commission updates EU air safety list – Iran and Africa make progress\|url\=https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2016\-06\-16\-air\-ban\_en\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=Mobility and Transport – European Commission\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=7 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107073308/https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2016\-06\-16\-air\-ban\_en\|url\-status\=live}} Thereafter, Kazakhstan took measures to modernise and revamp its air safety oversight. In 2016 the European air safety authorities removed all Kazakh airlines from the blacklist, saying there was "sufficient evidence of compliance" with international standards by Kazakh Airlines and the Civil Aviation Committee.{{cite web\|title\=Sustained safety effort pulled Kazakhstan off EU blacklist\|url\=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sustained\-safety\-effort\-pulled\-kazakhstan\-off\-eu\-bla\-432336/\|website\=flightglobal.com\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014911/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sustained\-safety\-effort\-pulled\-kazakhstan\-off\-eu\-bla\-432336/\|archive\-date\=7 November 2017}} ### Tourism {{Main\|Tourism in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|[Lake Burabay](/wiki/Lake_Burabay "Lake Burabay"), view from Mount Bolectau](/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%2C_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83%2C_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%2C_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg "Казахстан. Боровое, вид с Болектау, осень, вечер.jpg") [thumb\|[Shymbulak](/wiki/Shymbulak "Shymbulak") ski resort in Almaty](/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA..JPG "Верхняя точка горнолыжной трассы курорта Чимбулак..JPG") Kazakhstan is the [ninth\-largest country by area](/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area "List of countries and dependencies by area") and the largest landlocked country in the world. As of 2014, tourism accounted for 0\.3 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP, but the government had plans to increase it to 3 percent by 2020\.{{cite web \|author\=Joanna Lillis for EurasiaNet, part of the New East \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\-eases\-visa\-restrictions\-attract\-tourists \|title\=Summer holiday in Kazakhstan? Astana eases visa restrictions to attract tourists \| World news \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=17 July 2014 \|access\-date\=18 November 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503182321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\-eases\-visa\-restrictions\-attract\-tourists \|archive\-date\=3 May 2019 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68601 \|title\=Kazakhstan: Astana Announces Visa\-Free Travel for 10 High\-Investing States \|publisher\=EurasiaNet.org \|date\=16 June 2014 \|access\-date\=18 November 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117123606/http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68601 \|archive\-date\=17 November 2015 \|url\-status\=live }} According to the [World Economic Forum](/wiki/World_Economic_Forum "World Economic Forum")'s [Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report](/wiki/Travel_and_Tourism_Competitiveness_Report "Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report") of 2017, travel and tourism industry GDP in Kazakhstan was $3\.08 billion or only 1\.6 percent of total GDP. The WEF ranked Kazakhstan 80th in its 2019 report.{{Cite web\|url\=https://wef.ch/3129pen\|title\=Rankings\|access\-date\=19 November 2020\|archive\-date\=25 September 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925161646/https://wef.ch/3129pen\|url\-status\=live}} In 2017, Kazakhstan ranked 43rd in the number of tourist arrivals. In 2014, [The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian") described tourism in Kazakhstan as "hugely underdeveloped", despite the country's mountain, lake and desert landscapes. Factors hampering an increase in tourism were said to include high prices, "shabby infrastructure", "poor service" and the difficulties of travel in a large underdeveloped country. Even for Kazakhs, going for a holiday abroad may cost only half the price of taking a holiday in Kazakhstan.{{cite news\|last1\=Lillis\|first1\=Joanna\|title\=Summer holiday in Kazakhstan? Astana eases visa restrictions to attract tourists\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\-eases\-visa\-restrictions\-attract\-tourists\|access\-date\=11 December 2015\|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|date\=17 July 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503182321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\-eases\-visa\-restrictions\-attract\-tourists\|archive\-date\=3 May 2019\|url\-status\=live}} The [Kazakh Government](/wiki/%23Government_and_politics "#Government and politics"), long characterised as authoritarian with a history of human rights abuses and suppression of political opposition, in 2015 issued a "Tourism Industry Development Plan 2020\." It aimed to establish five tourism clusters in Kazakhstan: [Astana](/wiki/Astana "Astana") city, [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty") city, [East Kazakhstan](/wiki/East_Kazakhstan_Region "East Kazakhstan Region"), [South Kazakhstan](/wiki/South_Kazakhstan_Region "South Kazakhstan Region"), and [West Kazakhstan](/wiki/West_Kazakhstan_Region "West Kazakhstan Region") Oblasts. It also sought investment of $4 billion and the creation of 300,000 new jobs in the tourism industry by 2020\.{{cite web \|url\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/environment/Kazakhstan\-to\-develop\-its\-tourism\-industry\-254241/ \|title\=Kazakhstan to develop its tourism industry. Environment. Tengrinews.kz \|publisher\=En.tengrinews.kz \|date\=18 June 2014 \|access\-date\=18 November 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119065420/http://en.tengrinews.kz/environment/Kazakhstan\-to\-develop\-its\-tourism\-industry\-254241/ \|archive\-date\=19 November 2015 \|url\-status\=live }} Kazakhstan has offered a permanent visa\-free regime for up to 90 days to citizens of [Armenia](/wiki/Armenia "Armenia"), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan"), [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), Georgia, [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova"), [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan"), [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia"), Russia and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"), and for up to 30 days to citizens of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"), [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador"), [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia"), [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"), [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan "Tajikistan"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), [UAE](/wiki/UAE "UAE") and [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan"). It also established a visa\-free regime for citizens of 54 countries, including the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") and [OECD member states](/wiki/OECD%23Member_countries "OECD#Member countries"), the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand").{{Timatic Visa Policy\|country\=KZ\|accessdate\=1 April 2017}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mfa.kz/ru/content\-view/vizovyj\-rezhim\-rk\-s\-drugimi\-gosudarstvami \|title\=Visa Regime of Kazakhstan with other countries \|publisher\=The Ministry of foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan \|date\=3 June 2017 \|access\-date\=22 June 2017 \|language\=ru \|archive\-date\=9 June 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609052952/http://www.mfa.kz/ru/content\-view/vizovyj\-rezhim\-rk\-s\-drugimi\-gosudarstvami \|url\-status\=dead }} ### Foreign direct investment Kazakhstan has attracted $330 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) from more than 120 countries since its independence (1991\).{{cite web\|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakhstan\-attracts\-330\-billion\-fdi\-since\-1991/\|title\=Kazakhstan attracts $330 billion FDI since 1991\|last\=September 2019\|first\=Dilshat Zhussupova in Nation on 11\|date\=11 September 2019\|website\=The Astana Times\|language\=en\|access\-date\=7 April 2020\|archive\-date\=11 September 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911192654/https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakhstan\-attracts\-330\-billion\-fdi\-since\-1991/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2015, the U.S. State Department said Kazakhstan was widely considered to have the best investment climate in the region.{{cite web\|url\=https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/documents/organization/241825\.pdf\|title\=2015 Investment Climate Statement – Kazakhstan\|publisher\=US State Department\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730094555/https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/documents/organization/241825\.pdf\|archive\-date\=30 July 2019\|access\-date\=21 May 2019}} In 2014, President Nazarbayev signed into law tax concessions to promote foreign direct investment which included a 10\-year exemption from corporation tax, an eight\-year exemption from property tax, and a 10\-year freeze on most other taxes.{{cite news\|title\=Kazakhstan Enacts Investor Tax Breaks\|url\=http://www.tax\-news.com/news/Kazakhstan\_Enacts\_Investor\_Tax\_Breaks\_\_\_\_65000\.html\|publisher\=Tax News\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701081052/http://www.tax\-news.com/news/Kazakhstan\_Enacts\_Investor\_Tax\_Breaks\_\_\_\_65000\.html\|archive\-date\=1 July 2014\|url\-status\=live}} Other incentives include a refund on capital investments of up to 30 percent once a production facility is in operation. In 2012, Kazakhstan attracted $14 billion of [foreign direct investment](/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment "Foreign direct investment") inflows into the country at a 7 percent growth rate.[Kazakhstan attractiveness survey 2013](http://www.ey.com/KZ/en/Issues/Business-environment/Kazakhstan-attractiveness-survey-2013). EY.com {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308092531/http://www.ey.com/KZ/en/Issues/Business\-environment/Kazakhstan\-attractiveness\-survey\-2013 \|date\=8 March 2014 }} In 2018, $24 billion of FDI was directed into Kazakhstan, a significant increase since 2012\.{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan targets to invite USD 34 bln of investments by 2025 \|url\=https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\-targets\-to\-invite\-usd\-34\-bln\-of\-investments\-by\-2025\_a3569720 \|website\=Kazinform \|date\=26 September 2019 \|access\-date\=24 October 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024190130/https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\-targets\-to\-invite\-usd\-34\-bln\-of\-investments\-by\-2025\_a3569720 \|archive\-date\=24 October 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} In 2014, the [European Bank of Reconstruction and Development](/wiki/European_Bank_of_Reconstruction_and_Development "European Bank of Reconstruction and Development") (EBRD) and Kazakhstan created the partnership for Re\-Energizing the Reform Process in Kazakhstan to work with international financial institutions to channel US$2\.7 billion provided by the Kazakh government into important sectors of Kazakhstan's economy.{{cite web\|title\=EBRD and Kazakhstan agree historic partnership to boost reform and investment\|url\=http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2014/140523\.shtml\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525223329/http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2014/140523\.shtml\|archive\-date\=25 May 2014\|publisher\=EBRD}} As of May 2014, Kazakhstan had attracted $190 billion in gross foreign investments since its independence in 1991 and it led the CIS countries in terms of FDI attracted per capita.{{cite web\|title\=Nazarbayev Announces Plans for New Major Incentives for Foreign Investors\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/05/nazarbayev\-announces\-plans\-new\-major\-incentives\-foreign\-investors/\|website\=Astanatimes.com\|date\=5 May 2014\|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170550/http://astanatimes.com/2014/05/nazarbayev\-announces\-plans\-new\-major\-incentives\-foreign\-investors/\|archive\-date\=19 February 2016}} The OECD 2017 Investment Policy Review noted that "great strides" had been made to open up opportunities to foreign investors and improve policy to attract FDI.{{cite web\|title\=OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Kazakhstan 2017\|url\=http://www.oecd.org/investment/oecd\-investment\-policy\-reviews\-kazakhstan\-2017\-9789264269606\-en.htm\|website\=OECD.org\|date\=15 June 2017 \|publisher\=OECD\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117001653/http://www.oecd.org/investment/oecd\-investment\-policy\-reviews\-kazakhstan\-2017\-9789264269606\-en.htm\|archive\-date\=17 November 2017}} China is one of the main economic and trade partners of Kazakhstan. In 2013, China launched the [Belt and Road Initiative](/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative "Belt and Road Initiative") (BRI) in which Kazakhstan functions as a transit hub.Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2019\) "[China's Belt and Road Initiative through the Lens of Central Asia](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024180554/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641\_China%27s\_Belt\_and\_Road\_Initiative\_through\_the\_lens\_of\_Central\_Asia \|date\=24 October 2021 }}", in Fanny M. Cheung and Ying\-yi Hong (eds) *Regional Connection under the Belt and Road Initiative. The Prospects for Economic and Financial Cooperation*. London: Routledge, pp. 115–133\. ### Banking The banking industry of Kazakhstan went through a boom\-and\-bust cycle in the early 21st century. After several years of rapid expansion in the mid\-2000s, the banking industry collapsed in 2008\. Several large banking groups, including [BTA Bank](/wiki/BTA_Bank "BTA Bank") J.S.C. and Alliance Bank, defaulted soon thereafter. The industry shrank and was restructured, with system\-wide loans dropping from 59 percent of GDP in 2007 to 39 percent in 2011\. The [Kazakh National Bank](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Kazakhstan "National Bank of Kazakhstan") introduced deposit insurance in a campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks had branches in Kazakhstan, including [RBS](/wiki/Royal_Bank_of_Scotland "Royal Bank of Scotland"), [Citibank](/wiki/Citibank "Citibank"), and [HSBC](/wiki/HSBC "HSBC"). [Kookmin](/wiki/Kookmin_Bank "Kookmin Bank") and [UniCredit](/wiki/UniCredit "UniCredit") both entered Kazakhstan's financial services market through acquisitions and [stake](/wiki/Equity_%28finance%29 "Equity (finance)")\-building. {{citation needed\|date\=April 2022}} ### Economic competitiveness According to the 2010–11 World Economic Forum in Global Competitiveness Report, Kazakhstan was ranked 72nd in the world in economic competitiveness.{{cite web \|url\=http://www3\.weforum.org/docs/WEF\_GlobalCompetitivenessReport\_2010\-11\.pdf \|title\=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011 \|access\-date\=24 July 2011 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206104835/http://www3\.weforum.org//docs//WEF\_GlobalCompetitivenessReport\_2010\-11\.pdf \|archive\-date\=6 December 2010}} One year later, the [Global Competitiveness Report](/wiki/Global_Competitiveness_Report "Global Competitiveness Report") ranked Kazakhstan 50th in most competitive markets.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.kazakh\-tv.kz/en/view/news\_kazakhstan/page\_27706\_kazakhstan\-enters\-top\-50\-most\-competitive\-countries \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220035746/http://www.kazakh\-tv.kz/en/view/news\_kazakhstan/page\_27706\_kazakhstan\-enters\-top\-50\-most\-competitive\-countries \|archive\-date\=20 February 2014 \|title\=Kazakh TV – Kazakhstan enters top 50 most competitive countries \|publisher\=Kazakh\-tv.kz \|date\=6 September 2013 \|access\-date\=9 September 2013}} In the 2020 Doing Business Report by the World Bank, Kazakhstan ranked 25th globally and as the number one best country globally for protecting minority investors' rights.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/country/k/kazakhstan/KAZ.pdf \|title\=Doing Business 2020 \|website\=Doing Business \|access\-date\=7 April 2020 \|archive\-date\=5 January 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105075707/https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/country/k/kazakhstan/KAZ.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Kazakhstan achieved its goal of entering the top 50 most competitive countries in 2013 and has maintained its position in the 2014–2015 World Economic Forum [Global Competitiveness Report](/wiki/Global_Competitiveness_Report "Global Competitiveness Report") that was published at the beginning of September 2014\.{{cite web\|title\=Staying Competitive in a Toughening External Environment\|url\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/09/staying\-competitive\-toughening\-external\-environment/\|website\=Astanatimes.com\|date\=16 September 2014\|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170605/http://astanatimes.com/2014/09/staying\-competitive\-toughening\-external\-environment/\|archive\-date\=19 February 2016}} Kazakhstan is ahead of other states in the CIS in almost all of the report's pillars of competitiveness, including institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, higher education and training, goods market efficiency, labour market development, financial market development, technological readiness, market size, business sophistication and innovation, lagging behind only in the category of health and primary education. The Global Competitiveness Index gives a score from 1 to 7 in each of these pillars, and Kazakhstan earned an overall score of 4\.4\. ### Corruption In 2005, the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") listed Kazakhstan as a corruption hotspot, on a par with [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") and [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan").[Oil, Cash and Corruption](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/05/business/yourmoney/05giffen.html?pagewanted=all) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205174501/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/05/business/yourmoney/05giffen.html?pagewanted\=all \|date\=5 February 2017 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, 5 November 2006 In 2012, Kazakhstan ranked low in an index of the least corrupt countries\[{{GBurl\|id\=BU7uK583X8MC\|dq\=kazakhstan\+corruption\+ranking\|p\=112}} OECD Investment Policy Reviews], P112, [OECD](/wiki/OECD "OECD"), 2012 and the [World Economic Forum](/wiki/World_Economic_Forum "World Economic Forum") listed corruption as the biggest problem in doing business in the country. A 2017 OECD report on Kazakhstan indicated that Kazakhstan has reformed laws with regard to the civil service, judiciary, instruments to prevent corruption, [access to information](/wiki/Access_to_information "Access to information"), and prosecuting corruption.{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan should build on its efforts to fight corruption and push forward with reforms\|url\=http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti\-bribery/kazakhstan\-should\-build\-on\-efforts\-to\-fightcorruption\-and\-push\-forwar\-with\-reforms.htm\|publisher\=OECD\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026054105/http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti\-bribery/kazakhstan\-should\-build\-on\-efforts\-to\-fightcorruption\-and\-push\-forwar\-with\-reforms.htm\|archive\-date\=26 October 2017}} Kazakhstan has implemented anticorruption reforms that have been recognised by organizations like [Transparency International](/wiki/Transparency_International "Transparency International").{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan removed from list of most corrupt countries \|date\=March 2018 \|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstan\-removed\-from\-list\-of\-most\-corrupt\-countries/ \|publisher\=The Astana Times \|access\-date\=25 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225134558/https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstan\-removed\-from\-list\-of\-most\-corrupt\-countries/ \|archive\-date\=25 December 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} In 2011, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") confiscated US$48 million in Kazakhstani assets from Swiss bank accounts, as a result of a bribery investigation in the United States.{{cite web \|url \= https://www.baselgovernance.org/sites/collective.localhost/files/documents/131024\_selected\_case\_studies.pdf \|title \= Returning Stolen Assets – Learning from past practice: Selected case studies \|author1 \= Gretta Fenner Zinkernagel \|author2 \= Kodjo Attisso \|publisher \= International Centre for Asset Recovery \|page \= 5 \|via \= Basel Institute on Governance \|access\-date \= 19 July 2016 \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160818075353/https://www.baselgovernance.org/sites/collective.localhost/files/documents/131024\_selected\_case\_studies.pdf \|archive\-date \= 18 August 2016 \|df \= dmy\-all }} US officials believed the funds represented bribes paid by American officials to Kazakhstani officials in exchange for oil or prospecting rights in Kazakhstan. Proceedings eventually involved US$84 million in the US and another US$60 million in Switzerland. The [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI) and the Kazakh Anti\-Corruption Agency signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in February 2015\.{{cite web\|title\=Signing of a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty Between the United States and Kazakhstan\|newspaper\=U.S. Department of State \|url\=https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/02/237732\.htm\|publisher\=US State Department\|access\-date\=24 June 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130211231/https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/02/237732\.htm\|archive\-date\=30 January 2017\|url\-status\=live}} [Transparency International](/wiki/Transparency_International "Transparency International")'s 2023 [Corruption Perceptions Index](/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index "Corruption Perceptions Index"), which scored 180 countries on a scale from 0 ("highly corrupt") to 100 ("very clean"), gave Kazakhstan a score of 39\. When ranked by score, Kazakhstan ranked 93rd among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector.{{Cite web \|title\=The ABCs of the CPI: How the Corruption Perceptions Index is calculated \|url\=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/how\-cpi\-scores\-are\-calculated \|access\-date\=30 March 2023 \|website\=Transparency.org \|date\=20 December 2021 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=21 December 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221200343/https://www.transparency.org/en/news/how\-cpi\-scores\-are\-calculated \|url\-status\=live }} For comparison with worldwide scores, the best score was 90 (ranked 1\), the average score was 43, and the worst score was 11 (ranked 180\).{{Cite web \|title\=Corruption Perceptions Index 2023: Kazakhstan \|url\=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2023/index/kaz \|access\-date\=30 March 2024 \|website\=Transparency.org \|date\=30 January 2024 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=30 March 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330142350/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2023/index/kaz \|url\-status\=live }} For comparison with regional scores, the highest score among Eastern European and Central Asian countries {{efn\|Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Russia, Serbia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan}} was 53, the average score was 35 and the lowest score was 18\.{{Cite web \|title\=CPI 2023 for Eastern Europe \& Central Asia: Autocracy \& weak justice systems enabling widespread corruption \|url\=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi\-2023\-eastern\-europe\-central\-asia\-autocracy\-weak\-justice\-systems\-widespread\-enabling\-corruption \|access\-date\=30 March 2024 \|website\=Transparency.org \|date\=30 January 2024 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=29 March 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329032555/https://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi\-2023\-eastern\-europe\-central\-asia\-autocracy\-weak\-justice\-systems\-widespread\-enabling\-corruption \|url\-status\=live }} ### Science and technology {{Main\|Science and technology in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013\. Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015\), Figure 14\.3\.](/wiki/File:Trends_in_GERD_GDP_ratio_in_Central_Asia%2C_2001%E2%88%922013.svg "Trends in GERD GDP ratio in Central Asia, 2001−2013.svg") Research remains largely concentrated in Kazakhstan's largest city and former capital, Almaty, home to 52 percent of research personnel. Public research is largely confined to institutes, with universities making only a token contribution. Research institutes receive their funding from national research councils under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Science. Their output, however, tends to be disconnected from market needs. In the business sector, few industrial enterprises conduct research themselves.{{Cite book\|title\=Innovation Performance Review\|publisher\=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\|year\=2012\|location\=New York and Geneva}}{{Cite book\|title\=Central Asia. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030\|last\=Mukhitdinova\|first\=Nasiba\|publisher\=UNESCO\|year\=2015\|isbn\=978\-92\-3\-100129\-1\|location\=Paris\|pages\=365–387}} [thumb\|upright\=0\.7\|left\|Group of Kazakhstan physicists in collaboration with Uzbek researchers working at the ion accelerator DC\-60](/wiki/File:The_irradiation_experiments_at_the_ion_accelerator_DC-60._Astana%2C_Kazakhstan.JPG "The irradiation experiments at the ion accelerator DC-60. Astana, Kazakhstan.JPG") One of the most ambitious targets of the State Programme for Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development adopted in 2010 is to raise the country's level of expenditure on research and development to 1 percent of GDP by 2015\. By 2013, this ratio stood at 0\.18 percent of GDP. It will be difficult to reach the target as long as economic growth remains strong.{{Update inline\|date\=March 2021}} Since 2005, the economy has grown faster (by 6 percent in 2013\) than gross domestic expenditure on research and development, which only progressed from PPP$598 million to PPP$714 million between 2005 and 2013\. Innovation expenditure more than doubled in Kazakhstan between 2010 and 2011, representing KZT 235 billion (*circa* US$1\.6 billion), or around 1\.1 percent of GDP. Some 11 percent of the total was spent on research and development. This compares with about 40 to 70 percent of innovation expenditure in developed countries. This augmentation was due to a sharp rise in product design and the introduction of new services and production methods over this period, to the detriment of the acquisition of machinery and equipment, which has traditionally made up the bulk of Kazakhstan's innovation expenditure. Training costs represented just 2 percent of innovation expenditure, a much lower share than in developed countries. Kazakhstan was ranked 81st in the [Global Innovation Index](/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index "Global Innovation Index") in 2023\.{{Cite book \|last\=WIPO \|title\=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition \|url\=https://www.wipo.int/global\_innovation\_index/en/2023/index.html \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-29 \|website\=www.wipo.int \|date\=16 May 2024 \|publisher\=World Intellectual Property Organization \|doi\=10\.34667/tind.46596 \|isbn\=978\-92\-805\-3432\-0 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=22 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022042128/https://www.wipo.int/global\_innovation\_index/en/2023/index.html \|url\-status\=live }} In December 2012, President [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev "Nursultan Nazarbayev") announced the *Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy* with the slogan "Strong Business, Strong State." This pragmatic strategy proposes sweeping socio\-economic and political reforms to hoist Kazakhstan among the top 30 economies by 2050\. In this document, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve into a knowledge economy. New sectors are to be created during each five\-year plan. The first of these, covering the years 2010–2014, focused on developing industrial capacity in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars. During the second five\-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export markets for these products. To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas. It also intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical equipment. The second five\-year plan coincides with the development of the *Business 2020* roadmap for small and medium\-sized enterprises (SMEs), which makes provision for the allocation of grants to SMEs in the regions and for microcredit. The government and the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs also plan to develop an effective mechanism to help start\-ups. [thumb\|[Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome "Baikonur Cosmodrome") is the world's oldest and largest operational [spaceport](/wiki/Spaceport "Spaceport").](/wiki/File:Soyuz_expedition_19_launch_pad.jpg "Soyuz expedition 19 launch pad.jpg") During subsequent five\-year plans to 2050, new industries will be established in fields such as mobile, multi\-media, nano\- and space technologies, robotics, genetic engineering and alternative energy. Food processing enterprises will be developed with an eye to turning the country into a major regional exporter of beef, dairy and other agricultural products. Low\-return, water\-intensive crop varieties will be replaced with vegetable, oil and fodder products. As part of the shift to a "green economy" by 2030, 15% of acreage will be cultivated with water\-saving technologies. Experimental agrarian and innovational clusters will be established and drought\-resistant [genetically modified crops](/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops "Genetically modified crops") developed. The Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy fixes a target of devoting 3 percent of GDP to research and development by 2050 to allow for the development of new high\-tech sectors. The Digital Kazakhstan program was launched in 2018 to boost the country's economic growth through the implementation of digital technologies. Kazakhstan's digitization efforts generated 800 billion tenges (US$1\.97 billion) in two years. The program helped create 120,000 jobs and attracted 32\.8 billion tenges (US$80\.7 million) of investment into the country. Around 82 percent of all public services became automated as part of the Digital Kazakhstan program.{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan's Digitization Program Brings Additional $2 billion Into the Economy \|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\-digitization\-program\-brings\-additional\-2\-billion\-into\-the\-economy/ \|website\=The Astana Times \|date\=18 June 2020 \|access\-date\=20 June 2020 \|archive\-date\=22 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622014433/https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\-digitization\-program\-brings\-additional\-2\-billion\-into\-the\-economy/ \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Economy\n-------", "{{Main\\|Economy of Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|GDP per capita development in Kazakhstan since 1973](/wiki/File:Kazakstan_GDP_per_capita_1973%E2%80%932022.png \"Kazakstan GDP per capita 1973–2022.png\")\nIn 2018, Kazakhstan had a GDP of $179\\.332 billion and an annual growth rate of 4\\.5 percent. Per capita, Kazakhstan's GDP stood at $9,686\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://stat.gov.kz/official/dynamic\\|title\\=stat.gov.kz\\|website\\=stat.gov.kz\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017035705/https://stat.gov.kz/official/dynamic\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Buoyed by high world [crude oil](/wiki/Crude_oil \"Crude oil\") prices, GDP growth figures were between 8\\.9 percent and 13\\.5 percent from 2000 to 2007 before decreasing to 1 to 3 percent in [2008 and 2009](/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis \"2007–2008 financial crisis\"), and then rising again from 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531180249/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG \\|archive\\-date\\=31 May 2011 \\|title\\=GDP growth (annual %) \\|work\\=The World Bank. World Bank.org \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} Other major exports of Kazakhstan include wheat, textiles, and livestock. Kazakhstan is a leading exporter of [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/news/2/%E2%84%96\\_1\\_in\\_the\\_world \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722142342/http://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/news/2/%E2%84%96\\_1\\_in\\_the\\_world \\|archive\\-date\\=22 July 2011 \\|title\\=№ 1 in the world \\|work\\=The Atomic Company Kazatomprom, Kazatomprom.kz \\|date\\=30 December 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://world\\-nuclear.org/information\\-library/country\\-profiles/others/uranium\\-in\\-central\\-asia.aspx\\#:\\~:text\\=Uranium%20and%20Nuclear%20Power%20in%20Kazakhstan%20%28Updated%20June,2019%2C%20Kazakhstan%20produced%2043%25%20of%20the%20world%27s%20uranium. \\|title\\=Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan \\|publisher\\=world\\-nuclear.org \\|date\\=June 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=13 Jan 2023 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326045234/http://www.world\\-nuclear.org/info/Country\\-Profiles/Countries\\-G\\-N/Kazakhstan/ \\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2013}}", "Kazakhstan's economy grew by 4\\.6 percent in 2014\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan: The Latest Emerging Opportunity\\|url\\=http://www.bricplusnews.com/business/kazakhstan\\-the\\-latest\\-emerging\\-opportunity/\\|publisher\\=BRIC Plus\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620181513/http://www.bricplusnews.com/business/kazakhstan\\-the\\-latest\\-emerging\\-opportunity/\\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2015}} The country experienced a slowdown in economic growth from 2014 sparked by falling [oil prices](/wiki/Price_of_oil \"Price of oil\") and the effects of the [Ukrainian crisis](/wiki/Ukrainian_crisis \"Ukrainian crisis\").[Kazakhs battle to stave off chill blowing in from Russian steppe](http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c4a55aa6-dd04-11e3-b73c-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3mCiNSOzr) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519084837/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c4a55aa6\\-dd04\\-11e3\\-b73c\\-00144feabdc0\\.html\\#axzz3mCiNSOzr \\|date\\=19 May 2020 }}, [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\"), 21 May 2014 The country devalued its currency by 19 percent in February 2014\\.\"Tenge Fever\", [The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist \"The Economist\"), 22 February 2014 Another 22 percent devaluation occurred in August 2015\\.[Kazakhstan's currency plunges](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/21/business/international/kazakhstans-currency-plunges.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205174742/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/21/business/international/kazakhstans\\-currency\\-plunges.html \\|date\\=5 February 2017 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, 21 August 2015 Kazakhstan was the first former Soviet Republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund, 7 years ahead of schedule.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan profile\\|url\\=https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/kazakhstan/47484\\.htm\\|website\\=State.gov\\|publisher\\=US State Department\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804164708/https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/kazakhstan/47484\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=4 August 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Kazakhstan weathered the global financial crisis {{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2015}} by combining fiscal relaxation with monetary stabilisation. In 2009, the government introduced large\\-scale support measures such as the recapitalisation of banks and support for the real estate and agricultural sectors, as well as for [small and medium enterprises](/wiki/Small_and_medium_enterprise \"Small and medium enterprise\") (SMEs). The total value of the stimulus programs amounted to $21 billion, or 20 per cent of the country's GDP, with $4 billion going to stabilise the financial sector.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan unveils $21bn rescue package\\|url\\=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/209897de\\-ba5a\\-11dd\\-aecd\\-0000779fd18c,Authorised\\=false.html?\\_i\\_location\\=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F209897de\\-ba5a\\-11dd\\-aecd\\-0000779fd18c.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk\\&siteedition\\=uk\\&\\_i\\_referer\\=\\#axzz3tPa3koLN\\|work\\=Financial Times\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016002103/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/209897de\\-ba5a\\-11dd\\-aecd\\-0000779fd18c,Authorised\\=false.html?\\_i\\_location\\=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F209897de\\-ba5a\\-11dd\\-aecd\\-0000779fd18c.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk\\&siteedition\\=uk\\&\\_i\\_referer\\=\\#axzz3tPa3koLN\\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2015}} During the global economic crisis, Kazakhstan's economy contracted by 1\\.2 percent in 2009, while the annual growth rate subsequently increased to 7\\.5 percent and 5 percent in 2011 and 2012, respectively.{{cite web\\|title\\=IMF Executive Board Article IV consultation1 with Kazakhstan\\|url\\=https://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2013/pr13308\\.htm\\|website\\=Imf.org\\|publisher\\=International Monetary Fund\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183248/https://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2013/pr13308\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016}} Kazakhstan's government continued to follow a conservative fiscal policy by controlling budget spending and accumulating oil revenue savings in its Oil Fund – Samruk\\-Kazyna. The global financial crisis forced Kazakhstan to increase its public borrowing to support the economy. Public debt increased to 13\\.4 per cent in 2013 from 8\\.7 per cent in 2008\\. Between 2012 and 2013, the government achieved an overall fiscal surplus of 4\\.5 per cent.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan Profile\\|url\\=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan\\|publisher\\=The World Bank\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911201346/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan\\|archive\\-date\\=11 September 2014}}", "In March 2002, the [U.S. Department of Commerce](/wiki/US_Department_of_Commerce \"US Department of Commerce\") granted Kazakhstan [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy \"Market economy\") status under [US trade law](/wiki/Trade_Act_of_2002 \"Trade Act of 2002\"). This change in status recognised substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency [convertibility](/wiki/Convertibility \"Convertibility\"), wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the [CIS](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\") to receive an investment grade [credit rating](/wiki/Credit_rating \"Credit rating\") from a major international [credit rating agency](/wiki/Credit_rating_agency \"Credit rating agency\").{{Cite book \\|title\\=Kazakhstan Investment and Business Guide Volume 1 Strategic and Practical Information \\|publisher\\=IBP, Inc. \\|year\\=2015 \\|isbn\\=9781514528488 \\|pages\\=51}} By late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22\\.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4\\.2 billion, 14 percent of GDP. There has been a reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP. The ratio of total governmental debt to GDP was 21\\.7 percent in 2000, 17\\.5 percent in 2001, and 15\\.4 percent in 2002\\. In 2019, it rose to 19\\.2 percent.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Fitch Affirms Kazakhstan at \"BBB\"; Outlook Stable\\|url\\=https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/fitch\\-affirms\\-kazakhstan\\-at\\-bbb\\-outlook\\-stable\\-21\\-08\\-2020\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=fitchratings.com\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108071514/https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/fitch\\-affirms\\-kazakhstan\\-at\\-bbb\\-outlook\\-stable\\-21\\-08\\-2020\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n[thumb\\|[Aqtau](/wiki/Aqtau \"Aqtau\") is Kazakhstan's only seaport on the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea \"Caspian Sea\").](/wiki/File:Yacht_club_in_Aktau.jpg \"Yacht club in Aktau.jpg\")\nOn 29 November 2003, the Law on Changes to Tax Code which reduced [tax rates](/wiki/Tax_rates_around_the_world \"Tax rates around the world\") was adopted. The [value added tax](/wiki/Value_added_tax \"Value added tax\") fell from 16% to 15%, the social tax, payable by all employers, from 21 percent to 20 percent, and the personal [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax \"Income tax\") from 30 percent to 20 percent. On 7 July 2006, the personal income tax was reduced even further to a flat rate of 5 percent for personal income in the form of dividends and 10 percent for other personal income. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on 20 June 2003, and a new customs code on 5 April 2003\\.", "Kazakhstan instituted a pension reform program in 1998\\. By January 2012, the pension assets were about $17 billion (KZT 2\\.5 trillion). There are 11 saving pension funds in the country. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state\\-owned fund, was [privatised](/wiki/Privatization \"Privatization\") in 2006\\. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates pension funds. The growing demand of pension funds for investment outlets triggered the development of the debt [securities](/wiki/Security_%28finance%29 \"Security (finance)\") market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government [bonds](/wiki/Bond_%28finance%29 \"Bond (finance)\"), including the government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The government of Kazakhstan was studying a project to create a unified national pension fund and transfer all the accounts from the private pension funds into it.{{cite news \\|title\\=Unified Pension Fund Recommended in Kazakhstan \\|url\\=http://gca.satrapia.com/\\+unified\\-pension\\-fund\\-recommended\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\+ \\|newspaper\\=The Gazette of Central Asia \\|date\\=23 January 2013 \\|publisher\\=Satrapia \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208121242/http://gca.satrapia.com/\\+unified\\-pension\\-fund\\-recommended\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\+ \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2015}}", "Kazakhstan climbed to 41st on the 2018 Economic Freedom Index published by *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")* and [The Heritage Foundation](/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation \"The Heritage Foundation\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Economic Freedom Index\\|url\\=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Heritage Foundation]] \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026110910/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking\\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2017}}", "### Foreign trade", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.6\\|A map of Kazakhstan's imports, 2013](/wiki/File:2013Kazakhstani_imports.PNG \"2013Kazakhstani imports.PNG\")", "Kazakhstan's increased role in [global trade](/wiki/Global_trade \"Global trade\") and central positioning on the [new Silk Road](/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative \"Belt and Road Initiative\") gave the country the potential to open its markets to billions of people.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pri.org/stories/2020\\-09\\-14/chinas\\-new\\-silk\\-road\\-traverses\\-kazakhstan\\-some\\-kazakhs\\-are\\-skeptical\\-chinese\\|publisher\\=pri.org\\|title\\=China's new Silk Road traverses Kazakhstan. But some Kazakhs are skeptical of Chinese influence\\|date\\=14 September 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-27\\|archive\\-date\\=8 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508141306/https://www.pri.org/stories/2020\\-09\\-14/chinas\\-new\\-silk\\-road\\-traverses\\-kazakhstan\\-some\\-kazakhs\\-are\\-skeptical\\-chinese\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Kazakhstan joined the [World Trade Organization](/wiki/World_Trade_Organization \"World Trade Organization\") in 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\\_e/countries\\_e/kazakhstan\\_e.htm\\|publisher\\=WTO.org\\|title\\=WTO: Kazakhstan\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-28\\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701122807/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto\\_e/countries\\_e/kazakhstan\\_e.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Kazakhstan's [foreign trade](/wiki/Foreign_trade \"Foreign trade\") turnover in 2018 was $93\\.5 billion, which is 19\\.7 percent more than in 2017\\. Export in 2018 reached $67 billion (up 25\\.7 percent in comparison to 2017\\) and import was $32\\.5 billion (up 9\\.9 percent in comparison to 2017\\).{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover rises by 19\\.7% in 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\\-s\\-foreign\\-trade\\-turnover\\-rises\\-by\\-19\\-7\\-in\\-2018\\_a3497852 \\|website\\=Kazinform \\|date\\=13 February 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029200840/https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\\-s\\-foreign\\-trade\\-turnover\\-rises\\-by\\-19\\-7\\-in\\-2018\\_a3497852 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 October 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Exports accounted for 40\\.1 percent of Kazakhstan's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018\\. Kazakhstan exports 800 products to 120 countries.{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan increased exports nearly 25 percent in 2018 \\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2019/04/kazakhstan\\-increased\\-exports\\-nearly\\-25\\-percent\\-in\\-2018/ \\|website\\=astanatimes.com \\|date\\=18 April 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806005648/https://astanatimes.com/2019/04/kazakhstan\\-increased\\-exports\\-nearly\\-25\\-percent\\-in\\-2018/ \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n### Agriculture", "{{Main\\|Agriculture in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Grain fields near [Kökşetau](/wiki/K%C3%B6k%C5%9Fetau \"Kökşetau\")](/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%283264-2448%29.jpg \"Песня жаворонка(3264-2448).jpg\")", "[Agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kazakhstan \"Agriculture in Kazakhstan\") accounts for approximately 5 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP. Grain, potatoes, grapes, vegetables, melons and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than {{convert\\|846000\\|km2\\|sqmi}}. The available agricultural land consists of {{convert\\|205000\\|km2\\|sqmi\\|abbr\\=on}} of arable land and {{convert\\|611000\\|km2\\|sqmi\\|abbr\\=on}} of [pasture](/wiki/Pasture \"Pasture\") and hay land. Over 80 percent of the country's total area is classified as agricultural land, including almost 70 percent occupied by pasture. Its arable land has the second highest availability per inhabitant (1\\.5 hectares).{{cite web\\|title\\=Arable Land per inhabitant World Bank database.\\|url\\=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC\\|publisher\\=The World Bank\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210004356/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC\\|archive\\-date\\=10 February 2015}}", "Chief livestock products are [dairy products](/wiki/Dairy_product \"Dairy product\"), leather, meat, and [wool](/wiki/Wool \"Wool\"). The country's major crops include wheat, [barley](/wiki/Barley \"Barley\"), cotton, and rice. Wheat exports, a major source of [hard currency](/wiki/Hard_currency \"Hard currency\"), rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17\\.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2\\.8% higher compared to 2002\\. Kazakhstani agriculture still has many environmental problems from mismanagement during its years in the Soviet Union. Some [Kazakh wine](/wiki/Kazakh_wine \"Kazakh wine\") is produced in the mountains to the east of Almaty.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Shepard\\|first\\=Wade\\|title\\=How Kazakhstan Is Becoming The Next Frontier For World\\-Class Wine\\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/02/29/could\\-kazakhstan\\-become\\-the\\-next\\-frontier\\-for\\-world\\-class\\-wine/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=\\[\\[Forbes]] \\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107122830/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/02/29/could\\-kazakhstan\\-become\\-the\\-next\\-frontier\\-for\\-world\\-class\\-wine/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n### Energy", "[thumb\\|Kazakhstan has one of the largest proven [oil reserves](/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Kazakhstan \"Energy policy of Kazakhstan\") in the Caspian Sea region.](/wiki/File:Caspian_region_oil_and_natural_gas_infrastructure.png \"Caspian region oil and natural gas infrastructure.png\")\nEnergy has been the leading economic sector. Production of crude oil and [natural gas condensate](/wiki/Natural_gas_condensate \"Natural gas condensate\") from the [oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Oil_and_gas_basins_of_Kazakhstan \"Oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan\") amounted to {{convert\\|79\\.2\\|e6t\\|e6LT e6ST\\|lk\\=out\\|abbr\\=off}} in 2012 up from {{convert\\|51\\.2\\|e6t\\|e6LT e6ST\\|abbr\\=off}} in 2003\\. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44\\.3 million tons in 2003, 13 percent higher than in 2002\\. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003, amounted to {{convert\\|13\\.9\\|e9m3\\|e9cuft\\|lk\\=out\\|abbr\\=off}}, up 22\\.7 percent compared to 2002, including natural gas production of {{convert\\|7\\.3\\|e9m3\\|e9cuft\\|abbr\\=off}}. Kazakhstan holds about {{convert\\|4\\|e9t\\|e9LT e9ST\\|abbr\\=off}} of proven recoverable oil reserves and {{convert\\|2000\\|km3\\|cumi\\|abbr\\=off}} of gas. Kazakhstan is the 19th largest oil\\-producing nation in the world.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan energy profile – Analysis\\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan\\-energy\\-profile\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=IEA\\|date\\=15 April 2020 \\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108085609/https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan\\-energy\\-profile\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Kazakhstan's oil exports in 2003, were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65 percent of overall exports and 24 percent of the GDP. \nMajor oil and gas fields and recoverable [oil reserves](/wiki/Oil_reserves \"Oil reserves\") are [Tengiz](/wiki/Tengiz_Field \"Tengiz Field\") with {{convert\\|7\\|Goilbbl\\|e9m3\\|abbr\\=off}}; [Karachaganak](/wiki/Karachaganak_Field \"Karachaganak Field\") with {{convert\\|8\\|Goilbbl\\|e9m3\\|abbr\\=off}} and {{convert\\|1350\\|km3\\|cumi\\|abbr\\=off}} of natural gas; and [Kashagan](/wiki/Kashagan_Field \"Kashagan Field\") with 7 to {{convert\\|9\\|Goilbbl\\|e9m3\\|abbr\\=off}}.", "[KazMunayGas](/wiki/KazMunayGas \"KazMunayGas\") (KMG), the national oil and gas company, was created in 2002 to represent the interests of the state in the oil and gas industry. The [Tengiz Field](/wiki/Tengiz_Field \"Tengiz Field\") was jointly developed in 1993 as a 40\\-year [Tengizchevroil](/wiki/Tengizchevroil \"Tengizchevroil\") venture between [Chevron Texaco](/wiki/Chevron_Texaco \"Chevron Texaco\") (50 percent), US [ExxonMobil](/wiki/ExxonMobil \"ExxonMobil\") (25 percent), [KazMunayGas](/wiki/KazMunayGas \"KazMunayGas\") (20 percent), and [LukArco](/wiki/LukArco \"LukArco\") (5 percent).{{Citation \\|title\\=Chevron\\-led Kazakh oil firm hits record output in 2013 \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/oil\\-kazakhstan\\-tengizchevroil\\-idUSL5N0L11CD20140127 \\|year\\=2014 \\|publication\\-place\\=International \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107181047/https://www.reuters.com/article/oil\\-kazakhstan\\-tengizchevroil\\-idUSL5N0L11CD20140127 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [Karachaganak](/wiki/Karachaganak_Field \"Karachaganak Field\") natural gas and gas condensate field is being developed by [BG](/wiki/BG_Group \"BG Group\"), [Agip](/wiki/Agip \"Agip\"), ChevronTexaco, and [Lukoil](/wiki/Lukoil \"Lukoil\").{{cite news\n \\|url\\= http://www.ogj.com/articles/2012/06/karachaganak\\-field\\-agreement\\-takes\\-effect.html\n \\|title\\= Karachaganak field agreement takes effect\n \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[PennWell Corporation]]\n \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[Oil \\& Gas Journal]]\n \\|date\\= 2012\\-06\\-28\n \\|access\\-date\\= 7 January 2022\n \\|archive\\-date\\= 7 January 2022\n \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20220107183535/https://www.ogj.com/articles/2012/06/karachaganak\\-field\\-agreement\\-takes\\-effect.html\n \\|url\\-status\\= live\n }} Also [Chinese](/wiki/China \"China\") oil companies are involved in Kazakhstan's oil industry.{{cite news \\|title\\=Tracing the Chinese Footprints in Kazakhstan's Oil and Gas Industry \\|url\\=https://thediplomat.com/2020/12/tracing\\-the\\-chinese\\-footprints\\-in\\-kazakhstans\\-oil\\-and\\-gas\\-industry/ \\|work\\=The Diplomat \\|date\\=12 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107181048/https://thediplomat.com/2020/12/tracing\\-the\\-chinese\\-footprints\\-in\\-kazakhstans\\-oil\\-and\\-gas\\-industry/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Kazakhstan launched the Green Economy Plan in 2013\\. It committed Kazakhstan to meet 50 percent of its energy needs from alternative and renewable sources by 2050\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan: Green economy reforms gain momentum \\|url\\=https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/kazakhstan\\-\\-green\\-economy\\-reforms\\-gain\\-momentum.html \\|website\\=UNDP \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127212947/https://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/rbec/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/kazakhstan\\-\\-green\\-economy\\-reforms\\-gain\\-momentum.html \\|archive\\-date\\=27 November 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The green economy was projected to increase GDP by 3 percent and create some 500,000 jobs.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Uyzbayeva\\|first\\=Aigerim\\|date\\=February 2015\\|title\\=Towards Achieving Energy Efficicency in Kazakhstan\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281963073\\|journal\\=International Conference on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology (ICEERET2015\\)\\|volume\\=9\\|via\\=ResearchGate\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012043609/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281963073\\_Towards\\_Achieving\\_Energy\\_Efficicency\\_in\\_Kazakhstan\\|archive\\-date\\=12 October 2017}} The government set prices for energy produced from renewable sources. The price of 1 kilowatt\\-hour for energy produced by wind power plants was set at 22\\.68 tenge ($0\\.12\\), for 1 kilowatt\\-hour produced by small hydro\\-power plants 16\\.71 tenges ($0\\.09\\), and from biogas plants 32\\.23 tenges ($0\\.18\\).{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan Sets Prices for Energy From Renewable Sources\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014\\-06\\-13/kazakhstan\\-sets\\-prices\\-for\\-energy\\-from\\-renewable\\-sources\\|publisher\\=Bloomberg News\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309165647/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014\\-06\\-13/kazakhstan\\-sets\\-prices\\-for\\-energy\\-from\\-renewable\\-sources\\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2017}}\n### Infrastructure", "", "{{Main\\|Transport in Kazakhstan\\|Telecommunications in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|Map of Kazakhstan railway network](/wiki/File:Railway_Map_of_Kazakhstan_%28kk%29.png \"Railway Map of Kazakhstan (kk).png\")\n[thumb\\|Train 22 Kyzylorda – Semipalatinsk, hauled by a Kazakhstan Temir Zholy 2TE10U diesel locomotive. Picture taken near Aynabulak, Kazakhstan.](/wiki/File:KTZ_2TE10U_Aynabulak.jpg \"KTZ 2TE10U Aynabulak.jpg\")", "Railways provide 68 percent of all cargo and passenger traffic to over 57 percent of the country. There are {{convert\\|15333\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} in common carrier service, excluding industrial lines.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/\\|title\\=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency\\|website\\=cia.gov\\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=9 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109132304/https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/countries/kazakhstan\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{convert\\|15333\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} of {{Track gauge\\|1520mm\\|lk\\=on}} gauge, {{convert\\|4000\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} electrified, in 2012\\. Most cities are connected by railroad; high\\-speed trains go from [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\") (the southernmost city) to [Petropavl](/wiki/Petropavl \"Petropavl\") (the northernmost city) in about 18 hours.", "[Kazakhstan Temir Zholy](/wiki/Kazakhstan_Temir_Zholy \"Kazakhstan Temir Zholy\") (KTZ) is the national railway company. KTZ cooperates with French locomotive manufacturer [Alstom](/wiki/Alstom \"Alstom\") in developing Kazakhstan's railway infrastructure. As of 2018, Alstom has more than 600 staff and two joint ventures with KTZ and its subsidiary in Kazakhstan.{{cite web\\|title\\=Loco manufacturer obtains first IRIS certification in Kazakhstan\\|url\\=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/business/single\\-view/view/loco\\-manufacturer\\-obtains\\-first\\-iris\\-certification\\-in\\-kazakhstan.html\\|website\\=railwaygazette.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011411/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/business/single\\-view/view/loco\\-manufacturer\\-obtains\\-first\\-iris\\-certification\\-in\\-kazakhstan.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In July 2017, Alstom opened its first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan. It is the only repairing centre in Central Asia and the Caucasus.{{cite web\\|title\\=Alstom inaugurated first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan\\|url\\=http://www.raillynews.com/2017/alstom\\-inaugurated\\-first\\-locomotive\\-repairing\\-centre\\-kazakhstan/\\|website\\=raillynews.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011359/http://www.raillynews.com/2017/alstom\\-inaugurated\\-first\\-locomotive\\-repairing\\-centre\\-kazakhstan/\\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Astana Nurly Zhol railway station](/wiki/Astana_Nurly_Zhol_railway_station \"Astana Nurly Zhol railway station\"), the most modern railway station in Kazakhstan, was opened in Astana on 31 May 2017\\. According to Kazakhstan Railways (KTZ), the 120,000m2 station was expected to be used by 54 trains and would have the capacity to handle 35,000 passengers a day.{{cite web\\|title\\=Astana Nurly Zhol station inaugurated\\|url\\=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/asia/astana\\-nurly\\-zhol\\-station\\-opens.html\\|website\\=railjournal.com\\|date\\=2 June 2017\\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513012912/http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/asia/astana\\-nurly\\-zhol\\-station\\-opens.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "There is a small {{convert\\| 8\\.56\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} [metro](/wiki/Rapid_transit \"Rapid transit\") system in [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\"). Second and third metro lines were planned for the future. The second line would intersect with the first line at [Alatau](/wiki/Alatau_%28Almaty_Metro%29 \"Alatau (Almaty Metro)\") and [Zhibek Zholy](/wiki/Zhibek_Zholy_%28Almaty_Metro%29 \"Zhibek Zholy (Almaty Metro)\") stations.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.urbanrail.net/as/alma/almaty.htm\\|title\\=urbanrail.net\\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425050228/http://www.urbanrail.net/as/alma/almaty.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2015}} The [Astana Metro](/wiki/Astana_Metro \"Astana Metro\") system has been under construction, but was abandoned at one point in 2013\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/industry\\_infrastructure/No\\-Light\\-Rail\\-Transport\\-for\\-Astana\\-24346/\\|title\\=No Light Rail Transport for Astana\\|website\\=Tengrinews.kz\\|date\\=28 November 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926042415/https://en.tengrinews.kz/industry\\_infrastructure/No\\-Light\\-Rail\\-Transport\\-for\\-Astana\\-24346/\\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In May 2015, an agreement was signed for the project to be resumed.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/news/asia/single\\-view/view/astana\\-light\\-rail\\-framework\\-agreement\\-signed.html\\|title\\=Astana light rail framework agreement signed\\|first\\=DVV Media\\|last\\=UK\\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702011816/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/news/asia/single\\-view/view/astana\\-light\\-rail\\-framework\\-agreement\\-signed.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2 July 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}} There is an {{convert\\|86\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} tram network, which began service in 1965 with, as of 2012, 20 regular and three special routes.[Pavlodar](/wiki/Pavlodar \"Pavlodar\")", "The [Khorgos Gateway](/wiki/Khorgos_Gateway \"Khorgos Gateway\") dry port is one of Kazakhstan's primary [dry ports](/wiki/Dry_port \"Dry port\") for handling trans\\-Eurasian trains, which travel more than {{convert\\|9000\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} between China and Europe. The Khorgos Gateway dry port is surrounded by Khorgos Eastern Gate SEZ which officially commenced operations in December 2016\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Khorgos: The New Silk Road's Central Station Comes To Life\\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/02/20/khorgos\\-the\\-new\\-silk\\-roads\\-central\\-station\\-comes\\-to\\-life/2/\\#4770e6ab5322\\|website\\=forbes.com\\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513012524/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/02/20/khorgos\\-the\\-new\\-silk\\-roads\\-central\\-station\\-comes\\-to\\-life/2/\\#4770e6ab5322\\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2009, the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\") [blacklisted](/wiki/Blacklist \"Blacklist\") all Kazakh air carriers with a sole exception of [Air Astana](/wiki/Air_Astana \"Air Astana\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Anonymous\\|date\\=2016\\-09\\-22\\|title\\=Aviation Safety: Commission updates EU air safety list – Iran and Africa make progress\\|url\\=https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2016\\-06\\-16\\-air\\-ban\\_en\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=Mobility and Transport – European Commission\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=7 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107073308/https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2016\\-06\\-16\\-air\\-ban\\_en\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Thereafter, Kazakhstan took measures to modernise and revamp its air safety oversight. In 2016 the European air safety authorities removed all Kazakh airlines from the blacklist, saying there was \"sufficient evidence of compliance\" with international standards by Kazakh Airlines and the Civil Aviation Committee.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sustained safety effort pulled Kazakhstan off EU blacklist\\|url\\=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sustained\\-safety\\-effort\\-pulled\\-kazakhstan\\-off\\-eu\\-bla\\-432336/\\|website\\=flightglobal.com\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014911/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sustained\\-safety\\-effort\\-pulled\\-kazakhstan\\-off\\-eu\\-bla\\-432336/\\|archive\\-date\\=7 November 2017}}", "### Tourism", "{{Main\\|Tourism in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|[Lake Burabay](/wiki/Lake_Burabay \"Lake Burabay\"), view from Mount Bolectau](/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%2C_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83%2C_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%2C_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg \"Казахстан. Боровое, вид с Болектау, осень, вечер.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Shymbulak](/wiki/Shymbulak \"Shymbulak\") ski resort in Almaty](/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA..JPG \"Верхняя точка горнолыжной трассы курорта Чимбулак..JPG\")", "Kazakhstan is the [ninth\\-largest country by area](/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area \"List of countries and dependencies by area\") and the largest landlocked country in the world. As of 2014, tourism accounted for 0\\.3 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP, but the government had plans to increase it to 3 percent by 2020\\.{{cite web \\|author\\=Joanna Lillis for EurasiaNet, part of the New East \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\\-eases\\-visa\\-restrictions\\-attract\\-tourists \\|title\\=Summer holiday in Kazakhstan? Astana eases visa restrictions to attract tourists \\| World news \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=17 July 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503182321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\\-eases\\-visa\\-restrictions\\-attract\\-tourists \\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68601 \\|title\\=Kazakhstan: Astana Announces Visa\\-Free Travel for 10 High\\-Investing States \\|publisher\\=EurasiaNet.org \\|date\\=16 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117123606/http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68601 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} According to the [World Economic Forum](/wiki/World_Economic_Forum \"World Economic Forum\")'s [Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report](/wiki/Travel_and_Tourism_Competitiveness_Report \"Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report\") of 2017, travel and tourism industry GDP in Kazakhstan was $3\\.08 billion or only 1\\.6 percent of total GDP. The WEF ranked Kazakhstan 80th in its 2019 report.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://wef.ch/3129pen\\|title\\=Rankings\\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925161646/https://wef.ch/3129pen\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2017, Kazakhstan ranked 43rd in the number of tourist arrivals. In 2014, [The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\") described tourism in Kazakhstan as \"hugely underdeveloped\", despite the country's mountain, lake and desert landscapes. Factors hampering an increase in tourism were said to include high prices, \"shabby infrastructure\", \"poor service\" and the difficulties of travel in a large underdeveloped country. Even for Kazakhs, going for a holiday abroad may cost only half the price of taking a holiday in Kazakhstan.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Lillis\\|first1\\=Joanna\\|title\\=Summer holiday in Kazakhstan? Astana eases visa restrictions to attract tourists\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\\-eases\\-visa\\-restrictions\\-attract\\-tourists\\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2015\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|date\\=17 July 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503182321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/17/kazakhstan\\-eases\\-visa\\-restrictions\\-attract\\-tourists\\|archive\\-date\\=3 May 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The [Kazakh Government](/wiki/%23Government_and_politics \"#Government and politics\"), long characterised as authoritarian with a history of human rights abuses and suppression of political opposition, in 2015 issued a \"Tourism Industry Development Plan 2020\\.\" It aimed to establish five tourism clusters in Kazakhstan: [Astana](/wiki/Astana \"Astana\") city, [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\") city, [East Kazakhstan](/wiki/East_Kazakhstan_Region \"East Kazakhstan Region\"), [South Kazakhstan](/wiki/South_Kazakhstan_Region \"South Kazakhstan Region\"), and [West Kazakhstan](/wiki/West_Kazakhstan_Region \"West Kazakhstan Region\") Oblasts. It also sought investment of $4 billion and the creation of 300,000 new jobs in the tourism industry by 2020\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/environment/Kazakhstan\\-to\\-develop\\-its\\-tourism\\-industry\\-254241/ \\|title\\=Kazakhstan to develop its tourism industry. Environment. Tengrinews.kz \\|publisher\\=En.tengrinews.kz \\|date\\=18 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119065420/http://en.tengrinews.kz/environment/Kazakhstan\\-to\\-develop\\-its\\-tourism\\-industry\\-254241/ \\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Kazakhstan has offered a permanent visa\\-free regime for up to 90 days to citizens of [Armenia](/wiki/Armenia \"Armenia\"), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\"), [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), Georgia, [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova \"Moldova\"), [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\"), [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), Russia and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"), and for up to 30 days to citizens of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"), [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\"), [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\"), [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\"), [Tajikistan](/wiki/Tajikistan \"Tajikistan\"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"), [UAE](/wiki/UAE \"UAE\") and [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\"). It also established a visa\\-free regime for citizens of 54 countries, including the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") and [OECD member states](/wiki/OECD%23Member_countries \"OECD#Member countries\"), the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\").{{Timatic Visa Policy\\|country\\=KZ\\|accessdate\\=1 April 2017}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mfa.kz/ru/content\\-view/vizovyj\\-rezhim\\-rk\\-s\\-drugimi\\-gosudarstvami \\|title\\=Visa Regime of Kazakhstan with other countries \\|publisher\\=The Ministry of foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan \\|date\\=3 June 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2017 \\|language\\=ru \\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609052952/http://www.mfa.kz/ru/content\\-view/vizovyj\\-rezhim\\-rk\\-s\\-drugimi\\-gosudarstvami \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Foreign direct investment", "Kazakhstan has attracted $330 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) from more than 120 countries since its independence (1991\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakhstan\\-attracts\\-330\\-billion\\-fdi\\-since\\-1991/\\|title\\=Kazakhstan attracts $330 billion FDI since 1991\\|last\\=September 2019\\|first\\=Dilshat Zhussupova in Nation on 11\\|date\\=11 September 2019\\|website\\=The Astana Times\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=11 September 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911192654/https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakhstan\\-attracts\\-330\\-billion\\-fdi\\-since\\-1991/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2015, the U.S. State Department said Kazakhstan was widely considered to have the best investment climate in the region.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/documents/organization/241825\\.pdf\\|title\\=2015 Investment Climate Statement – Kazakhstan\\|publisher\\=US State Department\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730094555/https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/documents/organization/241825\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=30 July 2019\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2019}} In 2014, President Nazarbayev signed into law tax concessions to promote foreign direct investment which included a 10\\-year exemption from corporation tax, an eight\\-year exemption from property tax, and a 10\\-year freeze on most other taxes.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kazakhstan Enacts Investor Tax Breaks\\|url\\=http://www.tax\\-news.com/news/Kazakhstan\\_Enacts\\_Investor\\_Tax\\_Breaks\\_\\_\\_\\_65000\\.html\\|publisher\\=Tax News\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701081052/http://www.tax\\-news.com/news/Kazakhstan\\_Enacts\\_Investor\\_Tax\\_Breaks\\_\\_\\_\\_65000\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Other incentives include a refund on capital investments of up to 30 percent once a production facility is in operation.\nIn 2012, Kazakhstan attracted $14 billion of [foreign direct investment](/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment \"Foreign direct investment\") inflows into the country at a 7 percent growth rate.[Kazakhstan attractiveness survey 2013](http://www.ey.com/KZ/en/Issues/Business-environment/Kazakhstan-attractiveness-survey-2013). EY.com {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308092531/http://www.ey.com/KZ/en/Issues/Business\\-environment/Kazakhstan\\-attractiveness\\-survey\\-2013 \\|date\\=8 March 2014 }} In 2018, $24 billion of FDI was directed into Kazakhstan, a significant increase since 2012\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan targets to invite USD 34 bln of investments by 2025 \\|url\\=https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\\-targets\\-to\\-invite\\-usd\\-34\\-bln\\-of\\-investments\\-by\\-2025\\_a3569720 \\|website\\=Kazinform \\|date\\=26 September 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024190130/https://www.inform.kz/en/kazakhstan\\-targets\\-to\\-invite\\-usd\\-34\\-bln\\-of\\-investments\\-by\\-2025\\_a3569720 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In 2014, the [European Bank of Reconstruction and Development](/wiki/European_Bank_of_Reconstruction_and_Development \"European Bank of Reconstruction and Development\") (EBRD) and Kazakhstan created the partnership for Re\\-Energizing the Reform Process in Kazakhstan to work with international financial institutions to channel US$2\\.7 billion provided by the Kazakh government into important sectors of Kazakhstan's economy.{{cite web\\|title\\=EBRD and Kazakhstan agree historic partnership to boost reform and investment\\|url\\=http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2014/140523\\.shtml\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525223329/http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2014/140523\\.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2014\\|publisher\\=EBRD}}\nAs of May 2014, Kazakhstan had attracted $190 billion in gross foreign investments since its independence in 1991 and it led the CIS countries in terms of FDI attracted per capita.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nazarbayev Announces Plans for New Major Incentives for Foreign Investors\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/05/nazarbayev\\-announces\\-plans\\-new\\-major\\-incentives\\-foreign\\-investors/\\|website\\=Astanatimes.com\\|date\\=5 May 2014\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170550/http://astanatimes.com/2014/05/nazarbayev\\-announces\\-plans\\-new\\-major\\-incentives\\-foreign\\-investors/\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2016}} The OECD 2017 Investment Policy Review noted that \"great strides\" had been made to open up opportunities to foreign investors and improve policy to attract FDI.{{cite web\\|title\\=OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Kazakhstan 2017\\|url\\=http://www.oecd.org/investment/oecd\\-investment\\-policy\\-reviews\\-kazakhstan\\-2017\\-9789264269606\\-en.htm\\|website\\=OECD.org\\|date\\=15 June 2017 \\|publisher\\=OECD\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117001653/http://www.oecd.org/investment/oecd\\-investment\\-policy\\-reviews\\-kazakhstan\\-2017\\-9789264269606\\-en.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2017}}\nChina is one of the main economic and trade partners of Kazakhstan. In 2013, China launched the [Belt and Road Initiative](/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative \"Belt and Road Initiative\") (BRI) in which Kazakhstan functions as a transit hub.Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2019\\) \"[China's Belt and Road Initiative through the Lens of Central Asia](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024180554/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641\\_China%27s\\_Belt\\_and\\_Road\\_Initiative\\_through\\_the\\_lens\\_of\\_Central\\_Asia \\|date\\=24 October 2021 }}\", in Fanny M. Cheung and Ying\\-yi Hong (eds) *Regional Connection under the Belt and Road Initiative. The Prospects for Economic and Financial Cooperation*. London: Routledge, pp. 115–133\\.\n### Banking", "", "The banking industry of Kazakhstan went through a boom\\-and\\-bust cycle in the early 21st century. After several years of rapid expansion in the mid\\-2000s, the banking industry collapsed in 2008\\. Several large banking groups, including [BTA Bank](/wiki/BTA_Bank \"BTA Bank\") J.S.C. and Alliance Bank, defaulted soon thereafter. The industry shrank and was restructured, with system\\-wide loans dropping from 59 percent of GDP in 2007 to 39 percent in 2011\\. The [Kazakh National Bank](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Kazakhstan \"National Bank of Kazakhstan\") introduced deposit insurance in a campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks had branches in Kazakhstan, including [RBS](/wiki/Royal_Bank_of_Scotland \"Royal Bank of Scotland\"), [Citibank](/wiki/Citibank \"Citibank\"), and [HSBC](/wiki/HSBC \"HSBC\"). [Kookmin](/wiki/Kookmin_Bank \"Kookmin Bank\") and [UniCredit](/wiki/UniCredit \"UniCredit\") both entered Kazakhstan's financial services market through acquisitions and [stake](/wiki/Equity_%28finance%29 \"Equity (finance)\")\\-building. {{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2022}}", "### Economic competitiveness", "According to the 2010–11 World Economic Forum in Global Competitiveness Report, Kazakhstan was ranked 72nd in the world in economic competitiveness.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www3\\.weforum.org/docs/WEF\\_GlobalCompetitivenessReport\\_2010\\-11\\.pdf \\|title\\=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011 \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206104835/http://www3\\.weforum.org//docs//WEF\\_GlobalCompetitivenessReport\\_2010\\-11\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=6 December 2010}} One year later, the [Global Competitiveness Report](/wiki/Global_Competitiveness_Report \"Global Competitiveness Report\") ranked Kazakhstan 50th in most competitive markets.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.kazakh\\-tv.kz/en/view/news\\_kazakhstan/page\\_27706\\_kazakhstan\\-enters\\-top\\-50\\-most\\-competitive\\-countries \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220035746/http://www.kazakh\\-tv.kz/en/view/news\\_kazakhstan/page\\_27706\\_kazakhstan\\-enters\\-top\\-50\\-most\\-competitive\\-countries \\|archive\\-date\\=20 February 2014 \\|title\\=Kazakh TV – Kazakhstan enters top 50 most competitive countries \\|publisher\\=Kazakh\\-tv.kz \\|date\\=6 September 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2013}}", "In the 2020 Doing Business Report by the World Bank, Kazakhstan ranked 25th globally and as the number one best country globally for protecting minority investors' rights.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/country/k/kazakhstan/KAZ.pdf \\|title\\=Doing Business 2020 \\|website\\=Doing Business \\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 January 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105075707/https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/country/k/kazakhstan/KAZ.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Kazakhstan achieved its goal of entering the top 50 most competitive countries in 2013 and has maintained its position in the 2014–2015 World Economic Forum [Global Competitiveness Report](/wiki/Global_Competitiveness_Report \"Global Competitiveness Report\") that was published at the beginning of September 2014\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Staying Competitive in a Toughening External Environment\\|url\\=http://astanatimes.com/2014/09/staying\\-competitive\\-toughening\\-external\\-environment/\\|website\\=Astanatimes.com\\|date\\=16 September 2014\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219170605/http://astanatimes.com/2014/09/staying\\-competitive\\-toughening\\-external\\-environment/\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2016}} Kazakhstan is ahead of other states in the CIS in almost all of the report's pillars of competitiveness, including institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, higher education and training, goods market efficiency, labour market development, financial market development, technological readiness, market size, business sophistication and innovation, lagging behind only in the category of health and primary education. The Global Competitiveness Index gives a score from 1 to 7 in each of these pillars, and Kazakhstan earned an overall score of 4\\.4\\.\n### Corruption", "In 2005, the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") listed Kazakhstan as a corruption hotspot, on a par with [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") and [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\").[Oil, Cash and Corruption](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/05/business/yourmoney/05giffen.html?pagewanted=all) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205174501/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/05/business/yourmoney/05giffen.html?pagewanted\\=all \\|date\\=5 February 2017 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, 5 November 2006 In 2012, Kazakhstan ranked low in an index of the least corrupt countries\\[{{GBurl\\|id\\=BU7uK583X8MC\\|dq\\=kazakhstan\\+corruption\\+ranking\\|p\\=112}} OECD Investment Policy Reviews], P112, [OECD](/wiki/OECD \"OECD\"), 2012 and the [World Economic Forum](/wiki/World_Economic_Forum \"World Economic Forum\") listed corruption as the biggest problem in doing business in the country. A 2017 OECD report on Kazakhstan indicated that Kazakhstan has reformed laws with regard to the civil service, judiciary, instruments to prevent corruption, [access to information](/wiki/Access_to_information \"Access to information\"), and prosecuting corruption.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan should build on its efforts to fight corruption and push forward with reforms\\|url\\=http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti\\-bribery/kazakhstan\\-should\\-build\\-on\\-efforts\\-to\\-fightcorruption\\-and\\-push\\-forwar\\-with\\-reforms.htm\\|publisher\\=OECD\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026054105/http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti\\-bribery/kazakhstan\\-should\\-build\\-on\\-efforts\\-to\\-fightcorruption\\-and\\-push\\-forwar\\-with\\-reforms.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2017}} Kazakhstan has implemented anticorruption reforms that have been recognised by organizations like [Transparency International](/wiki/Transparency_International \"Transparency International\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan removed from list of most corrupt countries \\|date\\=March 2018 \\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstan\\-removed\\-from\\-list\\-of\\-most\\-corrupt\\-countries/ \\|publisher\\=The Astana Times \\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225134558/https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstan\\-removed\\-from\\-list\\-of\\-most\\-corrupt\\-countries/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 December 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In 2011, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") confiscated US$48 million in Kazakhstani assets from Swiss bank accounts, as a result of a bribery investigation in the United States.{{cite web \\|url \\= https://www.baselgovernance.org/sites/collective.localhost/files/documents/131024\\_selected\\_case\\_studies.pdf \\|title \\= Returning Stolen Assets – Learning from past practice: Selected case studies \\|author1 \\= Gretta Fenner Zinkernagel \\|author2 \\= Kodjo Attisso \\|publisher \\= International Centre for Asset Recovery \\|page \\= 5 \\|via \\= Basel Institute on Governance \\|access\\-date \\= 19 July 2016 \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160818075353/https://www.baselgovernance.org/sites/collective.localhost/files/documents/131024\\_selected\\_case\\_studies.pdf \\|archive\\-date \\= 18 August 2016 \\|df \\= dmy\\-all }} \nUS officials believed the funds represented bribes paid by American officials to Kazakhstani officials in exchange for oil or prospecting rights in Kazakhstan. Proceedings eventually involved US$84 million in the US and another US$60 million in Switzerland.", "The [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") (FBI) and the Kazakh Anti\\-Corruption Agency signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in February 2015\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Signing of a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty Between the United States and Kazakhstan\\|newspaper\\=U.S. Department of State \\|url\\=https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/02/237732\\.htm\\|publisher\\=US State Department\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130211231/https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/02/237732\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=30 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "[Transparency International](/wiki/Transparency_International \"Transparency International\")'s 2023 [Corruption Perceptions Index](/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index \"Corruption Perceptions Index\"), which scored 180 countries on a scale from 0 (\"highly corrupt\") to 100 (\"very clean\"), gave Kazakhstan a score of 39\\. When ranked by score, Kazakhstan ranked 93rd among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The ABCs of the CPI: How the Corruption Perceptions Index is calculated \\|url\\=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/how\\-cpi\\-scores\\-are\\-calculated \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2023 \\|website\\=Transparency.org \\|date\\=20 December 2021 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221200343/https://www.transparency.org/en/news/how\\-cpi\\-scores\\-are\\-calculated \\|url\\-status\\=live }} For comparison with worldwide scores, the best score was 90 (ranked 1\\), the average score was 43, and the worst score was 11 (ranked 180\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Corruption Perceptions Index 2023: Kazakhstan \\|url\\=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2023/index/kaz \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2024 \\|website\\=Transparency.org \\|date\\=30 January 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330142350/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2023/index/kaz \\|url\\-status\\=live }} For comparison with regional scores, the highest score among Eastern European and Central Asian countries {{efn\\|Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Russia, Serbia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan}} was 53, the average score was 35 and the lowest score was 18\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=CPI 2023 for Eastern Europe \\& Central Asia: Autocracy \\& weak justice systems enabling widespread corruption \\|url\\=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi\\-2023\\-eastern\\-europe\\-central\\-asia\\-autocracy\\-weak\\-justice\\-systems\\-widespread\\-enabling\\-corruption \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2024 \\|website\\=Transparency.org \\|date\\=30 January 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=29 March 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329032555/https://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi\\-2023\\-eastern\\-europe\\-central\\-asia\\-autocracy\\-weak\\-justice\\-systems\\-widespread\\-enabling\\-corruption \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Science and technology", "{{Main\\|Science and technology in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013\\. Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015\\), Figure 14\\.3\\.](/wiki/File:Trends_in_GERD_GDP_ratio_in_Central_Asia%2C_2001%E2%88%922013.svg \"Trends in GERD GDP ratio in Central Asia, 2001−2013.svg\")", "Research remains largely concentrated in Kazakhstan's largest city and former capital, Almaty, home to 52 percent of research personnel. Public research is largely confined to institutes, with universities making only a token contribution. Research institutes receive their funding from national research councils under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Science. Their output, however, tends to be disconnected from market needs. In the business sector, few industrial enterprises conduct research themselves.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Innovation Performance Review\\|publisher\\=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\\|year\\=2012\\|location\\=New York and Geneva}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Central Asia. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030\\|last\\=Mukhitdinova\\|first\\=Nasiba\\|publisher\\=UNESCO\\|year\\=2015\\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-3\\-100129\\-1\\|location\\=Paris\\|pages\\=365–387}}", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.7\\|left\\|Group of Kazakhstan physicists in collaboration with Uzbek researchers working at the ion accelerator DC\\-60](/wiki/File:The_irradiation_experiments_at_the_ion_accelerator_DC-60._Astana%2C_Kazakhstan.JPG \"The irradiation experiments at the ion accelerator DC-60. Astana, Kazakhstan.JPG\")", "One of the most ambitious targets of the State Programme for Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development adopted in 2010 is to raise the country's level of expenditure on research and development to 1 percent of GDP by 2015\\. By 2013, this ratio stood at 0\\.18 percent of GDP. It will be difficult to reach the target as long as economic growth remains strong.{{Update inline\\|date\\=March 2021}} Since 2005, the economy has grown faster (by 6 percent in 2013\\) than gross domestic expenditure on research and development, which only progressed from PPP$598 million to PPP$714 million between 2005 and 2013\\.", "Innovation expenditure more than doubled in Kazakhstan between 2010 and 2011, representing KZT 235 billion (*circa* US$1\\.6 billion), or around 1\\.1 percent of GDP. Some 11 percent of the total was spent on research and development. This compares with about 40 to 70 percent of innovation expenditure in developed countries. This augmentation was due to a sharp rise in product design and the introduction of new services and production methods over this period, to the detriment of the acquisition of machinery and equipment, which has traditionally made up the bulk of Kazakhstan's innovation expenditure. Training costs represented just 2 percent of innovation expenditure, a much lower share than in developed countries. Kazakhstan was ranked 81st in the [Global Innovation Index](/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index \"Global Innovation Index\") in 2023\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=WIPO \\|title\\=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition \\|url\\=https://www.wipo.int/global\\_innovation\\_index/en/2023/index.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-29 \\|website\\=www.wipo.int \\|date\\=16 May 2024 \\|publisher\\=World Intellectual Property Organization \\|doi\\=10\\.34667/tind.46596 \\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-805\\-3432\\-0 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022042128/https://www.wipo.int/global\\_innovation\\_index/en/2023/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In December 2012, President [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev \"Nursultan Nazarbayev\") announced the *Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy* with the slogan \"Strong Business, Strong State.\" This pragmatic strategy proposes sweeping socio\\-economic and political reforms to hoist Kazakhstan among the top 30 economies by 2050\\. In this document, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve into a knowledge economy. New sectors are to be created during each five\\-year plan. The first of these, covering the years 2010–2014, focused on developing industrial capacity in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars. During the second five\\-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export markets for these products. To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas. It also intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical equipment. The second five\\-year plan coincides with the development of the *Business 2020* roadmap for small and medium\\-sized enterprises (SMEs), which makes provision for the allocation of grants to SMEs in the regions and for microcredit. The government and the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs also plan to develop an effective mechanism to help start\\-ups.", "[thumb\\|[Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome \"Baikonur Cosmodrome\") is the world's oldest and largest operational [spaceport](/wiki/Spaceport \"Spaceport\").](/wiki/File:Soyuz_expedition_19_launch_pad.jpg \"Soyuz expedition 19 launch pad.jpg\")", "During subsequent five\\-year plans to 2050, new industries will be established in fields such as mobile, multi\\-media, nano\\- and space technologies, robotics, genetic engineering and alternative energy. Food processing enterprises will be developed with an eye to turning the country into a major regional exporter of beef, dairy and other agricultural products. Low\\-return, water\\-intensive crop varieties will be replaced with vegetable, oil and fodder products. As part of the shift to a \"green economy\" by 2030, 15% of acreage will be cultivated with water\\-saving technologies. Experimental agrarian and innovational clusters will be established and drought\\-resistant [genetically modified crops](/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops \"Genetically modified crops\") developed.", "The Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy fixes a target of devoting 3 percent of GDP to research and development by 2050 to allow for the development of new high\\-tech sectors.", "The Digital Kazakhstan program was launched in 2018 to boost the country's economic growth through the implementation of digital technologies. Kazakhstan's digitization efforts generated 800 billion tenges (US$1\\.97 billion) in two years. The program helped create 120,000 jobs and attracted 32\\.8 billion tenges (US$80\\.7 million) of investment into the country.", "Around 82 percent of all public services became automated as part of the Digital Kazakhstan program.{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Digitization Program Brings Additional $2 billion Into the Economy \\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\\-digitization\\-program\\-brings\\-additional\\-2\\-billion\\-into\\-the\\-economy/ \\|website\\=The Astana Times \\|date\\=18 June 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622014433/https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\\-digitization\\-program\\-brings\\-additional\\-2\\-billion\\-into\\-the\\-economy/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
### Science and technology {{Main\|Science and technology in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013\. Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015\), Figure 14\.3\.](/wiki/File:Trends_in_GERD_GDP_ratio_in_Central_Asia%2C_2001%E2%88%922013.svg "Trends in GERD GDP ratio in Central Asia, 2001−2013.svg") Research remains largely concentrated in Kazakhstan's largest city and former capital, Almaty, home to 52 percent of research personnel. Public research is largely confined to institutes, with universities making only a token contribution. Research institutes receive their funding from national research councils under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Science. Their output, however, tends to be disconnected from market needs. In the business sector, few industrial enterprises conduct research themselves.{{Cite book\|title\=Innovation Performance Review\|publisher\=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\|year\=2012\|location\=New York and Geneva}}{{Cite book\|title\=Central Asia. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030\|last\=Mukhitdinova\|first\=Nasiba\|publisher\=UNESCO\|year\=2015\|isbn\=978\-92\-3\-100129\-1\|location\=Paris\|pages\=365–387}} [thumb\|upright\=0\.7\|left\|Group of Kazakhstan physicists in collaboration with Uzbek researchers working at the ion accelerator DC\-60](/wiki/File:The_irradiation_experiments_at_the_ion_accelerator_DC-60._Astana%2C_Kazakhstan.JPG "The irradiation experiments at the ion accelerator DC-60. Astana, Kazakhstan.JPG") One of the most ambitious targets of the State Programme for Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development adopted in 2010 is to raise the country's level of expenditure on research and development to 1 percent of GDP by 2015\. By 2013, this ratio stood at 0\.18 percent of GDP. It will be difficult to reach the target as long as economic growth remains strong.{{Update inline\|date\=March 2021}} Since 2005, the economy has grown faster (by 6 percent in 2013\) than gross domestic expenditure on research and development, which only progressed from PPP$598 million to PPP$714 million between 2005 and 2013\. Innovation expenditure more than doubled in Kazakhstan between 2010 and 2011, representing KZT 235 billion (*circa* US$1\.6 billion), or around 1\.1 percent of GDP. Some 11 percent of the total was spent on research and development. This compares with about 40 to 70 percent of innovation expenditure in developed countries. This augmentation was due to a sharp rise in product design and the introduction of new services and production methods over this period, to the detriment of the acquisition of machinery and equipment, which has traditionally made up the bulk of Kazakhstan's innovation expenditure. Training costs represented just 2 percent of innovation expenditure, a much lower share than in developed countries. Kazakhstan was ranked 81st in the [Global Innovation Index](/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index "Global Innovation Index") in 2023\.{{Cite book \|last\=WIPO \|title\=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition \|url\=https://www.wipo.int/global\_innovation\_index/en/2023/index.html \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-29 \|website\=www.wipo.int \|date\=16 May 2024 \|publisher\=World Intellectual Property Organization \|doi\=10\.34667/tind.46596 \|isbn\=978\-92\-805\-3432\-0 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=22 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022042128/https://www.wipo.int/global\_innovation\_index/en/2023/index.html \|url\-status\=live }} In December 2012, President [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev "Nursultan Nazarbayev") announced the *Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy* with the slogan "Strong Business, Strong State." This pragmatic strategy proposes sweeping socio\-economic and political reforms to hoist Kazakhstan among the top 30 economies by 2050\. In this document, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve into a knowledge economy. New sectors are to be created during each five\-year plan. The first of these, covering the years 2010–2014, focused on developing industrial capacity in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars. During the second five\-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export markets for these products. To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas. It also intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical equipment. The second five\-year plan coincides with the development of the *Business 2020* roadmap for small and medium\-sized enterprises (SMEs), which makes provision for the allocation of grants to SMEs in the regions and for microcredit. The government and the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs also plan to develop an effective mechanism to help start\-ups. [thumb\|[Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome "Baikonur Cosmodrome") is the world's oldest and largest operational [spaceport](/wiki/Spaceport "Spaceport").](/wiki/File:Soyuz_expedition_19_launch_pad.jpg "Soyuz expedition 19 launch pad.jpg") During subsequent five\-year plans to 2050, new industries will be established in fields such as mobile, multi\-media, nano\- and space technologies, robotics, genetic engineering and alternative energy. Food processing enterprises will be developed with an eye to turning the country into a major regional exporter of beef, dairy and other agricultural products. Low\-return, water\-intensive crop varieties will be replaced with vegetable, oil and fodder products. As part of the shift to a "green economy" by 2030, 15% of acreage will be cultivated with water\-saving technologies. Experimental agrarian and innovational clusters will be established and drought\-resistant [genetically modified crops](/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops "Genetically modified crops") developed. The Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy fixes a target of devoting 3 percent of GDP to research and development by 2050 to allow for the development of new high\-tech sectors. The Digital Kazakhstan program was launched in 2018 to boost the country's economic growth through the implementation of digital technologies. Kazakhstan's digitization efforts generated 800 billion tenges (US$1\.97 billion) in two years. The program helped create 120,000 jobs and attracted 32\.8 billion tenges (US$80\.7 million) of investment into the country. Around 82 percent of all public services became automated as part of the Digital Kazakhstan program.{{cite web \|title\=Kazakhstan's Digitization Program Brings Additional $2 billion Into the Economy \|url\=https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\-digitization\-program\-brings\-additional\-2\-billion\-into\-the\-economy/ \|website\=The Astana Times \|date\=18 June 2020 \|access\-date\=20 June 2020 \|archive\-date\=22 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622014433/https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\-digitization\-program\-brings\-additional\-2\-billion\-into\-the\-economy/ \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "### Science and technology", "{{Main\\|Science and technology in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013\\. Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015\\), Figure 14\\.3\\.](/wiki/File:Trends_in_GERD_GDP_ratio_in_Central_Asia%2C_2001%E2%88%922013.svg \"Trends in GERD GDP ratio in Central Asia, 2001−2013.svg\")", "Research remains largely concentrated in Kazakhstan's largest city and former capital, Almaty, home to 52 percent of research personnel. Public research is largely confined to institutes, with universities making only a token contribution. Research institutes receive their funding from national research councils under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Science. Their output, however, tends to be disconnected from market needs. In the business sector, few industrial enterprises conduct research themselves.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Innovation Performance Review\\|publisher\\=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\\|year\\=2012\\|location\\=New York and Geneva}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Central Asia. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030\\|last\\=Mukhitdinova\\|first\\=Nasiba\\|publisher\\=UNESCO\\|year\\=2015\\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-3\\-100129\\-1\\|location\\=Paris\\|pages\\=365–387}}", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.7\\|left\\|Group of Kazakhstan physicists in collaboration with Uzbek researchers working at the ion accelerator DC\\-60](/wiki/File:The_irradiation_experiments_at_the_ion_accelerator_DC-60._Astana%2C_Kazakhstan.JPG \"The irradiation experiments at the ion accelerator DC-60. Astana, Kazakhstan.JPG\")", "One of the most ambitious targets of the State Programme for Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development adopted in 2010 is to raise the country's level of expenditure on research and development to 1 percent of GDP by 2015\\. By 2013, this ratio stood at 0\\.18 percent of GDP. It will be difficult to reach the target as long as economic growth remains strong.{{Update inline\\|date\\=March 2021}} Since 2005, the economy has grown faster (by 6 percent in 2013\\) than gross domestic expenditure on research and development, which only progressed from PPP$598 million to PPP$714 million between 2005 and 2013\\.", "Innovation expenditure more than doubled in Kazakhstan between 2010 and 2011, representing KZT 235 billion (*circa* US$1\\.6 billion), or around 1\\.1 percent of GDP. Some 11 percent of the total was spent on research and development. This compares with about 40 to 70 percent of innovation expenditure in developed countries. This augmentation was due to a sharp rise in product design and the introduction of new services and production methods over this period, to the detriment of the acquisition of machinery and equipment, which has traditionally made up the bulk of Kazakhstan's innovation expenditure. Training costs represented just 2 percent of innovation expenditure, a much lower share than in developed countries. Kazakhstan was ranked 81st in the [Global Innovation Index](/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index \"Global Innovation Index\") in 2023\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=WIPO \\|title\\=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition \\|url\\=https://www.wipo.int/global\\_innovation\\_index/en/2023/index.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-29 \\|website\\=www.wipo.int \\|date\\=16 May 2024 \\|publisher\\=World Intellectual Property Organization \\|doi\\=10\\.34667/tind.46596 \\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-805\\-3432\\-0 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022042128/https://www.wipo.int/global\\_innovation\\_index/en/2023/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In December 2012, President [Nursultan Nazarbayev](/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev \"Nursultan Nazarbayev\") announced the *Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy* with the slogan \"Strong Business, Strong State.\" This pragmatic strategy proposes sweeping socio\\-economic and political reforms to hoist Kazakhstan among the top 30 economies by 2050\\. In this document, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve into a knowledge economy. New sectors are to be created during each five\\-year plan. The first of these, covering the years 2010–2014, focused on developing industrial capacity in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars. During the second five\\-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export markets for these products. To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas. It also intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical equipment. The second five\\-year plan coincides with the development of the *Business 2020* roadmap for small and medium\\-sized enterprises (SMEs), which makes provision for the allocation of grants to SMEs in the regions and for microcredit. The government and the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs also plan to develop an effective mechanism to help start\\-ups.", "[thumb\\|[Baikonur Cosmodrome](/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome \"Baikonur Cosmodrome\") is the world's oldest and largest operational [spaceport](/wiki/Spaceport \"Spaceport\").](/wiki/File:Soyuz_expedition_19_launch_pad.jpg \"Soyuz expedition 19 launch pad.jpg\")", "During subsequent five\\-year plans to 2050, new industries will be established in fields such as mobile, multi\\-media, nano\\- and space technologies, robotics, genetic engineering and alternative energy. Food processing enterprises will be developed with an eye to turning the country into a major regional exporter of beef, dairy and other agricultural products. Low\\-return, water\\-intensive crop varieties will be replaced with vegetable, oil and fodder products. As part of the shift to a \"green economy\" by 2030, 15% of acreage will be cultivated with water\\-saving technologies. Experimental agrarian and innovational clusters will be established and drought\\-resistant [genetically modified crops](/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops \"Genetically modified crops\") developed.", "The Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy fixes a target of devoting 3 percent of GDP to research and development by 2050 to allow for the development of new high\\-tech sectors.", "The Digital Kazakhstan program was launched in 2018 to boost the country's economic growth through the implementation of digital technologies. Kazakhstan's digitization efforts generated 800 billion tenges (US$1\\.97 billion) in two years. The program helped create 120,000 jobs and attracted 32\\.8 billion tenges (US$80\\.7 million) of investment into the country.", "Around 82 percent of all public services became automated as part of the Digital Kazakhstan program.{{cite web \\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Digitization Program Brings Additional $2 billion Into the Economy \\|url\\=https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\\-digitization\\-program\\-brings\\-additional\\-2\\-billion\\-into\\-the\\-economy/ \\|website\\=The Astana Times \\|date\\=18 June 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622014433/https://astanatimes.com/2020/06/kazakhstans\\-digitization\\-program\\-brings\\-additional\\-2\\-billion\\-into\\-the\\-economy/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{Main\|Demographics of Kazakhstan}} {{See also\|Kazakhs}} [alt\=\|thumb\|[Population pyramid](/wiki/Population_pyramid "Population pyramid"), 2023](/wiki/File:Kazakhstan_Population_Pyramid.svg "Kazakhstan Population Pyramid.svg") [thumb\|Central Asian ethnolinguistic patchwork, 1992](/wiki/File:Central_Asia_Ethnic_en.svg "Central Asia Ethnic en.svg") The [US Census Bureau](/wiki/US_Census_Bureau "US Census Bureau") International Database lists the population of Kazakhstan as 18\.9 million (May 2019\),{{cite web \|title\=Population Clock: World \|url\=https://www.census.gov/popclock/world/kz \|website\=census.gov \|access\-date\=30 May 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530184512/https://www.census.gov/popclock/world/kz \|archive\-date\=30 May 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} while United Nations sources such as {{UN Population\|source}} give an estimate of {{UN Population\|Kazakhstan}}. Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 20 million as of November 2023\.{{cite web \|title\=Негізгі \|url\=http://stat.gov.kz \|website\=stat.gov.kz \|access\-date\=30 May 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530193655/http://stat.gov.kz/ \|archive\-date\=30 May 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} In 2013, Kazakhstan's population rose to 17,280,000 with a 1\.7 percent growth rate over the past year according to the Kazakhstan Statistics Agency.[Kazakhstan's population increases by 1\.7 per cent over a year](http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/kazakhstans_population_increases_by_17_per_cent_over_a_year-2013_08_15-1026973) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208063807/http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/kazakhstans\_population\_increases\_by\_17\_per\_cent\_over\_a\_year\-2013\_08\_15\-1026973 \|date\=8 December 2015 }}. bnews.kz. 15 August 2013 The 2009 population estimate is 6\.8 percent higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999\. The decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and possibly reversed. Men and women make up 48\.3 and 51\.7 percent of the population, respectively. ### Ethnic groups {{Main\|Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan}} As of 2024, ethnic [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs "Kazakhs") are 71 percent of the population and ethnic [Russians](/wiki/Russians_in_Kazakhstan "Russians in Kazakhstan") are 14\.9 percent, although their numbers has declined since the [breakup of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union "Dissolution of the Soviet Union").{{Cite web \|last\=uz \|first\=Daryo \|date\=2023\-06\-12 \|title\=Kazakhstan at 20 million: populations and possibilities \|url\=https://daryo.uz/en/2023/12/06/kazakhstan\-at\-20\-million\-populations\-and\-possibilities \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-06 \|website\=Daryo.uz \|language\=en}} Other groups include [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars") (1\.1 percent), [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians "Ukrainians") (1\.9 percent), [Uzbeks](/wiki/Uzbeks "Uzbeks") (3\.3 percent), [Germans](/wiki/Germans "Germans") (1\.1 percent), [Uyghurs](/wiki/Uyghur_people "Uyghur people") (1\.5 percent), [Azerbaijanis](/wiki/Azerbaijanis "Azerbaijanis"), [Dungans](/wiki/Dungans "Dungans"), [Turks](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples"), [Koreans](/wiki/Koreans "Koreans"), [Poles](/wiki/Poles_in_the_former_Soviet_Union "Poles in the former Soviet Union"), and [Lithuanians](/wiki/Lithuanians "Lithuanians"). Some minorities such as [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians "Ukrainians"), [Koreans](/wiki/Koreans "Koreans"), [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans "Volga Germans") (0\.9 percent), [Chechens](/wiki/Chechens "Chechens"),[Remembering Stalin's deportations](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3509933.stm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606174402/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3509933\.stm \|date\=6 June 2013 }}, BBC News, 23 February 2004 [Meskhetian Turks](/wiki/Meskhetian_Turks "Meskhetian Turks"), and Russian political opponents of the regime, had been [deported to Kazakhstan](/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union "Population transfer in the Soviet Union") in the 1930s and 1940s by Josef Stalin. Some of the largest Soviet [labour camps](/wiki/Labour_camp "Labour camp") ([Gulag](/wiki/Gulag "Gulag")) existed in the country.{{cite web \|last\=Clarey \|first\=Christopher \|url\=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/01/news/kazakh.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104084902/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/01/news/kazakh.php \|archive\-date\=4 January 2007 \|title\=Politics, economics and time bury memories of the Kazakh gulag \|work\=International Herald Tribune \|date\=1 January 2007 \|access\-date\=9 September 2013}} [thumb\|Kazakhstanis on a [Lake Jasybay](/wiki/Lake_Jasybay "Lake Jasybay") beach, [Pavlodar Region](/wiki/Pavlodar_Region "Pavlodar Region")](/wiki/File:Dzhasybay_beach.jpg "Dzhasybay beach.jpg") Significant Russian immigration was also connected with the [Virgin Lands Campaign](/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign "Virgin Lands Campaign") and [Soviet space program](/wiki/Soviet_space_program "Soviet space program") during the [Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev "Nikita Khrushchev") era.{{cite news \|last\=Greenall \|first\=Robert \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/4420922\.stm \|title\=Russians left behind in Central Asia \|work\=BBC News \|date\=23 November 2005 \|access\-date\=9 September 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911080317/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\-pacific/4420922\.stm \|archive\-date\=11 September 2013}} In 1989, ethnic Russians were 37\.8 percent of the population and Kazakhs held a majority in only 7 of the 20 regions of the country. Before 1991 there were about one million [Germans in Kazakhstan](/wiki/Germans_of_Kazakhstan "Germans of Kazakhstan"), mostly descendants of the [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans "Volga Germans") deported to Kazakhstan during World War II. After the [dissolution of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union "Dissolution of the Soviet Union"), most of them emigrated to Germany.[Kazakhstan: Special report on ethnic Germans](http://www.irinnews.org/report/28051/kazakhstan-special-report-on-ethnic-germans) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208125555/http://www.irinnews.org/report/28051/kazakhstan\-special\-report\-on\-ethnic\-germans \|date\=8 December 2015 }}, IRIN Asia, 1 February 2005 Most members of the smaller [Pontian Greek](/wiki/Pontian_Greek "Pontian Greek") minority have emigrated to Greece. In the late 1930s thousands of [Koreans](/wiki/Koreans "Koreans") in the Soviet Union were [deported to Central Asia](/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union "Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union").{{Cite web\|title\=Central Asia's Koreans in Korea: There and (Mostly) Back Again\|url\=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/central\-asias\-koreans\-in\-korea\-there\-and\-mostly\-back\-again/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=openDemocracy\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=9 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109105937/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/central\-asias\-koreans\-in\-korea\-there\-and\-mostly\-back\-again/\|url\-status\=live}} These people are now known as [Koryo\-saram](/wiki/Koryo-saram "Koryo-saram").{{Cite web\|title\=From Samarkand to Seoul: Central Asian migrants in South Korea {{!}} Eurasianet\|url\=https://eurasianet.org/from\-samarkand\-to\-seoul\-central\-asian\-migrants\-in\-south\-korea\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=eurasianet.org\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=9 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109014339/https://eurasianet.org/from\-samarkand\-to\-seoul\-central\-asian\-migrants\-in\-south\-korea\|url\-status\=live}} The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country's [Russians](/wiki/Russians "Russians"), [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Kazakhstan "Ukrainians in Kazakhstan") and [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans "Volga Germans"), a process that began in the 1970s. This has made indigenous Kazakhs the largest ethnic group.{{Cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan – People\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=17 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan\|url\-status\=live}} Additional factors in the increase in the Kazakhstani population are higher birthrates and [immigration of ethnic Kazakhs](/wiki/Oralman "Oralman") from China, [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia"), and Russia. ### Languages {{Main\|Languages of Kazakhstan}} Kazakhstan is officially a bilingual country.["Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan"](https://www.akorda.kz/en/official_documents/constitution_){{Dead link\|date\=September 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language "Kazakh language") (part of the [Kipchak sub\-branch](/wiki/Kipchak_languages "Kipchak languages") of the [Turkic languages](/wiki/Turkic_languages "Turkic languages")){{cite book\|title\=Kazakhstan \|date\=7 September 2018 \|publisher\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \|isbn\=978\-1\-78477\-092\-1\|page\= 22 \|author1\=Paul Brummell }} is proficiently spoken by 80\.1% of the population according to 2021 census,{{Cite web \|title\=National census 2021 \- Agency for Strategic planning and reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan Bureau of National statistics \|url\=https://stat.gov.kz/en/national/2021/ \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=stat.gov.kz \|language\=en}} and has the status of "state language". [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language"), on the other hand, is spoken by 83\.7% as of 2021\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.studycountry.com/guide/KZ\-language.htm\|title\=The Languages spoken in Kazakhstan\|website\=Studycountry\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=11 August 2017\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811144650/http://www.studycountry.com/guide/KZ\-language.htm\|archive\-date\=11 August 2017}} It has equal status to Kazakh as an "official language", and is used routinely in business, government, and inter\-ethnic communication."[Lost in translation? Kazakh leader bans cabinet from speaking Russian](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-language/lost-in-translation-kazakh-leader-bans-cabinet-from-speaking-russian-idUSKCN1GB1EJ) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525033358/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-kazakhstan\-language/lost\-in\-translation\-kazakh\-leader\-bans\-cabinet\-from\-speaking\-russian\-idUSKCN1GB1EJ\|date\=25 May 2018}}". Reuters. 27 February 2018\. However, only 63\.4% of ethnic Kazakhs and 49\.3% of the country's population are daily speakers of Kazakh language, according to the same census.[http://old.stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId\=ESTAT464825](http://old.stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId=ESTAT464825) The government announced in January 2015 that the [Latin alphabet](/wiki/Latin_alphabet "Latin alphabet") will replace [Cyrillic](/wiki/Cyrillic "Cyrillic") as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025\.[Kazakh language to be converted to Latin alphabet – MCS RK](http://www.inform.kz/eng/article/2741711) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219113151/http://www.inform.kz/en/kazakh\-language\-to\-be\-converted\-to\-latin\-alphabet\-mcs\-rk\_a2741711\|date\=19 February 2017}}. Inform.kz (30 January 2015\). Retrieved 28 September 2015\. Other minority languages spoken in Kazakhstan include [Uzbek](/wiki/Uzbek_language "Uzbek language"), [Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainian_language "Ukrainian language"), [Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghur_language "Uyghur language"), [Kyrgyz](/wiki/Kyrgyz_language "Kyrgyz language"), [Tatar](/wiki/Tatar_language "Tatar language"), and [German](/wiki/German_language "German language"). English, as well as Turkish, have gained popularity among younger people since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Education across Kazakhstan is conducted in either Kazakh, Russian, or both.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stat.gov.kz/getImg?id\=ESTAT091498\|title\=Kazakhstan in 2013\|work\=Ministry of National Economy of the Republic of Kazakhstan Committee on Statistics\|date\=2014\|page\=33\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929031425/http://www.stat.gov.kz/getImg?id\=ESTAT091498\|archive\-date\=29 September 2015}} In Nazarbayev's resignation speech of 2019, he projected that the people of Kazakhstan in the future will speak three languages (Kazakh, Russian and English).{{cite web\|title\=Address of the Head of State Nursultan Nazarbayev to the people of Kazakhstan\|url\=http://kazakhstanun.com/address\-of\-the\-head\-of\-state\-nursultan\-nazarbayev\-to\-the\-people\-of\-kazakhstan/\|publisher\=Mission of Kazakhstan to the United Nations\|date\=19 March 2019\|access\-date\=22 March 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322165432/http://kazakhstanun.com/address\-of\-the\-head\-of\-state\-nursultan\-nazarbayev\-to\-the\-people\-of\-kazakhstan/\|archive\-date\=22 March 2019\|url\-status\=live}} ### Religion {{Main\|Religion in Kazakhstan}} {{Bar box \| title\=Religion in Kazakhstan (2021 census) \| titlebar\=\#ddd \| float\=right \| bars\= {{Bar percent\|\[\[Islam in Kazakhstan\|Islam]]\|green\|69\.3}} {{Bar percent\|\[\[Christianity in Kazakhstan\|Christianity]]\|blue\|17\.2}} {{Bar percent\|No response\|red\|11\.01}} {{Bar percent\|\[\[Irreligion in Kazakhstan\|Atheism]]\|grey\|2\.25}} {{Bar percent\|\[\[Religion in Kazakhstan\|Other religions]]\|purple\|0\.2}} }} [thumb\|The [Nur\-Astana Mosque](/wiki/Nur-Astana_Mosque "Nur-Astana Mosque") in the capital Astana. Islam is the majority religion in the country.](/wiki/File:Nur_Astana_Mosque.jpg "Nur Astana Mosque.jpg") [thumb\|[Ascension Cathedral](/wiki/Ascension_Cathedral%2C_Almaty "Ascension Cathedral, Almaty") in Almaty](/wiki/File:Zenkov_Cathedral_Winter.jpg "Zenkov Cathedral Winter.jpg") [thumb\|right\|[Cathedral of Our Lady of Fatima](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Our_Lady_of_Fatima%2C_Karaganda "Cathedral of Our Lady of Fatima, Karaganda") is the biggest Catholic church in Central Asia.](/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg "Караганда, Собор Пресвятой Девы Марии Фатимской.jpg") According to the 2021 census, 69\.3% of the population is [Muslim](/wiki/Islam_in_Kazakhstan "Islam in Kazakhstan"), 17\.2% are [Christian](/wiki/Christianity_in_Kazakhstan "Christianity in Kazakhstan"), 0\.2% follow [other religions](/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan "Religion in Kazakhstan") (mostly [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kazakhstan "Buddhism in Kazakhstan") and [Jewish](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan "History of the Jews in Kazakhstan")), 11\.01% chose not to answer, and 2\.25% identify as [atheist](/wiki/Atheist "Atheist"). Kazakhstan is a [secular state](/wiki/Secular_state "Secular state") whose constitution guarantees religious freedoms. Article 39 of the constitution states: "Human rights and freedoms shall not be restricted in any way." Article 14 prohibits "discrimination on religious basis" and Article 19 ensures that everyone has the "right to determine and indicate or not to indicate his/her ethnic, party and religious affiliation." The Constitutional Council affirmed these rights in a 2009 declaration, which stated that a proposed law limiting the rights of certain individuals to practice their religion was declared unconstitutional.{{Cite web\|last\=AsiaNews.it\|title\=Restrictive new law on religious freedom is unconstitutional\|url\=http://www.asianews.it/news\-en/Restrictive\-new\-law\-on\-religious\-freedom\-is\-unconstitutional\-14477\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-05\|publisher\=www.asianews.it\|archive\-date\=8 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108041316/http://www.asianews.it/news\-en/Restrictive\-new\-law\-on\-religious\-freedom\-is\-unconstitutional\-14477\.html\|url\-status\=live}} [Islam](/wiki/Islam_in_Kazakhstan "Islam in Kazakhstan") is the largest religion in Kazakhstan, followed by [Eastern Orthodox Christianity](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Kazakhstan "Eastern Orthodoxy in Kazakhstan"). After decades of [religious suppression by the Soviet Union](/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union "Religion in the Soviet Union"), the coming of independence witnessed a surge in the expression of ethnic identity, partly through religion. The free practice of [religious beliefs](/wiki/Religion "Religion") and the establishment of full freedom of religion led to an increase of religious activity. Hundreds of mosques, churches, and other religious structures were built in the span of a few years, with the number of religious associations rising from 670 in 1990 to 4,170 today. Some figures show that [non\-denominational Muslims](/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslims "Non-denominational Muslims"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the\-worlds\-muslims\-unity\-and\-diversity\-1\-religious\-affiliation/\#identity \|title\=Pew Forum on Religious \& Public life, Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation \|access\-date\=27 December 2016 \|date\=9 August 2012 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the\-worlds\-muslims\-unity\-and\-diversity\-1\-religious\-affiliation/\#identity \|archive\-date\=26 December 2016}} form the majority, while others indicate that most Muslims in the country are [Sunnis](/wiki/Sunni_Islam "Sunni Islam") following the [Hanafi](/wiki/Hanafi "Hanafi") school.{{cite book\|title\=Kazakhstan \|date\=7 September 2018 \|publisher\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \|isbn\=978\-1\-78477\-092\-1\|page\= 23 \|author1\=Paul Brummell }} These include ethnic [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs "Kazakhs"), who constitute about 7% of the population, as well as ethnic [Uzbeks](/wiki/Uzbeks "Uzbeks"), [Uighurs](/wiki/Uighurs "Uighurs"), and [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars").[Kazakhstan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108501.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002182320/https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108501\.htm \|date\=2 October 2017 }} U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 7 September 2009\. Less than 1% are part of the Sunni [Shafi\`i](/wiki/Shafi%60i "Shafi`i") school (primarily [Chechens](/wiki/Chechens "Chechens")). There are also some [Ahmadi](/wiki/Ahmadiyya "Ahmadiyya") Muslims.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.forum18\.org/archive.php?article\_id\=1577 \| title\=KAZAKHSTAN: Ahmadi Muslim mosque closed, Protestants fined 100 times minimum monthly wage \| publisher\=Forum 18 \| access\-date\=6 June 2014 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606214920/http://www.forum18\.org/archive.php?article\_id\=1577 \| archive\-date\=6 June 2014 \| df\=dmy\-all }} There are a total of 2,300 mosques,[Religious Situation Review in Kazakhstan](http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/151/35/lang,english/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100511052119/http://www.religions\-congress.org/content/view/151/35/lang,english \|date\=11 May 2010 }} Congress of World Religions. Retrieved 7 September 2009\. all of them are affiliated with the "Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan", headed by a supreme [mufti](/wiki/Mufti "Mufti").[Islam in Kazakhstan](http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/121/35/lang,english/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918045538/http://www.religions\-congress.org/content/view/121/35/lang,english/ \|date\=18 September 2009 }}. Retrieved 7 September 2009\. Unaffiliated mosques are forcefully closed.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.forum18\.org/archive.php?article\_id\=1498 \| title\=KAZAKHSTAN: "Mosques cannot be independent" \| publisher\=Forum 18 \| access\-date\=6 June 2014 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606205847/http://www.forum18\.org/archive.php?article\_id\=1498 \| archive\-date\=6 June 2014 \| df\=dmy\-all }} [Eid al\-Adha](/wiki/Eid_al-Adha "Eid al-Adha") is recognised as a national holiday. One quarter of the population is Russian Orthodox, including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.{{cite web \|url\=https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/127366\.htm \|title\=Kazakhstan \|work\=\[\[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]] \|publisher\=\[\[United States Department of State]] \|date\=26 October 2009 \|access\-date\=3 June 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522225421/https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/127366\.htm \|archive\-date\=22 May 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} Other Christian groups include [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Kazakhstan "Catholic Church in Kazakhstan"), [Greek Catholics](/wiki/Greek_Catholics "Greek Catholics"), and [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants "Protestants"). There are a total of 258 Orthodox churches, 93 Catholic churches (9 [Greek Catholic](/wiki/Greek_Catholic "Greek Catholic")), and over 500 Protestant churches and prayer houses. The Russian Orthodox Christmas is recognised as a national holiday in Kazakhstan. Other religious groups include Judaism, the [Baháʼí Faith](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Kazakhstan "Baháʼí Faith in Kazakhstan"), [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_in_Kazakhstan "Hinduism in Kazakhstan"), [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia "Buddhism in Central Asia"), and [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints"). According to the 2009 Census data, there are very few Christians outside the Slavic and Germanic ethnic groups.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stat.kz/p\_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2\.rar \|title\=Нац состав.rar \|access\-date\=24 July 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723084232/http://www.stat.kz/p\_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2\.rar \|archive\-date\=23 July 2011 }} ### Education {{Main\|Education in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|Kazakh National University of Arts](/wiki/File:Palace_of_Arts_Shabyt.jpg "Palace of Arts Shabyt.jpg") Education is universal and mandatory through to the [secondary level](/wiki/Secondary_education "Secondary education") and the [adult literacy rate](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_literacy_rate "List of countries by literacy rate") is 99\.5%.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.collegeatlas.org/kazakhstan\-colleges\-universities.html \| title\=Kazakhstan Colleges and Universities \| publisher\=CollegeAtlas \| access\-date\=3 June 2014 \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606223224/http://www.collegeatlas.org/kazakhstan\-colleges\-universities.html \| archive\-date\=6 June 2014 \| df\=dmy\-all }} On average, these statistics are equal to both women and men in Kazakhstan.{{cite book\|title\=Kazakhstan \|date\=7 September 2018 \|publisher\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \|isbn\=978\-1\-78477\-092\-1\|page\= 24 \|author1\=Paul Brummell }} Education consists of three main phases: primary education (forms 1–4\), basic general education (forms 5–9\) and senior level education (forms 10–11 or 12\) divided into continued general education and vocational education. Vocational Education usually lasts three or four years.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q\=World\+TVET\+Database\&ct\=KAZ \| title\=Vocational Education in Kazakhstan \| date\=August 2012 \| access\-date\=3 June 2014 \| author\=UNESCO\-UNEVOC \| url\-status\=live \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000448/http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q\=World\+TVET\+Database\&ct\=KAZ \| archive\-date\=7 June 2014 \| df\=dmy\-all }} (Primary education is preceded by one year of pre\-school education.) These levels can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g., primary school, then secondary school). Recently, several secondary schools, specialised schools, magnet schools, [gymnasiums](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 "Gymnasium (school)"), [lyceums](/wiki/Lyceum%23Lyceums_in_today%27s_education "Lyceum#Lyceums in today's education") and linguistic and technical gymnasiums have been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational schools. At present, there are [universities](/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Kazakhstan "List of universities in Kazakhstan"), [academies](/wiki/Academy "Academy") and institutes, [conservatories](/wiki/College_or_university_school_of_music "College or university school of music"), higher schools and higher colleges. There are three main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the [Bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree "Bachelor's degree"); specialised higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific\-pedagogical higher education which leads to the master's degree. Postgraduate education leads to the *[Kandidat Nauk](/wiki/Kandidat_Nauk "Kandidat Nauk")* ("Candidate of Sciences") and the Doctor of Sciences (PhD). With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed. Over 2,500 students in Kazakhstan have applied for student loans totalling about $9 million. The largest number of student loans come from Almaty, Astana and Kyzylorda.[More than 2\.5 thousand students get loans in Kazakhstan – News Feed – Bnews.kz: breaking news](http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/more_than_25_thousand_students_get_loans_in_kazakhstan-2013_07_26-1033423) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208051507/http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/more\_than\_25\_thousand\_students\_get\_loans\_in\_kazakhstan\-2013\_07\_26\-1033423 \|date\=8 December 2015 }}. Bnews.kz. Retrieved 20 August 2013\. The training and skills development programs in Kazakhstan are also supported by international organisations. For example, on 30 March 2015, the World Banks' Group of Executive Directors approved a $100 million loan for the Skills and Job project in Kazakhstan.{{cite web\|title\=World Bank Supports Better Skills for Quality Jobs in Kazakhstan\|url\=http://finchannel.com/index.php/society/jobs/item/42191\-world\-bank\-supports\-better\-skills\-for\-quality\-jobs\-in\-kazakhstan\|website\=Finchannel.com\|access\-date\=14 February 2016\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309080855/http://finchannel.com/index.php/society/jobs/item/42191\-world\-bank\-supports\-better\-skills\-for\-quality\-jobs\-in\-kazakhstan\|archive\-date\=9 March 2016}} The project aims to provide training to unemployed, unproductively self\-employed, and employees in need of training.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{Main\\|Demographics of Kazakhstan}}\n{{See also\\|Kazakhs}}\n[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|[Population pyramid](/wiki/Population_pyramid \"Population pyramid\"), 2023](/wiki/File:Kazakhstan_Population_Pyramid.svg \"Kazakhstan Population Pyramid.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Central Asian ethnolinguistic patchwork, 1992](/wiki/File:Central_Asia_Ethnic_en.svg \"Central Asia Ethnic en.svg\")", "The [US Census Bureau](/wiki/US_Census_Bureau \"US Census Bureau\") International Database lists the population of Kazakhstan as 18\\.9 million (May 2019\\),{{cite web \\|title\\=Population Clock: World \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/popclock/world/kz \\|website\\=census.gov \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530184512/https://www.census.gov/popclock/world/kz \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} while United Nations sources such as {{UN Population\\|source}} give an estimate of {{UN Population\\|Kazakhstan}}. Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 20 million as of November 2023\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Негізгі \\|url\\=http://stat.gov.kz \\|website\\=stat.gov.kz \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530193655/http://stat.gov.kz/ \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 2013, Kazakhstan's population rose to 17,280,000 with a 1\\.7 percent growth rate over the past year according to the Kazakhstan Statistics Agency.[Kazakhstan's population increases by 1\\.7 per cent over a year](http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/kazakhstans_population_increases_by_17_per_cent_over_a_year-2013_08_15-1026973) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208063807/http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/kazakhstans\\_population\\_increases\\_by\\_17\\_per\\_cent\\_over\\_a\\_year\\-2013\\_08\\_15\\-1026973 \\|date\\=8 December 2015 }}. bnews.kz. 15 August 2013", "The 2009 population estimate is 6\\.8 percent higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999\\. The decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and possibly reversed. Men and women make up 48\\.3 and 51\\.7 percent of the population, respectively.", "### Ethnic groups", "{{Main\\|Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan}}", "As of 2024, ethnic [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs \"Kazakhs\") are 71 percent of the population and ethnic [Russians](/wiki/Russians_in_Kazakhstan \"Russians in Kazakhstan\") are 14\\.9 percent, although their numbers has declined since the [breakup of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Dissolution of the Soviet Union\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=uz \\|first\\=Daryo \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-12 \\|title\\=Kazakhstan at 20 million: populations and possibilities \\|url\\=https://daryo.uz/en/2023/12/06/kazakhstan\\-at\\-20\\-million\\-populations\\-and\\-possibilities \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-06 \\|website\\=Daryo.uz \\|language\\=en}} Other groups include [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\") (1\\.1 percent), [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians \"Ukrainians\") (1\\.9 percent), [Uzbeks](/wiki/Uzbeks \"Uzbeks\") (3\\.3 percent), [Germans](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\") (1\\.1 percent), [Uyghurs](/wiki/Uyghur_people \"Uyghur people\") (1\\.5 percent), [Azerbaijanis](/wiki/Azerbaijanis \"Azerbaijanis\"), [Dungans](/wiki/Dungans \"Dungans\"), [Turks](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\"), [Koreans](/wiki/Koreans \"Koreans\"), [Poles](/wiki/Poles_in_the_former_Soviet_Union \"Poles in the former Soviet Union\"), and [Lithuanians](/wiki/Lithuanians \"Lithuanians\"). Some minorities such as [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians \"Ukrainians\"), [Koreans](/wiki/Koreans \"Koreans\"), [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans \"Volga Germans\") (0\\.9 percent), [Chechens](/wiki/Chechens \"Chechens\"),[Remembering Stalin's deportations](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3509933.stm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606174402/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3509933\\.stm \\|date\\=6 June 2013 }}, BBC News, 23 February 2004 [Meskhetian Turks](/wiki/Meskhetian_Turks \"Meskhetian Turks\"), and Russian political opponents of the regime, had been [deported to Kazakhstan](/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Population transfer in the Soviet Union\") in the 1930s and 1940s by Josef Stalin. Some of the largest Soviet [labour camps](/wiki/Labour_camp \"Labour camp\") ([Gulag](/wiki/Gulag \"Gulag\")) existed in the country.{{cite web \\|last\\=Clarey \\|first\\=Christopher \\|url\\=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/01/news/kazakh.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104084902/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/01/news/kazakh.php \\|archive\\-date\\=4 January 2007 \\|title\\=Politics, economics and time bury memories of the Kazakh gulag \\|work\\=International Herald Tribune \\|date\\=1 January 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2013}}", "[thumb\\|Kazakhstanis on a [Lake Jasybay](/wiki/Lake_Jasybay \"Lake Jasybay\") beach, [Pavlodar Region](/wiki/Pavlodar_Region \"Pavlodar Region\")](/wiki/File:Dzhasybay_beach.jpg \"Dzhasybay beach.jpg\")", "Significant Russian immigration was also connected with the [Virgin Lands Campaign](/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign \"Virgin Lands Campaign\") and [Soviet space program](/wiki/Soviet_space_program \"Soviet space program\") during the [Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev \"Nikita Khrushchev\") era.{{cite news \\|last\\=Greenall \\|first\\=Robert \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/4420922\\.stm \\|title\\=Russians left behind in Central Asia \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=23 November 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911080317/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia\\-pacific/4420922\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=11 September 2013}} In 1989, ethnic Russians were 37\\.8 percent of the population and Kazakhs held a majority in only 7 of the 20 regions of the country. Before 1991 there were about one million [Germans in Kazakhstan](/wiki/Germans_of_Kazakhstan \"Germans of Kazakhstan\"), mostly descendants of the [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans \"Volga Germans\") deported to Kazakhstan during World War II. After the [dissolution of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Dissolution of the Soviet Union\"), most of them emigrated to Germany.[Kazakhstan: Special report on ethnic Germans](http://www.irinnews.org/report/28051/kazakhstan-special-report-on-ethnic-germans) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208125555/http://www.irinnews.org/report/28051/kazakhstan\\-special\\-report\\-on\\-ethnic\\-germans \\|date\\=8 December 2015 }}, IRIN Asia, 1 February 2005 Most members of the smaller [Pontian Greek](/wiki/Pontian_Greek \"Pontian Greek\") minority have emigrated to Greece. In the late 1930s thousands of [Koreans](/wiki/Koreans \"Koreans\") in the Soviet Union were [deported to Central Asia](/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Central Asia's Koreans in Korea: There and (Mostly) Back Again\\|url\\=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/central\\-asias\\-koreans\\-in\\-korea\\-there\\-and\\-mostly\\-back\\-again/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=openDemocracy\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=9 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109105937/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/central\\-asias\\-koreans\\-in\\-korea\\-there\\-and\\-mostly\\-back\\-again/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} These people are now known as [Koryo\\-saram](/wiki/Koryo-saram \"Koryo-saram\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=From Samarkand to Seoul: Central Asian migrants in South Korea {{!}} Eurasianet\\|url\\=https://eurasianet.org/from\\-samarkand\\-to\\-seoul\\-central\\-asian\\-migrants\\-in\\-south\\-korea\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=eurasianet.org\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=9 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109014339/https://eurasianet.org/from\\-samarkand\\-to\\-seoul\\-central\\-asian\\-migrants\\-in\\-south\\-korea\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country's [Russians](/wiki/Russians \"Russians\"), [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Kazakhstan \"Ukrainians in Kazakhstan\") and [Volga Germans](/wiki/Volga_Germans \"Volga Germans\"), a process that began in the 1970s. This has made indigenous Kazakhs the largest ethnic group.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan – People\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=17 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Additional factors in the increase in the Kazakhstani population are higher birthrates and [immigration of ethnic Kazakhs](/wiki/Oralman \"Oralman\") from China, [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), and Russia.", "### Languages", "{{Main\\|Languages of Kazakhstan}}", "Kazakhstan is officially a bilingual country.[\"Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan\"](https://www.akorda.kz/en/official_documents/constitution_){{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language \"Kazakh language\") (part of the [Kipchak sub\\-branch](/wiki/Kipchak_languages \"Kipchak languages\") of the [Turkic languages](/wiki/Turkic_languages \"Turkic languages\")){{cite book\\|title\\=Kazakhstan \\|date\\=7 September 2018 \\|publisher\\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78477\\-092\\-1\\|page\\= 22 \\|author1\\=Paul Brummell }} is proficiently spoken by 80\\.1% of the population according to 2021 census,{{Cite web \\|title\\=National census 2021 \\- Agency for Strategic planning and reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan Bureau of National statistics \\|url\\=https://stat.gov.kz/en/national/2021/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=stat.gov.kz \\|language\\=en}} and has the status of \"state language\". [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\"), on the other hand, is spoken by 83\\.7% as of 2021\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.studycountry.com/guide/KZ\\-language.htm\\|title\\=The Languages spoken in Kazakhstan\\|website\\=Studycountry\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811144650/http://www.studycountry.com/guide/KZ\\-language.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=11 August 2017}} It has equal status to Kazakh as an \"official language\", and is used routinely in business, government, and inter\\-ethnic communication.\"[Lost in translation? Kazakh leader bans cabinet from speaking Russian](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-language/lost-in-translation-kazakh-leader-bans-cabinet-from-speaking-russian-idUSKCN1GB1EJ) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525033358/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-kazakhstan\\-language/lost\\-in\\-translation\\-kazakh\\-leader\\-bans\\-cabinet\\-from\\-speaking\\-russian\\-idUSKCN1GB1EJ\\|date\\=25 May 2018}}\". Reuters. 27 February 2018\\. However, only 63\\.4% of ethnic Kazakhs and 49\\.3% of the country's population are daily speakers of Kazakh language, according to the same census.[http://old.stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId\\=ESTAT464825](http://old.stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId=ESTAT464825)", "The government announced in January 2015 that the [Latin alphabet](/wiki/Latin_alphabet \"Latin alphabet\") will replace [Cyrillic](/wiki/Cyrillic \"Cyrillic\") as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025\\.[Kazakh language to be converted to Latin alphabet – MCS RK](http://www.inform.kz/eng/article/2741711) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219113151/http://www.inform.kz/en/kazakh\\-language\\-to\\-be\\-converted\\-to\\-latin\\-alphabet\\-mcs\\-rk\\_a2741711\\|date\\=19 February 2017}}. Inform.kz (30 January 2015\\). Retrieved 28 September 2015\\. Other minority languages spoken in Kazakhstan include [Uzbek](/wiki/Uzbek_language \"Uzbek language\"), [Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainian_language \"Ukrainian language\"), [Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghur_language \"Uyghur language\"), [Kyrgyz](/wiki/Kyrgyz_language \"Kyrgyz language\"), [Tatar](/wiki/Tatar_language \"Tatar language\"), and [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\"). English, as well as Turkish, have gained popularity among younger people since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Education across Kazakhstan is conducted in either Kazakh, Russian, or both.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stat.gov.kz/getImg?id\\=ESTAT091498\\|title\\=Kazakhstan in 2013\\|work\\=Ministry of National Economy of the Republic of Kazakhstan Committee on Statistics\\|date\\=2014\\|page\\=33\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929031425/http://www.stat.gov.kz/getImg?id\\=ESTAT091498\\|archive\\-date\\=29 September 2015}} In Nazarbayev's resignation speech of 2019, he projected that the people of Kazakhstan in the future will speak three languages (Kazakh, Russian and English).{{cite web\\|title\\=Address of the Head of State Nursultan Nazarbayev to the people of Kazakhstan\\|url\\=http://kazakhstanun.com/address\\-of\\-the\\-head\\-of\\-state\\-nursultan\\-nazarbayev\\-to\\-the\\-people\\-of\\-kazakhstan/\\|publisher\\=Mission of Kazakhstan to the United Nations\\|date\\=19 March 2019\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322165432/http://kazakhstanun.com/address\\-of\\-the\\-head\\-of\\-state\\-nursultan\\-nazarbayev\\-to\\-the\\-people\\-of\\-kazakhstan/\\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2019\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Religion", "{{Main\\|Religion in Kazakhstan}}", "{{Bar box\n\\| title\\=Religion in Kazakhstan (2021 census)\n\\| titlebar\\=\\#ddd\n\\| float\\=right\n\\| bars\\=\n{{Bar percent\\|\\[\\[Islam in Kazakhstan\\|Islam]]\\|green\\|69\\.3}}\n{{Bar percent\\|\\[\\[Christianity in Kazakhstan\\|Christianity]]\\|blue\\|17\\.2}}\n{{Bar percent\\|No response\\|red\\|11\\.01}}\n{{Bar percent\\|\\[\\[Irreligion in Kazakhstan\\|Atheism]]\\|grey\\|2\\.25}}\n{{Bar percent\\|\\[\\[Religion in Kazakhstan\\|Other religions]]\\|purple\\|0\\.2}}\n}}\n[thumb\\|The [Nur\\-Astana Mosque](/wiki/Nur-Astana_Mosque \"Nur-Astana Mosque\") in the capital Astana. Islam is the majority religion in the country.](/wiki/File:Nur_Astana_Mosque.jpg \"Nur Astana Mosque.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Ascension Cathedral](/wiki/Ascension_Cathedral%2C_Almaty \"Ascension Cathedral, Almaty\") in Almaty](/wiki/File:Zenkov_Cathedral_Winter.jpg \"Zenkov Cathedral Winter.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Cathedral of Our Lady of Fatima](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Our_Lady_of_Fatima%2C_Karaganda \"Cathedral of Our Lady of Fatima, Karaganda\") is the biggest Catholic church in Central Asia.](/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9.jpg \"Караганда, Собор Пресвятой Девы Марии Фатимской.jpg\")", "According to the 2021 census, 69\\.3% of the population is [Muslim](/wiki/Islam_in_Kazakhstan \"Islam in Kazakhstan\"), 17\\.2% are [Christian](/wiki/Christianity_in_Kazakhstan \"Christianity in Kazakhstan\"), 0\\.2% follow [other religions](/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan \"Religion in Kazakhstan\") (mostly [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kazakhstan \"Buddhism in Kazakhstan\") and [Jewish](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan \"History of the Jews in Kazakhstan\")), 11\\.01% chose not to answer, and 2\\.25% identify as [atheist](/wiki/Atheist \"Atheist\").", "Kazakhstan is a [secular state](/wiki/Secular_state \"Secular state\") whose constitution guarantees religious freedoms. Article 39 of the constitution states: \"Human rights and freedoms shall not be restricted in any way.\" Article 14 prohibits \"discrimination on religious basis\" and Article 19 ensures that everyone has the \"right to determine and indicate or not to indicate his/her ethnic, party and religious affiliation.\" The Constitutional Council affirmed these rights in a 2009 declaration, which stated that a proposed law limiting the rights of certain individuals to practice their religion was declared unconstitutional.{{Cite web\\|last\\=AsiaNews.it\\|title\\=Restrictive new law on religious freedom is unconstitutional\\|url\\=http://www.asianews.it/news\\-en/Restrictive\\-new\\-law\\-on\\-religious\\-freedom\\-is\\-unconstitutional\\-14477\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|publisher\\=www.asianews.it\\|archive\\-date\\=8 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108041316/http://www.asianews.it/news\\-en/Restrictive\\-new\\-law\\-on\\-religious\\-freedom\\-is\\-unconstitutional\\-14477\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "[Islam](/wiki/Islam_in_Kazakhstan \"Islam in Kazakhstan\") is the largest religion in Kazakhstan, followed by [Eastern Orthodox Christianity](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Kazakhstan \"Eastern Orthodoxy in Kazakhstan\"). After decades of [religious suppression by the Soviet Union](/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Religion in the Soviet Union\"), the coming of independence witnessed a surge in the expression of ethnic identity, partly through religion. The free practice of [religious beliefs](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\") and the establishment of full freedom of religion led to an increase of religious activity. Hundreds of mosques, churches, and other religious structures were built in the span of a few years, with the number of religious associations rising from 670 in 1990 to 4,170 today.", "Some figures show that [non\\-denominational Muslims](/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslims \"Non-denominational Muslims\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the\\-worlds\\-muslims\\-unity\\-and\\-diversity\\-1\\-religious\\-affiliation/\\#identity \\|title\\=Pew Forum on Religious \\& Public life, Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2016 \\|date\\=9 August 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the\\-worlds\\-muslims\\-unity\\-and\\-diversity\\-1\\-religious\\-affiliation/\\#identity \\|archive\\-date\\=26 December 2016}} form the majority, while others indicate that most Muslims in the country are [Sunnis](/wiki/Sunni_Islam \"Sunni Islam\") following the [Hanafi](/wiki/Hanafi \"Hanafi\") school.{{cite book\\|title\\=Kazakhstan \\|date\\=7 September 2018 \\|publisher\\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78477\\-092\\-1\\|page\\= 23 \\|author1\\=Paul Brummell }} These include ethnic [Kazakhs](/wiki/Kazakhs \"Kazakhs\"), who constitute about 7% of the population, as well as ethnic [Uzbeks](/wiki/Uzbeks \"Uzbeks\"), [Uighurs](/wiki/Uighurs \"Uighurs\"), and [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\").[Kazakhstan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108501.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002182320/https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108501\\.htm \\|date\\=2 October 2017 }} U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 7 September 2009\\. Less than 1% are part of the Sunni [Shafi\\`i](/wiki/Shafi%60i \"Shafi`i\") school (primarily [Chechens](/wiki/Chechens \"Chechens\")). There are also some [Ahmadi](/wiki/Ahmadiyya \"Ahmadiyya\") Muslims.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.forum18\\.org/archive.php?article\\_id\\=1577 \\| title\\=KAZAKHSTAN: Ahmadi Muslim mosque closed, Protestants fined 100 times minimum monthly wage \\| publisher\\=Forum 18 \\| access\\-date\\=6 June 2014 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606214920/http://www.forum18\\.org/archive.php?article\\_id\\=1577 \\| archive\\-date\\=6 June 2014 \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }} There are a total of 2,300 mosques,[Religious Situation Review in Kazakhstan](http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/151/35/lang,english/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100511052119/http://www.religions\\-congress.org/content/view/151/35/lang,english \\|date\\=11 May 2010 }} Congress of World Religions. Retrieved 7 September 2009\\. all of them are affiliated with the \"Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan\", headed by a supreme [mufti](/wiki/Mufti \"Mufti\").[Islam in Kazakhstan](http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/121/35/lang,english/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918045538/http://www.religions\\-congress.org/content/view/121/35/lang,english/ \\|date\\=18 September 2009 }}. Retrieved 7 September 2009\\. Unaffiliated mosques are forcefully closed.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.forum18\\.org/archive.php?article\\_id\\=1498 \\| title\\=KAZAKHSTAN: \"Mosques cannot be independent\" \\| publisher\\=Forum 18 \\| access\\-date\\=6 June 2014 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606205847/http://www.forum18\\.org/archive.php?article\\_id\\=1498 \\| archive\\-date\\=6 June 2014 \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }} [Eid al\\-Adha](/wiki/Eid_al-Adha \"Eid al-Adha\") is recognised as a national holiday. One quarter of the population is Russian Orthodox, including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/127366\\.htm \\|title\\=Kazakhstan \\|work\\=\\[\\[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Department of State]] \\|date\\=26 October 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=3 June 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522225421/https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2009/127366\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=22 May 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Other Christian groups include [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Kazakhstan \"Catholic Church in Kazakhstan\"), [Greek Catholics](/wiki/Greek_Catholics \"Greek Catholics\"), and [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\"). There are a total of 258 Orthodox churches, 93 Catholic churches (9 [Greek Catholic](/wiki/Greek_Catholic \"Greek Catholic\")), and over 500 Protestant churches and prayer houses. The Russian Orthodox Christmas is recognised as a national holiday in Kazakhstan. Other religious groups include Judaism, the [Baháʼí Faith](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Kazakhstan \"Baháʼí Faith in Kazakhstan\"), [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism_in_Kazakhstan \"Hinduism in Kazakhstan\"), [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia \"Buddhism in Central Asia\"), and [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\").", "According to the 2009 Census data, there are very few Christians outside the Slavic and Germanic ethnic groups.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stat.kz/p\\_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2\\.rar \\|title\\=Нац состав.rar \\|access\\-date\\=24 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723084232/http://www.stat.kz/p\\_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2\\.rar \\|archive\\-date\\=23 July 2011 }}", "### Education", "{{Main\\|Education in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|Kazakh National University of Arts](/wiki/File:Palace_of_Arts_Shabyt.jpg \"Palace of Arts Shabyt.jpg\")", "Education is universal and mandatory through to the [secondary level](/wiki/Secondary_education \"Secondary education\") and the [adult literacy rate](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_literacy_rate \"List of countries by literacy rate\") is 99\\.5%.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.collegeatlas.org/kazakhstan\\-colleges\\-universities.html \\| title\\=Kazakhstan Colleges and Universities \\| publisher\\=CollegeAtlas \\| access\\-date\\=3 June 2014 \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606223224/http://www.collegeatlas.org/kazakhstan\\-colleges\\-universities.html \\| archive\\-date\\=6 June 2014 \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }} On average, these statistics are equal to both women and men in Kazakhstan.{{cite book\\|title\\=Kazakhstan \\|date\\=7 September 2018 \\|publisher\\=Bradt Travel Guides; Third edition \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78477\\-092\\-1\\|page\\= 24 \\|author1\\=Paul Brummell }}", "Education consists of three main phases: primary education (forms 1–4\\), basic general education (forms 5–9\\) and senior level education (forms 10–11 or 12\\) divided into continued general education and vocational education. Vocational Education usually lasts three or four years.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q\\=World\\+TVET\\+Database\\&ct\\=KAZ \\| title\\=Vocational Education in Kazakhstan \\| date\\=August 2012 \\| access\\-date\\=3 June 2014 \\| author\\=UNESCO\\-UNEVOC \\| url\\-status\\=live \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000448/http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q\\=World\\+TVET\\+Database\\&ct\\=KAZ \\| archive\\-date\\=7 June 2014 \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }} (Primary education is preceded by one year of pre\\-school education.) These levels can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g., primary school, then secondary school). Recently, several secondary schools, specialised schools, magnet schools, [gymnasiums](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 \"Gymnasium (school)\"), [lyceums](/wiki/Lyceum%23Lyceums_in_today%27s_education \"Lyceum#Lyceums in today's education\") and linguistic and technical gymnasiums have been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational schools.", "At present, there are [universities](/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Kazakhstan \"List of universities in Kazakhstan\"), [academies](/wiki/Academy \"Academy\") and institutes, [conservatories](/wiki/College_or_university_school_of_music \"College or university school of music\"), higher schools and higher colleges. There are three main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the [Bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree \"Bachelor's degree\"); specialised higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific\\-pedagogical higher education which leads to the master's degree. Postgraduate education leads to the *[Kandidat Nauk](/wiki/Kandidat_Nauk \"Kandidat Nauk\")* (\"Candidate of Sciences\") and the Doctor of Sciences (PhD). With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed.", "Over 2,500 students in Kazakhstan have applied for student loans totalling about $9 million. The largest number of student loans come from Almaty, Astana and Kyzylorda.[More than 2\\.5 thousand students get loans in Kazakhstan – News Feed – Bnews.kz: breaking news](http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/more_than_25_thousand_students_get_loans_in_kazakhstan-2013_07_26-1033423) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208051507/http://bnews.kz/en/news/obshchestvo/more\\_than\\_25\\_thousand\\_students\\_get\\_loans\\_in\\_kazakhstan\\-2013\\_07\\_26\\-1033423 \\|date\\=8 December 2015 }}. Bnews.kz. Retrieved 20 August 2013\\.", "The training and skills development programs in Kazakhstan are also supported by international organisations. For example, on 30 March 2015, the World Banks' Group of Executive Directors approved a $100 million loan for the Skills and Job project in Kazakhstan.{{cite web\\|title\\=World Bank Supports Better Skills for Quality Jobs in Kazakhstan\\|url\\=http://finchannel.com/index.php/society/jobs/item/42191\\-world\\-bank\\-supports\\-better\\-skills\\-for\\-quality\\-jobs\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\|website\\=Finchannel.com\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309080855/http://finchannel.com/index.php/society/jobs/item/42191\\-world\\-bank\\-supports\\-better\\-skills\\-for\\-quality\\-jobs\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2016}} The project aims to provide training to unemployed, unproductively self\\-employed, and employees in need of training.", "" ]
Culture ------- {{Main\|Culture of Kazakhstan\|Kazakh clothing\|Kazakh wedding ceremony}} [thumb\|upright\|left\|A Kazakhstani performer demonstrates the long equestrian heritage as part of the gala concert during the opening ceremonies of the Central Asian Peacekeeping Battalion.](/wiki/File:Equestrian_heritage%2C_Kazakhstan.JPEG "Equestrian heritage, Kazakhstan.JPEG") Before the Russian colonisation, the Kazakhs had a highly developed culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy. [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") was introduced into the region with the arrival of the [Arabs](/wiki/Arabs "Arabs") in the 8th century. It initially took hold in the southern parts of [Turkestan](/wiki/Turkestan "Turkestan") and spread northward.Atabaki, Touraj. *Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora*, pg. 24 The [Samanids](/wiki/Samanids "Samanids") helped the religion take root through zealous missionary work. The [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde "Golden Horde") further propagated Islam amongst the tribes in the region during the 14th century.Ibn Athir, volume 8, pg. 396 Kazakhstan is home to a large number of prominent contributors to literature, science and philosophy: [Abay Qunanbayuli](/wiki/Abay_Qunanbayuli "Abay Qunanbayuli"), [Mukhtar Auezov](/wiki/Mukhtar_Auezov "Mukhtar Auezov"), [Gabit Musirepov](/wiki/Gabit_Musirepov "Gabit Musirepov"), [Kanysh Satpayev](/wiki/Kanysh_Satpayev "Kanysh Satpayev"), [Mukhtar Shakhanov](/wiki/Mukhtar_Shakhanov "Mukhtar Shakhanov"), [Saken Seyfullin](/wiki/Saken_Seyfullin "Saken Seyfullin"), [Jambyl Jabayev](/wiki/Jambyl_Jabayev "Jambyl Jabayev"), among many others. Tourism is a rapidly growing industry in Kazakhstan and it is joining the international tourism networking. In 2010, Kazakhstan joined The Region Initiative (TRI) which is a Tri\-regional Umbrella of Tourism\-related organisations. TRI is functioning as a link between three regions: South Asia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe. Armenia, Bangladesh, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Ukraine are now partners, and Kazakhstan is linked with other South Asian, Eastern European, and Central Asian countries in the tourism market. ### Literature {{Main\|Kazakh literature}} Kazakh literature is defined as "the body of literature, both [oral](/wiki/Oral_literature "Oral literature") and written, produced in the [Kazakh language](/wiki/Kazakh_language "Kazakh language") by the [Kazakh people](/wiki/Kazakh_people "Kazakh people") of Central Asia".{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/art/Kazakh\-literature \|title\=Kazakh literature \|author\=Walter Feldman \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Britannica \|access\-date\=31 October 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402083053/https://www.britannica.com/art/Kazakh\-literature \|archive\-date\=2 April 2019 \|url\-status\=live }} Kazakh literature expands from the current territory of Kazakhstan, also including the era of [Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic"), Kazakh recognised territory under the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") and the [Kazakh Khanate](/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate "Kazakh Khanate"). There is some overlap with several complementary themes, including the literature of Turkic tribes that inhabited Kazakhstan over the course of its history and literature written by ethnic Kazakhs. [thumb\|1965 [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") stamp honouring Kazakh essayist and poet [Abai Qunanbaiuly](/wiki/Abai_Qunanbaiuly "Abai Qunanbaiuly")](/wiki/File:USSR_stamp_A.Qunanbayuli_1965_4k.jpg "USSR stamp A.Qunanbayuli 1965 4k.jpg") According to Chinese written sources from the 6th–8th centuries CE, the Turkic tribes of Kazakhstan had an oral poetry tradition. These came from earlier periods and were primarily transmitted by [bards](/wiki/Bard "Bard"): professional storytellers and musical performers.{{Cite journal\|title\=La tradition historique orale des Kazakhs\|author\=Aitjan Nurmanova\|translator\=Alié Akimova\|journal\=Cahiers d'Asie Centrale\|date\=September 2000\|issue\=8\|volume\=2000\|pages\=93–100\|url\=https://asiecentrale.revues.org/597\|access\-date\=10 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108202604/https://asiecentrale.revues.org/597\|archive\-date\=8 November 2016\|url\-status\=live}} Traces of this tradition are shown on [Orkhon script](/wiki/Old_Turkic_alphabet "Old Turkic alphabet") stone carvings dated 5th–7th centuries CE that describe rule of Kultegin and Bilge, two early Turkic rulers ("kagans").{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2017\|reason\=We need a source to reference this information.}} Amongst the Kazakhs, the bard was a primarily, though not exclusively, male profession. Since at least the 17th century, Kazakh bards could be divided into two main categories: the zhıraws (zhiraus, žyraus), who passed on the works of others, usually not creating and adding their own original work; and the [aqyns](/wiki/Aqyn "Aqyn") (akyns), who improvised or created their own poems, stories or songs. There were several types of works, such as [didactic](/wiki/Didactic "Didactic") *termes*, [elegiac](/wiki/Elegiac "Elegiac") *tolgaws*, and [epic](/wiki/Epic_%28genre%29 "Epic (genre)") *zhırs*. Although the origins of such tales are often unknown, most of them were associated with bards of the recent or more distant past, who supposedly created them or passed them on, by the time most Kazakh poetry and prose was first written down in the second half of the 19th century. There are clear stylistic differences between works first created in the 19th century, and works dating from earlier periods but not documented before the 19th century, such as those attributed to such 16th\- and 17th\-century bards as Er Shoban and Dosmombet Zhıraw (also known as Dospambet Žyrau; he appeared to have been literate, and reportedly visited [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople")), and even to such 15th\-century bards as Shalkiz and Asan Qayghı. Other notable bards include Kaztugan Žyrau, Žiembet Žyrau, Axtamberdy Žyrau, and Buxar Žyrau Kalkamanuly, who was an advisor to [Ablai Khan](/wiki/Ablai_Khan "Ablai Khan"), and whose works have been preserved by Mäšhür Žüsip Köpeev. *Er Targhın* and *[Alpamıs](/wiki/Alpamysh "Alpamysh")* are two of the most famous examples of Kazakh literature to be recorded in the 19th century. The *[Book of Dede Korkut](/wiki/Book_of_Dede_Korkut "Book of Dede Korkut")* and Oguz Name (a story of an ancient Turkic king [Oghuz Khan](/wiki/Oghuz_Khan "Oghuz Khan")) are the most well\-known Turkic heroic legends. Initially created around the 9th century CE, they were passed on through generations in oral form. The legendary tales were recorded by Turkish authors in 14–16th centuries C.E.{{Cite journal\|last\=Meeker\|first\=Michael E.\|date\=August 1992\|title\=The Dede Korkut Ethic\|journal\=International Journal of Middle East Studies\|volume\=24\|issue\=3\|pages\=395–417\|doi\=10\.1017/S0020743800021954\|s2cid\=162799102 }}{{Cite journal\|last\=GÖMEC\|first\=Saadettin\|date\=2009\|title\=The Identity of Oguz Kagan, the Oguz in the History and the Epics of Oguz Kagan\|journal\=Turkish Studies\|volume\=4\|issue\=8\|pages\=133–145}} The preeminent role in the development of modern literary Kazakh belongs to [Abai Qunanbaiuly](/wiki/Abai_Qunanbaiuly "Abai Qunanbaiuly") ({{langx\|kk\|Абай Құнанбайұлы}}, sometimes Russified to Abay Kunanbayev, Абай Кунанбаев) (1845–1904\), whose writings did much to preserve Kazakh folk culture. Abai's major work is *The Book of Words* ({{langx\|kk\|қара сөздері, Qara sözderi}}), a philosophical treatise and collection of poems where he criticises Russian colonial policies and encourages other Kazakhs to embrace education and literacy. The literary magazines *[Ay Qap](/wiki/Ay_Qap "Ay Qap")* (published between 1911 and 1915 in Arabic script) and *Qazaq* (published between 1913 and 1918\) played an important role in the development of the intellectual and political life among early 20th\-century Kazakhs.{{Cite book\|url\={{GBurl\|id\=y3Sk7GeUe5oC\|p\=79}}\|title\=Culture and Customs of the Central Asian Republics\|first\=Rafis\|last\=Abazov\|date\=11 October 2007\|publisher\=Greenwood Press\|isbn\=9780313056185\|via\=Google Books}} ### Music {{Main\|Music of Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|[Nowruz](/wiki/Nowruz "Nowruz") on stamp of Kazakhstan](/wiki/File:Stamp_of_Kazakhstan_659.jpg "Stamp of Kazakhstan 659.jpg") The modern state of Kazakhstan is home to the Kazakh State Kurmangazy Orchestra of Folk Instruments, the Kazakh State Philharmonic Orchestra, the Kazakh National Opera and the Kazakh State Chamber Orchestra. The folk instrument orchestra was named after [Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly](/wiki/Kurmangazy_Sagyrbayuly "Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly"), a famous composer and dombra player from the 19th century. The Musical\-Dramatic Training College, founded in 1931, was the first institute of higher education for music. Two years later, the Orchestra of Kazakh Folk Musical Instruments was formed.{{Cite web\|url\=https://src\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\-eng.html\|title\=From Folklore to Soviet National Culture: The Process of Formation of "Kazak National Music" (1920–1942\)\|website\=src\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp\|access\-date\=18 September 2021\|archive\-date\=18 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918141923/https://src\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\-eng.html\|url\-status\=live}} The Foundation Asyl Mura is archiving and publishing historical recordings of great samples of Kazakh music both traditional and classical. The leading conservatoire is in Almaty, the Qurmanghazy Conservatoire. It competes with the national conservatoire in Astana, Kazakhstan's capital. When referring to traditional Kazakh music, authentic folklore must be separated from "folklorism". The latter denotes music executed by academically trained performers who aim at preserving the traditional music for coming generations. As far as can be reconstructed, the music of Kazakhstan from the period before a strong Russian influence consists of instrumental music and vocal music. Instrumental music, with the pieces ("Küy") being performed by soloists. Text is often seen in the background (or "program") for the music, as a lot of Küy titles refer to stories. Vocal music, either as part of a ceremony such as a wedding (mainly performed by women), or as part of a feast. Here we might divide into subgenres: epic singing, containing not only historical facts, but as well the tribe's genealogy, love songs, and didactic verses; and as a special form the composition of two or more singers in public (Aitys), of dialogue character and usually unexpectedly frankly in content. [thumb\|[A\-Studio](/wiki/A-Studio "A-Studio") was created in 1982 in [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty"), then called Alma\-Ata, hence called "Alma\-Ata Studio".](/wiki/File:Astudio.jpg "Astudio.jpg") The Russian influence on the music life in Kazakhstan can be seen in two spheres: first, the introduction of musical academic institutions such as concert houses with opera stages, and conservatories, where European music was performed and taught, and second, by trying to incorporate Kazakh traditional music into these academic structures. Controlled first by the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") and then the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), Kazakhstan's folk and classical traditions became connected with [ethnic Russian music](/wiki/Ethnic_Russian_music "Ethnic Russian music") and Western European music. Prior to the 20th century, Kazakh folk music was collected and studied by [ethnographic](/wiki/Ethnography "Ethnography") research teams including composers, music critics and [musicologists](/wiki/Musicology "Musicology"). In the first part of the 19th century, Kazakh music was transcribed in linear [notation](/wiki/Musical_notation "Musical notation"). Some composers of this era set Kazakh folk songs to Russian\-style [European classical music](/wiki/European_classical_music "European classical music"). The Kazakhs themselves, however, did not write their own music in notation until 1931\. Later, as part of the Soviet Union, Kazakh folk culture was encouraged in a sanitised manner designed to avoid political and social unrest. The result was a bland derivative of real Kazakh folk music. In 1920, [Aleksandr Zatayevich](/wiki/Aleksandr_Zatayevich "Aleksandr Zatayevich"), a Russian official, created major works of art music with melodies and other elements of Kazakh folk music. Beginning in 1928 and accelerating in the 1930s, he also adapted traditional Kazakh instruments for use in Russian\-style ensembles, such as by increasing the number of [frets](/wiki/Fret "Fret") and [strings](/wiki/Strings_%28music%29 "Strings (music)"). Soon, these styles of modern orchestral playing became the only way for musicians to officially play; Kazakh folk was turned into patriotic, professional and socialist endeavours.{{Cite web\|title\=From Folklore to Soviet National Culture\- The Process of Formation of "Kazak National Music"(1920–1942\)\-\|url\=https://src\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\-eng.html\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-18\|website\=src\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp\|archive\-date\=18 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918141923/https://src\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\-eng.html\|url\-status\=live}} ### Fine arts {{Main\|Kazakh art}} In Kazakhstan, the fine arts, in the classical sense, have their origins in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. It was largely influenced by Russian artists, such as Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov, who intensively travelled in Central Asia. Khludov had a particular influence on the development of the local school of painting, becoming the teacher of many local artists. The most famous of these is Abilkhan Kasteyev, after whom the State Museum of Art of Kazakhstan was renamed in 1984\.{{Cite web\|title\=A. KASTEYEV STATE MUSEUM OF ARTS OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN\|url\=https://www.gmirk.kz/en/home\|access\-date\=5 January 2021\|archive\-date\=10 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110041209/https://www.gmirk.kz/en/home\|url\-status\=live}} The Kazakh school of fine arts was fully formed by the 1940s and flourished in the 1950s. Local painters, graphic artists and sculptors, trained under the unified Soviet system of artist education, began active work, often using national motifs in their art. The painters O. Tansykbaev, J. Shardenov, K. Telzhanov, and S. Aitbaev, graphic artists E. Sidorkina and A. Duzelkhanov, and sculptors H. Nauryzbaeva and E. Sergebaeva are today counted among the key figures of Kazakhstani art. ### Cuisine {{Main\|Kazakh cuisine}} In the national cuisine, livestock meat, like [horse meat](/wiki/Horse_meat "Horse meat"){{Cite web\|title\=10 Most Popular Kazakhstani Dishes\|url\=https://www.tasteatlas.com/most\-popular\-dishes\-in\-kazakhstan\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-25\|website\=tasteatlas.com\|archive\-date\=17 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417192354/https://www.tasteatlas.com/most\-popular\-dishes\-in\-kazakhstan\|url\-status\=live}} and [beef](/wiki/Beef "Beef") can be cooked in a variety of ways and is usually served with a wide assortment of traditional bread products. Refreshments include black tea, often served with milk and dried fruits (such as dried apricots) and nuts. In southern provinces, people often prefer [green tea](/wiki/Green_tea "Green tea"). Traditional milk\-derived drinks such as [ayran](/wiki/Ayran "Ayran"), [shubat](/wiki/Shubat "Shubat") and [kymyz](/wiki/Kymyz "Kymyz"). A traditional Kazakh dinner involves a multitude of appetisers on the table, followed by a soup and one or two main courses such as [pilaf](/wiki/Pilaf "Pilaf") and [beshbarmak](/wiki/Beshbarmak "Beshbarmak"). They also drink their national beverage, [kumys](/wiki/Kumis "Kumis"), which consists of fermented mare's milk.{{cite web\|title\=Cuisine of Kazakhstan\|url\=https://kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan\_cuisine.shtml\|website\=Oriental Express Central Asia\|access\-date\=17 January 2017\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118053709/https://kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan\_cuisine.shtml\|archive\-date\=18 January 2017}} ### Sport {{Main\|Sport in Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|[Astana Arena](/wiki/Astana_Arena "Astana Arena") opened in 2009\.](/wiki/File:Astana_Arena_2014-03-15.JPG "Astana Arena 2014-03-15.JPG") Kazakhstan consistently performs in Olympic competitions. It is especially successful in [boxing](/wiki/Boxing "Boxing"). This has brought some attention to the Central Asian nation and increased world awareness of its athletes. [Dmitry Karpov](/wiki/Dmitry_Karpov "Dmitry Karpov") and [Olga Rypakova](/wiki/Olga_Rypakova "Olga Rypakova") are among the most notable Kazakhstani athletes. [Dmitry Karpov](/wiki/Dmitry_Karpov "Dmitry Karpov") is a distinguished decathlete, taking bronze in both the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics "2004 Summer Olympics"), and the [2003](/wiki/2003_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2003 World Championships in Athletics") and [2007 World Athletics Championships](/wiki/2007_World_Athletics_Championships "2007 World Athletics Championships"). [Olga Rypakova](/wiki/Olga_Rypakova "Olga Rypakova") is an athlete, specialising in [triple jump](/wiki/Triple_jump "Triple jump") (women's), taking silver in the [2011 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2011_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2011 World Championships in Athletics") and Gold in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics "2012 Summer Olympics"). Kazakhstan's city of [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty") submitted bids twice for the [Winter Olympics](/wiki/Winter_Olympics "Winter Olympics"): in [2014](/wiki/Almaty_bid_for_the_2014_Winter_Olympics "Almaty bid for the 2014 Winter Olympics") and again for the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics "2022 Winter Olympics"). [Astana](/wiki/Astana "Astana") and [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty "Almaty") hosted the [2011 Asian Winter Games](/wiki/2011_Asian_Winter_Games "2011 Asian Winter Games").{{cite news\|title\=2011 Asian Winter Games\|url\=http://www.iihf.com/home\-of\-hockey/championships/asia/2011\-asian\-games/\|access\-date\=5 November 2017\|publisher\=International Ice Hockey Federation\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012714/http://www.iihf.com/home\-of\-hockey/championships/asia/2011\-asian\-games/\|archive\-date\=7 November 2017}} Popular sports in Kazakhstan include football, basketball, ice hockey, bandy, and boxing. [Football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") is the most popular sport in Kazakhstan. The [Football Federation of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Football_Federation_of_Kazakhstan "Football Federation of Kazakhstan") is the sport's national governing body. The FFK organises the [men's](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_football_team "Kazakhstan national football team"), [women's](/wiki/Kazakhstan_women%27s_national_football_team "Kazakhstan women's national football team"), and [futsal](/wiki/Futsal "Futsal") national teams. Kazakhstan's most famous basketball player was [Alzhan Zharmukhamedov](/wiki/Alzhan_Zharmukhamedov "Alzhan Zharmukhamedov"), who played for [CSKA Moscow](/wiki/PBC_CSKA_Moscow "PBC CSKA Moscow") and the [Soviet Union's national basketball team](/wiki/Soviet_Union%27s_national_basketball_team "Soviet Union's national basketball team") in the 1960s and 1970s. [Kazakhstan's national basketball team](/wiki/Kazakhstan%27s_national_basketball_team "Kazakhstan's national basketball team") was established in 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Since its foundation, it has been competitive at the continental level. Its greatest accomplishment was at the [2002 Asian Games](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_2002_Asian_Games_%E2%80%93_Men "Basketball at the 2002 Asian Games – Men"), where it defeated the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines_men%27s_national_basketball_team "Philippines men's national basketball team") in its last game to win the bronze medal. At the official [Asian Basketball Championship](/wiki/Asian_Basketball_Championship "Asian Basketball Championship"), now called FIBA Asia Cup, the Kazakhs' best finish was 4th place in 2007\. The [Kazakhstan national bandy team](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_bandy_team "Kazakhstan national bandy team") is among the best in the world, and has many times won the bronze medal at the [Bandy World Championship](/wiki/Bandy_World_Championship "Bandy World Championship"), including the [2012 edition](/wiki/2012_Bandy_World_Championship "2012 Bandy World Championship") when Kazakhstan hosted the tournament on home ice.{{Cite web\|url\=https://bandy2012\.kz/\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124005338/http://bandy2012\.kz/en/\|url\-status\=dead \|title\=Ставки на Футбол – bandy2012\.kz\|date\=13 March 2021\|archivedate\=24 January 2012}}{{cite web\|url\=http://bandyvm2015\.ru/assets/images/gruppa\-a/sas\_2882\-800x532\.jpg \|title\=Team picture after the bronze medal had been captured in WCS 2015\|access\-date\=10 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409225605/http://bandyvm2015\.ru/assets/images/gruppa\-a/sas\_2882\-800x532\.jpg \|archive\-date\=9 April 2015\|url\-status\=live}} The team won the first [bandy tournament at the Asian Winter Games](/wiki/Bandy_at_the_2011_Asian_Winter_Games "Bandy at the 2011 Asian Winter Games"). During the Soviet time, Dynamo Alma\-Ata won the [Soviet Union national championships](/wiki/List_of_Russian_bandy_champions "List of Russian bandy champions") in 1977 and 1990 and the [European Cup](/wiki/European_Cup_%28bandy%29 "European Cup (bandy)") in 1978\. Bandy is developed in ten of the country's seventeen administrative divisions (eight of the fourteen regions and two of the three cities which are situated inside of but are not part of regions).{{cite web\|url\=http://bandyvm2015\.ru/en/news/?newsid\=365\|title\=News – XXXV Чемпионат мира по хоккею с мячом\|website\=bandyvm2015\.ru\|access\-date\=10 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604031406/http://bandyvm2015\.ru/en/news/?newsid\=365\|archive\-date\=4 June 2016\|url\-status\=live}} [Akzhaiyk](/wiki/Akzhaiyk "Akzhaiyk") from [Oral](/wiki/Oral%2C_Kazakhstan "Oral, Kazakhstan"), however, is the only professional club. [thumb\|upright\=0\.7\|[Nikolai Antropov](/wiki/Nikolai_Antropov "Nikolai Antropov")](/wiki/File:Nik_Antropov_Jets_2012-02-11.JPG "Nik Antropov Jets 2012-02-11.JPG") The [Kazakh national ice hockey team](/wiki/Kazakhstan_men%27s_national_ice_hockey_team "Kazakhstan men's national ice hockey team") have competed in [ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey "Ice hockey") in the 1998 and [2006 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics "2006 Winter Olympics"), as well as in the [2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships](/wiki/2006_Men%27s_World_Ice_Hockey_Championships "2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships"). The [Kazakhstan Hockey Championship](/wiki/Kazakhstan_Hockey_Championship "Kazakhstan Hockey Championship") is held since 1992\. [Barys Astana](/wiki/Barys_Astana "Barys Astana") is the main domestic Kazakhstani ice hockey professional team, and having played in the Kazakhstani national league until the 2008–09 season, when they were transferred to play in the [Kontinental Hockey League](/wiki/Kontinental_Hockey_League "Kontinental Hockey League"). Meanwhile, the [Kazzinc\-Torpedo](/wiki/Kazzinc-Torpedo "Kazzinc-Torpedo") and play in the [Supreme Hockey League](/wiki/Supreme_Hockey_League "Supreme Hockey League") since 1996 and the [Saryarka Karagandy](/wiki/Saryarka_Karagandy "Saryarka Karagandy") since 2012\. Top Kazakhstani ice hockey players include [Nik Antropov](/wiki/Nik_Antropov "Nik Antropov"), Ivan Kulshov and [Evgeni Nabokov](/wiki/Evgeni_Nabokov "Evgeni Nabokov"). [Kazakh boxers](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_amateur_boxing_athletes "Kazakhstan national amateur boxing athletes") are generally well known in the world. In the last three Olympic Games, their performance was assessed as one of the best and they had more medals than any country in the world, except [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") and Russia (in all three games). In 1996 and 2004, three Kazakhstani boxers ([Vassiliy Jirov](/wiki/Vassiliy_Jirov "Vassiliy Jirov") in 1996, [Bakhtiyar Artayev](/wiki/Bakhtiyar_Artayev "Bakhtiyar Artayev") in 2004 and [Serik Sapiyev](/wiki/Serik_Sapiyev "Serik Sapiyev") in 2012\) were recognised as the best boxers for their techniques with the [Val Barker Trophy](/wiki/Val_Barker_Trophy "Val Barker Trophy"), awarded to the best boxer of the tournament. In [boxing](/wiki/Boxing "Boxing"), Kazakhstan performed well in the [2000 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics "2000 Summer Olympics") in Sydney. Two boxers, [Bekzat Sattarkhanov](/wiki/Bekzat_Sattarkhanov "Bekzat Sattarkhanov") and [Yermakhan Ibraimov](/wiki/Yermakhan_Ibraimov "Yermakhan Ibraimov"), earned [gold medals](/wiki/Gold_medal "Gold medal"). Another two boxers, [Bulat Zhumadilov](/wiki/Bulat_Zhumadilov "Bulat Zhumadilov") and [Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov](/wiki/Mukhtarkhan_Dildabekov "Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov"), earned [silver medals](/wiki/Silver_medal "Silver medal"). [Oleg Maskaev](/wiki/Oleg_Maskaev "Oleg Maskaev"), born in [Zhambyl](/wiki/Taraz "Taraz"), representing Russia, was the [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council "World Boxing Council") Heavyweight Champion after knocking out [Hasim Rahman](/wiki/Hasim_Rahman "Hasim Rahman") on 12 August 2006\. The reigning [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association "World Boxing Association"), WBC, IBF and [IBO](/wiki/International_Boxing_Organization "International Boxing Organization") [middleweight champion](/wiki/List_of_middleweight_boxing_champions "List of middleweight boxing champions") is Kazakh boxer [Gennady Golovkin](/wiki/Gennady_Golovkin "Gennady Golovkin"). [Natascha Ragosina](/wiki/Natascha_Ragosina "Natascha Ragosina"), representing Russia, but from [Qarağandy](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy "Qarağandy") held seven versions of the women's super middleweight title, and two heavyweight titles during her boxing career. She holds the record as the longest\-reigning WBA female super middleweight champion, and the longest\-reigning WBC female super middleweight champion. ### Film {{Main\|Cinema of Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|[International Astana Action Film Festival](/wiki/International_Astana_Action_Film_Festival "International Astana Action Film Festival"), 2010](/wiki/File:Red_Carpet_at_AIAFF.jpg "Red Carpet at AIAFF.jpg") Kazakhstan's film industry is run through the state\-owned [Kazakhfilm](/wiki/Kazakhfilm "Kazakhfilm") studios based in Almaty. The studio has produced movies such as *[Myn Bala](/wiki/Myn_Bala "Myn Bala")*, *[Harmony Lessons](/wiki/Harmony_Lessons "Harmony Lessons")*, and *Shal*.{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhfilm Studios\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?companies\=co0036615/\|publisher\=IMDbPro.com\|accessdate\=2022\-10\-10\|archive\-date\=10 October 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010180922/https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?companies\=co0036615/\|url\-status\=live}} Kazakhstan is the host of the [International Astana Action Film Festival](/wiki/International_Astana_Action_Film_Festival "International Astana Action Film Festival") and the [Eurasia International Film Festival](/wiki/Eurasia_International_Film_Festival "Eurasia International Film Festival") held annually. Hollywood director [Timur Bekmambetov](/wiki/Timur_Bekmambetov "Timur Bekmambetov") is from Kazakhstan and has become active in bridging Hollywood to the Kazakhstan film industry.{{Cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YnBdDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT646 \|title\=Lonely Planet Central Asia \|last1\=Lioy \|first1\=Stephen \|last2\=Kaminski \|first2\=Anna \|last3\=Mayhew \|first3\=Bradley \|last4\=Walker \|first4\=Jenny \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=Lonely Planet \|isbn\=978\-1\-78701\-960\-7 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=15 September 2023 \|archive\-date\=3 October 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003022334/https://books.google.com/books?id\=YnBdDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT646 \|url\-status\=live }} Kazakhstan journalist Artur Platonov won Best Script for his documentary "Sold Souls" about Kazakhstan's contribution to the struggle against terrorism at the 2013 Cannes Corporate Media and TV Awards.[CCS · Artur Platonov wins Cannes Corporate Media \& TV Award 2013](http://ortcom.kz/en/news/artur-platonov-wins-cannes-corporate-media--tv-award-2013.2571) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://ortcom.kz/en/news/artur\-platonov\-wins\-cannes\-corporate\-media\-\-tv\-award\-2013\.2571 \|date\=1 January 2016 }}. Ortcom.kz (5 November 2013\). Retrieved 8 March 2014\.[Cannes Corporate Media \& TV Awards: Winners 2013](http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907030048/http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013\.php \|date\=7 September 2015 }}. Cannescorporate.com. Retrieved 8 March 2014\. Serik Aprymov's *Little Brother* (*Bauyr*) won at the Central and Eastern Europe Film Festival [goEast](/wiki/GoEast "GoEast") from the German Federal Foreign Office.{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan's Little Brother takes Federal Foreign Office award at goEast\|date\=20 April 2014\|url\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/cinema\_and\_music/Kazakhstans\-Little\-Brother\-takes\-Federal\-Foreign\-Office\-award\-at\-goEast\-253027/\|publisher\=TengriNews\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712032054/http://en.tengrinews.kz/cinema\_and\_music/Kazakhstans\-Little\-Brother\-takes\-Federal\-Foreign\-Office\-award\-at\-goEast\-253027/\|archive\-date\=12 July 2014}} ### Media {{Main\|Media of Kazakhstan}} [thumb\|upright\=0\.7\|[Timur Bekmambetov](/wiki/Timur_Bekmambetov "Timur Bekmambetov"), a popular Kazakh film director](/wiki/File:Timur_Bekmambetov_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg "Timur Bekmambetov by Gage Skidmore.jpg") Kazakhstan is ranked 161 out of 180 countries on the [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders "Reporters Without Borders") [World Press Freedom Index](/wiki/World_Press_Freedom_Index "World Press Freedom Index"){{cite web\|title\=World Press Freedom Index 2014\|url\=https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2014\|website\=Reporters Without Borders\|access\-date\=31 August 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214120404/http://rsf.org/index2014/en\-index2014\.php\|archive\-date\=14 February 2014}} A mid\-March 2002 [court order](/wiki/Court_order "Court order"), with the government as a [plaintiff](/wiki/Plaintiff "Plaintiff"), stated that *[Respublika](/wiki/Respublika_%28Kazakh_newspaper%29 "Respublika (Kazakh newspaper)")* were to stop printing for three months.{{cite news\|author\=Wines, Michael\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/13/world/the\-saturday\-profile\-bruised\-but\-still\-jabbing\-kazakh\-heavyweights.html?pagewanted\=all\&src\=pm\|title\=Wines 2012\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=13 July 2002\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928072344/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/13/world/the\-saturday\-profile\-bruised\-but\-still\-jabbing\-kazakh\-heavyweights.html?pagewanted\=all\&src\=pm\|archive\-date\=28 September 2013}} The order was evaded by printing under other titles, such as *Not That Respublika*. In early 2014, a court also issued a cease publication order to the small\-circulation Assandi\-Times newspaper, saying it was a part of the Respublika group. Human Rights Watch said: "this absurd case displays the lengths to which Kazakh authorities are willing to go to bully critical media into silence."{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan: Newspaper Closing a Blow to Free Speech\|url\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/04/22/kazakhstan\-newspaper\-closing\-blow\-free\-speech\|website\=Human Rights Watch\|date\=22 April 2014\|access\-date\=31 August 2014\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830121944/http://www.hrw.org/news/2014/04/22/kazakhstan\-newspaper\-closing\-blow\-free\-speech\|archive\-date\=30 August 2014}} With support from the US Department of State's [Bureau for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor](/wiki/Bureau_of_Democracy%2C_Human_Rights%2C_and_Labor "Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor") (DRL), the American Bar Association Rule of Law Initiative opened a media support centre in Almaty to assist press outlets in Kazakhstan.{{cite web \|title\=Access to Justice and Human Rights \|url\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan/programs\_past.html \|publisher\=American Bar Association \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025650/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\_of\_law/where\_we\_work/europe\_eurasia/kazakhstan/programs\_past.html \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|access\-date\=27 November 2013 }} [thumb\|[Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassaui](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi "Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi")](/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi_in_Hazrat-e_Turkestan%2C_Kazakhstan.jpg "Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in Hazrat-e Turkestan, Kazakhstan.jpg") ### UNESCO World Heritage sites Kazakhstan has three cultural and two natural sites on the [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") World Heritage list. The cultural sites are: * [Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassaui](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi "Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi"), added in 2003 * Petroglyphs within the Archaeological Landscape of [Tamgaly](/wiki/Tamgaly "Tamgaly"), added in 2004 * [Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an\-Tianshan Corridor](/wiki/Silk_Roads:The_Routes_Network_of_Chang%27an-Tianshan_Corridor "The Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor"), added in 2014 The natural sites are: * [Saryarka \- Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan](/wiki/Saryarka_-_Steppe_and_Lakes_of_Northern_Kazakhstan "Saryarka - Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan"), added in 2008 * Western [Tien Shan](/wiki/Tien_Shan "Tien Shan"), added in 2016{{cite web\|title\=Kazakhstan\|url\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/KZ/\|publisher\=UNESCO\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530104414/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/Kz\|archive\-date\=30 May 2016}} ### Public holidays {{Main\|Public holidays in Kazakhstan}}
[ "Culture\n-------", "{{Main\\|Culture of Kazakhstan\\|Kazakh clothing\\|Kazakh wedding ceremony}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|A Kazakhstani performer demonstrates the long equestrian heritage as part of the gala concert during the opening ceremonies of the Central Asian Peacekeeping Battalion.](/wiki/File:Equestrian_heritage%2C_Kazakhstan.JPEG \"Equestrian heritage, Kazakhstan.JPEG\")", "Before the Russian colonisation, the Kazakhs had a highly developed culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy. [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") was introduced into the region with the arrival of the [Arabs](/wiki/Arabs \"Arabs\") in the 8th century. It initially took hold in the southern parts of [Turkestan](/wiki/Turkestan \"Turkestan\") and spread northward.Atabaki, Touraj. *Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora*, pg. 24 The [Samanids](/wiki/Samanids \"Samanids\") helped the religion take root through zealous missionary work. The [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde \"Golden Horde\") further propagated Islam amongst the tribes in the region during the 14th century.Ibn Athir, volume 8, pg. 396", "Kazakhstan is home to a large number of prominent contributors to literature, science and philosophy: [Abay Qunanbayuli](/wiki/Abay_Qunanbayuli \"Abay Qunanbayuli\"), [Mukhtar Auezov](/wiki/Mukhtar_Auezov \"Mukhtar Auezov\"), [Gabit Musirepov](/wiki/Gabit_Musirepov \"Gabit Musirepov\"), [Kanysh Satpayev](/wiki/Kanysh_Satpayev \"Kanysh Satpayev\"), [Mukhtar Shakhanov](/wiki/Mukhtar_Shakhanov \"Mukhtar Shakhanov\"), [Saken Seyfullin](/wiki/Saken_Seyfullin \"Saken Seyfullin\"), [Jambyl Jabayev](/wiki/Jambyl_Jabayev \"Jambyl Jabayev\"), among many others.", "Tourism is a rapidly growing industry in Kazakhstan and it is joining the international tourism networking. In 2010, Kazakhstan joined The Region Initiative (TRI) which is a Tri\\-regional Umbrella of Tourism\\-related organisations. TRI is functioning as a link between three regions: South Asia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe. Armenia, Bangladesh, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Ukraine are now partners, and Kazakhstan is linked with other South Asian, Eastern European, and Central Asian countries in the tourism market.", "### Literature", "{{Main\\|Kazakh literature}}", "Kazakh literature is defined as \"the body of literature, both [oral](/wiki/Oral_literature \"Oral literature\") and written, produced in the [Kazakh language](/wiki/Kazakh_language \"Kazakh language\") by the [Kazakh people](/wiki/Kazakh_people \"Kazakh people\") of Central Asia\".{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/art/Kazakh\\-literature \\|title\\=Kazakh literature \\|author\\=Walter Feldman \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Britannica \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402083053/https://www.britannica.com/art/Kazakh\\-literature \\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Kazakh literature expands from the current territory of Kazakhstan, also including the era of [Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic\"), Kazakh recognised territory under the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") and the [Kazakh Khanate](/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate \"Kazakh Khanate\"). There is some overlap with several complementary themes, including the literature of Turkic tribes that inhabited Kazakhstan over the course of its history and literature written by ethnic Kazakhs.", "[thumb\\|1965 [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") stamp honouring Kazakh essayist and poet [Abai Qunanbaiuly](/wiki/Abai_Qunanbaiuly \"Abai Qunanbaiuly\")](/wiki/File:USSR_stamp_A.Qunanbayuli_1965_4k.jpg \"USSR stamp A.Qunanbayuli 1965 4k.jpg\")\nAccording to Chinese written sources from the 6th–8th centuries CE, the Turkic tribes of Kazakhstan had an oral poetry tradition. These came from earlier periods and were primarily transmitted by [bards](/wiki/Bard \"Bard\"): professional storytellers and musical performers.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=La tradition historique orale des Kazakhs\\|author\\=Aitjan Nurmanova\\|translator\\=Alié Akimova\\|journal\\=Cahiers d'Asie Centrale\\|date\\=September 2000\\|issue\\=8\\|volume\\=2000\\|pages\\=93–100\\|url\\=https://asiecentrale.revues.org/597\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108202604/https://asiecentrale.revues.org/597\\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Traces of this tradition are shown on [Orkhon script](/wiki/Old_Turkic_alphabet \"Old Turkic alphabet\") stone carvings dated 5th–7th centuries CE that describe rule of Kultegin and Bilge, two early Turkic rulers (\"kagans\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2017\\|reason\\=We need a source to reference this information.}} Amongst the Kazakhs, the bard was a primarily, though not exclusively, male profession. Since at least the 17th century, Kazakh bards could be divided into two main categories: the zhıraws (zhiraus, žyraus), who passed on the works of others, usually not creating and adding their own original work; and the [aqyns](/wiki/Aqyn \"Aqyn\") (akyns), who improvised or created their own poems, stories or songs. There were several types of works, such as [didactic](/wiki/Didactic \"Didactic\") *termes*, [elegiac](/wiki/Elegiac \"Elegiac\") *tolgaws*, and [epic](/wiki/Epic_%28genre%29 \"Epic (genre)\") *zhırs*. Although the origins of such tales are often unknown, most of them were associated with bards of the recent or more distant past, who supposedly created them or passed them on, by the time most Kazakh poetry and prose was first written down in the second half of the 19th century. There are clear stylistic differences between works first created in the 19th century, and works dating from earlier periods but not documented before the 19th century, such as those attributed to such 16th\\- and 17th\\-century bards as Er Shoban and Dosmombet Zhıraw (also known as Dospambet Žyrau; he appeared to have been literate, and reportedly visited [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")), and even to such 15th\\-century bards as Shalkiz and Asan Qayghı.", "Other notable bards include Kaztugan Žyrau, Žiembet Žyrau, Axtamberdy Žyrau, and Buxar Žyrau Kalkamanuly, who was an advisor to [Ablai Khan](/wiki/Ablai_Khan \"Ablai Khan\"), and whose works have been preserved by Mäšhür Žüsip Köpeev. *Er Targhın* and *[Alpamıs](/wiki/Alpamysh \"Alpamysh\")* are two of the most famous examples of Kazakh literature to be recorded in the 19th century. The *[Book of Dede Korkut](/wiki/Book_of_Dede_Korkut \"Book of Dede Korkut\")* and Oguz Name (a story of an ancient Turkic king [Oghuz Khan](/wiki/Oghuz_Khan \"Oghuz Khan\")) are the most well\\-known Turkic heroic legends. Initially created around the 9th century CE, they were passed on through generations in oral form. The legendary tales were recorded by Turkish authors in 14–16th centuries C.E.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Meeker\\|first\\=Michael E.\\|date\\=August 1992\\|title\\=The Dede Korkut Ethic\\|journal\\=International Journal of Middle East Studies\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=395–417\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0020743800021954\\|s2cid\\=162799102 }}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=GÖMEC\\|first\\=Saadettin\\|date\\=2009\\|title\\=The Identity of Oguz Kagan, the Oguz in the History and the Epics of Oguz Kagan\\|journal\\=Turkish Studies\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=8\\|pages\\=133–145}}", "The preeminent role in the development of modern literary Kazakh belongs to [Abai Qunanbaiuly](/wiki/Abai_Qunanbaiuly \"Abai Qunanbaiuly\") ({{langx\\|kk\\|Абай Құнанбайұлы}}, sometimes Russified to Abay Kunanbayev, Абай Кунанбаев) (1845–1904\\), whose writings did much to preserve Kazakh folk culture. Abai's major work is *The Book of Words* ({{langx\\|kk\\|қара сөздері, Qara sözderi}}), a philosophical treatise and collection of poems where he criticises Russian colonial policies and encourages other Kazakhs to embrace education and literacy. The literary magazines *[Ay Qap](/wiki/Ay_Qap \"Ay Qap\")* (published between 1911 and 1915 in Arabic script) and *Qazaq* (published between 1913 and 1918\\) played an important role in the development of the intellectual and political life among early 20th\\-century Kazakhs.{{Cite book\\|url\\={{GBurl\\|id\\=y3Sk7GeUe5oC\\|p\\=79}}\\|title\\=Culture and Customs of the Central Asian Republics\\|first\\=Rafis\\|last\\=Abazov\\|date\\=11 October 2007\\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press\\|isbn\\=9780313056185\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "### Music", "{{Main\\|Music of Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|[Nowruz](/wiki/Nowruz \"Nowruz\") on stamp of Kazakhstan](/wiki/File:Stamp_of_Kazakhstan_659.jpg \"Stamp of Kazakhstan 659.jpg\")", "The modern state of Kazakhstan is home to the Kazakh State Kurmangazy Orchestra of Folk Instruments, the Kazakh State Philharmonic Orchestra, the Kazakh National Opera and the Kazakh State Chamber Orchestra. The folk instrument orchestra was named after [Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly](/wiki/Kurmangazy_Sagyrbayuly \"Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly\"), a famous composer and dombra player from the 19th century. The Musical\\-Dramatic Training College, founded in 1931, was the first institute of higher education for music. Two years later, the Orchestra of Kazakh Folk Musical Instruments was formed.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://src\\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\\-eng.html\\|title\\=From Folklore to Soviet National Culture: The Process of Formation of \"Kazak National Music\" (1920–1942\\)\\|website\\=src\\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=18 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918141923/https://src\\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\\-eng.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\nThe Foundation Asyl Mura is archiving and publishing historical recordings of great samples of Kazakh music both traditional and classical. The leading conservatoire is in Almaty, the Qurmanghazy Conservatoire. It competes with the national conservatoire in Astana, Kazakhstan's capital.", "When referring to traditional Kazakh music, authentic folklore must be separated from \"folklorism\". The latter denotes music executed by academically trained performers who aim at preserving the traditional music for coming generations. As far as can be reconstructed, the music of Kazakhstan from the period before a strong Russian influence consists of instrumental music and vocal music. Instrumental music, with the pieces (\"Küy\") being performed by soloists. Text is often seen in the background (or \"program\") for the music, as a lot of Küy titles refer to stories. Vocal music, either as part of a ceremony such as a wedding (mainly performed by women), or as part of a feast. Here we might divide into subgenres: epic singing, containing not only historical facts, but as well the tribe's genealogy, love songs, and didactic verses; and as a special form the composition of two or more singers in public (Aitys), of dialogue character and usually unexpectedly frankly in content.", "[thumb\\|[A\\-Studio](/wiki/A-Studio \"A-Studio\") was created in 1982 in [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\"), then called Alma\\-Ata, hence called \"Alma\\-Ata Studio\".](/wiki/File:Astudio.jpg \"Astudio.jpg\")", "The Russian influence on the music life in Kazakhstan can be seen in two spheres: first, the introduction of musical academic institutions such as concert houses with opera stages, and conservatories, where European music was performed and taught, and second, by trying to incorporate Kazakh traditional music into these academic structures. Controlled first by the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") and then the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), Kazakhstan's folk and classical traditions became connected with [ethnic Russian music](/wiki/Ethnic_Russian_music \"Ethnic Russian music\") and Western European music. Prior to the 20th century, Kazakh folk music was collected and studied by [ethnographic](/wiki/Ethnography \"Ethnography\") research teams including composers, music critics and [musicologists](/wiki/Musicology \"Musicology\"). In the first part of the 19th century, Kazakh music was transcribed in linear [notation](/wiki/Musical_notation \"Musical notation\"). Some composers of this era set Kazakh folk songs to Russian\\-style [European classical music](/wiki/European_classical_music \"European classical music\").", "The Kazakhs themselves, however, did not write their own music in notation until 1931\\. Later, as part of the Soviet Union, Kazakh folk culture was encouraged in a sanitised manner designed to avoid political and social unrest. The result was a bland derivative of real Kazakh folk music. In 1920, [Aleksandr Zatayevich](/wiki/Aleksandr_Zatayevich \"Aleksandr Zatayevich\"), a Russian official, created major works of art music with melodies and other elements of Kazakh folk music. Beginning in 1928 and accelerating in the 1930s, he also adapted traditional Kazakh instruments for use in Russian\\-style ensembles, such as by increasing the number of [frets](/wiki/Fret \"Fret\") and [strings](/wiki/Strings_%28music%29 \"Strings (music)\"). Soon, these styles of modern orchestral playing became the only way for musicians to officially play; Kazakh folk was turned into patriotic, professional and socialist endeavours.{{Cite web\\|title\\=From Folklore to Soviet National Culture\\- The Process of Formation of \"Kazak National Music\"(1920–1942\\)\\-\\|url\\=https://src\\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\\-eng.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=src\\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp\\|archive\\-date\\=18 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918141923/https://src\\-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/46/touda/touda\\-eng.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Fine arts", "{{Main\\|Kazakh art}}", "In Kazakhstan, the fine arts, in the classical sense, have their origins in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. It was largely influenced by Russian artists, such as Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov, who intensively travelled in Central Asia. Khludov had a particular influence on the development of the local school of painting, becoming the teacher of many local artists. The most famous of these is Abilkhan Kasteyev, after whom the State Museum of Art of Kazakhstan was renamed in 1984\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=A. KASTEYEV STATE MUSEUM OF ARTS OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN\\|url\\=https://www.gmirk.kz/en/home\\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=10 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110041209/https://www.gmirk.kz/en/home\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The Kazakh school of fine arts was fully formed by the 1940s and flourished in the 1950s. Local painters, graphic artists and sculptors, trained under the unified Soviet system of artist education, began active work, often using national motifs in their art. The painters O. Tansykbaev, J. Shardenov, K. Telzhanov, and S. Aitbaev, graphic artists E. Sidorkina and A. Duzelkhanov, and sculptors H. Nauryzbaeva and E. Sergebaeva are today counted among the key figures of Kazakhstani art.", "### Cuisine", "{{Main\\|Kazakh cuisine}}", "In the national cuisine, livestock meat, like [horse meat](/wiki/Horse_meat \"Horse meat\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=10 Most Popular Kazakhstani Dishes\\|url\\=https://www.tasteatlas.com/most\\-popular\\-dishes\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-25\\|website\\=tasteatlas.com\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417192354/https://www.tasteatlas.com/most\\-popular\\-dishes\\-in\\-kazakhstan\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and [beef](/wiki/Beef \"Beef\") can be cooked in a variety of ways and is usually served with a wide assortment of traditional bread products. Refreshments include black tea, often served with milk and dried fruits (such as dried apricots) and nuts. In southern provinces, people often prefer [green tea](/wiki/Green_tea \"Green tea\"). Traditional milk\\-derived drinks such as [ayran](/wiki/Ayran \"Ayran\"), [shubat](/wiki/Shubat \"Shubat\") and [kymyz](/wiki/Kymyz \"Kymyz\"). A traditional Kazakh dinner involves a multitude of appetisers on the table, followed by a soup and one or two main courses such as [pilaf](/wiki/Pilaf \"Pilaf\") and [beshbarmak](/wiki/Beshbarmak \"Beshbarmak\"). They also drink their national beverage, [kumys](/wiki/Kumis \"Kumis\"), which consists of fermented mare's milk.{{cite web\\|title\\=Cuisine of Kazakhstan\\|url\\=https://kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan\\_cuisine.shtml\\|website\\=Oriental Express Central Asia\\|access\\-date\\=17 January 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118053709/https://kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan\\_cuisine.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2017}}", "### Sport", "{{Main\\|Sport in Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|[Astana Arena](/wiki/Astana_Arena \"Astana Arena\") opened in 2009\\.](/wiki/File:Astana_Arena_2014-03-15.JPG \"Astana Arena 2014-03-15.JPG\")\nKazakhstan consistently performs in Olympic competitions. It is especially successful in [boxing](/wiki/Boxing \"Boxing\"). This has brought some attention to the Central Asian nation and increased world awareness of its athletes. [Dmitry Karpov](/wiki/Dmitry_Karpov \"Dmitry Karpov\") and [Olga Rypakova](/wiki/Olga_Rypakova \"Olga Rypakova\") are among the most notable Kazakhstani athletes. [Dmitry Karpov](/wiki/Dmitry_Karpov \"Dmitry Karpov\") is a distinguished decathlete, taking bronze in both the [2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics \"2004 Summer Olympics\"), and the [2003](/wiki/2003_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2003 World Championships in Athletics\") and [2007 World Athletics Championships](/wiki/2007_World_Athletics_Championships \"2007 World Athletics Championships\"). [Olga Rypakova](/wiki/Olga_Rypakova \"Olga Rypakova\") is an athlete, specialising in [triple jump](/wiki/Triple_jump \"Triple jump\") (women's), taking silver in the [2011 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2011_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2011 World Championships in Athletics\") and Gold in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics \"2012 Summer Olympics\"). Kazakhstan's city of [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\") submitted bids twice for the [Winter Olympics](/wiki/Winter_Olympics \"Winter Olympics\"): in [2014](/wiki/Almaty_bid_for_the_2014_Winter_Olympics \"Almaty bid for the 2014 Winter Olympics\") and again for the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics \"2022 Winter Olympics\"). [Astana](/wiki/Astana \"Astana\") and [Almaty](/wiki/Almaty \"Almaty\") hosted the [2011 Asian Winter Games](/wiki/2011_Asian_Winter_Games \"2011 Asian Winter Games\").{{cite news\\|title\\=2011 Asian Winter Games\\|url\\=http://www.iihf.com/home\\-of\\-hockey/championships/asia/2011\\-asian\\-games/\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2017\\|publisher\\=International Ice Hockey Federation\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012714/http://www.iihf.com/home\\-of\\-hockey/championships/asia/2011\\-asian\\-games/\\|archive\\-date\\=7 November 2017}}", "Popular sports in Kazakhstan include football, basketball, ice hockey, bandy, and boxing.", "[Football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") is the most popular sport in Kazakhstan. The [Football Federation of Kazakhstan](/wiki/Football_Federation_of_Kazakhstan \"Football Federation of Kazakhstan\") is the sport's national governing body. The FFK organises the [men's](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_football_team \"Kazakhstan national football team\"), [women's](/wiki/Kazakhstan_women%27s_national_football_team \"Kazakhstan women's national football team\"), and [futsal](/wiki/Futsal \"Futsal\") national teams.", "Kazakhstan's most famous basketball player was [Alzhan Zharmukhamedov](/wiki/Alzhan_Zharmukhamedov \"Alzhan Zharmukhamedov\"), who played for [CSKA Moscow](/wiki/PBC_CSKA_Moscow \"PBC CSKA Moscow\") and the [Soviet Union's national basketball team](/wiki/Soviet_Union%27s_national_basketball_team \"Soviet Union's national basketball team\") in the 1960s and 1970s. [Kazakhstan's national basketball team](/wiki/Kazakhstan%27s_national_basketball_team \"Kazakhstan's national basketball team\") was established in 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Since its foundation, it has been competitive at the continental level. Its greatest accomplishment was at the [2002 Asian Games](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_2002_Asian_Games_%E2%80%93_Men \"Basketball at the 2002 Asian Games – Men\"), where it defeated the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines_men%27s_national_basketball_team \"Philippines men's national basketball team\") in its last game to win the bronze medal. At the official [Asian Basketball Championship](/wiki/Asian_Basketball_Championship \"Asian Basketball Championship\"), now called FIBA Asia Cup, the Kazakhs' best finish was 4th place in 2007\\.", "The [Kazakhstan national bandy team](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_bandy_team \"Kazakhstan national bandy team\") is among the best in the world, and has many times won the bronze medal at the [Bandy World Championship](/wiki/Bandy_World_Championship \"Bandy World Championship\"), including the [2012 edition](/wiki/2012_Bandy_World_Championship \"2012 Bandy World Championship\") when Kazakhstan hosted the tournament on home ice.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://bandy2012\\.kz/\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124005338/http://bandy2012\\.kz/en/\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|title\\=Ставки на Футбол – bandy2012\\.kz\\|date\\=13 March 2021\\|archivedate\\=24 January 2012}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bandyvm2015\\.ru/assets/images/gruppa\\-a/sas\\_2882\\-800x532\\.jpg \\|title\\=Team picture after the bronze medal had been captured in WCS 2015\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409225605/http://bandyvm2015\\.ru/assets/images/gruppa\\-a/sas\\_2882\\-800x532\\.jpg \\|archive\\-date\\=9 April 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The team won the first [bandy tournament at the Asian Winter Games](/wiki/Bandy_at_the_2011_Asian_Winter_Games \"Bandy at the 2011 Asian Winter Games\"). During the Soviet time, Dynamo Alma\\-Ata won the [Soviet Union national championships](/wiki/List_of_Russian_bandy_champions \"List of Russian bandy champions\") in 1977 and 1990 and the [European Cup](/wiki/European_Cup_%28bandy%29 \"European Cup (bandy)\") in 1978\\. Bandy is developed in ten of the country's seventeen administrative divisions (eight of the fourteen regions and two of the three cities which are situated inside of but are not part of regions).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bandyvm2015\\.ru/en/news/?newsid\\=365\\|title\\=News – XXXV Чемпионат мира по хоккею с мячом\\|website\\=bandyvm2015\\.ru\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604031406/http://bandyvm2015\\.ru/en/news/?newsid\\=365\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Akzhaiyk](/wiki/Akzhaiyk \"Akzhaiyk\") from [Oral](/wiki/Oral%2C_Kazakhstan \"Oral, Kazakhstan\"), however, is the only professional club.", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.7\\|[Nikolai Antropov](/wiki/Nikolai_Antropov \"Nikolai Antropov\")](/wiki/File:Nik_Antropov_Jets_2012-02-11.JPG \"Nik Antropov Jets 2012-02-11.JPG\")", "The [Kazakh national ice hockey team](/wiki/Kazakhstan_men%27s_national_ice_hockey_team \"Kazakhstan men's national ice hockey team\") have competed in [ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\") in the 1998 and [2006 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics \"2006 Winter Olympics\"), as well as in the [2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships](/wiki/2006_Men%27s_World_Ice_Hockey_Championships \"2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships\"). The [Kazakhstan Hockey Championship](/wiki/Kazakhstan_Hockey_Championship \"Kazakhstan Hockey Championship\") is held since 1992\\. [Barys Astana](/wiki/Barys_Astana \"Barys Astana\") is the main domestic Kazakhstani ice hockey professional team, and having played in the Kazakhstani national league until the 2008–09 season, when they were transferred to play in the [Kontinental Hockey League](/wiki/Kontinental_Hockey_League \"Kontinental Hockey League\"). Meanwhile, the [Kazzinc\\-Torpedo](/wiki/Kazzinc-Torpedo \"Kazzinc-Torpedo\") and play in the [Supreme Hockey League](/wiki/Supreme_Hockey_League \"Supreme Hockey League\") since 1996 and the [Saryarka Karagandy](/wiki/Saryarka_Karagandy \"Saryarka Karagandy\") since 2012\\. Top Kazakhstani ice hockey players include [Nik Antropov](/wiki/Nik_Antropov \"Nik Antropov\"), Ivan Kulshov and [Evgeni Nabokov](/wiki/Evgeni_Nabokov \"Evgeni Nabokov\").", "[Kazakh boxers](/wiki/Kazakhstan_national_amateur_boxing_athletes \"Kazakhstan national amateur boxing athletes\") are generally well known in the world. In the last three Olympic Games, their performance was assessed as one of the best and they had more medals than any country in the world, except [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") and Russia (in all three games). In 1996 and 2004, three Kazakhstani boxers ([Vassiliy Jirov](/wiki/Vassiliy_Jirov \"Vassiliy Jirov\") in 1996, [Bakhtiyar Artayev](/wiki/Bakhtiyar_Artayev \"Bakhtiyar Artayev\") in 2004 and [Serik Sapiyev](/wiki/Serik_Sapiyev \"Serik Sapiyev\") in 2012\\) were recognised as the best boxers for their techniques with the [Val Barker Trophy](/wiki/Val_Barker_Trophy \"Val Barker Trophy\"), awarded to the best boxer of the tournament. In [boxing](/wiki/Boxing \"Boxing\"), Kazakhstan performed well in the [2000 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics \"2000 Summer Olympics\") in Sydney. Two boxers, [Bekzat Sattarkhanov](/wiki/Bekzat_Sattarkhanov \"Bekzat Sattarkhanov\") and [Yermakhan Ibraimov](/wiki/Yermakhan_Ibraimov \"Yermakhan Ibraimov\"), earned [gold medals](/wiki/Gold_medal \"Gold medal\"). Another two boxers, [Bulat Zhumadilov](/wiki/Bulat_Zhumadilov \"Bulat Zhumadilov\") and [Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov](/wiki/Mukhtarkhan_Dildabekov \"Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov\"), earned [silver medals](/wiki/Silver_medal \"Silver medal\"). [Oleg Maskaev](/wiki/Oleg_Maskaev \"Oleg Maskaev\"), born in [Zhambyl](/wiki/Taraz \"Taraz\"), representing Russia, was the [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council \"World Boxing Council\") Heavyweight Champion after knocking out [Hasim Rahman](/wiki/Hasim_Rahman \"Hasim Rahman\") on 12 August 2006\\. The reigning [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association \"World Boxing Association\"), WBC, IBF and [IBO](/wiki/International_Boxing_Organization \"International Boxing Organization\") [middleweight champion](/wiki/List_of_middleweight_boxing_champions \"List of middleweight boxing champions\") is Kazakh boxer [Gennady Golovkin](/wiki/Gennady_Golovkin \"Gennady Golovkin\"). [Natascha Ragosina](/wiki/Natascha_Ragosina \"Natascha Ragosina\"), representing Russia, but from [Qarağandy](/wiki/Qara%C4%9Fandy \"Qarağandy\") held seven versions of the women's super middleweight title, and two heavyweight titles during her boxing career. She holds the record as the longest\\-reigning WBA female super middleweight champion, and the longest\\-reigning WBC female super middleweight champion.", "### Film", "{{Main\\|Cinema of Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|[International Astana Action Film Festival](/wiki/International_Astana_Action_Film_Festival \"International Astana Action Film Festival\"), 2010](/wiki/File:Red_Carpet_at_AIAFF.jpg \"Red Carpet at AIAFF.jpg\")", "Kazakhstan's film industry is run through the state\\-owned [Kazakhfilm](/wiki/Kazakhfilm \"Kazakhfilm\") studios based in Almaty. The studio has produced movies such as *[Myn Bala](/wiki/Myn_Bala \"Myn Bala\")*, *[Harmony Lessons](/wiki/Harmony_Lessons \"Harmony Lessons\")*, and *Shal*.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhfilm Studios\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?companies\\=co0036615/\\|publisher\\=IMDbPro.com\\|accessdate\\=2022\\-10\\-10\\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010180922/https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?companies\\=co0036615/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Kazakhstan is the host of the [International Astana Action Film Festival](/wiki/International_Astana_Action_Film_Festival \"International Astana Action Film Festival\") and the [Eurasia International Film Festival](/wiki/Eurasia_International_Film_Festival \"Eurasia International Film Festival\") held annually. Hollywood director [Timur Bekmambetov](/wiki/Timur_Bekmambetov \"Timur Bekmambetov\") is from Kazakhstan and has become active in bridging Hollywood to the Kazakhstan film industry.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YnBdDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT646 \\|title\\=Lonely Planet Central Asia \\|last1\\=Lioy \\|first1\\=Stephen \\|last2\\=Kaminski \\|first2\\=Anna \\|last3\\=Mayhew \\|first3\\=Bradley \\|last4\\=Walker \\|first4\\=Jenny \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=Lonely Planet \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78701\\-960\\-7 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 October 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003022334/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YnBdDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT646 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Kazakhstan journalist Artur Platonov won Best Script for his documentary \"Sold Souls\" about Kazakhstan's contribution to the struggle against terrorism at the 2013 Cannes Corporate Media and TV Awards.[CCS · Artur Platonov wins Cannes Corporate Media \\& TV Award 2013](http://ortcom.kz/en/news/artur-platonov-wins-cannes-corporate-media--tv-award-2013.2571) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051159/http://ortcom.kz/en/news/artur\\-platonov\\-wins\\-cannes\\-corporate\\-media\\-\\-tv\\-award\\-2013\\.2571 \\|date\\=1 January 2016 }}. Ortcom.kz (5 November 2013\\). Retrieved 8 March 2014\\.[Cannes Corporate Media \\& TV Awards: Winners 2013](http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907030048/http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013\\.php \\|date\\=7 September 2015 }}. Cannescorporate.com. Retrieved 8 March 2014\\.", "Serik Aprymov's *Little Brother* (*Bauyr*) won at the Central and Eastern Europe Film Festival [goEast](/wiki/GoEast \"GoEast\") from the German Federal Foreign Office.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan's Little Brother takes Federal Foreign Office award at goEast\\|date\\=20 April 2014\\|url\\=http://en.tengrinews.kz/cinema\\_and\\_music/Kazakhstans\\-Little\\-Brother\\-takes\\-Federal\\-Foreign\\-Office\\-award\\-at\\-goEast\\-253027/\\|publisher\\=TengriNews\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712032054/http://en.tengrinews.kz/cinema\\_and\\_music/Kazakhstans\\-Little\\-Brother\\-takes\\-Federal\\-Foreign\\-Office\\-award\\-at\\-goEast\\-253027/\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2014}}", "### Media", "{{Main\\|Media of Kazakhstan}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.7\\|[Timur Bekmambetov](/wiki/Timur_Bekmambetov \"Timur Bekmambetov\"), a popular Kazakh film director](/wiki/File:Timur_Bekmambetov_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg \"Timur Bekmambetov by Gage Skidmore.jpg\")", "Kazakhstan is ranked 161 out of 180 countries on the [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders \"Reporters Without Borders\") [World Press Freedom Index](/wiki/World_Press_Freedom_Index \"World Press Freedom Index\"){{cite web\\|title\\=World Press Freedom Index 2014\\|url\\=https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2014\\|website\\=Reporters Without Borders\\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214120404/http://rsf.org/index2014/en\\-index2014\\.php\\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2014}} A mid\\-March 2002 [court order](/wiki/Court_order \"Court order\"), with the government as a [plaintiff](/wiki/Plaintiff \"Plaintiff\"), stated that *[Respublika](/wiki/Respublika_%28Kazakh_newspaper%29 \"Respublika (Kazakh newspaper)\")* were to stop printing for three months.{{cite news\\|author\\=Wines, Michael\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/13/world/the\\-saturday\\-profile\\-bruised\\-but\\-still\\-jabbing\\-kazakh\\-heavyweights.html?pagewanted\\=all\\&src\\=pm\\|title\\=Wines 2012\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=13 July 2002\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928072344/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/13/world/the\\-saturday\\-profile\\-bruised\\-but\\-still\\-jabbing\\-kazakh\\-heavyweights.html?pagewanted\\=all\\&src\\=pm\\|archive\\-date\\=28 September 2013}} The order was evaded by printing under other titles, such as *Not That Respublika*. In early 2014, a court also issued a cease publication order to the small\\-circulation Assandi\\-Times newspaper, saying it was a part of the Respublika group. Human Rights Watch said: \"this absurd case displays the lengths to which Kazakh authorities are willing to go to bully critical media into silence.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan: Newspaper Closing a Blow to Free Speech\\|url\\=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/04/22/kazakhstan\\-newspaper\\-closing\\-blow\\-free\\-speech\\|website\\=Human Rights Watch\\|date\\=22 April 2014\\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830121944/http://www.hrw.org/news/2014/04/22/kazakhstan\\-newspaper\\-closing\\-blow\\-free\\-speech\\|archive\\-date\\=30 August 2014}}", "With support from the US Department of State's [Bureau for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor](/wiki/Bureau_of_Democracy%2C_Human_Rights%2C_and_Labor \"Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor\") (DRL), the American Bar Association Rule of Law Initiative opened a media support centre in Almaty to assist press outlets in Kazakhstan.{{cite web \\|title\\=Access to Justice and Human Rights \\|url\\=http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan/programs\\_past.html \\|publisher\\=American Bar Association \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025650/http://www.americanbar.org/advocacy/rule\\_of\\_law/where\\_we\\_work/europe\\_eurasia/kazakhstan/programs\\_past.html \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2013 }}\n[thumb\\|[Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassaui](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi \"Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi\")](/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi_in_Hazrat-e_Turkestan%2C_Kazakhstan.jpg \"Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in Hazrat-e Turkestan, Kazakhstan.jpg\")", "### UNESCO World Heritage sites", "Kazakhstan has three cultural and two natural sites on the [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") World Heritage list. The cultural sites are:", "* [Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassaui](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi \"Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi\"), added in 2003\n* Petroglyphs within the Archaeological Landscape of [Tamgaly](/wiki/Tamgaly \"Tamgaly\"), added in 2004\n* [Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an\\-Tianshan Corridor](/wiki/Silk_Roads:The_Routes_Network_of_Chang%27an-Tianshan_Corridor \"The Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor\"), added in 2014", "The natural sites are:", "* [Saryarka \\- Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan](/wiki/Saryarka_-_Steppe_and_Lakes_of_Northern_Kazakhstan \"Saryarka - Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan\"), added in 2008\n* Western [Tien Shan](/wiki/Tien_Shan \"Tien Shan\"), added in 2016{{cite web\\|title\\=Kazakhstan\\|url\\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/KZ/\\|publisher\\=UNESCO\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530104414/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/Kz\\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2016}}", "### Public holidays", "{{Main\\|Public holidays in Kazakhstan}}", "" ]
Life and Work ------------- ### Education in Bukhara [thumb\|The Mir\-i\-Arab Madrasa in Bukhara](/wiki/File:Bukhara%2C_Mir-i-Arab_Medressa_%286234380319%29.jpg "Bukhara, Mir-i-Arab Medressa (6234380319).jpg") Fitrat was born in 1886 (he himself stated 1884Allworth 2000, p. 7) in Bukhara. Little is known about his childhood, which is, according to [Adeeb Khalid](/wiki/Adeeb_Khalid "Adeeb Khalid"), characteristic for Central Asian figures of this era.Adeeb Khalid: *The Bukharan Peopleʼs Soviet Republic in the Light of Muslim Sources*. In: *Die Welt des Islams*, vol. 50, no. 3/4 (p. 335–361\), 2010\. p. 340 His father Abdurahimboy was a devout [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") and a trader,Rustam Shukurov, Muḣammadjon Shukurov, Edward A. Allworth (ed.); Sharif Jan Makhdum Sadr Ziyaʼ: *The personal history of a Bukharan intellectual: the diary of Muḥammad\-Sharīf\-i Ṣadr\-i Ẕiya*. Brill; Leiden 2004; p. 323 who would leave the family in the direction of [Margilan](/wiki/Margilan "Margilan") and later [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar "Kashgar").Allworth 2000, p. 6 Fitrat came by most of his worldly education through his broadly read mother, named Mustafbibi, Nastarbibi or Bibijon according to varied sources.Baxtiyor Egamov: *Fitrat va geografiya*. In: *Geography. Nature and Society*, vol. 3, no. 1 (p. 24–30\), 2020, {{ISSN\|2181\-0834}}. p. 26 According to [Edward A. Allworth](/wiki/Edward_A._Allworth "Edward A. Allworth") she brought him into contact with the works of [Bedil](/wiki/Abdul-Q%C4%81dir_Bedil "Abdul-Qādir Bedil"), [Fuzûlî](/wiki/Fuz%C3%BBl%C3%AE "Fuzûlî"), [Ali\-Shir Nava'i](/wiki/Ali-Shir_Nava%27i "Ali-Shir Nava'i") and others.Allworth 2000, p. 6f Abdurauf grew up with a brother (Abdurahmon) and a sister (Mahbuba).Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 71 [Muhammadjon Shakuri](/wiki/Muhammadjon_Shakuri "Muhammadjon Shakuri") suggests that Firat completed the [hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj") together with his father during his childhood. After receiving education at a [maktab](/wiki/Maktab_%28education%29 "Maktab (education)")\-type school Fitrat is said to have begone studies at the [Mir\-i Arab Madrasa](/wiki/Po-i-Kalyan%23Mir-i_Arab_Madrasa "Po-i-Kalyan#Mir-i Arab Madrasa") of Bukhara in 1899 and to have completed them in 1910\. As Shakuri continues, Fitrat travelled extensively through [Russian Turkestan](/wiki/Russian_Turkestan "Russian Turkestan") and the [Emirate of Bukhara](/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara "Emirate of Bukhara") between 1907 and 1910\. The literary scholar [Begali Qosimov](/wiki/Begali_Qosimov "Begali Qosimov") thinks that Fitrat studied in Bukhara until he was 18 and that he completed the hajj between 1904 and 1907, also visiting Turkey, Iran, India and Russia.Begali Qosimov: *[Abdurauf Fitrat (1886–1938\)](https://ziyouz.uz/ilm-va-fan/adabiyot/milliy-uygonish/begali-qosimov-abdurauf-fitrat-1886-1938/?lng=lat)*, accessed 6 June 2021 According to Zaynobidin Abdurashidov, it was in the beginning of the 20th century that Fitrat went on a pilgrimage through Asia to Mecca during which he spent some time in India, where he earned some money for the journey home as a barber. As per Abdurashidov, Fitrat was already known as a poet then, using the pen name *Mijmar*.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *[Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities](https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/acta/37/pp.103-118.pdf)*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 104 Beside Shakuri, also Khalid and AllworthAllworth 2002, p. 357 mention the Mir\-i Arab Madrasa as Fitrat's place of study in Bukhara. While studying at the [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah "Madrasah") Fitrat was also instructed in [ancient Greek philosophy](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy "Ancient Greek philosophy") by his teacher.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 106 In his [autobiography](/wiki/Autobiography "Autobiography"), published in 1929, Fitrat wrote that Bukhara had been one of the darkest religious centres. He had been a devout Muslim and initially in opposition to the reform movement of the Jadids (*usul\-i jadid* ‚new method‘). Fitrat himself never received basic education in that "new method".Allworth 2000, p. 7f According to [Sadriddin Aini](/wiki/Sadriddin_Aini "Sadriddin Aini") Fitrat was known as one of the most enlightened and commendable students of the time in Bukhara,Sarfraz Khan: *Muslim Reformist Political Thought. Revivalists, Modernists and Free Will*. Routledge, London/New York 2003, ISBN 978\-1\-136\-76959\-7; p. 118f whilst being effectively unknown outside the city until 1911\. Abdurashidov's explanation of why Fitrat did not take part in the activities of the first group of jadids in Bukhara refers to the strict, anti\-liberal regime under emir ['Abd al\-Ahad Khan](/wiki/%27Abd_al-Ahad_Khan "'Abd al-Ahad Khan"). Abdurashidov continues that Fitrat became interested in reformist ideas approximately in 1909 and suggests that this happened under the influence of the magazine [*Sırat\-ı Müstakim*](/wiki/Sebil%C3%BCrre%C5%9Fad "Sebilürreşad") by [Mehmet Âkif Ersoy](/wiki/Mehmet_%C3%82kif_Ersoy "Mehmet Âkif Ersoy"). Together with other magazines and newspapers, this magazine circulated among Bukhara's students during this time.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 104–107 Beyond that, [Mahmudkhodja Behbudiy](/wiki/Mahmudkhodja_Behbudiy "Mahmudkhodja Behbudiy") was a mentor to Fitrat.Borjian 1999, p. 564–567 After completing his education Fitrat taught at a madrasah for a short period. ### Stay in Istanbul and Jadid leader Around 1909, jadid actors in Bukhara and [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul") ([Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople")) built an organizational infrastructure in order to enable Bukharan students and teachers to study in the capital of the [Ottoman empire](/wiki/Ottoman_empire "Ottoman empire"). According to reports, Fitrat himself was involved in these activities.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 107–109 Thanks to a grant given by the secret "society for the education of the children" *(Tarbiyayi atfol)* which was financed by merchantsKhalid 1998, p. 111 Fitrat himself was able to go to Istanbul. He arrived there in spring of 1910 shortly after the very first group.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 109–111 "Sometimes", says Sarfraz Khan from the [University of Peshawar](/wiki/University_of_Peshawar "University of Peshawar"), Fitrat's departure to Turkey is described as an effort to flee from the persecution by the authorities after a conflict between [Shia and Sunni Muslims](/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations "Shia–Sunni relations") in Bukhara in January 1910\. Other authors date Fitrat's leaving to the year 1909\.Sharifa Tosheva: *The Pilgrimage Books of Central Asia. Routes and Impressions (19th and early 20th centuries)*. In: Alexandre Papas, Thierry Zarcone, Thomas Welsford (ed.): *Central Asian Pilgrims. Hajj Routes and Pious Visits between Central Asia and the Hijaz* (S. 234–249\). Klaus Schwarz Verlag, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978\-3\-11\-220882\-3 *(Islamkundliche Untersuchungen; vol. 308\)*; p. 246 During Fitrat's stay, in the [Second Constitutional Era](/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era "Second Constitutional Era"), Istanbul was governed by the [Young Turks](/wiki/Young_Turks "Young Turks"). These historical circumstances influenced Fitrat, the activities and the general social surroundings of the Bukharan students in Istanbul heavily.Kamoludin Abdullaev: *Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan*. Rowman \& Littlefield, Lanham/London 2018, ISBN 978\-1\-5381\-0251\-0; p. 153Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 111 What Fitrat did after his arrival in Istanbul is not known exactly. According to Abdurashidov's analysis, Fitrat was integrated in the Bukharan diasporic community (he often gets mentioned as one of the founders of the benevolent society *Buxoro ta’mimi maorif*), he worked as a vendor at a bazaar, as a street cleaner, and as an assistant cook. Apart from that, he prepared for the entry exams at a madrasah, which he – according to Abdirashidov – probably passed mid\-1913\. This allowed him to become one of the first students of the Vaizin madrasah, which was founded in December 1912 and which used the "new method". Here he did not only receive lessons in Islamic science, but also in Oriental literature.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 111–113; id.: ʻAbdurra'uf Fitrat in Istanbul. Quest for Freedom. De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2023 (ANOR Central Asian Studies vol. 22\), p. 1\-15\. Other authors state that Fitrat spent the years between 1909 and 1913 studying at the *Darülmuallimin*, a training institute for teachers, or at the [University of Istanbul](/wiki/University_of_Istanbul "University of Istanbul"). During his stay Fitrat became acquainted with further Middle Eastern reform movements, got into contact with the [Pan\-Turanist](/wiki/Turanism "Turanism") movement and with emigrants from the Tsardom of Russia, and turned into the leader of the jadids in Istanbul.Khalid 2015, p. 40 He wrote several minor pieces in which he – always in [Persian language](/wiki/Persian_language "Persian language") – demanded reforms in the social and cultural life of Central Asia and a will to progress.Khalid 1998, p. 108\. His first texts were published in the [Islamist](/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") newspapers *Hikmet*, published by [Şehbenderzâde Filibeli Ahmed Hilmi](/wiki/%C5%9Eehbenderz%C3%A2de_Filibeli_Ahmed_Hilmi "Şehbenderzâde Filibeli Ahmed Hilmi"), and *Sırat\-ı Müstakim*, furthermore in Behbudiys *Oyina* and the Turkist [Türk Yurdu](/wiki/Yusuf_Ak%C3%A7ura%23Biography "Yusuf Akçura#Biography"). In his texts Fitrat pushed for the [unity of all Muslims](/wiki/Panislamism "Panislamism") and portrayed Istanbul with the Ottoman sultan as the center of the Muslim world.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 113f Two of the three booklets Fitrat published during his stay in Istanbul, the "Debate between a Teacher from Bukhara and a European" (*Munozara*, 1911Allworth 2000, p. 21) and the "Tales of an Indian Traveller" *(Bayonoti sayyohi hindi)*, achieved great popularity in Central Asia *Munozara* was translated into Turkestani Turkish by [Hoji Muin](/wiki/Hoji_Muin "Hoji Muin") from [Samarkand](/wiki/Samarkand "Samarkand") in 1911\. It was published in the Tsarist newspaper *Turkiston viloyatining gazeti* and later as a book.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 30 While the Persian version did not, a Turkish version circulated in Bukhara as well. The latter version was expanded by a foreword by Behbudiy.Allworth 1990, p. 144 Behbudiy also translated *Bayonoti sayyohi hindi* into Russian,Allworth 1990, p. 145 and he convinced Fitrat to expand *Munozara* by a plea to learn Russian.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 33 The outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") rendered Fitrat's completion of his studies in Istanbul impossible and forced him, like many other Bukharan students, to return to [Transoxania](/wiki/Transoxania "Transoxania") prematurely.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 113 ### The final years of an emirate After his return to Bukhara Fitrat took an active role in the movement for reforms, especially in the fight for "new method" schools, and turned into the leader of the left wing of the local jadid movement.Sarfraz Khan: *Muslim Reformist Political Thought. Revivalists, Modernists and Free Will*. Routledge, London/New York 2003, ISBN 978\-1\-136\-76959\-7; p. 120 During Fitrat's stay in Istanbul, [Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan](/wiki/Sayyid_Mir_Muhammad_Alim_Khan "Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan") had taken over the throne of the [Emirate of Bukhara](/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara "Emirate of Bukhara") after his father's death. The new emir's announcements of sociopolitical reforms caused Fitrat to initially express his sympathy toward him and to urge the local [ulama](/wiki/Ulama "Ulama") to support the emir's initiatives.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\), 2016\. p. 116 As archive documents show, it was in 1914 that Fitrat started to act in an amateur theater in Bukhara.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 80 According to [Sadriddin Ayni](/wiki/Sadriddin_Ayni "Sadriddin Ayni"), at that time Fitrat's literary work revolutionised the cosmos of ideas in Bukhara. In 1915 in his work *Oila* ("Family"), Fitrat was one of the first reformers to write about the hard life of women in Turkestan.Dilorom Alimova: *The Turkestan Jadids’ Conception of Muslim Culture*. In: Gabriele Rasuly\-Paleczek, Julia Katschnig: *Central Asia on Display. Proceedings of the VII. Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies* (p. 143–147; translated from Russian by Kirill F. Kuzmin and Sebastian Stride), Münster 2005; p. 145 Another text written in this timeframe is a schoolbook about the history of Islam, meant for use in reformed schools, and a collection of patriotic poems. In *Rahbari najot* ("The guide to salvation", 1916\) he explained his philosophy on the basis of the [Qur'an](/wiki/Qur%27an "Qur'an"). He became a member of the [Young Bukharans](/wiki/Young_Bukharans "Young Bukharans") and met [Fayzulla Khodzhayev](/wiki/Fayzulla_Khodzhayev "Fayzulla Khodzhayev") in 1916\. Subsequently, his ties to [panturkism](/wiki/Panturkism "Panturkism") grew stronger, and in 1917 Fitrat started to predominantly use a puristic Turkic tongue in his publications. In early 1917 he met the poet, playwright, novelist and translator [Choʻlpon](/wiki/Cho%CA%BBlpon "Choʻlpon"), who went on to be one of his closest friends for the rest of his life.Christopher Fort: *An Introduction to Choʻlpon and his* Night and Day. In: Abdulhamid Sulaymon oʻgʻli Choʻlpon: *Night and Day*. Translated and with an Introduction by Christopher Fort (p. 1–43\). Academic Studies Press, Boston 2020, ISBN 978\-1\-64469\-048\-2; p. 7 Until 1917 Fitrat and other members of his movement were hopeful that the Bukharan emir would take a leading role in the task of reforming Bukhara.Khalid 2015, p. 41 However, in April 1917 Fitrat had to flee the city because of the growing level of repression. He firstly went to Samarkand,Khalid 2015, p. 66 where in August (edition 27Allworth 2000, p. 35) he became [columnist](/wiki/Columnist "Columnist") and publisher of the newspaper *Hurriyat*.Allworth 2000, p. 13Khalid 1998, p. 291f He stayed in this position until 1918 (edition 87\).Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 85 In late 1917, together with [Usmonxoʻja oʻgʻli](/wiki/Usmonxo%CA%BBja_o%CA%BBg%CA%BBli "Usmonxoʻja oʻgʻli") he penned a reformist agenda on behalf of the Central Committee of the Young Bukharan party. In it he proposed the implementation of a [constitutional monarchy](/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy "Constitutional monarchy") under the leadership of the emir and with the [sharia](/wiki/Sharia "Sharia") as the legal basis. This programme was adopted by the Central Committee in January 1918 with minor changes.Sarfraz Khan: *Abdal Rauf Fitrat*. In: *Religion, State \& Society*, vol. 24, no. 2/3 (p. 139–157\), 1996\. p. 141, 152fBegali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 89f After [Kolesov's unsuccessful campaign](/wiki/Kolesov%27s_Campaign "Kolesov's Campaign") in March 1918 Fitrat went on to [Tashkent](/wiki/Tashkent "Tashkent") (then part of the [Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Turkestan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic")), where he worked in the [Afghan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") consulateAllworth 1990, p. 301 and where he served as an organizer of the nationalist intellectuals.Edward A. Allworth: *The Changing Intellectual and Literary Community*. In: Edward A. Allworth: *Central Asia, 120 Years of Russian Rule* (p. 349–396\); p. 371 In Tashkent he founded the multi\-ethnic intellectual circle *[Chigʻatoy gurungi](/wiki/Chig%CA%BBatoy_gurungi "Chigʻatoy gurungi")* ("Chagataian discussion forum"). During the next two years, this was the breeding ground of a growing Chagataian nationalism. His text *Temurning sogʻonasi* ("[Timur's](/wiki/Timur "Timur") mausoleum", 1918\) showed a turn towards Pan\-Turkism: A "son of a Turkic people" and "watcher of the border of [Turan](/wiki/Turan%23Modern_literature "Turan#Modern literature")" prays for the resurrection of Timur at his grave and the rebuilding of the [Timurid Empire](/wiki/Timurid_Empire "Timurid Empire").Allworth 1990, p. 174 After having been critical about the [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution "February Revolution") and the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks")' coming into powerKhalid 2015, p. 95 the publication of secret treaties between the Tsardom, Great Britain and France by the Bolsheviks and the decline of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") made him realize "who the real enemies of the Muslim, and especially the Turkic, world are": As he thought, the British now had the whole [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world "Arab world") \- with the exception of [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz") \- under their control and were enslaving 350 million Muslims. Since he felt it was their duty to be enemies of the British, Fitrat now supported the Soviets.Khalid 1998, p. 293fKhalid 2015, p. 102 This view provoked resistance by fellow activists like Behbudiy, Ayni and others.Allworth 1990, p. 163 Nevertheless, in his analysis of Asian politics (*Sharq siyosati*, "Eastern politics", 1919\), Fitrat argued for a strategic alliance between the Muslim world and Soviet Russia and against the politics of European powers which controlled India, Egypt and Persia, therefore especially against Britain.Khalid 2015, p. 104Kleinmichel 1993, p. 155f During his exile Fitrat and his party wing inside the Young Bukharans became members of the [Communist Party of Bukhara](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Bukhara "Communist Party of Bukhara"). In June 1919 he was elected into the [Central Committee](/wiki/Central_Committee "Central Committee") during the first party congress. Thereupon Fitrat worked in the party press, taught in the first Soviet schools and institutes of higher education, and edited the sociopolitical and literary journal *Tong* ("Dawn"), a publication of the Communist Party of Bukhara, in April and May 1920\. Sarfraz Khan suggests that by 1920 Fitrat had accepted that his reform ideas would not be transacted in the emirate. Because of that he started to endorse the idea that the emirate should be replaced by a people's republic. Together with his comrades he organized the Turkestan Bureau of the Young Bukharan Party under the leadership of Fayzulla Xo'jayev, which mobilized against the emir parallel to the Communist Party of Bukhara.Sarfraz Khan: *Abdal Rauf Fitrat*. In: *Religion, State \& Society*, vol. 24, no. 2/3 (p. 139–157\), 1996\. p. 153 ### Fitrat as statesman in the people's republic [thumb\|left\|Fitrat's signature (in the form {{Script/Arabic\|فيطرەت‎}}) on a 2\.500 Soʻm banknote of the Bukharan People's Republic (1922\)](/wiki/File:Fitrat_signature.JPG "Fitrat signature.JPG") In September 1920, the Emir of Bukhara was overthrown by the Young Bukharans and the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") under [Mikhail Frunze](/wiki/Mikhail_Frunze "Mikhail Frunze"). Fitrat returned to Bukhara in December 1920 with a scientific expedition whose goal was to collect Bukhara's rich cultural heritage.Khalid 2015, p. 128 After that, he took part in the state leadership of the new [Bukharan People's Soviet Republic](/wiki/Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic "Bukharan People's Soviet Republic"), starting as the head of the national *[Waqf](/wiki/Waqf "Waqf")* authority which administered pious foundations, until 1921, later as foreign minister (1922\), minister of education (1923\), deputy chairman of the council for work of the [Bukharan People's Soviet Republic](/wiki/Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic "Bukharan People's Soviet Republic") and momentarily as minister for military and finances (1922\). In March 1921, Fitrat ordered the language of instruction to be changed from Persian to Uzbek, which also became the official language of Bukhara. The next year Fitrat sent 70 students to Germany so they could teach at the newly founded University of Bukhara after their return. During his time as minister for education Fitrat implemented changes in the instruction at madrasas,William Fierman: *Language Planning and National Development. The Uzbek Experience*. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1991, ISBN 3\-11\-012454\-8 (*Contributions to the sociology of languages*, vol. 60\). p. 235 opened the "School for Oriental Music"Alyssa Moxley: *The concept of traditional music in Central Asia: From the Revolution to independence*. In: Sevket Akyildiz, Richard Carlson (ed.): *Social and Cultural Change in Central Asia: The Soviet legacy* (p. 63–71\). Routledge; London, New York 2013, ISBN 9781134495139; p. 64 and supervised the gathering of the country's cultural heritage.Adeeb Khalid: *Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia*. University of California Press; Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 2007, ISBN 978\-0\-520\-28215\-5; p. 57f With commentaries on [fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa "Fatwa") and with guidelines regarding which sources of law local [muftis](/wiki/Mufti "Mufti") should use Fitrat, as minister for education, also exerted some influence on jurisdiction.Paolo Sartori: *Ijtihād in Bukhara: Central Asian Jadidism and Local Genealogies of Cultural Change*. In: *Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient*, vol. 59, No. 1/2 (p. 193\-226\), 2016\. p. 217–220 After their reunion with the communists, Young Bukharans dominated the power structure of the people's republic. Fitrat and like\-minded companions managed to coexist with the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks") for some time, but [Basmachi](/wiki/Basmachi_movement "Basmachi movement") activists in the center and the east of the republic and a dispute about the presence of Russian troops overcomplicated the situation. Fitrat voiced his disapproval of Bolshevik misjudgments in Central Asian affairs in his *Qiyomat* ("The Last Judgment", 1923\).Allworth 2000, p. 14 Together with the head of government, [Fayzulla Xo'jayev](/wiki/Fayzulla_Xo%27jayev "Fayzulla Xo'jayev"), he tried without success to ally with Turkey and Afghanistan to secure Bukhara's independenceHélène Carrère d’Encausse: *The National Republics Lose Their Independence*. In: Edward A. Allworth: *Central Asia, 120 Years of Russian Rule* (p. 254–265\), London 1989; p. 255 Instigated by the Soviet plenipotentiaryKhalid 2015, p. 154 the then political leaders with nationalist tendencies,Adeeb Khalid: *Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia*. University of California Press; Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 2007, ISBN 978\-0\-520\-28215\-5; p. 58 including Fitrat, but not Khodzhayev, were ousted and expulsed to Moscow on 25 June 1923\. Fitrat's *Chigʻatoy gurungi*, which the pro\-Soviets considered an "antirevolutionary bourgeois nationalist organization", was also closed down in 1923\.Sarfraz Khan: *Muslim Reformist Political Thought. Revivalists, Modernists and Free Will*. Routledge, London/New York 2003, ISBN 978\-1\-136\-76959\-7; p. 121 ### Fitrat's career as a scholar [thumb\|The Lazarev Institute in 1838, according to reports in 1923 the location of Fitrat's work in exile, now seat of the Armenian embassy in Moscow](/wiki/File:Russie_692.jpg "Russie 692.jpg") After Bukhara had lost its independence and changed side from nationalism and Muslim reformism to secular [communism](/wiki/Communism "Communism"), Fitrat wrote a number of [allegories](/wiki/Allegory "Allegory") in which he criticized the new political system in his homeland.Allworth 2000, p. 15 He had unavoidably withdrawn from politics and committed himself to teaching. Between 1923 and 1924 he spent 14 months in exile in Moscow.Khalid 2015, p. 185 Little is known about Fitrat's time in Moscow, even though he published important enlightenmental works such as Ro'zalar "Fasting in Ramadan" and Shaytonning Tangriga Isyoni "Satan's Revolt against God" (1924\). According to Uzbek scholars Fitrat worked at the [Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages](/wiki/Lazarev_Institute_of_Oriental_Languages "Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages") in Moscow, and later received the title of professor from the Institute for Oriental Studies at [Petrograd (St. Petersburg) University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University "Saint Petersburg State University"), but, according to Khalid, there is no documentary evidence for these claims.Khalid 2015, p. 241 After his return to Central Asia in September 1924Khalid 2015, p. 218 there was dispute between former Tashkent Young Communists around [Akmal Ikramov](/wiki/Akmal_Ikramov "Akmal Ikramov") and former Young Bukharans around Fayzulla Khodzhayev regarding Fitrat's persona in the newly established [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_SSR "Uzbek SSR"). Khodzhayev stood up for Fitrat and was, according to Adeeb Khalid, at least partially responsible for Fitrat's freedom and ability to keep publishing. Fitrat avoided serious involvement in the affairs of the new state and is said to have declined the option to teach at the [Central Asian Communist University](/wiki/Central_Asian_Communist_University "Central Asian Communist University") or to work permanently at the Commissariat of Education.Khalid 2015, p. 323f Subsequently, he taught at several colleges in the [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic"), after 1928 at [Samarkand University](/wiki/Samarkand_University "Samarkand University"). In the same year, he became a member of the Academic Council of the Uzbek SSR. In his academic activity as historian of literatureEdward A. Allworth: *Fitrat, Abdalrauf (Abdurauf)*. In: Steven Serafin: *Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century: E\-K* (p. 119f), 1999; p. 119 he stayed true to his own beliefs rather than to the conformity demanded by the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union").Allworth 2000, p. 17 After 1925, this included criticism against the communist theory of national cultures in the [supra\-ethnic](/wiki/Supra-ethnic "Supra-ethnic") structure of Central Asia, which brought him the reputation of a political [subversive](/wiki/Subversion "Subversion") in Communist circles.Allworth 2002, p. 16 The communists believed to recognize hidden messages in Fitrat's works and accused him of political [subversion](/wiki/Subversion "Subversion"). Meanwhile, a new generation of Soviet writers had formed in Uzbekistan's literary scene.Khalid 2015, p. 328f During this phase of his life Fitrat married the approximately 17\-year\-old Fotimaxon, a sister of [Mutal Burhonov](/wiki/Mutal_Burhonov "Mutal Burhonov"), who would leave Fitrat after a short time.Mansur Surush: *[Слёзы росы, трель соловья, садовника стон…](https://www.asiaplustj.info/ru/news/life/person/20150518/slezy-rosy-trel-solovya-sadovnika-ston)*, 18 May 2015, accessed 20 June 2021 Fitrat wrote two works dealing with Central Asian Turk languages (in 1927 and 1928\), in which he denied the necessity to segregate Soviet Central Asia along ethnic lines. Around this time Communist ideologues, the next generation of writers and the press began criticizing Fitrat's perspective towards questions of nationality and labelling his way of presenting classics of Chagataian literature as "nationalist", thus non\-Soviet. This "Chagataiism" would later be one of the heaviest accusations against Fitrat.Allworth 1990, p. 226William Fierman: *Language Planning and National Development. The Uzbek Experience*. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1991, ISBN 3\-11\-012454\-8 (*Contributions to the sociology of languages*, vol. 60\). p. 236 In this campaign [Jalil Boyboʻlatov](/wiki/Jalil_Boybo%CA%BBlatov "Jalil Boyboʻlatov"), a [chekist](/wiki/Cheka "Cheka") who had pursued Fitrat since the time of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic and now analyzed Fitrat's writings on the history of literature, was a pivotal character.Khalid 2015, p. 378f Even Fitrat's several literary pieces in support of the anti\-religious campaigns which culminated in 1926\-28 could not outweigh the allegations raised against him. Fitrat wrote his last book with political relevance on Emir Alim Khan in Persian ([Tajik](/wiki/Tajik_language "Tajik language")) in 1930\.Allworth 2000, p. 26 After 1932, Fitrat became a powerful control instance of political and social activity in his homeland.Allworth 2000, p. 18 Fitrat felt the necessity to acquaint the following generation of literates with the traditional rules of prosody ([aruz](/wiki/Aruz "Aruz")), since by the 1930s the Uzbek language had become emphatically contemporary and ruralist and therefore detached from historical poetry.Khalid 2015, p. 380 From 1932 onwards writers had to be member of the writers' union in order to have their texts published. During this time Fitrat wrote a poem in praise of cotton which was published in a Russian language anthology. Apart from this instance Fitrat was technically excluded from the press and dedicated himself to teaching. He eventually received the title of professor from the Institute of Language and Literature in Tashkent,Khalid 2015, p. 381 but in the mid\-1930s he was attacked by his students on a regular basis.William Fierman: *Language Planning and National Development. The Uzbek Experience*. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1991, ISBN 3\-11\-012454\-8 (*Contributions to the sociology of languages*, vol. 60\). p. 245 His last play, *Toʻlqin* ("the wave", 1936\), was a protest against the practice of [censorship](/wiki/Censorship "Censorship"). ### The end in the Great Purge On the night of 23 April 1937 Fitrat's home was paid a visit by [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD "NKVD") forces and Fitrat was arrested the following day.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 144–147 For over 40 years his further fate was unknown to the public. Only the release of archive material during the era of [glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost "Glasnost") revealed the circumstances of Fitrat's disappearance. [thumb\|Decision of the [Supreme Court of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union "Supreme Court of the Soviet Union"), 5 October 1938](/wiki/File:FitratQaror.jpg "FitratQaror.jpg") Fitrat was suspected to be a member of a [counter\-revolutionary](/wiki/Counter-revolutionary "Counter-revolutionary") nationalist organization who had tried to recruit young writers for his ideas, who had compiled texts in the spirit of counter\-revolutionary nationalism, and who had striven for splitting off a bourgeois Turanic state from the Soviet Union. He was prosecuted as "one of the founders and leaders of the counter\-revolutionary nationalist jadidism" and as an organizer of a "nationalist pan\-Turkic counter\-revolutionary movement against the party and the Soviet government" according to articles 67 and 66 (1\) of the criminal code of the Uzbek SSR. Referring to archival documents Begali Qosimov reports that these and further allegations were investigated for months, and finally Fitrat was also accused of treason according to article 57 (1\).Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 147–152 According to secret files, Fitrat broke during questioning and was willing to admit any ideological crime.Allworth 2002, p. 31 The case was discussed on 4 October 1938 by the [Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union "Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union"), whereupon, according to the transcript, a 15 minutes long show trial took place the following day without hearing witnesses. The trial ended with Fitrat's sentence to death by a firing squad and confiscation of all goods. Archival documents show that the execution was carried out on 4 October 1938, thus on the day before his conviction.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 152–154 Said archival documents also show that at the time of his arrest Fitrat was living together with his mother, his 25\-year\-old wife Hikmat and his 7\-year\-old daughter Sevar in the [mahallah](/wiki/Mahallah "Mahallah") of Guliston in the city of Tashkent. His wife was arrested together with Fitrat, but released in January 1938\. 1957, after Fitrat's rehabilition, an apology was communicated to her.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\. p. 149, 154f
[ "Life and Work\n-------------", "### Education in Bukhara", "[thumb\\|The Mir\\-i\\-Arab Madrasa in Bukhara](/wiki/File:Bukhara%2C_Mir-i-Arab_Medressa_%286234380319%29.jpg \"Bukhara, Mir-i-Arab Medressa (6234380319).jpg\")", "Fitrat was born in 1886 (he himself stated 1884Allworth 2000, p. 7) in Bukhara. Little is known about his childhood, which is, according to [Adeeb Khalid](/wiki/Adeeb_Khalid \"Adeeb Khalid\"), characteristic for Central Asian figures of this era.Adeeb Khalid: *The Bukharan Peopleʼs Soviet Republic in the Light of Muslim Sources*. In: *Die Welt des Islams*, vol. 50, no. 3/4 (p. 335–361\\), 2010\\. p. 340 His father Abdurahimboy was a devout [Muslim](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\") and a trader,Rustam Shukurov, Muḣammadjon Shukurov, Edward A. Allworth (ed.); Sharif Jan Makhdum Sadr Ziyaʼ: *The personal history of a Bukharan intellectual: the diary of Muḥammad\\-Sharīf\\-i Ṣadr\\-i Ẕiya*. Brill; Leiden 2004; p. 323 who would leave the family in the direction of [Margilan](/wiki/Margilan \"Margilan\") and later [Kashgar](/wiki/Kashgar \"Kashgar\").Allworth 2000, p. 6 Fitrat came by most of his worldly education through his broadly read mother, named Mustafbibi, Nastarbibi or Bibijon according to varied sources.Baxtiyor Egamov: *Fitrat va geografiya*. In: *Geography. Nature and Society*, vol. 3, no. 1 (p. 24–30\\), 2020, {{ISSN\\|2181\\-0834}}. p. 26 According to [Edward A. Allworth](/wiki/Edward_A._Allworth \"Edward A. Allworth\") she brought him into contact with the works of [Bedil](/wiki/Abdul-Q%C4%81dir_Bedil \"Abdul-Qādir Bedil\"), [Fuzûlî](/wiki/Fuz%C3%BBl%C3%AE \"Fuzûlî\"), [Ali\\-Shir Nava'i](/wiki/Ali-Shir_Nava%27i \"Ali-Shir Nava'i\") and others.Allworth 2000, p. 6f Abdurauf grew up with a brother (Abdurahmon) and a sister (Mahbuba).Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 71", "[Muhammadjon Shakuri](/wiki/Muhammadjon_Shakuri \"Muhammadjon Shakuri\") suggests that Firat completed the [hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\") together with his father during his childhood. After receiving education at a [maktab](/wiki/Maktab_%28education%29 \"Maktab (education)\")\\-type school Fitrat is said to have begone studies at the [Mir\\-i Arab Madrasa](/wiki/Po-i-Kalyan%23Mir-i_Arab_Madrasa \"Po-i-Kalyan#Mir-i Arab Madrasa\") of Bukhara in 1899 and to have completed them in 1910\\. As Shakuri continues, Fitrat travelled extensively through [Russian Turkestan](/wiki/Russian_Turkestan \"Russian Turkestan\") and the [Emirate of Bukhara](/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara \"Emirate of Bukhara\") between 1907 and 1910\\. The literary scholar [Begali Qosimov](/wiki/Begali_Qosimov \"Begali Qosimov\") thinks that Fitrat studied in Bukhara until he was 18 and that he completed the hajj between 1904 and 1907, also visiting Turkey, Iran, India and Russia.Begali Qosimov: *[Abdurauf Fitrat (1886–1938\\)](https://ziyouz.uz/ilm-va-fan/adabiyot/milliy-uygonish/begali-qosimov-abdurauf-fitrat-1886-1938/?lng=lat)*, accessed 6 June 2021 According to Zaynobidin Abdurashidov, it was in the beginning of the 20th century that Fitrat went on a pilgrimage through Asia to Mecca during which he spent some time in India, where he earned some money for the journey home as a barber. As per Abdurashidov, Fitrat was already known as a poet then, using the pen name *Mijmar*.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *[Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities](https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/acta/37/pp.103-118.pdf)*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 104 Beside Shakuri, also Khalid and AllworthAllworth 2002, p. 357 mention the Mir\\-i Arab Madrasa as Fitrat's place of study in Bukhara. While studying at the [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah \"Madrasah\") Fitrat was also instructed in [ancient Greek philosophy](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek philosophy\") by his teacher.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 106", "In his [autobiography](/wiki/Autobiography \"Autobiography\"), published in 1929, Fitrat wrote that Bukhara had been one of the darkest religious centres. He had been a devout Muslim and initially in opposition to the reform movement of the Jadids (*usul\\-i jadid* ‚new method‘). Fitrat himself never received basic education in that \"new method\".Allworth 2000, p. 7f According to [Sadriddin Aini](/wiki/Sadriddin_Aini \"Sadriddin Aini\") Fitrat was known as one of the most enlightened and commendable students of the time in Bukhara,Sarfraz Khan: *Muslim Reformist Political Thought. Revivalists, Modernists and Free Will*. Routledge, London/New York 2003, ISBN 978\\-1\\-136\\-76959\\-7; p. 118f whilst being effectively unknown outside the city until 1911\\. Abdurashidov's explanation of why Fitrat did not take part in the activities of the first group of jadids in Bukhara refers to the strict, anti\\-liberal regime under emir ['Abd al\\-Ahad Khan](/wiki/%27Abd_al-Ahad_Khan \"'Abd al-Ahad Khan\"). Abdurashidov continues that Fitrat became interested in reformist ideas approximately in 1909 and suggests that this happened under the influence of the magazine [*Sırat\\-ı Müstakim*](/wiki/Sebil%C3%BCrre%C5%9Fad \"Sebilürreşad\") by [Mehmet Âkif Ersoy](/wiki/Mehmet_%C3%82kif_Ersoy \"Mehmet Âkif Ersoy\"). Together with other magazines and newspapers, this magazine circulated among Bukhara's students during this time.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 104–107 Beyond that, [Mahmudkhodja Behbudiy](/wiki/Mahmudkhodja_Behbudiy \"Mahmudkhodja Behbudiy\") was a mentor to Fitrat.Borjian 1999, p. 564–567 After completing his education Fitrat taught at a madrasah for a short period.", "### Stay in Istanbul and Jadid leader", "Around 1909, jadid actors in Bukhara and [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") ([Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")) built an organizational infrastructure in order to enable Bukharan students and teachers to study in the capital of the [Ottoman empire](/wiki/Ottoman_empire \"Ottoman empire\"). According to reports, Fitrat himself was involved in these activities.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 107–109 Thanks to a grant given by the secret \"society for the education of the children\" *(Tarbiyayi atfol)* which was financed by merchantsKhalid 1998, p. 111 Fitrat himself was able to go to Istanbul. He arrived there in spring of 1910 shortly after the very first group.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 109–111 \"Sometimes\", says Sarfraz Khan from the [University of Peshawar](/wiki/University_of_Peshawar \"University of Peshawar\"), Fitrat's departure to Turkey is described as an effort to flee from the persecution by the authorities after a conflict between [Shia and Sunni Muslims](/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations \"Shia–Sunni relations\") in Bukhara in January 1910\\. Other authors date Fitrat's leaving to the year 1909\\.Sharifa Tosheva: *The Pilgrimage Books of Central Asia. Routes and Impressions (19th and early 20th centuries)*. In: Alexandre Papas, Thierry Zarcone, Thomas Welsford (ed.): *Central Asian Pilgrims. Hajj Routes and Pious Visits between Central Asia and the Hijaz* (S. 234–249\\). Klaus Schwarz Verlag, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978\\-3\\-11\\-220882\\-3 *(Islamkundliche Untersuchungen; vol. 308\\)*; p. 246", "During Fitrat's stay, in the [Second Constitutional Era](/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era \"Second Constitutional Era\"), Istanbul was governed by the [Young Turks](/wiki/Young_Turks \"Young Turks\"). These historical circumstances influenced Fitrat, the activities and the general social surroundings of the Bukharan students in Istanbul heavily.Kamoludin Abdullaev: *Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan*. Rowman \\& Littlefield, Lanham/London 2018, ISBN 978\\-1\\-5381\\-0251\\-0; p. 153Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 111 What Fitrat did after his arrival in Istanbul is not known exactly. According to Abdurashidov's analysis, Fitrat was integrated in the Bukharan diasporic community (he often gets mentioned as one of the founders of the benevolent society *Buxoro ta’mimi maorif*), he worked as a vendor at a bazaar, as a street cleaner, and as an assistant cook. Apart from that, he prepared for the entry exams at a madrasah, which he – according to Abdirashidov – probably passed mid\\-1913\\. This allowed him to become one of the first students of the Vaizin madrasah, which was founded in December 1912 and which used the \"new method\". Here he did not only receive lessons in Islamic science, but also in Oriental literature.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 111–113; id.: ʻAbdurra'uf Fitrat in Istanbul. Quest for Freedom. De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2023 (ANOR Central Asian Studies vol. 22\\), p. 1\\-15\\.", "Other authors state that Fitrat spent the years between 1909 and 1913 studying at the *Darülmuallimin*, a training institute for teachers, or at the [University of Istanbul](/wiki/University_of_Istanbul \"University of Istanbul\"). During his stay Fitrat became acquainted with further Middle Eastern reform movements, got into contact with the [Pan\\-Turanist](/wiki/Turanism \"Turanism\") movement and with emigrants from the Tsardom of Russia, and turned into the leader of the jadids in Istanbul.Khalid 2015, p. 40 He wrote several minor pieces in which he – always in [Persian language](/wiki/Persian_language \"Persian language\") – demanded reforms in the social and cultural life of Central Asia and a will to progress.Khalid 1998, p. 108\\. His first texts were published in the [Islamist](/wiki/Islamism \"Islamism\") newspapers *Hikmet*, published by [Şehbenderzâde Filibeli Ahmed Hilmi](/wiki/%C5%9Eehbenderz%C3%A2de_Filibeli_Ahmed_Hilmi \"Şehbenderzâde Filibeli Ahmed Hilmi\"), and *Sırat\\-ı Müstakim*, furthermore in Behbudiys *Oyina* and the Turkist [Türk Yurdu](/wiki/Yusuf_Ak%C3%A7ura%23Biography \"Yusuf Akçura#Biography\"). In his texts Fitrat pushed for the [unity of all Muslims](/wiki/Panislamism \"Panislamism\") and portrayed Istanbul with the Ottoman sultan as the center of the Muslim world.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 113f", "Two of the three booklets Fitrat published during his stay in Istanbul, the \"Debate between a Teacher from Bukhara and a European\" (*Munozara*, 1911Allworth 2000, p. 21) and the \"Tales of an Indian Traveller\" *(Bayonoti sayyohi hindi)*, achieved great popularity in Central Asia *Munozara* was translated into Turkestani Turkish by [Hoji Muin](/wiki/Hoji_Muin \"Hoji Muin\") from [Samarkand](/wiki/Samarkand \"Samarkand\") in 1911\\. It was published in the Tsarist newspaper *Turkiston viloyatining gazeti* and later as a book.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 30 While the Persian version did not, a Turkish version circulated in Bukhara as well. The latter version was expanded by a foreword by Behbudiy.Allworth 1990, p. 144 Behbudiy also translated *Bayonoti sayyohi hindi* into Russian,Allworth 1990, p. 145 and he convinced Fitrat to expand *Munozara* by a plea to learn Russian.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 33", "The outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") rendered Fitrat's completion of his studies in Istanbul impossible and forced him, like many other Bukharan students, to return to [Transoxania](/wiki/Transoxania \"Transoxania\") prematurely.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 113", "### The final years of an emirate", "After his return to Bukhara Fitrat took an active role in the movement for reforms, especially in the fight for \"new method\" schools, and turned into the leader of the left wing of the local jadid movement.Sarfraz Khan: *Muslim Reformist Political Thought. Revivalists, Modernists and Free Will*. Routledge, London/New York 2003, ISBN 978\\-1\\-136\\-76959\\-7; p. 120 During Fitrat's stay in Istanbul, [Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan](/wiki/Sayyid_Mir_Muhammad_Alim_Khan \"Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan\") had taken over the throne of the [Emirate of Bukhara](/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara \"Emirate of Bukhara\") after his father's death. The new emir's announcements of sociopolitical reforms caused Fitrat to initially express his sympathy toward him and to urge the local [ulama](/wiki/Ulama \"Ulama\") to support the emir's initiatives.Zaynabidin Abdirashidov: *Known and Unknown Fiṭrat. Early Convictions and Activities*. In: *Acta Slavica Iaponica*, vol. 37 (p. 103–118\\), 2016\\. p. 116 As archive documents show, it was in 1914 that Fitrat started to act in an amateur theater in Bukhara.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 80", "According to [Sadriddin Ayni](/wiki/Sadriddin_Ayni \"Sadriddin Ayni\"), at that time Fitrat's literary work revolutionised the cosmos of ideas in Bukhara. In 1915 in his work *Oila* (\"Family\"), Fitrat was one of the first reformers to write about the hard life of women in Turkestan.Dilorom Alimova: *The Turkestan Jadids’ Conception of Muslim Culture*. In: Gabriele Rasuly\\-Paleczek, Julia Katschnig: *Central Asia on Display. Proceedings of the VII. Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies* (p. 143–147; translated from Russian by Kirill F. Kuzmin and Sebastian Stride), Münster 2005; p. 145 Another text written in this timeframe is a schoolbook about the history of Islam, meant for use in reformed schools, and a collection of patriotic poems. In *Rahbari najot* (\"The guide to salvation\", 1916\\) he explained his philosophy on the basis of the [Qur'an](/wiki/Qur%27an \"Qur'an\"). He became a member of the [Young Bukharans](/wiki/Young_Bukharans \"Young Bukharans\") and met [Fayzulla Khodzhayev](/wiki/Fayzulla_Khodzhayev \"Fayzulla Khodzhayev\") in 1916\\. Subsequently, his ties to [panturkism](/wiki/Panturkism \"Panturkism\") grew stronger, and in 1917 Fitrat started to predominantly use a puristic Turkic tongue in his publications. In early 1917 he met the poet, playwright, novelist and translator [Choʻlpon](/wiki/Cho%CA%BBlpon \"Choʻlpon\"), who went on to be one of his closest friends for the rest of his life.Christopher Fort: *An Introduction to Choʻlpon and his* Night and Day. In: Abdulhamid Sulaymon oʻgʻli Choʻlpon: *Night and Day*. Translated and with an Introduction by Christopher Fort (p. 1–43\\). Academic Studies Press, Boston 2020, ISBN 978\\-1\\-64469\\-048\\-2; p. 7", "Until 1917 Fitrat and other members of his movement were hopeful that the Bukharan emir would take a leading role in the task of reforming Bukhara.Khalid 2015, p. 41 However, in April 1917 Fitrat had to flee the city because of the growing level of repression. He firstly went to Samarkand,Khalid 2015, p. 66 where in August (edition 27Allworth 2000, p. 35) he became [columnist](/wiki/Columnist \"Columnist\") and publisher of the newspaper *Hurriyat*.Allworth 2000, p. 13Khalid 1998, p. 291f He stayed in this position until 1918 (edition 87\\).Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 85 In late 1917, together with [Usmonxoʻja oʻgʻli](/wiki/Usmonxo%CA%BBja_o%CA%BBg%CA%BBli \"Usmonxoʻja oʻgʻli\") he penned a reformist agenda on behalf of the Central Committee of the Young Bukharan party. In it he proposed the implementation of a [constitutional monarchy](/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy \"Constitutional monarchy\") under the leadership of the emir and with the [sharia](/wiki/Sharia \"Sharia\") as the legal basis. This programme was adopted by the Central Committee in January 1918 with minor changes.Sarfraz Khan: *Abdal Rauf Fitrat*. In: *Religion, State \\& Society*, vol. 24, no. 2/3 (p. 139–157\\), 1996\\. p. 141, 152fBegali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 89f", "After [Kolesov's unsuccessful campaign](/wiki/Kolesov%27s_Campaign \"Kolesov's Campaign\") in March 1918 Fitrat went on to [Tashkent](/wiki/Tashkent \"Tashkent\") (then part of the [Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Turkestan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\")), where he worked in the [Afghan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") consulateAllworth 1990, p. 301 and where he served as an organizer of the nationalist intellectuals.Edward A. Allworth: *The Changing Intellectual and Literary Community*. In: Edward A. Allworth: *Central Asia, 120 Years of Russian Rule* (p. 349–396\\); p. 371 In Tashkent he founded the multi\\-ethnic intellectual circle *[Chigʻatoy gurungi](/wiki/Chig%CA%BBatoy_gurungi \"Chigʻatoy gurungi\")* (\"Chagataian discussion forum\"). During the next two years, this was the breeding ground of a growing Chagataian nationalism. His text *Temurning sogʻonasi* (\"[Timur's](/wiki/Timur \"Timur\") mausoleum\", 1918\\) showed a turn towards Pan\\-Turkism: A \"son of a Turkic people\" and \"watcher of the border of [Turan](/wiki/Turan%23Modern_literature \"Turan#Modern literature\")\" prays for the resurrection of Timur at his grave and the rebuilding of the [Timurid Empire](/wiki/Timurid_Empire \"Timurid Empire\").Allworth 1990, p. 174", "After having been critical about the [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution \"February Revolution\") and the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\")' coming into powerKhalid 2015, p. 95 the publication of secret treaties between the Tsardom, Great Britain and France by the Bolsheviks and the decline of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") made him realize \"who the real enemies of the Muslim, and especially the Turkic, world are\": As he thought, the British now had the whole [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\") \\- with the exception of [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\") \\- under their control and were enslaving 350 million Muslims. Since he felt it was their duty to be enemies of the British, Fitrat now supported the Soviets.Khalid 1998, p. 293fKhalid 2015, p. 102 This view provoked resistance by fellow activists like Behbudiy, Ayni and others.Allworth 1990, p. 163 Nevertheless, in his analysis of Asian politics (*Sharq siyosati*, \"Eastern politics\", 1919\\), Fitrat argued for a strategic alliance between the Muslim world and Soviet Russia and against the politics of European powers which controlled India, Egypt and Persia, therefore especially against Britain.Khalid 2015, p. 104Kleinmichel 1993, p. 155f", "During his exile Fitrat and his party wing inside the Young Bukharans became members of the [Communist Party of Bukhara](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Bukhara \"Communist Party of Bukhara\"). In June 1919 he was elected into the [Central Committee](/wiki/Central_Committee \"Central Committee\") during the first party congress. Thereupon Fitrat worked in the party press, taught in the first Soviet schools and institutes of higher education, and edited the sociopolitical and literary journal *Tong* (\"Dawn\"), a publication of the Communist Party of Bukhara, in April and May 1920\\.", "Sarfraz Khan suggests that by 1920 Fitrat had accepted that his reform ideas would not be transacted in the emirate. Because of that he started to endorse the idea that the emirate should be replaced by a people's republic. Together with his comrades he organized the Turkestan Bureau of the Young Bukharan Party under the leadership of Fayzulla Xo'jayev, which mobilized against the emir parallel to the Communist Party of Bukhara.Sarfraz Khan: *Abdal Rauf Fitrat*. In: *Religion, State \\& Society*, vol. 24, no. 2/3 (p. 139–157\\), 1996\\. p. 153", "### Fitrat as statesman in the people's republic", "[thumb\\|left\\|Fitrat's signature (in the form {{Script/Arabic\\|فيطرەت‎}}) on a 2\\.500 Soʻm banknote of the Bukharan People's Republic (1922\\)](/wiki/File:Fitrat_signature.JPG \"Fitrat signature.JPG\")", "In September 1920, the Emir of Bukhara was overthrown by the Young Bukharans and the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") under [Mikhail Frunze](/wiki/Mikhail_Frunze \"Mikhail Frunze\"). Fitrat returned to Bukhara in December 1920 with a scientific expedition whose goal was to collect Bukhara's rich cultural heritage.Khalid 2015, p. 128 After that, he took part in the state leadership of the new [Bukharan People's Soviet Republic](/wiki/Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic \"Bukharan People's Soviet Republic\"), starting as the head of the national *[Waqf](/wiki/Waqf \"Waqf\")* authority which administered pious foundations, until 1921, later as foreign minister (1922\\), minister of education (1923\\), deputy chairman of the council for work of the [Bukharan People's Soviet Republic](/wiki/Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic \"Bukharan People's Soviet Republic\") and momentarily as minister for military and finances (1922\\).", "In March 1921, Fitrat ordered the language of instruction to be changed from Persian to Uzbek, which also became the official language of Bukhara. The next year Fitrat sent 70 students to Germany so they could teach at the newly founded University of Bukhara after their return. During his time as minister for education Fitrat implemented changes in the instruction at madrasas,William Fierman: *Language Planning and National Development. The Uzbek Experience*. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1991, ISBN 3\\-11\\-012454\\-8 (*Contributions to the sociology of languages*, vol. 60\\). p. 235 opened the \"School for Oriental Music\"Alyssa Moxley: *The concept of traditional music in Central Asia: From the Revolution to independence*. In: Sevket Akyildiz, Richard Carlson (ed.): *Social and Cultural Change in Central Asia: The Soviet legacy* (p. 63–71\\). Routledge; London, New York 2013, ISBN 9781134495139; p. 64 and supervised the gathering of the country's cultural heritage.Adeeb Khalid: *Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia*. University of California Press; Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 2007, ISBN 978\\-0\\-520\\-28215\\-5; p. 57f With commentaries on [fatwas](/wiki/Fatwa \"Fatwa\") and with guidelines regarding which sources of law local [muftis](/wiki/Mufti \"Mufti\") should use Fitrat, as minister for education, also exerted some influence on jurisdiction.Paolo Sartori: *Ijtihād in Bukhara: Central Asian Jadidism and Local Genealogies of Cultural Change*. In: *Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient*, vol. 59, No. 1/2 (p. 193\\-226\\), 2016\\. p. 217–220", "After their reunion with the communists, Young Bukharans dominated the power structure of the people's republic. Fitrat and like\\-minded companions managed to coexist with the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolsheviks \"Bolsheviks\") for some time, but [Basmachi](/wiki/Basmachi_movement \"Basmachi movement\") activists in the center and the east of the republic and a dispute about the presence of Russian troops overcomplicated the situation. Fitrat voiced his disapproval of Bolshevik misjudgments in Central Asian affairs in his *Qiyomat* (\"The Last Judgment\", 1923\\).Allworth 2000, p. 14 Together with the head of government, [Fayzulla Xo'jayev](/wiki/Fayzulla_Xo%27jayev \"Fayzulla Xo'jayev\"), he tried without success to ally with Turkey and Afghanistan to secure Bukhara's independenceHélène Carrère d’Encausse: *The National Republics Lose Their Independence*. In: Edward A. Allworth: *Central Asia, 120 Years of Russian Rule* (p. 254–265\\), London 1989; p. 255", "Instigated by the Soviet plenipotentiaryKhalid 2015, p. 154 the then political leaders with nationalist tendencies,Adeeb Khalid: *Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia*. University of California Press; Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 2007, ISBN 978\\-0\\-520\\-28215\\-5; p. 58 including Fitrat, but not Khodzhayev, were ousted and expulsed to Moscow on 25 June 1923\\. Fitrat's *Chigʻatoy gurungi*, which the pro\\-Soviets considered an \"antirevolutionary bourgeois nationalist organization\", was also closed down in 1923\\.Sarfraz Khan: *Muslim Reformist Political Thought. Revivalists, Modernists and Free Will*. Routledge, London/New York 2003, ISBN 978\\-1\\-136\\-76959\\-7; p. 121", "### Fitrat's career as a scholar", "[thumb\\|The Lazarev Institute in 1838, according to reports in 1923 the location of Fitrat's work in exile, now seat of the Armenian embassy in Moscow](/wiki/File:Russie_692.jpg \"Russie 692.jpg\")", "After Bukhara had lost its independence and changed side from nationalism and Muslim reformism to secular [communism](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\"), Fitrat wrote a number of [allegories](/wiki/Allegory \"Allegory\") in which he criticized the new political system in his homeland.Allworth 2000, p. 15 He had unavoidably withdrawn from politics and committed himself to teaching. Between 1923 and 1924 he spent 14 months in exile in Moscow.Khalid 2015, p. 185 Little is known about Fitrat's time in Moscow, even though he published important enlightenmental works such as Ro'zalar \"Fasting in Ramadan\" and Shaytonning Tangriga Isyoni \"Satan's Revolt against God\" (1924\\). According to Uzbek scholars Fitrat worked at the [Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages](/wiki/Lazarev_Institute_of_Oriental_Languages \"Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages\") in Moscow, and later received the title of professor from the Institute for Oriental Studies at [Petrograd (St. Petersburg) University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University \"Saint Petersburg State University\"), but, according to Khalid, there is no documentary evidence for these claims.Khalid 2015, p. 241", "After his return to Central Asia in September 1924Khalid 2015, p. 218 there was dispute between former Tashkent Young Communists around [Akmal Ikramov](/wiki/Akmal_Ikramov \"Akmal Ikramov\") and former Young Bukharans around Fayzulla Khodzhayev regarding Fitrat's persona in the newly established [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_SSR \"Uzbek SSR\"). Khodzhayev stood up for Fitrat and was, according to Adeeb Khalid, at least partially responsible for Fitrat's freedom and ability to keep publishing. Fitrat avoided serious involvement in the affairs of the new state and is said to have declined the option to teach at the [Central Asian Communist University](/wiki/Central_Asian_Communist_University \"Central Asian Communist University\") or to work permanently at the Commissariat of Education.Khalid 2015, p. 323f", "Subsequently, he taught at several colleges in the [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic\"), after 1928 at [Samarkand University](/wiki/Samarkand_University \"Samarkand University\"). In the same year, he became a member of the Academic Council of the Uzbek SSR. In his academic activity as historian of literatureEdward A. Allworth: *Fitrat, Abdalrauf (Abdurauf)*. In: Steven Serafin: *Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century: E\\-K* (p. 119f), 1999; p. 119 he stayed true to his own beliefs rather than to the conformity demanded by the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\").Allworth 2000, p. 17 After 1925, this included criticism against the communist theory of national cultures in the [supra\\-ethnic](/wiki/Supra-ethnic \"Supra-ethnic\") structure of Central Asia, which brought him the reputation of a political [subversive](/wiki/Subversion \"Subversion\") in Communist circles.Allworth 2002, p. 16 The communists believed to recognize hidden messages in Fitrat's works and accused him of political [subversion](/wiki/Subversion \"Subversion\"). Meanwhile, a new generation of Soviet writers had formed in Uzbekistan's literary scene.Khalid 2015, p. 328f During this phase of his life Fitrat married the approximately 17\\-year\\-old Fotimaxon, a sister of [Mutal Burhonov](/wiki/Mutal_Burhonov \"Mutal Burhonov\"), who would leave Fitrat after a short time.Mansur Surush: *[Слёзы росы, трель соловья, садовника стон…](https://www.asiaplustj.info/ru/news/life/person/20150518/slezy-rosy-trel-solovya-sadovnika-ston)*, 18 May 2015, accessed 20 June 2021", "Fitrat wrote two works dealing with Central Asian Turk languages (in 1927 and 1928\\), in which he denied the necessity to segregate Soviet Central Asia along ethnic lines. Around this time Communist ideologues, the next generation of writers and the press began criticizing Fitrat's perspective towards questions of nationality and labelling his way of presenting classics of Chagataian literature as \"nationalist\", thus non\\-Soviet. This \"Chagataiism\" would later be one of the heaviest accusations against Fitrat.Allworth 1990, p. 226William Fierman: *Language Planning and National Development. The Uzbek Experience*. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1991, ISBN 3\\-11\\-012454\\-8 (*Contributions to the sociology of languages*, vol. 60\\). p. 236 In this campaign [Jalil Boyboʻlatov](/wiki/Jalil_Boybo%CA%BBlatov \"Jalil Boyboʻlatov\"), a [chekist](/wiki/Cheka \"Cheka\") who had pursued Fitrat since the time of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic and now analyzed Fitrat's writings on the history of literature, was a pivotal character.Khalid 2015, p. 378f Even Fitrat's several literary pieces in support of the anti\\-religious campaigns which culminated in 1926\\-28 could not outweigh the allegations raised against him.", "Fitrat wrote his last book with political relevance on Emir Alim Khan in Persian ([Tajik](/wiki/Tajik_language \"Tajik language\")) in 1930\\.Allworth 2000, p. 26 After 1932, Fitrat became a powerful control instance of political and social activity in his homeland.Allworth 2000, p. 18 Fitrat felt the necessity to acquaint the following generation of literates with the traditional rules of prosody ([aruz](/wiki/Aruz \"Aruz\")), since by the 1930s the Uzbek language had become emphatically contemporary and ruralist and therefore detached from historical poetry.Khalid 2015, p. 380", "From 1932 onwards writers had to be member of the writers' union in order to have their texts published. During this time Fitrat wrote a poem in praise of cotton which was published in a Russian language anthology. Apart from this instance Fitrat was technically excluded from the press and dedicated himself to teaching. He eventually received the title of professor from the Institute of Language and Literature in Tashkent,Khalid 2015, p. 381 but in the mid\\-1930s he was attacked by his students on a regular basis.William Fierman: *Language Planning and National Development. The Uzbek Experience*. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1991, ISBN 3\\-11\\-012454\\-8 (*Contributions to the sociology of languages*, vol. 60\\). p. 245 His last play, *Toʻlqin* (\"the wave\", 1936\\), was a protest against the practice of [censorship](/wiki/Censorship \"Censorship\").", "### The end in the Great Purge", "On the night of 23 April 1937 Fitrat's home was paid a visit by [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\") forces and Fitrat was arrested the following day.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 144–147 For over 40 years his further fate was unknown to the public. Only the release of archive material during the era of [glasnost](/wiki/Glasnost \"Glasnost\") revealed the circumstances of Fitrat's disappearance.", "[thumb\\|Decision of the [Supreme Court of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Supreme Court of the Soviet Union\"), 5 October 1938](/wiki/File:FitratQaror.jpg \"FitratQaror.jpg\")\nFitrat was suspected to be a member of a [counter\\-revolutionary](/wiki/Counter-revolutionary \"Counter-revolutionary\") nationalist organization who had tried to recruit young writers for his ideas, who had compiled texts in the spirit of counter\\-revolutionary nationalism, and who had striven for splitting off a bourgeois Turanic state from the Soviet Union. He was prosecuted as \"one of the founders and leaders of the counter\\-revolutionary nationalist jadidism\" and as an organizer of a \"nationalist pan\\-Turkic counter\\-revolutionary movement against the party and the Soviet government\" according to articles 67 and 66 (1\\) of the criminal code of the Uzbek SSR. Referring to archival documents Begali Qosimov reports that these and further allegations were investigated for months, and finally Fitrat was also accused of treason according to article 57 (1\\).Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 147–152 According to secret files, Fitrat broke during questioning and was willing to admit any ideological crime.Allworth 2002, p. 31", "The case was discussed on 4 October 1938 by the [Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union\"), whereupon, according to the transcript, a 15 minutes long show trial took place the following day without hearing witnesses. The trial ended with Fitrat's sentence to death by a firing squad and confiscation of all goods. Archival documents show that the execution was carried out on 4 October 1938, thus on the day before his conviction.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 152–154", "Said archival documents also show that at the time of his arrest Fitrat was living together with his mother, his 25\\-year\\-old wife Hikmat and his 7\\-year\\-old daughter Sevar in the [mahallah](/wiki/Mahallah \"Mahallah\") of Guliston in the city of Tashkent. His wife was arrested together with Fitrat, but released in January 1938\\. 1957, after Fitrat's rehabilition, an apology was communicated to her.Begali Qosimov: *Maslakdoshlar. Behbudiy, Ajziy, Fitrat*. Sharq, Toshkent 1994\\. p. 149, 154f", "" ]
Work analysis ------------- ### Statistical and thematical developments A list of the works of Abdurauf Fitrat, compiled by [Edward A. Allworth](/wiki/Edward_A._Allworth "Edward A. Allworth"), covers 191 texts written during 27 years of active work between 1911 and 1937\. Allworth sorts these texts into five subject categories: Culture, economy, politics, religion and society. An analysis of all 191 texts has the following result:Allworth 2000, p. 29–33 | \+ Number of Fitrat's texts by period and category | | --- | | Category 1911–1919 | 1920–1926 | 1927–1937 Total | | Culture 24 | 48 | 50 123 | | Economy 2 | 0 | 4 6 | | Politics 28 | 9 | 2 39 | | Religion 7 | 1 | 5 13 | | Society 9 | 0 | 1 10 | | Total 70 | 59 | 62 191 | Two thirds of Fitrat's works deal with the subject of "culture" (broadly construed) while some 20 percent of his texts deal with political matters, which was his main subject in his early years. The political texts mostly originate during his active engagement in the jadid movement and in the government of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic. After the creation of the Uzbek SSR and the [Tajik ASSR](/wiki/Tajik_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") in 1924/25 and especially after the Communist Party started exercising strong control over culture and society, Fitrat wrote less on political matters. Even though Communists accused Fitrat of deviating from the party line in his texts on culture, they are decidedly less political than his earlier texts.Allworth 2000, p. 23, 30 According to Allworth, the reason for the almost complete disappearance of texts on society after 1919 was a missing secure opportunity of discussing non\-orthodox interpretations.Allworth 2000, p. 23 Fitrat reacted to restrictions on press freedom by stopping to freely express his political views in printAllworth 2000, p. 24 and by choosing subjects that followed Bolshevik notions of society. Questions of family and education were exclusively discussed before 1920\. Some of the most important works of Fitrat from the 1920s are his poems examining group identity. Similar categorizations of Fitrat's work can be found in a list of 90 works in 9 categories from 1990, a list of 134 titles compiled by Ilhom Gʻaniyev in 1994 and Yusuf Avcis list from 1997\.Allworth 2000, p. 33–35 An issue is the disappearance of at least ten of Fitrat's works and the unclear dating of others, for example of *Muqaddas qon*, which was written sometime between 1917 and 1924\. There are different dates for *Munozara* as well, but according to Hisao Komatsu Allworth's dating of 1327 [AH](/wiki/Hegira "Hegira") (1911/1912\) can be called "convincing".Allworth 2000, p. 20 Like many Central Asians, Fitrat started his writings with poems and later penned prose, dramas, journalistic works, comedies, political commentary, studies on the history of literature and the politics of education as well as polemical and ideological writings. Fitrat republished many of his earlier works in a reworked form or translated into another language.Allworth 2000, p. 44–68 ### Language and script According to Allworth, Fitrat's first language was \- typically for an urban Bukharan of his time \- Central Asian Persian (Tajik); the traditional language of education was [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic "Arabic"). When Fitrat was in Istanbul, [Ottoman Turkish language](/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language "Ottoman Turkish language") and Persian were in use there. Fitrat had a personal aversion to the broken Turki (dialectal Uzbek) in use in Tashkent which he taught himself out of a dictionary. Contemporary analyses describe Fitrat's Turki as "peculiar" and speculate that he learned the language without prolonged contact with native speakers.Allworth 2002, p. 6–10 Additionally, according to Allworth, Fitrat spoke [Urdu](/wiki/Urdu "Urdu") and [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language"); according to Adeeb Khalid, however, Fitrat did not speak any European language, and he doubts that Fitrat had functional knowledge of Russian.Khalid 2015, p. 54 Borjian sees the question of Fitrat's first language as open. Until the beginning of the political upheaval in Bukhara, Fitrat had published nearly exclusively in Persian (Tajik) language. His Persian writings of that time were, as per Adeeb Khalid, new not only in the sense of content but also because of their style: simple, direct and close to the spoken language.Khalid 2015, p. 306 However, in 1917 he changed over to a highly purist Turki, in which he even explained some words in footnotes. The aim of Fitrat's *Chigʻatoy gurungi* was the creation of a unified Turkish language on the basis of [Chagataian](/wiki/Chagatai_language "Chagatai language") language and literature, which was to be achieved by the distribution of the classic works of Navoiy and others and the purification from foreign influences (from Arabic, Persian and Russian) on Turki.Fierman 1991, p. 73 In an article titled *Tilimiz* ("Our language") of 1919 Fitrat called the Uzbek language the "unhappiest language of the world". He defined its protection from external influence and the improvement of its reputation as additional goals to his target of purifying the literary language.Yoqub Siddiqovich Sayidov: *[The Role of Turkistan Jadids in the Formation and Development of the Uzbek National Language](http://oaji.net/articles/2015/488-1444821917.pdf)*. In: *IMPACT. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature*, vol. 3, No. 9 (S. 79–85\), 2015\. p. 80–83 In these days, Fitrat denied that Persian was one of Central Asia's native languages. Assuming that the entire population of the region was Turkic notwithstanding the language they actually used in their everyday life was part of his Chagatayist body of thought.Khalid 2015, p. 258f According to reports, as minister of education Fitrat forbade the use of Tajik in his office. Literature about Fitrat suggests that a reason for his radical change from Persian to a Turkic language lies in the fact that the Jadid movement linked the Persian tongue to repressive regimes like the one of the Bukharan emir, while Turkic languages were identified with Muslim, that is Tatar and Ottoman, reformism.Ryan Brasher: *Ethnic Brother or Artificial Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in Afghanistan and Tajikistan*. In: *Berkeley Journal of Sociology*, vol. 55 (S. 97–120\), 2011\. p. 107 In *Bedil* (1923\), a bilingual work with passages in Persian and Turkic, Fitrat presents an Uzbek tongue influencesd by the Ottoman language as a counterpart to the traditional Persian poetic language, and therefore as a language suited for modernization.Allworth 2002, p. 107Samuel Hodgkin: *Classical Persian canons of the revolutionary press: Abū al\-Qāsim Lāhūtīʼs circles in Istanbul and Moscow*. In: Hamid Rezaei Yazdi, Arshavez Mozafari (ed.): *Persian Literature and Modernity. Production and Reception*. Routledge, London/New York 2018, ISBN 9780429999611 (e\-book) His partial return to Tajik during the 1920s can, according to Borjian, be ascribed to the end of Jadidism and the beginning of the suppression of Turkish nationalisms. Tajik national identity emerged later than was the case with Central Asia's Turks.Khalid 2015, p. 291–315 Therefore, the creation of the [Tajik SSR](/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic") in 1929, out of the [Tajik ASSR](/wiki/Tajik_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") which had been a part of the [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic"), "may" (Borjian) have motivated Fitrat to return to writing in Tajik. In Khalid's perception this step was a kind of exile and an attempt to disprove the allegations of Pan\-Turkism. Fitrat himself named the promotion of Tajik drama as the motive. In Fitrat's time, the [Arabic alphabet](/wiki/Arabic_alphabet "Arabic alphabet") was predominant, not only as the script of Arabic language texts, but also for [texts in Persian](/wiki/Persian_alphabet "Persian alphabet") and [in Ottoman Turkish](/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_alphabet "Ottoman Turkish alphabet"). After 1923, in Turkestan a reformed Arabic alphabet with better identification of vowels came into use; however, it still could not accommodate the variety of vowels in the Turkic languages. Fitrat "obviously" ([William Fierman](/wiki/William_Fierman "William Fierman")) did not interpret the Arabic alphabet as [holy](/wiki/Holy "Holy") or as an important part of Islam:Fierman 1991, p. 153 Already in 1921 during a congress in Tashkent, he argued in favour of abolishing all forms of the Arabic letters apart from the initial form. This would have made possible easier teaching, learning and printing of texts. Furthermore, he wanted to abolish all letters which in Uzbek did not represent their own sound (for example the {{Script/Arabic\|ث‎}}, [Ṯāʾ](/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE "Ṯāʾ")). In the end, Fitrat's proposal of a fully phonetic orthography which also applied to Arabic loanwords was accepted. Diacritical signs for vowels were introduced and the "foreign" letters were discontinued, but the up to four forms of each letter (for example, [{{Script/Arabic\|ﻍ، ﻏ، ﻐ، ﻎ‎}}](/wiki/Ghayn "Ghayn")) survived.Fierman 1991, p. 63, 65Khalid 2015, p. 263f For Fitrat, the differentiation between "hard" and "soft" sounds was the "soul" of Turkish dialects. The demand to harmonize the orthography of foreign words according to the rules of [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony "Vowel harmony") was implemented in Bukhara and the ASSR Turkestan in 1923, even though many dialects did not know this differentiation.Fierman 1991, p. 67f [thumb\|Extract out of *Qiyomat* (here: *Qjamat*) in a version published in Uzbek Latin script \- here apparently strongly edited by the Soviet Union](/wiki/File:Qiyomat_1935.JPG "Qiyomat 1935.JPG") Until 1929, the alphabets of the Central Asian Turkic languages were [Latinized](/wiki/Latinisation_in_the_Soviet_Union "Latinisation in the Soviet Union"). Fitrat was a member of the *Committee for the new Latin alphabet in Uzbekistan*Allworth 2002, p. 105 and had significant impact on the latinization of Tajik, whose Latin script he wanted to harmonize as much as possible with the Uzbek one. [Cyrillic scripts](/wiki/Cyrillic_script "Cyrillic script") \- as usual in Russian \- were implemented for Uzbek and Tajik only after Fitrat's death. ### Nonfiction In Fitrat's oeuvre a series of nonfiction and educational publications can be found: *Rohbari najot* ("The leader towards deliverance", 1916\), for example, is an ethical treatise supporting the jadidist reforms with citations from the [Quran](/wiki/Quran "Quran").Khalid 1998, p. 175 Another of his books deals with the topics of correct Islamic householding, the parenting of children and the duties of husband and wife. The work also argues against [Polygyny](/wiki/Polygyny "Polygyny").Khalid 1998, p. 226 He also wrote on the history of [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"),Khalid 1998, p. 174 the grammar of the Tajik languageReinhard Eisener: *Auf den Spuren des tadschikischen Nationalismus*, Berlin 1991 *(ethnizitaet und gesellschaft occasional papers; vol. 30\)*; p. 18\. and music. In the anthologies *{{lang\|uz\|Eng eski turkiy adabiyot namunalari}}* ("Examples from the oldest Turkic literature", 1927\) and *{{lang\|uz\|Oʻzbek adabiyoti namunalari}}* ("Examples of Uzbek literature", 1928\), which were directed at more advanced students, Fitrat strongly diverged from the Communist line on nationality politics by denying a strict segregation between "pure Uzbek" literature and Central Asian literature in general.Allworth 2000, p. 16; Allworth 1990, p. 226 The article *{{lang\|uz\|Eski maktablarni nima qilish kerak?}}* ("What should we do about the old schools?", 1927\) brought him the attention of the [GPU](/wiki/State_Political_Directorate "State Political Directorate"). He was classified as a friend of the [Basmachi movement](/wiki/Basmachi_movement "Basmachi movement"), which he however opposed.Allworth 2000, p. 27 Other noteworthy nonfiction publications are *{{lang\|uz\|Adabiyot qoidalari}}* ("Theory of literature", 1926\) and *{{lang\|uz\|Fors shoiri Umar Hayyom}}* ("The Persian poet [Omar Khayyam](/wiki/Omar_Khayyam "Omar Khayyam")", 1929\). Fitrat's scholarly interest in Music particularly applied to [shashmaqam](/wiki/Shashmaqam "Shashmaqam"). In 1923 Fitrat entrusted [Viktor Uspensky](/wiki/Viktor_Uspensky "Viktor Uspensky") to record the entire Bukharan shashmaqam, but without the original texts which, to the greatest extent, were in Persian. This way, Fitrat tried to turkify the Bukharan shashmaqamAlexander Djumaev:*Power Structures, Culture Policy, and Traditional Music in Soviet Central Asia*. In: *Yearbook for Traditional Music*, vol. 25 (p. 43–50\), 1993\. p. 47f or to present the heritage of Bukharan civilization as something Chagatai.Khalid 2015, p. 299 A version of the Bukharan shashmaqam written by the composer [Yunus Rajabiy](/wiki/Yunus_Rajabiy "Yunus Rajabiy") in 1930 by order of Fitrat was based on Uzbek poetry and became popular more than thirty years later.Jean During: *Authority and Music in the Cultures of Inner Asia*. In: *Ethnomusicology Forum*, vol. 14, No. 2 (p. 143–164\), 2005\. p. 147 *{{lang\|uz\|Oʻzbek klassik musiqasi va uning tarixi}}* ("Uzbek classical music and its history", 1927\) fabricated the basis of a national musicology. His objective was to put the Uzbek national music into a context of ancient Turkic roots and to translate the common Central Asian musical heritage coined by Islamic, Arabic or Persian culture into a part of Uzbek nationality without mentioning Tajik.Alexander Djumaev: *Musical Heritage and National Identity in Uzbekistan*. In: *Ethnomusicology Forum*, vol. 14, No. 2 (p. 165–184\), 2005\. p. 171f According to Alexander Djumaev *{{lang\|uz\|Oʻzbek klassik musiqasi va uning tarixi}}* is more of a juridical document, which created and consolidated a national cultural identity, than it is a scientific source.Alexander Djumaev:*Power Structures, Culture Policy, and Traditional Music in Soviet Central Asia*. In: *Yearbook for Traditional Music*, vol. 25 (S. 43–50\), 1993\. p. 48 ### Poetry Fitrat was influenced by classical poetry during his first creative phase in a way similar to Sadriddin Ayni. He wrote poems in Persian language from his adolescence, first on religious subjects, later for pedagogic reasons and in Turki. Some of the traditional metres he used were [Mathnawi](/wiki/Mathnawi_%28poetic_form%29 "Mathnawi (poetic form)") and [Ghazal](/wiki/Ghazal "Ghazal"). In *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni* ("Satan's rebellion against God", 1924\), Fitrat was one of the first Turki poets to use Turkic [suffixes](/wiki/Suffix "Suffix") for [tail rhymes](/wiki/Rhyme%23Classification_by_position "Rhyme#Classification by position"), along the usual [internal rhymes](/wiki/Internal_rhyme "Internal rhyme").Allworth 2002, p. 189 In 1918, Fitrat introduced the critique of the Perso\-Arabic system of prosody called *aruz* from Istanbul to Central Asia and demanded, together with others, the provision for Turkic metrics in Turkic poetry and the use of the meter called *barmoq*.Khalid 2015, p. 262Christopher Fort: *An Introduction to Choʻlpon and his* Night and Day. In: Abdulhamid Sulaymon oʻgʻli Choʻlpon: *Night and Day*. Translated and with an Introduction by Christopher Fort (p. 1–43\). Academic Studies Press, Boston 2020, ISBN 978\-1\-64469\-048\-2; p. 12 ### Drama Allworth recognizes four different types of dialogue and drama in Fitrat's work: Discussions with strangers (1911\-1913, for example in *Munozara* and *Bayonoti sayyohi hindi*), counseling with heroes from the past (1915\-1919, *Muqaddas qon* and *Temurning sogʻonasi*), [allegorical](/wiki/Allegory "Allegory") dialogue (1920\-1924, for example in *Qiyomat* and *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni*), and [dialectic](/wiki/Dialectic "Dialectic") (1926\-1934, in *Toʻlqin*).Allworth 2002, p. 24f, 358 *Bedil* unites elements of "allegorical dialogue" and the discussion with strangers. In his dramatic work, Fitrat often uses the [passive voice](/wiki/Voice_%28grammar%29 "Voice (grammar)") as *genus verbi*. Using this technique, he avoided having to name protagonists. According to Allworth, this and the use of [homonyms](/wiki/Homonym "Homonym") created an effect of mystification which related to Allah having exclusive knowledge of all motives and deeds.Allworth 2002, p. 19 #### Avoidance of conflict in dialogue The dispute (a genre called *{{lang\|uz\|munozara}}*, "discussion", in Uzbek) is a traditional, Islamic genre of literature that was present both in prose and in verse and which can be seen as the genre preceding theatre in Central Asia. The form Fitrat chose in *Munozara*, in which the side the author takes is evident, was less valued in classic poetry. Like drama or short story, the classic Turko\-Persian literature did not know the genre of dialogue.Turaj Atabaki: *Enlightening the People. The Practice of Modernity in Central Asia and its Trans\-Caspian Dependencies*. In: Gabriele Rasuly\-Paleczek, Julia Katschnig: *Central Asia on Display. Proceedings of the VII. Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies; Vol. 2* (p. 171–182\). LIT, Münster 2005; p. 173 Illiterate bystanders sometimes mistook performances for reality.Allworth 2002, p. 14 In *Munozara*, Fitrat contrasted a progressive European with an arrogant [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah "Madrasah") teacher from Bukhara. The European argues factually and in an instructional manner and is superior to the teacher even in the area of [Islamic studies](/wiki/Islamic_studies "Islamic studies"). Finally, the *mudarris* is convinced and recognizes the "new method" as supreme. However, it is not shown how this conversion came to be. Since the classic Turko\-Persian literature does not know real conflict, but only discourse between master and disciple, the conversation stays calm, even though the teacher sometimes shows his anger. In order to further reinforce his message, Fitrat added an epilogue to the dialogue in which he demanded reforms from the emir \- many other "reform dialogues" did not have such an epilogue.Turaj Atabaki: *Enlightening the People. The Practice of Modernity in Central Asia and its Trans\-Caspian Dependencies*. In: Gabriele Rasuly\-Paleczek, Julia Katschnig: *Central Asia on Display. Proceedings of the VII. Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies; Vol. 2* (p. 171–182\). LIT, Münster 2005; p. 175 Fitrat's method of having criticism of Bukharan society come from "outside", from a European and in neutral India, was one of the few accepted possibilities. He used a similar method in *Bayonoti sayyohi hindi*, in which an Indian tourist recalls his experiences in Bukhara.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 31 Stylistically, the work is strongly resemblant of the first Iranian novelist [Zayn al\-Abedin Maraghei](/wiki/Zayn_al-Abedin_Maraghei "Zayn al-Abedin Maraghei").Khalid 1998, p. 111 #### Dramas of ambiguity In 1983, still before Fitrat's reinterpretation during perestroika, Ahmad Aliev recognized an "unconventional complexity" in Fitrat's dramatic work. According to Edward A. Allworth Fitrat's dramas from the years between 1922 and 1924 \- especially *Qiyomat*, *Bedil* and *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni* \- are marked by subtleties and intended [ambiguities](/wiki/Ambiguity "Ambiguity").Allworth 2002, p. 25, 30, 37 The reason for this can found in the political and social circumstances in which these works were written. Through his choice of words, Fitrat made his subversive messages accessible only to those privy to contemporary Central Asian literature, while his anger found the form of indirect, entertaining criticism.Allworth 2002, p. 120 Zulkhumor Mirzaeva (Alisher Navoiy University for Uzbek language and literature) argued that in these works the Soviet censorship was deceived by an allegedly antireligious essence and that sociopolitical ideas were communicated that way. While Fitrat was canonized as a master of atheist esthetics he actually conveyed other meanings simultaneously. As per Mirzaeva it was only during Uzbekistan's independence that, starting with [Ninel Vladimirova](/wiki/Ninel_Vladimirova "Ninel Vladimirova"), a new interpretation of these works arose. According to this reinterpretation, Fitrat displayed the ignorance and [russification](/wiki/Russification "Russification") of his time by critique and ridicule. According to Mirzaeva's own analyses, Fitrat smuggled his "fight for national liberation in an atheistic shell".Zulkhumor Mirzaeva: *From Atheism to Anti\-Colonialism: Fitrat's Writings from the 1910s to the 1930ies*. In: *International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering*, vol. 8, no. 3 (p. 3517–3525\), 2019\. p. 3518–3523 *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni* is sometimes described as short drama, sometimes as epic poem (*[dastan](/wiki/Dastan "Dastan")*).Allworth 2002, p. 179 According to Allworth, Fitrat's polemic against [Stalinism](/wiki/Stalinism "Stalinism") is packed up in an allegorical dialogue between angels and the devil.Allworth 2002, p. 186 He interprets the use of the term *[Shaitan](/wiki/Shaitan "Shaitan")* (instead of *[Iblis](/wiki/Iblis "Iblis")* or *[Azazel](/wiki/Azazel%23In_Islam "Azazel#In Islam")*) for the devil as an example for the allegorical nature; the term is phonetically close to the name *Stalin* and was in fact used in Central Asia to invoke [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin").Allworth 2002, p. 190 Adeeb Khalid, however, disagrees and argues for reading the actual text and less "between the lines".Khalid 2015, p. 250 The historical drama *Abulfayzxon* ("[Abulfaiz Khan](/wiki/Abulfaiz_Khan "Abulfaiz Khan")", last ruler of the Bukharan Janid dynasty of the Uzbek Khanate, 1924\) draws parallels between historical and contemporary upheaval and [absolutisms](/wiki/Absolute_%28philosophy%29 "Absolute (philosophy)") in Bukhara and is held as first Uzbek [tragedy](/wiki/Tragedy "Tragedy"). ### Satire and Nasreddinic figures [thumb\|left\|*Nasreddin* statue in Bukhara](/wiki/File:Nasreddin_khodja_statue_in_Bukhara_detail.JPG "Nasreddin khodja statue in Bukhara detail.JPG") Like Abdulla Qodiriy and [Gʻafur Gʻulom](/wiki/G%CA%BBafur_G%CA%BBulom "Gʻafur Gʻulom"), Fitrat increasingly used satiric concepts in his stories from the 1920s onwards. Only a few years earlier, prose had started gaining ground in Central Asia; by including satirical elements, reformers like Fitrat succeeded in winning over the audience. These short stories were used in alphabetization campaigns, where traditional characters and mindsets were presented in a new, socially and politically relevant context.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 95 In order to stay similar to the structure of traditional [anecdotes](/wiki/Anecdote "Anecdote"), the writers refrained from direct agitation within the narration. Instead, they often added didactic epilogues where tradition would have demanded the summarized joke.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 103 After 1920, the "victims" of Fitrat's satire, besides mistaken ideologues and cumbersome bureaucrats, also included the Soviet rulers.Allworth 2002, p. 20–22 Similarities to [Nasreddin](/wiki/Nasreddin "Nasreddin") stories can be found in several of Fitrat's texts, for example in *Munozara*, *Qiyomat* and *Oq mozor* ("The white Tomb", 1928\), even though the actual Nasreddin figure is missing in the last text.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 104 In works like *Qiyomat*, Fitrat mixed traditionally fantastical elements with parts of fairy tales, historical or contemporary notions. According to Sigrid Kleinmichel, the confrontation of Pochamir (the protagonist of *Qiyomat*, an [opium](/wiki/Opium "Opium") smoker like Nasreddin( with the [Last Judgment](/wiki/Last_Judgment "Last Judgment") in a fever dream can be seen as a reference to [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx")' words of the [opium of the people](/wiki/Opium_of_the_people "Opium of the people"). *Qiyomat* was first reworked in 1935, which led to the loss of contemporary references; Fitrat transferred the story into the time of Tsarist rule. In the Soviet versions, the focus of the story is no longer on the colonial oppression of the Tsarist era and the satiric presentation of life in the Soviet Union, but on the criticism of religion.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 114–118; Allworth 2002, p. 41–58 Due to its "atheism", the Communists later translated the text into several languages, even though the satire originally was directed at Communist dogmas. Allworth sees a special humour and sense of wordplay in *Qiyomat*.Allworth 2002, p. 38 ### Incorporation of older Islamic literature In *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni*, Fitrat portrays *[Shaitan](/wiki/Shaitan "Shaitan")*, the devil, similar to the character known from the Quran and [dīwān literature](/wiki/Diwan_%28poetry%29 "Diwan (poetry)"). However, Fitrat expands the plot into a "justified resistance" against the despot [Allah](/wiki/Allah "Allah"). The quranic figures [Zaynab bint Jahsh](/wiki/Zaynab_bint_Jahsh "Zaynab bint Jahsh"), a wife of [Mohammed](/wiki/Mohammed "Mohammed"), and [Zayd ibn Harithah](/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Harithah "Zayd ibn Harithah") are central to *Zayid va Aynab* ("Zaid and Zainab", 1928\). Yet, Fitrat's focus in this text is not on the question of [adoption in Islam](/wiki/Adoption_in_Islam "Adoption in Islam"), but on the prophet's sexuality and the selfishness of Mohammed's prophecy.Khalid 2015, p. 251f The angels [Harut and Marut](/wiki/Harut_and_Marut "Harut and Marut") are important to *Zahraning imoni* ("Zahra's belief", 1928\). Both *Meʼroj* ("[Mi'raj](/wiki/Isra_and_Mi%27raj "Isra and Mi'raj")", 1928\) and *Rohbari najot* are densely peppered with citations from the Quran.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 119–123 In *Qiyomat*, Pochamir encounters [Munkar and Nakir](/wiki/Munkar_and_Nakir "Munkar and Nakir"), but the numerous references to the Quran and the irreverence directed at Allah were only added under Soviet rule.Allworth 2002, p. 55, 57 In *Bedil*, Fitrat cites the Indo\-Persian [Sufi](/wiki/Sufism "Sufism") and poet [Bedil](/wiki/Qadir_Bux_Bedil "Qadir Bux Bedil"), but even though the subject of the text is religious he abstains from exclamations like *[In schā'a llāh](/wiki/Inshallah "Inshallah")* and the *[Basmala](/wiki/Basmala "Basmala")*.Allworth 2002, p. 114
[ "Work analysis\n-------------", "### Statistical and thematical developments", "A list of the works of Abdurauf Fitrat, compiled by [Edward A. Allworth](/wiki/Edward_A._Allworth \"Edward A. Allworth\"), covers 191 texts written during 27 years of active work between 1911 and 1937\\. Allworth sorts these texts into five subject categories: Culture, economy, politics, religion and society. An analysis of all 191 texts has the following result:Allworth 2000, p. 29–33", "", "| \\+ Number of Fitrat's texts by period and category |\n| --- |\n| Category", "1911–1919 |\n 1920–1926 |\n 1927–1937", "Total |\n| Culture", "24 |\n 48 |\n 50", "123 |\n| Economy", "2 |\n 0 |\n 4", "6 |\n| Politics", "28 |\n 9 |\n 2", "39 |\n| Religion", "7 |\n 1 |\n 5", "13 |\n| Society", "9 |\n 0 |\n 1", "10 |\n| Total", "70 |\n 59 |\n 62", "191 |", "Two thirds of Fitrat's works deal with the subject of \"culture\" (broadly construed) while some 20 percent of his texts deal with political matters, which was his main subject in his early years. The political texts mostly originate during his active engagement in the jadid movement and in the government of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic. After the creation of the Uzbek SSR and the [Tajik ASSR](/wiki/Tajik_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") in 1924/25 and especially after the Communist Party started exercising strong control over culture and society, Fitrat wrote less on political matters. Even though Communists accused Fitrat of deviating from the party line in his texts on culture, they are decidedly less political than his earlier texts.Allworth 2000, p. 23, 30", "According to Allworth, the reason for the almost complete disappearance of texts on society after 1919 was a missing secure opportunity of discussing non\\-orthodox interpretations.Allworth 2000, p. 23 Fitrat reacted to restrictions on press freedom by stopping to freely express his political views in printAllworth 2000, p. 24 and by choosing subjects that followed Bolshevik notions of society. Questions of family and education were exclusively discussed before 1920\\. Some of the most important works of Fitrat from the 1920s are his poems examining group identity.", "Similar categorizations of Fitrat's work can be found in a list of 90 works in 9 categories from 1990, a list of 134 titles compiled by Ilhom Gʻaniyev in 1994 and Yusuf Avcis list from 1997\\.Allworth 2000, p. 33–35 An issue is the disappearance of at least ten of Fitrat's works and the unclear dating of others, for example of *Muqaddas qon*, which was written sometime between 1917 and 1924\\. There are different dates for *Munozara* as well, but according to Hisao Komatsu Allworth's dating of 1327 [AH](/wiki/Hegira \"Hegira\") (1911/1912\\) can be called \"convincing\".Allworth 2000, p. 20", "Like many Central Asians, Fitrat started his writings with poems and later penned prose, dramas, journalistic works, comedies, political commentary, studies on the history of literature and the politics of education as well as polemical and ideological writings. Fitrat republished many of his earlier works in a reworked form or translated into another language.Allworth 2000, p. 44–68", "### Language and script", "According to Allworth, Fitrat's first language was \\- typically for an urban Bukharan of his time \\- Central Asian Persian (Tajik); the traditional language of education was [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic \"Arabic\"). When Fitrat was in Istanbul, [Ottoman Turkish language](/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language \"Ottoman Turkish language\") and Persian were in use there. Fitrat had a personal aversion to the broken Turki (dialectal Uzbek) in use in Tashkent which he taught himself out of a dictionary. Contemporary analyses describe Fitrat's Turki as \"peculiar\" and speculate that he learned the language without prolonged contact with native speakers.Allworth 2002, p. 6–10 Additionally, according to Allworth, Fitrat spoke [Urdu](/wiki/Urdu \"Urdu\") and [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\"); according to Adeeb Khalid, however, Fitrat did not speak any European language, and he doubts that Fitrat had functional knowledge of Russian.Khalid 2015, p. 54 Borjian sees the question of Fitrat's first language as open.", "Until the beginning of the political upheaval in Bukhara, Fitrat had published nearly exclusively in Persian (Tajik) language. His Persian writings of that time were, as per Adeeb Khalid, new not only in the sense of content but also because of their style: simple, direct and close to the spoken language.Khalid 2015, p. 306 However, in 1917 he changed over to a highly purist Turki, in which he even explained some words in footnotes. The aim of Fitrat's *Chigʻatoy gurungi* was the creation of a unified Turkish language on the basis of [Chagataian](/wiki/Chagatai_language \"Chagatai language\") language and literature, which was to be achieved by the distribution of the classic works of Navoiy and others and the purification from foreign influences (from Arabic, Persian and Russian) on Turki.Fierman 1991, p. 73", "In an article titled *Tilimiz* (\"Our language\") of 1919 Fitrat called the Uzbek language the \"unhappiest language of the world\". He defined its protection from external influence and the improvement of its reputation as additional goals to his target of purifying the literary language.Yoqub Siddiqovich Sayidov: *[The Role of Turkistan Jadids in the Formation and Development of the Uzbek National Language](http://oaji.net/articles/2015/488-1444821917.pdf)*. In: *IMPACT. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature*, vol. 3, No. 9 (S. 79–85\\), 2015\\. p. 80–83", "In these days, Fitrat denied that Persian was one of Central Asia's native languages. Assuming that the entire population of the region was Turkic notwithstanding the language they actually used in their everyday life was part of his Chagatayist body of thought.Khalid 2015, p. 258f According to reports, as minister of education Fitrat forbade the use of Tajik in his office. Literature about Fitrat suggests that a reason for his radical change from Persian to a Turkic language lies in the fact that the Jadid movement linked the Persian tongue to repressive regimes like the one of the Bukharan emir, while Turkic languages were identified with Muslim, that is Tatar and Ottoman, reformism.Ryan Brasher: *Ethnic Brother or Artificial Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in Afghanistan and Tajikistan*. In: *Berkeley Journal of Sociology*, vol. 55 (S. 97–120\\), 2011\\. p. 107", "In *Bedil* (1923\\), a bilingual work with passages in Persian and Turkic, Fitrat presents an Uzbek tongue influencesd by the Ottoman language as a counterpart to the traditional Persian poetic language, and therefore as a language suited for modernization.Allworth 2002, p. 107Samuel Hodgkin: *Classical Persian canons of the revolutionary press: Abū al\\-Qāsim Lāhūtīʼs circles in Istanbul and Moscow*. In: Hamid Rezaei Yazdi, Arshavez Mozafari (ed.): *Persian Literature and Modernity. Production and Reception*. Routledge, London/New York 2018, ISBN 9780429999611 (e\\-book) His partial return to Tajik during the 1920s can, according to Borjian, be ascribed to the end of Jadidism and the beginning of the suppression of Turkish nationalisms. Tajik national identity emerged later than was the case with Central Asia's Turks.Khalid 2015, p. 291–315 Therefore, the creation of the [Tajik SSR](/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic\") in 1929, out of the [Tajik ASSR](/wiki/Tajik_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") which had been a part of the [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic\"), \"may\" (Borjian) have motivated Fitrat to return to writing in Tajik. In Khalid's perception this step was a kind of exile and an attempt to disprove the allegations of Pan\\-Turkism. Fitrat himself named the promotion of Tajik drama as the motive.", "In Fitrat's time, the [Arabic alphabet](/wiki/Arabic_alphabet \"Arabic alphabet\") was predominant, not only as the script of Arabic language texts, but also for [texts in Persian](/wiki/Persian_alphabet \"Persian alphabet\") and [in Ottoman Turkish](/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_alphabet \"Ottoman Turkish alphabet\"). After 1923, in Turkestan a reformed Arabic alphabet with better identification of vowels came into use; however, it still could not accommodate the variety of vowels in the Turkic languages.", "Fitrat \"obviously\" ([William Fierman](/wiki/William_Fierman \"William Fierman\")) did not interpret the Arabic alphabet as [holy](/wiki/Holy \"Holy\") or as an important part of Islam:Fierman 1991, p. 153 Already in 1921 during a congress in Tashkent, he argued in favour of abolishing all forms of the Arabic letters apart from the initial form. This would have made possible easier teaching, learning and printing of texts. Furthermore, he wanted to abolish all letters which in Uzbek did not represent their own sound (for example the {{Script/Arabic\\|ث‎}}, [Ṯāʾ](/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE \"Ṯāʾ\")). In the end, Fitrat's proposal of a fully phonetic orthography which also applied to Arabic loanwords was accepted. Diacritical signs for vowels were introduced and the \"foreign\" letters were discontinued, but the up to four forms of each letter (for example, [{{Script/Arabic\\|ﻍ، ﻏ، ﻐ، ﻎ‎}}](/wiki/Ghayn \"Ghayn\")) survived.Fierman 1991, p. 63, 65Khalid 2015, p. 263f For Fitrat, the differentiation between \"hard\" and \"soft\" sounds was the \"soul\" of Turkish dialects. The demand to harmonize the orthography of foreign words according to the rules of [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony \"Vowel harmony\") was implemented in Bukhara and the ASSR Turkestan in 1923, even though many dialects did not know this differentiation.Fierman 1991, p. 67f", "[thumb\\|Extract out of *Qiyomat* (here: *Qjamat*) in a version published in Uzbek Latin script \\- here apparently strongly edited by the Soviet Union](/wiki/File:Qiyomat_1935.JPG \"Qiyomat 1935.JPG\")", "Until 1929, the alphabets of the Central Asian Turkic languages were [Latinized](/wiki/Latinisation_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Latinisation in the Soviet Union\"). Fitrat was a member of the *Committee for the new Latin alphabet in Uzbekistan*Allworth 2002, p. 105 and had significant impact on the latinization of Tajik, whose Latin script he wanted to harmonize as much as possible with the Uzbek one. [Cyrillic scripts](/wiki/Cyrillic_script \"Cyrillic script\") \\- as usual in Russian \\- were implemented for Uzbek and Tajik only after Fitrat's death.", "### Nonfiction", "In Fitrat's oeuvre a series of nonfiction and educational publications can be found: *Rohbari najot* (\"The leader towards deliverance\", 1916\\), for example, is an ethical treatise supporting the jadidist reforms with citations from the [Quran](/wiki/Quran \"Quran\").Khalid 1998, p. 175 Another of his books deals with the topics of correct Islamic householding, the parenting of children and the duties of husband and wife. The work also argues against [Polygyny](/wiki/Polygyny \"Polygyny\").Khalid 1998, p. 226 He also wrote on the history of [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"),Khalid 1998, p. 174 the grammar of the Tajik languageReinhard Eisener: *Auf den Spuren des tadschikischen Nationalismus*, Berlin 1991 *(ethnizitaet und gesellschaft occasional papers; vol. 30\\)*; p. 18\\. and music.", "In the anthologies *{{lang\\|uz\\|Eng eski turkiy adabiyot namunalari}}* (\"Examples from the oldest Turkic literature\", 1927\\) and *{{lang\\|uz\\|Oʻzbek adabiyoti namunalari}}* (\"Examples of Uzbek literature\", 1928\\), which were directed at more advanced students, Fitrat strongly diverged from the Communist line on nationality politics by denying a strict segregation between \"pure Uzbek\" literature and Central Asian literature in general.Allworth 2000, p. 16; Allworth 1990, p. 226 The article *{{lang\\|uz\\|Eski maktablarni nima qilish kerak?}}* (\"What should we do about the old schools?\", 1927\\) brought him the attention of the [GPU](/wiki/State_Political_Directorate \"State Political Directorate\"). He was classified as a friend of the [Basmachi movement](/wiki/Basmachi_movement \"Basmachi movement\"), which he however opposed.Allworth 2000, p. 27 Other noteworthy nonfiction publications are *{{lang\\|uz\\|Adabiyot qoidalari}}* (\"Theory of literature\", 1926\\) and *{{lang\\|uz\\|Fors shoiri Umar Hayyom}}* (\"The Persian poet [Omar Khayyam](/wiki/Omar_Khayyam \"Omar Khayyam\")\", 1929\\).", "Fitrat's scholarly interest in Music particularly applied to [shashmaqam](/wiki/Shashmaqam \"Shashmaqam\"). In 1923 Fitrat entrusted [Viktor Uspensky](/wiki/Viktor_Uspensky \"Viktor Uspensky\") to record the entire Bukharan shashmaqam, but without the original texts which, to the greatest extent, were in Persian. This way, Fitrat tried to turkify the Bukharan shashmaqamAlexander Djumaev:*Power Structures, Culture Policy, and Traditional Music in Soviet Central Asia*. In: *Yearbook for Traditional Music*, vol. 25 (p. 43–50\\), 1993\\. p. 47f or to present the heritage of Bukharan civilization as something Chagatai.Khalid 2015, p. 299 A version of the Bukharan shashmaqam written by the composer [Yunus Rajabiy](/wiki/Yunus_Rajabiy \"Yunus Rajabiy\") in 1930 by order of Fitrat was based on Uzbek poetry and became popular more than thirty years later.Jean During: *Authority and Music in the Cultures of Inner Asia*. In: *Ethnomusicology Forum*, vol. 14, No. 2 (p. 143–164\\), 2005\\. p. 147 *{{lang\\|uz\\|Oʻzbek klassik musiqasi va uning tarixi}}* (\"Uzbek classical music and its history\", 1927\\) fabricated the basis of a national musicology. His objective was to put the Uzbek national music into a context of ancient Turkic roots and to translate the common Central Asian musical heritage coined by Islamic, Arabic or Persian culture into a part of Uzbek nationality without mentioning Tajik.Alexander Djumaev: *Musical Heritage and National Identity in Uzbekistan*. In: *Ethnomusicology Forum*, vol. 14, No. 2 (p. 165–184\\), 2005\\. p. 171f According to Alexander Djumaev *{{lang\\|uz\\|Oʻzbek klassik musiqasi va uning tarixi}}* is more of a juridical document, which created and consolidated a national cultural identity, than it is a scientific source.Alexander Djumaev:*Power Structures, Culture Policy, and Traditional Music in Soviet Central Asia*. In: *Yearbook for Traditional Music*, vol. 25 (S. 43–50\\), 1993\\. p. 48", "### Poetry", "Fitrat was influenced by classical poetry during his first creative phase in a way similar to Sadriddin Ayni. He wrote poems in Persian language from his adolescence, first on religious subjects, later for pedagogic reasons and in Turki. Some of the traditional metres he used were [Mathnawi](/wiki/Mathnawi_%28poetic_form%29 \"Mathnawi (poetic form)\") and [Ghazal](/wiki/Ghazal \"Ghazal\").", "In *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni* (\"Satan's rebellion against God\", 1924\\), Fitrat was one of the first Turki poets to use Turkic [suffixes](/wiki/Suffix \"Suffix\") for [tail rhymes](/wiki/Rhyme%23Classification_by_position \"Rhyme#Classification by position\"), along the usual [internal rhymes](/wiki/Internal_rhyme \"Internal rhyme\").Allworth 2002, p. 189 In 1918, Fitrat introduced the critique of the Perso\\-Arabic system of prosody called *aruz* from Istanbul to Central Asia and demanded, together with others, the provision for Turkic metrics in Turkic poetry and the use of the meter called *barmoq*.Khalid 2015, p. 262Christopher Fort: *An Introduction to Choʻlpon and his* Night and Day. In: Abdulhamid Sulaymon oʻgʻli Choʻlpon: *Night and Day*. Translated and with an Introduction by Christopher Fort (p. 1–43\\). Academic Studies Press, Boston 2020, ISBN 978\\-1\\-64469\\-048\\-2; p. 12", "### Drama", "Allworth recognizes four different types of dialogue and drama in Fitrat's work: Discussions with strangers (1911\\-1913, for example in *Munozara* and *Bayonoti sayyohi hindi*), counseling with heroes from the past (1915\\-1919, *Muqaddas qon* and *Temurning sogʻonasi*), [allegorical](/wiki/Allegory \"Allegory\") dialogue (1920\\-1924, for example in *Qiyomat* and *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni*), and [dialectic](/wiki/Dialectic \"Dialectic\") (1926\\-1934, in *Toʻlqin*).Allworth 2002, p. 24f, 358 *Bedil* unites elements of \"allegorical dialogue\" and the discussion with strangers.", "In his dramatic work, Fitrat often uses the [passive voice](/wiki/Voice_%28grammar%29 \"Voice (grammar)\") as *genus verbi*. Using this technique, he avoided having to name protagonists. According to Allworth, this and the use of [homonyms](/wiki/Homonym \"Homonym\") created an effect of mystification which related to Allah having exclusive knowledge of all motives and deeds.Allworth 2002, p. 19", "#### Avoidance of conflict in dialogue", "The dispute (a genre called *{{lang\\|uz\\|munozara}}*, \"discussion\", in Uzbek) is a traditional, Islamic genre of literature that was present both in prose and in verse and which can be seen as the genre preceding theatre in Central Asia. The form Fitrat chose in *Munozara*, in which the side the author takes is evident, was less valued in classic poetry. Like drama or short story, the classic Turko\\-Persian literature did not know the genre of dialogue.Turaj Atabaki: *Enlightening the People. The Practice of Modernity in Central Asia and its Trans\\-Caspian Dependencies*. In: Gabriele Rasuly\\-Paleczek, Julia Katschnig: *Central Asia on Display. Proceedings of the VII. Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies; Vol. 2* (p. 171–182\\). LIT, Münster 2005; p. 173 Illiterate bystanders sometimes mistook performances for reality.Allworth 2002, p. 14", "In *Munozara*, Fitrat contrasted a progressive European with an arrogant [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah \"Madrasah\") teacher from Bukhara. The European argues factually and in an instructional manner and is superior to the teacher even in the area of [Islamic studies](/wiki/Islamic_studies \"Islamic studies\"). Finally, the *mudarris* is convinced and recognizes the \"new method\" as supreme. However, it is not shown how this conversion came to be. Since the classic Turko\\-Persian literature does not know real conflict, but only discourse between master and disciple, the conversation stays calm, even though the teacher sometimes shows his anger. In order to further reinforce his message, Fitrat added an epilogue to the dialogue in which he demanded reforms from the emir \\- many other \"reform dialogues\" did not have such an epilogue.Turaj Atabaki: *Enlightening the People. The Practice of Modernity in Central Asia and its Trans\\-Caspian Dependencies*. In: Gabriele Rasuly\\-Paleczek, Julia Katschnig: *Central Asia on Display. Proceedings of the VII. Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies; Vol. 2* (p. 171–182\\). LIT, Münster 2005; p. 175 Fitrat's method of having criticism of Bukharan society come from \"outside\", from a European and in neutral India, was one of the few accepted possibilities. He used a similar method in *Bayonoti sayyohi hindi*, in which an Indian tourist recalls his experiences in Bukhara.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 31 Stylistically, the work is strongly resemblant of the first Iranian novelist [Zayn al\\-Abedin Maraghei](/wiki/Zayn_al-Abedin_Maraghei \"Zayn al-Abedin Maraghei\").Khalid 1998, p. 111", "#### Dramas of ambiguity", "In 1983, still before Fitrat's reinterpretation during perestroika, Ahmad Aliev recognized an \"unconventional complexity\" in Fitrat's dramatic work.", "According to Edward A. Allworth Fitrat's dramas from the years between 1922 and 1924 \\- especially *Qiyomat*, *Bedil* and *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni* \\- are marked by subtleties and intended [ambiguities](/wiki/Ambiguity \"Ambiguity\").Allworth 2002, p. 25, 30, 37 The reason for this can found in the political and social circumstances in which these works were written. Through his choice of words, Fitrat made his subversive messages accessible only to those privy to contemporary Central Asian literature, while his anger found the form of indirect, entertaining criticism.Allworth 2002, p. 120 Zulkhumor Mirzaeva (Alisher Navoiy University for Uzbek language and literature) argued that in these works the Soviet censorship was deceived by an allegedly antireligious essence and that sociopolitical ideas were communicated that way. While Fitrat was canonized as a master of atheist esthetics he actually conveyed other meanings simultaneously. As per Mirzaeva it was only during Uzbekistan's independence that, starting with [Ninel Vladimirova](/wiki/Ninel_Vladimirova \"Ninel Vladimirova\"), a new interpretation of these works arose. According to this reinterpretation, Fitrat displayed the ignorance and [russification](/wiki/Russification \"Russification\") of his time by critique and ridicule. According to Mirzaeva's own analyses, Fitrat smuggled his \"fight for national liberation in an atheistic shell\".Zulkhumor Mirzaeva: *From Atheism to Anti\\-Colonialism: Fitrat's Writings from the 1910s to the 1930ies*. In: *International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering*, vol. 8, no. 3 (p. 3517–3525\\), 2019\\. p. 3518–3523", "*Shaytonning tangriga isyoni* is sometimes described as short drama, sometimes as epic poem (*[dastan](/wiki/Dastan \"Dastan\")*).Allworth 2002, p. 179 According to Allworth, Fitrat's polemic against [Stalinism](/wiki/Stalinism \"Stalinism\") is packed up in an allegorical dialogue between angels and the devil.Allworth 2002, p. 186 He interprets the use of the term *[Shaitan](/wiki/Shaitan \"Shaitan\")* (instead of *[Iblis](/wiki/Iblis \"Iblis\")* or *[Azazel](/wiki/Azazel%23In_Islam \"Azazel#In Islam\")*) for the devil as an example for the allegorical nature; the term is phonetically close to the name *Stalin* and was in fact used in Central Asia to invoke [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\").Allworth 2002, p. 190 Adeeb Khalid, however, disagrees and argues for reading the actual text and less \"between the lines\".Khalid 2015, p. 250", "The historical drama *Abulfayzxon* (\"[Abulfaiz Khan](/wiki/Abulfaiz_Khan \"Abulfaiz Khan\")\", last ruler of the Bukharan Janid dynasty of the Uzbek Khanate, 1924\\) draws parallels between historical and contemporary upheaval and [absolutisms](/wiki/Absolute_%28philosophy%29 \"Absolute (philosophy)\") in Bukhara and is held as first Uzbek [tragedy](/wiki/Tragedy \"Tragedy\").", "### Satire and Nasreddinic figures", "[thumb\\|left\\|*Nasreddin* statue in Bukhara](/wiki/File:Nasreddin_khodja_statue_in_Bukhara_detail.JPG \"Nasreddin khodja statue in Bukhara detail.JPG\")", "Like Abdulla Qodiriy and [Gʻafur Gʻulom](/wiki/G%CA%BBafur_G%CA%BBulom \"Gʻafur Gʻulom\"), Fitrat increasingly used satiric concepts in his stories from the 1920s onwards. Only a few years earlier, prose had started gaining ground in Central Asia; by including satirical elements, reformers like Fitrat succeeded in winning over the audience. These short stories were used in alphabetization campaigns, where traditional characters and mindsets were presented in a new, socially and politically relevant context.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 95 In order to stay similar to the structure of traditional [anecdotes](/wiki/Anecdote \"Anecdote\"), the writers refrained from direct agitation within the narration. Instead, they often added didactic epilogues where tradition would have demanded the summarized joke.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 103 After 1920, the \"victims\" of Fitrat's satire, besides mistaken ideologues and cumbersome bureaucrats, also included the Soviet rulers.Allworth 2002, p. 20–22", "Similarities to [Nasreddin](/wiki/Nasreddin \"Nasreddin\") stories can be found in several of Fitrat's texts, for example in *Munozara*, *Qiyomat* and *Oq mozor* (\"The white Tomb\", 1928\\), even though the actual Nasreddin figure is missing in the last text.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 104 In works like *Qiyomat*, Fitrat mixed traditionally fantastical elements with parts of fairy tales, historical or contemporary notions. According to Sigrid Kleinmichel, the confrontation of Pochamir (the protagonist of *Qiyomat*, an [opium](/wiki/Opium \"Opium\") smoker like Nasreddin( with the [Last Judgment](/wiki/Last_Judgment \"Last Judgment\") in a fever dream can be seen as a reference to [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\")' words of the [opium of the people](/wiki/Opium_of_the_people \"Opium of the people\"). *Qiyomat* was first reworked in 1935, which led to the loss of contemporary references; Fitrat transferred the story into the time of Tsarist rule. In the Soviet versions, the focus of the story is no longer on the colonial oppression of the Tsarist era and the satiric presentation of life in the Soviet Union, but on the criticism of religion.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 114–118; Allworth 2002, p. 41–58 Due to its \"atheism\", the Communists later translated the text into several languages, even though the satire originally was directed at Communist dogmas. Allworth sees a special humour and sense of wordplay in *Qiyomat*.Allworth 2002, p. 38", "### Incorporation of older Islamic literature", "In *Shaytonning tangriga isyoni*, Fitrat portrays *[Shaitan](/wiki/Shaitan \"Shaitan\")*, the devil, similar to the character known from the Quran and [dīwān literature](/wiki/Diwan_%28poetry%29 \"Diwan (poetry)\"). However, Fitrat expands the plot into a \"justified resistance\" against the despot [Allah](/wiki/Allah \"Allah\"). The quranic figures [Zaynab bint Jahsh](/wiki/Zaynab_bint_Jahsh \"Zaynab bint Jahsh\"), a wife of [Mohammed](/wiki/Mohammed \"Mohammed\"), and [Zayd ibn Harithah](/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Harithah \"Zayd ibn Harithah\") are central to *Zayid va Aynab* (\"Zaid and Zainab\", 1928\\). Yet, Fitrat's focus in this text is not on the question of [adoption in Islam](/wiki/Adoption_in_Islam \"Adoption in Islam\"), but on the prophet's sexuality and the selfishness of Mohammed's prophecy.Khalid 2015, p. 251f The angels [Harut and Marut](/wiki/Harut_and_Marut \"Harut and Marut\") are important to *Zahraning imoni* (\"Zahra's belief\", 1928\\). Both *Meʼroj* (\"[Mi'raj](/wiki/Isra_and_Mi%27raj \"Isra and Mi'raj\")\", 1928\\) and *Rohbari najot* are densely peppered with citations from the Quran.Kleinmichel 1993, p. 119–123 In *Qiyomat*, Pochamir encounters [Munkar and Nakir](/wiki/Munkar_and_Nakir \"Munkar and Nakir\"), but the numerous references to the Quran and the irreverence directed at Allah were only added under Soviet rule.Allworth 2002, p. 55, 57", "In *Bedil*, Fitrat cites the Indo\\-Persian [Sufi](/wiki/Sufism \"Sufism\") and poet [Bedil](/wiki/Qadir_Bux_Bedil \"Qadir Bux Bedil\"), but even though the subject of the text is religious he abstains from exclamations like *[In schā'a llāh](/wiki/Inshallah \"Inshallah\")* and the *[Basmala](/wiki/Basmala \"Basmala\")*.Allworth 2002, p. 114", "" ]
History ------- The Moraughtacunds and their site were discovered by [Captain John Smith](/wiki/Captain_John_Smith "Captain John Smith") in 1608\.{{Cite web \|title\=Morattico Timeline \|url\=http://www.people.vcu.edu/\~bmangum/timeline.htm \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-02 \|website\=www.people.vcu.edu}} He would mediate a feud between the Moraughtacunds and their neighbors, the [Rappahannock tribe](/wiki/Rappahannock_tribe "Rappahannock tribe"). The Moraughtacund tribe moved further west by 1650\. In 1706, the site was [deeded](/wiki/Deed "Deed") by [Joseph Ball I](/wiki/Joseph_Ball_%28Virginia_public_servant%29 "Joseph Ball (Virginia public servant)"), who originally purchased it in late 1698\. He began building Morattico Plantation, also referred to as Morattico. In 1711, Joseph Ball I would die, and the plantation would be inherited by his son Joseph Ball II. However, the site would mainly be run by Joseph Chinn, Ball's nephew, due to Joseph Ball II's primary residence in England. After Joseph Ball II died in 1760, the plantation's ownership was transferred to his daughter, Frances Ravenscroft Ball Downman. Her son, Joseph Ball Downman would take over the site after her death in 1782\. In 1799, James W.P Downman inherited the plantation after his father, Joseph Ball Downman's death. Eventually, James W.P Downman would die at a young age in 1834, leaving neither an heir nor a will. In 1835, his surviving siblings petitioned to have Morattico Plantation to be divided into eight equal parts, which succeeded. From 1835 to 1845, George William Downman and Sarah Downman purchased most of the plantation. George William Downman would die at an unknown date, leaving his share to Sarah Downman, his sister. Littleton Downman Mitchell, Sarah's nephew, would inherit the plantation after her death in 1849\. Around 1850, the original dwelling was dismantled by Downman himself. From 1864 to 1868, Downman lost his ownership of the site, and his creditors would purchase the plantation. Decades later, the 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane would reportedly cover the first floor of all buildings in the Morattico area except for the Morattico Plantation itself. L.C Thrift would then dismantle the plantation in 1935, using some materials from it to construct a two\-story farmhouse. The [Village of Morattico Historic District](/wiki/Village_of_Morattico_Historic_District "Village of Morattico Historic District") was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/listings/20111202\.htm\|title\=National Register of Historic Places Listings\|date\=2011\-12\-02\|work\=Weekly List of Actions Taken on Properties: 11/21/11 through 11/25/11\|publisher\=National Park Service}}
[ "History\n-------", "The Moraughtacunds and their site were discovered by [Captain John Smith](/wiki/Captain_John_Smith \"Captain John Smith\") in 1608\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Morattico Timeline \\|url\\=http://www.people.vcu.edu/\\~bmangum/timeline.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 \\|website\\=www.people.vcu.edu}} He would mediate a feud between the Moraughtacunds and their neighbors, the [Rappahannock tribe](/wiki/Rappahannock_tribe \"Rappahannock tribe\"). The Moraughtacund tribe moved further west by 1650\\.", "In 1706, the site was [deeded](/wiki/Deed \"Deed\") by [Joseph Ball I](/wiki/Joseph_Ball_%28Virginia_public_servant%29 \"Joseph Ball (Virginia public servant)\"), who originally purchased it in late 1698\\. He began building Morattico Plantation, also referred to as Morattico. In 1711, Joseph Ball I would die, and the plantation would be inherited by his son Joseph Ball II. However, the site would mainly be run by Joseph Chinn, Ball's nephew, due to Joseph Ball II's primary residence in England. After Joseph Ball II died in 1760, the plantation's ownership was transferred to his daughter, Frances Ravenscroft Ball Downman. Her son, Joseph Ball Downman would take over the site after her death in 1782\\.", "In 1799, James W.P Downman inherited the plantation after his father, Joseph Ball Downman's death. Eventually, James W.P Downman would die at a young age in 1834, leaving neither an heir nor a will. In 1835, his surviving siblings petitioned to have Morattico Plantation to be divided into eight equal parts, which succeeded.", "From 1835 to 1845, George William Downman and Sarah Downman purchased most of the plantation. George William Downman would die at an unknown date, leaving his share to Sarah Downman, his sister. Littleton Downman Mitchell, Sarah's nephew, would inherit the plantation after her death in 1849\\. Around 1850, the original dwelling was dismantled by Downman himself.", "From 1864 to 1868, Downman lost his ownership of the site, and his creditors would purchase the plantation. Decades later, the 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane would reportedly cover the first floor of all buildings in the Morattico area except for the Morattico Plantation itself. L.C Thrift would then dismantle the plantation in 1935, using some materials from it to construct a two\\-story farmhouse.", "The [Village of Morattico Historic District](/wiki/Village_of_Morattico_Historic_District \"Village of Morattico Historic District\") was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/listings/20111202\\.htm\\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Listings\\|date\\=2011\\-12\\-02\\|work\\=Weekly List of Actions Taken on Properties: 11/21/11 through 11/25/11\\|publisher\\=National Park Service}}", "" ]
U.S. Army --------- [right\|thumb\|225px\|Aircrew Badge, World War II Army Air Forces design](/wiki/File:USAAF_Aircrew_Badge.png "USAAF Aircrew Badge.png") [right\|thumb\|225px\|Army Master Aviation Badge](/wiki/File:MasterAviator.gif "MasterAviator.gif") The first version of the Aircrew Badge was issued by the [Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") during the Second World War. The badge was similar in design to the [Aviator Badge](/wiki/United_States_Aviator_Badge "United States Aviator Badge"), however, and displayed an emblem denoting enlisted status on its circular shield, or [escutcheon](/wiki/Escutcheon_%28heraldry%29 "Escutcheon (heraldry)"), centered between two wings. The emblem featured the arms of the United States of America, in clear relief generally against a horizontally lined background, on a disk with a raised rim. Anyone trained in flight operations was authorized to wear this badge, including pilots, bombardiers, navigators, flight engineers, radio men and gunners. The badge was also awarded to certain ground personnel at the discretion of their commanding officer. Non\-crewmembers eligible for the badge were individuals with flying status such as aircraft maintenance supervisors and technical inspectors. For example, aircrew badges were issued to Automatic Flight Control Equipment (A.F.C.E.) and Bombsight Shop personnel and others essential to "keep 'em flying" who flew instructional and maintenance flights but who did not actually take part in combat missions during World War II. With the creation of the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") as a separate branch of service in 1947, the Army was left without an Aircrew Badge until the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"). At that time, to recognize the continued use of Army aviation, the Aircraft Crewman Badge was created. The badge was issued in three degrees: Basic, Senior, and Master. The level of seniority depended on the number of flight hours obtained and years of service in the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army"). On February 29, 2000, the Department of the Army officially changed the name of the Aircraft Crewman Badge to the Army Aviation Badge. The badge itself was not altered; however, the change was made retroactive to 1947, requiring updates to military records upon request from the military service member. This change essentially made army aircrew wings an "MOS Badge" awarded to all aviation MOSs, including non flying jobs such as Aviation Operations and Air Traffic Controllers. Thus, a crew chief who actually engages in aerial flight has no distinction from an air traffic controller because both are on flight status. Although the Army Aviation Badge is intended for enlisted personnel, in rare cases the decoration can be awarded to officers. For non\-rated Army members who qualify for the [Astronaut Badge](/wiki/Astronaut_Badge "Astronaut Badge"), but have not yet participated in a qualifying [spaceflight](/wiki/Spaceflight "Spaceflight"), the Army Aviation Badge may be awarded with the astronaut device appearing on the central shield.
[ "U.S. Army\n---------", "[right\\|thumb\\|225px\\|Aircrew Badge, World War II Army Air Forces design](/wiki/File:USAAF_Aircrew_Badge.png \"USAAF Aircrew Badge.png\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|225px\\|Army Master Aviation Badge](/wiki/File:MasterAviator.gif \"MasterAviator.gif\")", "The first version of the Aircrew Badge was issued by the [Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") during the Second World War. The badge was similar in design to the [Aviator Badge](/wiki/United_States_Aviator_Badge \"United States Aviator Badge\"), however, and displayed an emblem denoting enlisted status on its circular shield, or [escutcheon](/wiki/Escutcheon_%28heraldry%29 \"Escutcheon (heraldry)\"), centered between two wings. The emblem featured the arms of the United States of America, in clear relief generally against a horizontally lined background, on a disk with a raised rim.", "Anyone trained in flight operations was authorized to wear this badge, including pilots, bombardiers, navigators, flight engineers, radio men and gunners. The badge was also awarded to certain ground personnel at the discretion of their commanding officer. Non\\-crewmembers eligible for the badge were individuals with flying status such as aircraft maintenance supervisors and technical inspectors. For example, aircrew badges were issued to Automatic Flight Control Equipment (A.F.C.E.) and Bombsight Shop personnel and others essential to \"keep 'em flying\" who flew instructional and maintenance flights but who did not actually take part in combat missions during World War II.", "With the creation of the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") as a separate branch of service in 1947, the Army was left without an Aircrew Badge until the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"). At that time, to recognize the continued use of Army aviation, the Aircraft Crewman Badge was created. The badge was issued in three degrees: Basic, Senior, and Master. The level of seniority depended on the number of flight hours obtained and years of service in the [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\").", "On February 29, 2000, the Department of the Army officially changed the name of the Aircraft Crewman Badge to the Army Aviation Badge. The badge itself was not altered; however, the change was made retroactive to 1947, requiring updates to military records upon request from the military service member. This change essentially made army aircrew wings an \"MOS Badge\" awarded to all aviation MOSs, including non flying jobs such as Aviation Operations and Air Traffic Controllers. Thus, a crew chief who actually engages in aerial flight has no distinction from an air traffic controller because both are on flight status.", "Although the Army Aviation Badge is intended for enlisted personnel, in rare cases the decoration can be awarded to officers.", "For non\\-rated Army members who qualify for the [Astronaut Badge](/wiki/Astronaut_Badge \"Astronaut Badge\"), but have not yet participated in a qualifying [spaceflight](/wiki/Spaceflight \"Spaceflight\"), the Army Aviation Badge may be awarded with the astronaut device appearing on the central shield.", "" ]
U.S. Navy – U.S. Marine Corps – U.S. Coast Guard ------------------------------------------------ {{Further\|Badges of the United States Navy\|Badges of the United States Marine Corps\|Badges of the United States Coast Guard}} [thumb\|225px\|right\|Naval (Navy, Marine Corps, Coast Guard) Aircrew Badge](/wiki/File:En-NavyAircrew.jpg "En-NavyAircrew.jpg") The [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy"), [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") and [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard "United States Coast Guard") issue the same version of the Aircrew Badge. The badge is a variation on the [Naval Aviation Observer Badge](/wiki/Observer_Badge "Observer Badge") with the letters AC centered on the badge's front. In 2009, the Navy converted the badge from a qualification to a warfare designator like the Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist (EAWS), Enlisted Submarine Warfare Specialist, and Enlisted Surface Warfare Specialist (ESWS). The title was changed from Naval Aircrew (NAC) to Naval Aircrew Warfare Specialist (NAWS) and permitted USN Naval Aircrewman who also held the EAWS to place the Naval Aircrewman insignia in a senior position over their ribbons.MILPERSMAN 1220\-020, dated 17 June 2009 Known as Naval Aircrew Wings and Coast Guard Aircrew Wings, it is authorized for personnel who have undergone extensive training in flight operations of naval aircraft. Such training includes weapons management, electronic warfare, and water survival. Contrary to most other services, naval aircrewmen do not receive their wings after aircrew school. Rather, they receive (not awarded) their wings only after completing their platform respective Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS) (roughly 1 year past the completion of training). Marine Crew Chiefs before Dec. 1971 were allowed to wear them, after 1971 the Marine Corps started awarding them to Crew Chiefs \& all Aircrewman. The Naval and Coast Guard Aircrew Wings are issued in a single degree with no upgrade devices used or authorized. A Naval enlisted person who has qualified for his or her Naval Aircrew Badge places the initials "NAC" in parentheses after his or her rate and rating; for example, a Chief Cryptologic Technician Interpretive, after having qualified for their NAC Badge, is identified as a CTIC (NAC). Most Officer Aircrew members who are not [Naval Aviators](/wiki/Naval_Aviator "Naval Aviator") (i.e., pilots) are [Naval Flight Officers](/wiki/Naval_Flight_Officer "Naval Flight Officer") and receive the [Naval Flight Officer](/wiki/Naval_Flight_Officer "Naval Flight Officer") insignia after completion of a flight training syllabus nearly as long as that of their pilot counterparts. Certain naval officers (most notably selected intelligence and cryptology officers assigned to [P\-3 Orion](/wiki/P-3_Orion "P-3 Orion"), [P\-8 Poseidon](/wiki/P-8_Poseidon "P-8 Poseidon"), [E\-6 Mercury](/wiki/E-6_Mercury "E-6 Mercury") and [EP\-3E Aries II](/wiki/EP-3E_Aries_II "EP-3E Aries II") aircraft missions) can qualify for the [Naval Aviation Observer Badge](/wiki/Observer_Badge "Observer Badge") following completion of a structured Personnel Qualification Standard (PQS) syllabus and a check flight qualifying them for observer duties on that aircraft. The Marine Corps also previously used this badge for Aerial Observers in the since\-retired [OV\-10 Bronco](/wiki/OV-10_Bronco "OV-10 Bronco") and [OA\-4M Skyhawk II](/wiki/A-4_Skyhawk "A-4 Skyhawk") until eventually inputting these officers into SNFO training and designating them as Naval Flight Officers. Unlike Naval Aviators, Naval Flight Officers and Naval Flight Surgeons, Naval Aviation Observers have not completed a formal undergraduate flight training syllabus under the auspices of the Chief of Naval Air Training (CNATRA) and are not considered to be "aeronautically designated" officers in the Navy or Marine Corps. [thumb\|225px\|right\|Naval Aviation Observer Badge](/wiki/File:Flightmetor.jpg "Flightmetor.jpg") Aircrew wings are issued almost exclusively to enlisted aviation ratings, with the exception of other sailors in other naval ratings who are assigned to aircrew billets, including but not limited to Cryptologists (CT), Information Technicians (IT), Intelligence Specialists (IS), and Hospital Corpsmen (HM). Former enlisted personnel who attain officer status are permitted to continue wear of the insignia. However, for the first three years of enlistment these wings are unobtainable due to recent changes in qualification requirements. ### Combat Aircrew Insignia [thumb\|U.S. Marine Corps Combat Aircrew Badge](/wiki/File:USMC_Combat_Aircrew_Badge.jpg "USMC Combat Aircrew Badge.jpg") During World War II, numerous fleet requests occurred to recognize the work of the enlisted aircrew members flying in combat, the result was the creation of the Air Crew Insignia on 18 May 1943\. While primarily an enlisted insignia, officers were eligible if they met the same criteria of Bureau of Naval Personnel (BUPERS) Circular Letter 90\-43\. The design was essentially the same as today's insignia except all pewter silver with no gold. A subsequent BUPERS Circular Letter 395\-44 dated 30 Dec 1944, changed the design to the same as today with the modification of the gold center disc. In 1958, the insignia was redesignated the *Combat Aircrew Insignia*. In 1978, the Navy removed the insignia as authorized wear and then in 1994, the Marine Corps reestablished the insignia as it is known today as the Marine Combat Aircrew Badge. It is a decoration of the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") which is awarded to those enlisted personnel who have served as aircrew members on board combat flights. [thumb\|350px\|right\|Examples of various aircrew badges at the [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum "National Air and Space Museum")](/wiki/File:Aviation_Wings_%28smithsonian_air_and_space%29.jpg "Aviation Wings (smithsonian air and space).jpg") For those who have participated in actual combat missions, gold [service stars](/wiki/Service_stars "Service stars") are worn pinned to the top of the decoration. [MCO 1000\.6G Para 3310\.4](http://www.usmc.mil/news/publications/Documents/MCO%20P1000.6G.pdf) Upon earning more than three gold stars, silver stars are awarded in recognition of three gold stars, meaning three silver equates to nine gold plus the initial award of the combat aircrew device. [MCO P1020 Para 4002\.1F](https://web.archive.org/web/20100829081426/http://www.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/sites/mcub/library/MCUR/URCH4.htm#UR4002) The Marine Combat Aircrew Badge can be issued to service members of both the Marine Corps and United States Navy (while serving in a Marine Corps aviation squadron). Current regulations require a set number of combat 'points' to be earned before wear is authorized. It is not authorized to wear both the Combat Aircrew and Naval Aircrew pins at the same time. If an individual service member has been awarded both badges, they may decide which pin to wear on their uniform. A sailor who has qualified for the Combat Aircrew Badge and at least one gold star places the initials "CAC" in parentheses after their rate and rating; for example, a Hospital Corpsman 2nd Class (HM2\), after having qualified for their CAC Badge, is identified as a HM2 (CAC).
[ "U.S. Navy – U.S. Marine Corps – U.S. Coast Guard\n------------------------------------------------", "{{Further\\|Badges of the United States Navy\\|Badges of the United States Marine Corps\\|Badges of the United States Coast Guard}}\n[thumb\\|225px\\|right\\|Naval (Navy, Marine Corps, Coast Guard) Aircrew Badge](/wiki/File:En-NavyAircrew.jpg \"En-NavyAircrew.jpg\")", "The [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"), [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") and [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard \"United States Coast Guard\") issue the same version of the Aircrew Badge. The badge is a variation on the [Naval Aviation Observer Badge](/wiki/Observer_Badge \"Observer Badge\") with the letters AC centered on the badge's front.", "In 2009, the Navy converted the badge from a qualification to a warfare designator like the Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist (EAWS), Enlisted Submarine Warfare Specialist, and Enlisted Surface Warfare Specialist (ESWS). The title was changed from Naval Aircrew (NAC) to Naval Aircrew Warfare Specialist (NAWS) and permitted USN Naval Aircrewman who also held the EAWS to place the Naval Aircrewman insignia in a senior position over their ribbons.MILPERSMAN 1220\\-020, dated 17 June 2009", "Known as Naval Aircrew Wings and Coast Guard Aircrew Wings, it is authorized for personnel who have undergone extensive training in flight operations of naval aircraft. Such training includes weapons management, electronic warfare, and water survival. Contrary to most other services, naval aircrewmen do not receive their wings after aircrew school. Rather, they receive (not awarded) their wings only after completing their platform respective Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS) (roughly 1 year past the completion of training). Marine Crew Chiefs before Dec. 1971 were allowed to wear them, after 1971 the Marine Corps started awarding them to Crew Chiefs \\& all Aircrewman.", "The Naval and Coast Guard Aircrew Wings are issued in a single degree with no upgrade devices used or authorized. A Naval enlisted person who has qualified for his or her Naval Aircrew Badge places the initials \"NAC\" in parentheses after his or her rate and rating; for example, a Chief Cryptologic Technician Interpretive, after having qualified for their NAC Badge, is identified as a CTIC (NAC).", "Most Officer Aircrew members who are not [Naval Aviators](/wiki/Naval_Aviator \"Naval Aviator\") (i.e., pilots) are [Naval Flight Officers](/wiki/Naval_Flight_Officer \"Naval Flight Officer\") and receive the [Naval Flight Officer](/wiki/Naval_Flight_Officer \"Naval Flight Officer\") insignia after completion of a flight training syllabus nearly as long as that of their pilot counterparts. Certain naval officers (most notably selected intelligence and cryptology officers assigned to [P\\-3 Orion](/wiki/P-3_Orion \"P-3 Orion\"), [P\\-8 Poseidon](/wiki/P-8_Poseidon \"P-8 Poseidon\"), [E\\-6 Mercury](/wiki/E-6_Mercury \"E-6 Mercury\") and [EP\\-3E Aries II](/wiki/EP-3E_Aries_II \"EP-3E Aries II\") aircraft missions) can qualify for the [Naval Aviation Observer Badge](/wiki/Observer_Badge \"Observer Badge\") following completion of a structured Personnel Qualification Standard (PQS) syllabus and a check flight qualifying them for observer duties on that aircraft. The Marine Corps also previously used this badge for Aerial Observers in the since\\-retired [OV\\-10 Bronco](/wiki/OV-10_Bronco \"OV-10 Bronco\") and [OA\\-4M Skyhawk II](/wiki/A-4_Skyhawk \"A-4 Skyhawk\") until eventually inputting these officers into SNFO training and designating them as Naval Flight Officers. Unlike Naval Aviators, Naval Flight Officers and Naval Flight Surgeons, Naval Aviation Observers have not completed a formal undergraduate flight training syllabus under the auspices of the Chief of Naval Air Training (CNATRA) and are not considered to \nbe \"aeronautically designated\" officers in the Navy or Marine Corps. \n[thumb\\|225px\\|right\\|Naval Aviation Observer Badge](/wiki/File:Flightmetor.jpg \"Flightmetor.jpg\")", "Aircrew wings are issued almost exclusively to enlisted aviation ratings, with the exception of other sailors in other naval ratings who are assigned to aircrew billets, including but not limited to Cryptologists (CT), Information Technicians (IT), Intelligence Specialists (IS), and Hospital Corpsmen (HM). Former enlisted personnel who attain officer status are permitted to continue wear of the insignia. However, for the first three years of enlistment these wings are unobtainable due to recent changes in qualification requirements.", "### Combat Aircrew Insignia", "[thumb\\|U.S. Marine Corps Combat Aircrew Badge](/wiki/File:USMC_Combat_Aircrew_Badge.jpg \"USMC Combat Aircrew Badge.jpg\")\nDuring World War II, numerous fleet requests occurred to recognize the work of the enlisted aircrew members flying in combat, the result was the creation of the Air Crew Insignia on 18 May 1943\\. While primarily an enlisted insignia, officers were eligible if they met the same criteria of Bureau of Naval Personnel (BUPERS) Circular Letter 90\\-43\\. The design was essentially the same as today's insignia except all pewter silver with no gold. A subsequent BUPERS Circular Letter 395\\-44 dated 30 Dec 1944, changed the design to the same as today with the modification of the gold center disc. In 1958, the insignia was redesignated the *Combat Aircrew Insignia*. In 1978, the Navy removed the insignia as authorized wear and then in 1994, the Marine Corps reestablished the insignia as it is known today as the Marine Combat Aircrew Badge. It is a decoration of the [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") which is awarded to those enlisted personnel who have served as aircrew members on board combat flights. \n[thumb\\|350px\\|right\\|Examples of various aircrew badges at the [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum \"National Air and Space Museum\")](/wiki/File:Aviation_Wings_%28smithsonian_air_and_space%29.jpg \"Aviation Wings (smithsonian air and space).jpg\")\nFor those who have participated in actual combat missions, gold [service stars](/wiki/Service_stars \"Service stars\") are worn pinned to the top of the decoration. [MCO 1000\\.6G Para 3310\\.4](http://www.usmc.mil/news/publications/Documents/MCO%20P1000.6G.pdf) Upon earning more than three gold stars, silver stars are awarded in recognition of three gold stars, meaning three silver equates to nine gold plus the initial award of the combat aircrew device. [MCO P1020 Para 4002\\.1F](https://web.archive.org/web/20100829081426/http://www.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/sites/mcub/library/MCUR/URCH4.htm#UR4002)", "The Marine Combat Aircrew Badge can be issued to service members of both the Marine Corps and United States Navy (while serving in a Marine Corps aviation squadron). Current regulations require a set number of combat 'points' to be earned before wear is authorized. It is not authorized to wear both the Combat Aircrew and Naval Aircrew pins at the same time. If an individual service member has been awarded both badges, they may decide which pin to wear on their uniform. A sailor who has qualified for the Combat Aircrew Badge and at least one gold star places the initials \"CAC\" in parentheses after their rate and rating; for example, a Hospital Corpsman 2nd Class (HM2\\), after having qualified for their CAC Badge, is identified as a HM2 (CAC).", "" ]
Professional wrestling career ----------------------------- ### World Wrestling All\-Stars (2001–2002\) After working as a [bodyguard](/wiki/Bodyguard "Bodyguard") for [multimillionaire](/wiki/Millionaire "Millionaire") [Rene Rivkin](/wiki/Rene_Rivkin "Rene Rivkin"), Jones began a career in wrestling during this time working for [Ultimate Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Ultimate_Pro_Wrestling "Ultimate Pro Wrestling"). Jones first gained fame working in [World Wrestling All\-Stars](/wiki/World_Wrestling_All-Stars "World Wrestling All-Stars"), making a large impression at the first WWA [pay\-per\-view](/wiki/Pay-per-view "Pay-per-view") "[Inception](/wiki/WWA_Inception "WWA Inception")", where he was accompanied to the ring by [Rove McManus](/wiki/Rove_McManus "Rove McManus"). However, he was defeated after Rove was smashed with [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett "Jeff Jarrett")'s guitar and Jones was hit with the [Stroke](/wiki/The_Stroke_%28wrestling_maneuver%29 "The Stroke (wrestling maneuver)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\=2\&nr\=361\&view\=matches\|title\=Nathan Jones « Wrestlers Database « CAGEMATCH \- The Internet Wrestling Database\|website\=www.cagematch.net\|access\-date\=19 December 2019}} During his time in the WWA, Nathan won the [WWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship "WWA World Heavyweight Championship") on 7 April 2002 before losing the belt to [Scott Steiner](/wiki/Scott_Steiner "Scott Steiner") only 5 days later. ### Pro Wrestling Zero1\-Max (2002\) After the title loss, Jones began performing for [Pro Wrestling Zero1\-Max](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Zero1 "Pro Wrestling Zero1") in June.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\=2\&nr\=361\&view\=matches\&gimmick\=\&jahr\=\&liga\=\&region\=\&art\=\&artmatches\=\&suchbegriff\=Suchbegriff\&Start\=51\|title\=Nathan Jones « Wrestlers Database « CAGEMATCH \- The Internet Wrestling Database\|website\=www.cagematch.net\|access\-date\=19 December 2019}} On 20 October, Jones and [Jon Heidenreich](/wiki/Jon_Heidenreich "Jon Heidenreich") defeated [Masato Tanaka](/wiki/Masato_Tanaka "Masato Tanaka") and [Shinjiro Otani](/wiki/Shinjiro_Otani "Shinjiro Otani") to win the [NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_Intercontinental_Tag_Team_Championship "NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship"). On 25 October, Jones and Heidenreich successfully retained the title against [Jimmy Snuka Jr.](/wiki/Deuce_%28wrestler%29 "Deuce (wrestler)") [For the 2nd time.](/wiki/For_the_2nd_time. "For the 2nd time.") and [The Predator](/wiki/Sylvester_Terkay "Sylvester Terkay") before losing the title the next day to [Naoya Ogawa](/wiki/Naoya_Ogawa "Naoya Ogawa") and [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto "Shinya Hashimoto"). ### World Wrestling Entertainment (2002–2003\) After Jones initially signed his contract with [World Wrestling Entertainment](/wiki/WWE "WWE") (WWE), he was unable to work in the United States because of [visa](/wiki/Visa_%28document%29 "Visa (document)") issues stemming from his criminal history.{{cite book\|title\=Wrestling's Made Men: Breaking the WWE's Glass Ceiling\|author\=Keith, Scott\|page\=44\|year\=2006\|publisher\=Citadel Press}} In late 2002 and early 2003, Jones began performing in [dark matches](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Dark_match "List of professional wrestling terms#Dark match") for [World Wrestling Entertainment](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Entertainment "World Wrestling Entertainment").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profile/nathan\-jones/\|title\=Nathan Jones \- OWW\|access\-date\=12 April 2023}} He was originally promoted as a "[Hannibal Lecter](/wiki/Hannibal_Lecter "Hannibal Lecter")" type character. On 10 April 2003 episode of *[SmackDown!](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown "WWE SmackDown")*, Jones made his televised WWE in\-ring debut and defeated [Bill DeMott](/wiki/Bill_DeMott "Bill DeMott"). Upon debuting, Jones' original character was nixed, and he was put into a storyline with [The Undertaker](/wiki/The_Undertaker "The Undertaker") as his protégé and helper during The Undertaker's feud with [A\-Train](/wiki/Matt_Bloom "Matt Bloom") and [Big Show](/wiki/Paul_Wight "Paul Wight"). At [WrestleMania XIX](/wiki/WrestleMania_XIX "WrestleMania XIX"), Jones and The Undertaker were scheduled to face Big Show and A\-Train in a tag team match, but at the last minute, the match was made a handicap match instead. On screen, Jones was attacked pre\-match and left injured. Near the closing moments of the match, Jones reappeared and attacked Big Show, enabling The Undertaker to pin A\-Train for the victory. Jones was then sent to [Ohio Valley Wrestling](/wiki/Ohio_Valley_Wrestling "Ohio Valley Wrestling") (OVW) to improve his skills. Jones was then absent from television for several months until returning in the fall of 2003 as a [villain](/wiki/Heel_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Heel (professional wrestling)") known by the nickname "The Colossus of Boggo Road", a title referring to his time spent in [Boggo Road Gaol](/wiki/Boggo_Road_Gaol "Boggo Road Gaol"). He was paired with [Paul Heyman](/wiki/Paul_Heyman "Paul Heyman") on\-screen, with Heyman taking on the role of SmackDown! General Manager. He was also immediately placed into [Brock Lesnar](/wiki/Brock_Lesnar "Brock Lesnar")'s [Survivor Series](/wiki/Survivor_Series_%282003%29 "Survivor Series (2003)") team, which also included A\-Train, Big Show, and [Matt Morgan](/wiki/Matt_Morgan_%28wrestler%29 "Matt Morgan (wrestler)") in order to compete against Lesnar's rival [Kurt Angle](/wiki/Kurt_Angle "Kurt Angle") and his team. At Survivor Series, Jones was eliminated by Angle after he submitted to the [ankle lock](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Ankle_lock "Professional wrestling holds#Ankle lock"). Team Lesnar was defeated by Team Angle and Jones was then relegated to [interfere](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23R "List of professional wrestling terms#R") in Lesnar's matches along with the other members of Team Lesnar. He was also placed in matches by either Lesnar or Heyman to aid them. On 6 December 2003, Jones quit the company due to the rigor of WWE's heavy travel schedules while on tour in [Perth](/wiki/Perth "Perth"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia").{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2003/12/13/286307\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120718111942/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2003/12/13/286307\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=18 July 2012\|title\=TJ Ain't Bob Hope\|date\=13 December 2003\|last\=Madigan\|first\=TJ\|access\-date\=29 November 2008\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}} ### Post\-WWE and retirement After leaving WWE, Jones was scheduled to make his pro wrestling return in 2004 at the Australian Wrestling Supershow III, booked against [Mark Mercedes](/wiki/Mark_Mercedes "Mark Mercedes"). Jones [did not appear](/wiki/No-show_%28professional_wrestling%29 "No-show (professional wrestling)") as advertised and a [battle royal](/wiki/Battle_royal "Battle royal") was held following an angry [shoot](/wiki/Shoot_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Shoot (professional wrestling)") promo on Jones by Mercedes and promoter [Andy Raymond](/wiki/Andy_Raymond "Andy Raymond").{{cite news\|first\=Scott\|last\=Beeby\|date\=26 July 2020\|url\=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/224344\-australian\-wrestling\-chronicles\-part\-two\|title\=Australian Wrestling Chronicles (Part Two)\|work\=Bleacher Report\|access\-date\=19 March 2018}} In 2005, he wrestled three matches for [World Series Wrestling](/wiki/World_Series_Wrestling "World Series Wrestling"). On 5 October, he defeated Lee Star and on 7 and 8 October, he defeated Mark Hilton. After his last match with Hilton, Jones immediately retired from wrestling. In 2008, Jones signed with [Total Nonstop Action Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling "Total Nonstop Action Wrestling"), but nerve damage caused by a cement truck hitting his left arm kept him sidelined for the first three months. He never wrestled for the promotion.
[ "Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------", "### World Wrestling All\\-Stars (2001–2002\\)", "After working as a [bodyguard](/wiki/Bodyguard \"Bodyguard\") for [multimillionaire](/wiki/Millionaire \"Millionaire\") [Rene Rivkin](/wiki/Rene_Rivkin \"Rene Rivkin\"), Jones began a career in wrestling during this time working for [Ultimate Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Ultimate_Pro_Wrestling \"Ultimate Pro Wrestling\"). Jones first gained fame working in [World Wrestling All\\-Stars](/wiki/World_Wrestling_All-Stars \"World Wrestling All-Stars\"), making a large impression at the first WWA [pay\\-per\\-view](/wiki/Pay-per-view \"Pay-per-view\") \"[Inception](/wiki/WWA_Inception \"WWA Inception\")\", where he was accompanied to the ring by [Rove McManus](/wiki/Rove_McManus \"Rove McManus\"). However, he was defeated after Rove was smashed with [Jeff Jarrett](/wiki/Jeff_Jarrett \"Jeff Jarrett\")'s guitar and Jones was hit with the [Stroke](/wiki/The_Stroke_%28wrestling_maneuver%29 \"The Stroke (wrestling maneuver)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\\=2\\&nr\\=361\\&view\\=matches\\|title\\=Nathan Jones « Wrestlers Database « CAGEMATCH \\- The Internet Wrestling Database\\|website\\=www.cagematch.net\\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019}}", "During his time in the WWA, Nathan won the [WWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/WWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"WWA World Heavyweight Championship\") on 7 April 2002 before losing the belt to [Scott Steiner](/wiki/Scott_Steiner \"Scott Steiner\") only 5 days later.", "### Pro Wrestling Zero1\\-Max (2002\\)", "After the title loss, Jones began performing for [Pro Wrestling Zero1\\-Max](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_Zero1 \"Pro Wrestling Zero1\") in June.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\\=2\\&nr\\=361\\&view\\=matches\\&gimmick\\=\\&jahr\\=\\&liga\\=\\&region\\=\\&art\\=\\&artmatches\\=\\&suchbegriff\\=Suchbegriff\\&Start\\=51\\|title\\=Nathan Jones « Wrestlers Database « CAGEMATCH \\- The Internet Wrestling Database\\|website\\=www.cagematch.net\\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2019}} On 20 October, Jones and [Jon Heidenreich](/wiki/Jon_Heidenreich \"Jon Heidenreich\") defeated [Masato Tanaka](/wiki/Masato_Tanaka \"Masato Tanaka\") and [Shinjiro Otani](/wiki/Shinjiro_Otani \"Shinjiro Otani\") to win the [NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_Intercontinental_Tag_Team_Championship \"NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship\"). On 25 October, Jones and Heidenreich successfully retained the title against [Jimmy Snuka Jr.](/wiki/Deuce_%28wrestler%29 \"Deuce (wrestler)\") [For the 2nd time.](/wiki/For_the_2nd_time. \"For the 2nd time.\") and [The Predator](/wiki/Sylvester_Terkay \"Sylvester Terkay\") before losing the title the next day to [Naoya Ogawa](/wiki/Naoya_Ogawa \"Naoya Ogawa\") and [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto \"Shinya Hashimoto\").", "### World Wrestling Entertainment (2002–2003\\)", "After Jones initially signed his contract with [World Wrestling Entertainment](/wiki/WWE \"WWE\") (WWE), he was unable to work in the United States because of [visa](/wiki/Visa_%28document%29 \"Visa (document)\") issues stemming from his criminal history.{{cite book\\|title\\=Wrestling's Made Men: Breaking the WWE's Glass Ceiling\\|author\\=Keith, Scott\\|page\\=44\\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Citadel Press}} In late 2002 and early 2003, Jones began performing in [dark matches](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Dark_match \"List of professional wrestling terms#Dark match\") for [World Wrestling Entertainment](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Entertainment \"World Wrestling Entertainment\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profile/nathan\\-jones/\\|title\\=Nathan Jones \\- OWW\\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2023}} He was originally promoted as a \"[Hannibal Lecter](/wiki/Hannibal_Lecter \"Hannibal Lecter\")\" type character. On 10 April 2003 episode of *[SmackDown!](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown \"WWE SmackDown\")*, Jones made his televised WWE in\\-ring debut and defeated [Bill DeMott](/wiki/Bill_DeMott \"Bill DeMott\").", "Upon debuting, Jones' original character was nixed, and he was put into a storyline with [The Undertaker](/wiki/The_Undertaker \"The Undertaker\") as his protégé and helper during The Undertaker's feud with [A\\-Train](/wiki/Matt_Bloom \"Matt Bloom\") and [Big Show](/wiki/Paul_Wight \"Paul Wight\"). At [WrestleMania XIX](/wiki/WrestleMania_XIX \"WrestleMania XIX\"), Jones and The Undertaker were scheduled to face Big Show and A\\-Train in a tag team match, but at the last minute, the match was made a handicap match instead. On screen, Jones was attacked pre\\-match and left injured. Near the closing moments of the match, Jones reappeared and attacked Big Show, enabling The Undertaker to pin A\\-Train for the victory. Jones was then sent to [Ohio Valley Wrestling](/wiki/Ohio_Valley_Wrestling \"Ohio Valley Wrestling\") (OVW) to improve his skills.", "Jones was then absent from television for several months until returning in the fall of 2003 as a [villain](/wiki/Heel_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Heel (professional wrestling)\") known by the nickname \"The Colossus of Boggo Road\", a title referring to his time spent in [Boggo Road Gaol](/wiki/Boggo_Road_Gaol \"Boggo Road Gaol\"). He was paired with [Paul Heyman](/wiki/Paul_Heyman \"Paul Heyman\") on\\-screen, with Heyman taking on the role of SmackDown! General Manager. He was also immediately placed into [Brock Lesnar](/wiki/Brock_Lesnar \"Brock Lesnar\")'s [Survivor Series](/wiki/Survivor_Series_%282003%29 \"Survivor Series (2003)\") team, which also included A\\-Train, Big Show, and [Matt Morgan](/wiki/Matt_Morgan_%28wrestler%29 \"Matt Morgan (wrestler)\") in order to compete against Lesnar's rival [Kurt Angle](/wiki/Kurt_Angle \"Kurt Angle\") and his team. At Survivor Series, Jones was eliminated by Angle after he submitted to the [ankle lock](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_holds%23Ankle_lock \"Professional wrestling holds#Ankle lock\"). Team Lesnar was defeated by Team Angle and Jones was then relegated to [interfere](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23R \"List of professional wrestling terms#R\") in Lesnar's matches along with the other members of Team Lesnar. He was also placed in matches by either Lesnar or Heyman to aid them. On 6 December 2003, Jones quit the company due to the rigor of WWE's heavy travel schedules while on tour in [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2003/12/13/286307\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120718111942/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2003/12/13/286307\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=18 July 2012\\|title\\=TJ Ain't Bob Hope\\|date\\=13 December 2003\\|last\\=Madigan\\|first\\=TJ\\|access\\-date\\=29 November 2008\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}}", "### Post\\-WWE and retirement", "After leaving WWE, Jones was scheduled to make his pro wrestling return in 2004 at the Australian Wrestling Supershow III, booked against [Mark Mercedes](/wiki/Mark_Mercedes \"Mark Mercedes\"). Jones [did not appear](/wiki/No-show_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"No-show (professional wrestling)\") as advertised and a [battle royal](/wiki/Battle_royal \"Battle royal\") was held following an angry [shoot](/wiki/Shoot_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Shoot (professional wrestling)\") promo on Jones by Mercedes and promoter [Andy Raymond](/wiki/Andy_Raymond \"Andy Raymond\").{{cite news\\|first\\=Scott\\|last\\=Beeby\\|date\\=26 July 2020\\|url\\=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/224344\\-australian\\-wrestling\\-chronicles\\-part\\-two\\|title\\=Australian Wrestling Chronicles (Part Two)\\|work\\=Bleacher Report\\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2018}}", "In 2005, he wrestled three matches for [World Series Wrestling](/wiki/World_Series_Wrestling \"World Series Wrestling\"). On 5 October, he defeated Lee Star and on 7 and 8 October, he defeated Mark Hilton. After his last match with Hilton, Jones immediately retired from wrestling.", "In 2008, Jones signed with [Total Nonstop Action Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling \"Total Nonstop Action Wrestling\"), but nerve damage caused by a cement truck hitting his left arm kept him sidelined for the first three months. He never wrestled for the promotion.", "" ]
Service history --------------- ### World War II Clearing [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), 28 August 1943, *Chauncey* reached [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") 19 September. She was assigned to the screen of a fast carrier task force for a punishing series of air strikes on [Wake Island](/wiki/Wake_Island "Wake Island") 5 and 6 October 1943\. While screening the carriers, *Chauncey* rescued three downed aviators from the water. After a brief return to Pearl Harbor, *Chauncey* sailed with another carrier task force for [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo "Espiritu Santo"), arriving 6 November 1943\. The destroyer sailed 3 days later for the air raids on [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul "Rabaul") of 11 November, in coordination with the [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_campaign_%281944-45%29 "Bougainville campaign (1944-45)") landings. After the first successful strike launched by the carriers, enemy planes came swarming out to seek vengeance, and a furious 46\-minute action, during which *Chauncey*{{'}}s guns blazed almost continuously, resulted in a large number of splashed [Japanese](/wiki/Japan "Japan") aircraft. Chauncey, continuing to screen the same carrier force, now sailed north to begin the preassault air strikes on [Tarawa](/wiki/Tarawa_Atoll "Tarawa Atoll"), 18, 19, and 20 November. As the landings began on 20 November, the carriers launched combat air patrol, antisubmarine searches, and close support strikes, which continued until the island was secured after furious fighting ashore. During this operation, *Chauncey* again helped drive a Japanese counterattack from the air above the ships she guarded. With the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands "Marshall Islands") operation scheduled for the next month, *Chauncey*{{'}}s force was assigned a strike at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein"), center of Japanese air power in the Marshalls, and the shipping in its harbor. Air strikes were launched 4 December 1943 at Kwajalein and [Wotje](/wiki/Wotje "Wotje"), but Japanese retaliation came in the evening, and *Chauncey* joined in the fire which splashed many enemy planes and drove them away just after midnight. Her task force sailed on to replenish and repair at Pearl Harbor. Bound for action once more, *Chauncey* sailed to [Funafuti](/wiki/Funafuti "Funafuti"), where she made rendezvous with a seaplane tender whom she and another destroyer escorted up to Tarawa. After brief patrol duty there, she returned to Funafuti to prepare for the next operation, [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro "Majuro"). *Chauncey* sailed on 22 January 1944 to screen escort carriers north to Majuro, assaulted on 30 January. The destroyer screened and patrolled at Majuro and Kwajalein during the assault and occupation of the atolls, and in mid\-March returned to the [South Pacific](/wiki/South_Pacific_Area "South Pacific Area"). After 10 days early in April on watchful patrol off newly occupied [Emirau Island](/wiki/Emirau_Island "Emirau Island"), *Chauncey* screened escort carriers into position to cover the [Aitape](/wiki/Aitape "Aitape") landings 22 April, and guarded them as they provided close air support, sailed north to replenish at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island "Manus Island") on 28 April, and returned to their covering strikes off [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea") until 12 May. Now *Chauncey* was assigned to guard the escort carriers assembling and rehearsing for the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas "Marianas") operation, and on 8 June 1944, arrived at Kwajalein for final preparations. She got underway two days later to screen carriers supporting the landings on [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan "Saipan") with preassault raids on 13 and 14 June, and air cover during the assault on 15 June. Next day *Chauncey* joined the group operating off [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") for bombardments and air strikes, and her guns aided in driving off enemy air attacks on the 16th and 17th. Returning to Saipan, she screened carriers there until the 25th, when she got underway to escort transports to [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok"). She returned to operate with the carriers off Saipan and Guam from early July, and on 9 July began her part in the continuous bombardment of Guam before the landings there 21 July. *Chauncey* continued to screen carriers covering operations on Guam through July, aside from an escort voyage to Eniwetok with unladen transports, and on 10 August, left Guam eastern bound for Eniwetok and repairs at Pearl Harbor. She returned to Manus to prepare for the massive [Philippine](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") operation, and on 14 October sailed for [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 "Leyte (island)") guarding the Southern Attack Force transports. She offered close\-in protection during the landings on 20 October, and that night patrolled watchfully around the transports, which remained dangerously close to shore in order to speed their unloading. On 22 October, two days before the opening of the decisive [Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf "Battle of Leyte Gulf"), *Chauncey* cleared to escort unloaded ships to Manus, from which she made two voyages to escort ships to Leyte and [Palau](/wiki/Palau "Palau") during November. After overhaul and training off the west coast until late February 1945, the destroyer returned to Pearl Harbor. Here she was joined by a carrier, whom she escorted to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi "Ulithi"), where *Chauncey* was assigned to mighty Task Force 58 for the preliminaries to the [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island") operation. The force got underway 14 March for strikes on airfields on [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB "Kyūshū") and shipping in the Inland Sea and at [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima "Kure, Hiroshima") and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe "Kobe"), *Chauncey* and other destroyers providing the essential screening services. Japanese retaliation came in a bombing raid on 19 March, when carrier {{USS\|Franklin\|CV\-13\|2}} was badly damaged but kept afloat by her crew's heroic work. *Chauncey* moved in to protect the stricken giant, and to guard her as she was towed and later steamed under her own power toward safety. Japanese air attacks were beaten off once more on the 20th and 21st, *Chauncey* firing with the others to splash many enemy planes. Her force launched prelanding strikes at Okinawa and nearby islands, and after the landings on 1 April 1945, supported the ground forces and protected the transports. *Chauncey* continued her screening, and from 6 April, when the first great *[kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze")* attacks were hurled at American shipping off Okinawa, fired often to drive the would\-be suicides off. She also served in shore bombardment and radar picket duty until 29 May, when she sailed for repairs and replenishment in [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 "San Pedro Bay (Philippines)"), Philippine Islands. She then joined Task Force 38 for the final smashing air raids on Japan. Following the war, *Chauncey* remained in the Far East on occupation duty until 11 November, when she cleared [Tsingtao](/wiki/Qingdao "Qingdao"), China for the west coast. She was placed out of commission in reserve at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") 19 December 1945\. ### Korean War [thumb\|*Chauncey* in the 1950s.](/wiki/File:USS_Chauncey_%28DD-667%29_at_sea_c1959.jpg "USS Chauncey (DD-667) at sea c1959.jpg") Upon the outbreak of the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"), *Chauncey* was recommissioned 18 July 1950, and on 1 November, sailed to join the [Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Atlantic_Fleet "United States Atlantic Fleet"). *Chauncey* operated from her home port at Norfolk, Virginia, along the east coast, and in the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean"), until 10 January 1953, when she got underway for the west coast on the first leg of a round\-the\-world voyage. Reaching [Sasebo](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo "United States Fleet Activities Sasebo"), Japan, 11 February, *Chauncey* screened the carriers of TF 77 off [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea") during the final months preceding the [Korean Armistice](/wiki/Korean_Armistice "Korean Armistice"), and in June sailed on to call at [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo"), [Aden](/wiki/Aden "Aden"), [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens"), [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples"), [Cannes](/wiki/Cannes "Cannes"), and [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") before her return to Norfolk 6 August. *Chauncey* resumed her east coast and Caribbean operations until 14 May 1954, when she was again decommissioned and placed in reserve.
[ "Service history\n---------------", "### World War II", "Clearing [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), 28 August 1943, *Chauncey* reached [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") 19 September. She was assigned to the screen of a fast carrier task force for a punishing series of air strikes on [Wake Island](/wiki/Wake_Island \"Wake Island\") 5 and 6 October 1943\\. While screening the carriers, *Chauncey* rescued three downed aviators from the water. After a brief return to Pearl Harbor, *Chauncey* sailed with another carrier task force for [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo \"Espiritu Santo\"), arriving 6 November 1943\\.", "The destroyer sailed 3 days later for the air raids on [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul \"Rabaul\") of 11 November, in coordination with the [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_campaign_%281944-45%29 \"Bougainville campaign (1944-45)\") landings. After the first successful strike launched by the carriers, enemy planes came swarming out to seek vengeance, and a furious 46\\-minute action, during which *Chauncey*{{'}}s guns blazed almost continuously, resulted in a large number of splashed [Japanese](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") aircraft. Chauncey, continuing to screen the same carrier force, now sailed north to begin the preassault air strikes on [Tarawa](/wiki/Tarawa_Atoll \"Tarawa Atoll\"), 18, 19, and 20 November. As the landings began on 20 November, the carriers launched combat air patrol, antisubmarine searches, and close support strikes, which continued until the island was secured after furious fighting ashore. During this operation, *Chauncey* again helped drive a Japanese counterattack from the air above the ships she guarded.", "With the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\") operation scheduled for the next month, *Chauncey*{{'}}s force was assigned a strike at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\"), center of Japanese air power in the Marshalls, and the shipping in its harbor. Air strikes were launched 4 December 1943 at Kwajalein and [Wotje](/wiki/Wotje \"Wotje\"), but Japanese retaliation came in the evening, and *Chauncey* joined in the fire which splashed many enemy planes and drove them away just after midnight. Her task force sailed on to replenish and repair at Pearl Harbor. Bound for action once more, *Chauncey* sailed to [Funafuti](/wiki/Funafuti \"Funafuti\"), where she made rendezvous with a seaplane tender whom she and another destroyer escorted up to Tarawa. After brief patrol duty there, she returned to Funafuti to prepare for the next operation, [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\").", "*Chauncey* sailed on 22 January 1944 to screen escort carriers north to Majuro, assaulted on 30 January. The destroyer screened and patrolled at Majuro and Kwajalein during the assault and occupation of the atolls, and in mid\\-March returned to the [South Pacific](/wiki/South_Pacific_Area \"South Pacific Area\"). After 10 days early in April on watchful patrol off newly occupied [Emirau Island](/wiki/Emirau_Island \"Emirau Island\"), *Chauncey* screened escort carriers into position to cover the [Aitape](/wiki/Aitape \"Aitape\") landings 22 April, and guarded them as they provided close air support, sailed north to replenish at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island \"Manus Island\") on 28 April, and returned to their covering strikes off [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\") until 12 May.", "Now *Chauncey* was assigned to guard the escort carriers assembling and rehearsing for the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas \"Marianas\") operation, and on 8 June 1944, arrived at Kwajalein for final preparations. She got underway two days later to screen carriers supporting the landings on [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\") with preassault raids on 13 and 14 June, and air cover during the assault on 15 June. Next day *Chauncey* joined the group operating off [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") for bombardments and air strikes, and her guns aided in driving off enemy air attacks on the 16th and 17th. Returning to Saipan, she screened carriers there until the 25th, when she got underway to escort transports to [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\"). She returned to operate with the carriers off Saipan and Guam from early July, and on 9 July began her part in the continuous bombardment of Guam before the landings there 21 July.", "*Chauncey* continued to screen carriers covering operations on Guam through July, aside from an escort voyage to Eniwetok with unladen transports, and on 10 August, left Guam eastern bound for Eniwetok and repairs at Pearl Harbor. She returned to Manus to prepare for the massive [Philippine](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") operation, and on 14 October sailed for [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 \"Leyte (island)\") guarding the Southern Attack Force transports. She offered close\\-in protection during the landings on 20 October, and that night patrolled watchfully around the transports, which remained dangerously close to shore in order to speed their unloading. On 22 October, two days before the opening of the decisive [Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf \"Battle of Leyte Gulf\"), *Chauncey* cleared to escort unloaded ships to Manus, from which she made two voyages to escort ships to Leyte and [Palau](/wiki/Palau \"Palau\") during November.", "After overhaul and training off the west coast until late February 1945, the destroyer returned to Pearl Harbor. Here she was joined by a carrier, whom she escorted to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\"), where *Chauncey* was assigned to mighty Task Force 58 for the preliminaries to the [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\") operation. The force got underway 14 March for strikes on airfields on [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB \"Kyūshū\") and shipping in the Inland Sea and at [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima \"Kure, Hiroshima\") and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe \"Kobe\"), *Chauncey* and other destroyers providing the essential screening services. Japanese retaliation came in a bombing raid on 19 March, when carrier {{USS\\|Franklin\\|CV\\-13\\|2}} was badly damaged but kept afloat by her crew's heroic work. *Chauncey* moved in to protect the stricken giant, and to guard her as she was towed and later steamed under her own power toward safety. Japanese air attacks were beaten off once more on the 20th and 21st, *Chauncey* firing with the others to splash many enemy planes.", "Her force launched prelanding strikes at Okinawa and nearby islands, and after the landings on 1 April 1945, supported the ground forces and protected the transports. *Chauncey* continued her screening, and from 6 April, when the first great *[kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\")* attacks were hurled at American shipping off Okinawa, fired often to drive the would\\-be suicides off. She also served in shore bombardment and radar picket duty until 29 May, when she sailed for repairs and replenishment in [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), Philippine Islands. She then joined Task Force 38 for the final smashing air raids on Japan.", "Following the war, *Chauncey* remained in the Far East on occupation duty until 11 November, when she cleared [Tsingtao](/wiki/Qingdao \"Qingdao\"), China for the west coast. She was placed out of commission in reserve at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") 19 December 1945\\.", "### Korean War", "[thumb\\|*Chauncey* in the 1950s.](/wiki/File:USS_Chauncey_%28DD-667%29_at_sea_c1959.jpg \"USS Chauncey (DD-667) at sea c1959.jpg\")\nUpon the outbreak of the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"), *Chauncey* was recommissioned 18 July 1950, and on 1 November, sailed to join the [Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Atlantic_Fleet \"United States Atlantic Fleet\"). *Chauncey* operated from her home port at Norfolk, Virginia, along the east coast, and in the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\"), until 10 January 1953, when she got underway for the west coast on the first leg of a round\\-the\\-world voyage. Reaching [Sasebo](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo \"United States Fleet Activities Sasebo\"), Japan, 11 February, *Chauncey* screened the carriers of TF 77 off [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\") during the final months preceding the [Korean Armistice](/wiki/Korean_Armistice \"Korean Armistice\"), and in June sailed on to call at [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"), [Aden](/wiki/Aden \"Aden\"), [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\"), [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\"), [Cannes](/wiki/Cannes \"Cannes\"), and [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") before her return to Norfolk 6 August.", "*Chauncey* resumed her east coast and Caribbean operations until 14 May 1954, when she was again decommissioned and placed in reserve.", "" ]
### World War II Clearing [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), 28 August 1943, *Chauncey* reached [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") 19 September. She was assigned to the screen of a fast carrier task force for a punishing series of air strikes on [Wake Island](/wiki/Wake_Island "Wake Island") 5 and 6 October 1943\. While screening the carriers, *Chauncey* rescued three downed aviators from the water. After a brief return to Pearl Harbor, *Chauncey* sailed with another carrier task force for [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo "Espiritu Santo"), arriving 6 November 1943\. The destroyer sailed 3 days later for the air raids on [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul "Rabaul") of 11 November, in coordination with the [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_campaign_%281944-45%29 "Bougainville campaign (1944-45)") landings. After the first successful strike launched by the carriers, enemy planes came swarming out to seek vengeance, and a furious 46\-minute action, during which *Chauncey*{{'}}s guns blazed almost continuously, resulted in a large number of splashed [Japanese](/wiki/Japan "Japan") aircraft. Chauncey, continuing to screen the same carrier force, now sailed north to begin the preassault air strikes on [Tarawa](/wiki/Tarawa_Atoll "Tarawa Atoll"), 18, 19, and 20 November. As the landings began on 20 November, the carriers launched combat air patrol, antisubmarine searches, and close support strikes, which continued until the island was secured after furious fighting ashore. During this operation, *Chauncey* again helped drive a Japanese counterattack from the air above the ships she guarded. With the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands "Marshall Islands") operation scheduled for the next month, *Chauncey*{{'}}s force was assigned a strike at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein"), center of Japanese air power in the Marshalls, and the shipping in its harbor. Air strikes were launched 4 December 1943 at Kwajalein and [Wotje](/wiki/Wotje "Wotje"), but Japanese retaliation came in the evening, and *Chauncey* joined in the fire which splashed many enemy planes and drove them away just after midnight. Her task force sailed on to replenish and repair at Pearl Harbor. Bound for action once more, *Chauncey* sailed to [Funafuti](/wiki/Funafuti "Funafuti"), where she made rendezvous with a seaplane tender whom she and another destroyer escorted up to Tarawa. After brief patrol duty there, she returned to Funafuti to prepare for the next operation, [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro "Majuro"). *Chauncey* sailed on 22 January 1944 to screen escort carriers north to Majuro, assaulted on 30 January. The destroyer screened and patrolled at Majuro and Kwajalein during the assault and occupation of the atolls, and in mid\-March returned to the [South Pacific](/wiki/South_Pacific_Area "South Pacific Area"). After 10 days early in April on watchful patrol off newly occupied [Emirau Island](/wiki/Emirau_Island "Emirau Island"), *Chauncey* screened escort carriers into position to cover the [Aitape](/wiki/Aitape "Aitape") landings 22 April, and guarded them as they provided close air support, sailed north to replenish at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island "Manus Island") on 28 April, and returned to their covering strikes off [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea") until 12 May. Now *Chauncey* was assigned to guard the escort carriers assembling and rehearsing for the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas "Marianas") operation, and on 8 June 1944, arrived at Kwajalein for final preparations. She got underway two days later to screen carriers supporting the landings on [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan "Saipan") with preassault raids on 13 and 14 June, and air cover during the assault on 15 June. Next day *Chauncey* joined the group operating off [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") for bombardments and air strikes, and her guns aided in driving off enemy air attacks on the 16th and 17th. Returning to Saipan, she screened carriers there until the 25th, when she got underway to escort transports to [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok"). She returned to operate with the carriers off Saipan and Guam from early July, and on 9 July began her part in the continuous bombardment of Guam before the landings there 21 July. *Chauncey* continued to screen carriers covering operations on Guam through July, aside from an escort voyage to Eniwetok with unladen transports, and on 10 August, left Guam eastern bound for Eniwetok and repairs at Pearl Harbor. She returned to Manus to prepare for the massive [Philippine](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") operation, and on 14 October sailed for [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 "Leyte (island)") guarding the Southern Attack Force transports. She offered close\-in protection during the landings on 20 October, and that night patrolled watchfully around the transports, which remained dangerously close to shore in order to speed their unloading. On 22 October, two days before the opening of the decisive [Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf "Battle of Leyte Gulf"), *Chauncey* cleared to escort unloaded ships to Manus, from which she made two voyages to escort ships to Leyte and [Palau](/wiki/Palau "Palau") during November. After overhaul and training off the west coast until late February 1945, the destroyer returned to Pearl Harbor. Here she was joined by a carrier, whom she escorted to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi "Ulithi"), where *Chauncey* was assigned to mighty Task Force 58 for the preliminaries to the [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island") operation. The force got underway 14 March for strikes on airfields on [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB "Kyūshū") and shipping in the Inland Sea and at [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima "Kure, Hiroshima") and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe "Kobe"), *Chauncey* and other destroyers providing the essential screening services. Japanese retaliation came in a bombing raid on 19 March, when carrier {{USS\|Franklin\|CV\-13\|2}} was badly damaged but kept afloat by her crew's heroic work. *Chauncey* moved in to protect the stricken giant, and to guard her as she was towed and later steamed under her own power toward safety. Japanese air attacks were beaten off once more on the 20th and 21st, *Chauncey* firing with the others to splash many enemy planes. Her force launched prelanding strikes at Okinawa and nearby islands, and after the landings on 1 April 1945, supported the ground forces and protected the transports. *Chauncey* continued her screening, and from 6 April, when the first great *[kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze")* attacks were hurled at American shipping off Okinawa, fired often to drive the would\-be suicides off. She also served in shore bombardment and radar picket duty until 29 May, when she sailed for repairs and replenishment in [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 "San Pedro Bay (Philippines)"), Philippine Islands. She then joined Task Force 38 for the final smashing air raids on Japan. Following the war, *Chauncey* remained in the Far East on occupation duty until 11 November, when she cleared [Tsingtao](/wiki/Qingdao "Qingdao"), China for the west coast. She was placed out of commission in reserve at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") 19 December 1945\.
[ "### World War II", "Clearing [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), 28 August 1943, *Chauncey* reached [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") 19 September. She was assigned to the screen of a fast carrier task force for a punishing series of air strikes on [Wake Island](/wiki/Wake_Island \"Wake Island\") 5 and 6 October 1943\\. While screening the carriers, *Chauncey* rescued three downed aviators from the water. After a brief return to Pearl Harbor, *Chauncey* sailed with another carrier task force for [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo \"Espiritu Santo\"), arriving 6 November 1943\\.", "The destroyer sailed 3 days later for the air raids on [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul \"Rabaul\") of 11 November, in coordination with the [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_campaign_%281944-45%29 \"Bougainville campaign (1944-45)\") landings. After the first successful strike launched by the carriers, enemy planes came swarming out to seek vengeance, and a furious 46\\-minute action, during which *Chauncey*{{'}}s guns blazed almost continuously, resulted in a large number of splashed [Japanese](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") aircraft. Chauncey, continuing to screen the same carrier force, now sailed north to begin the preassault air strikes on [Tarawa](/wiki/Tarawa_Atoll \"Tarawa Atoll\"), 18, 19, and 20 November. As the landings began on 20 November, the carriers launched combat air patrol, antisubmarine searches, and close support strikes, which continued until the island was secured after furious fighting ashore. During this operation, *Chauncey* again helped drive a Japanese counterattack from the air above the ships she guarded.", "With the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\") operation scheduled for the next month, *Chauncey*{{'}}s force was assigned a strike at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\"), center of Japanese air power in the Marshalls, and the shipping in its harbor. Air strikes were launched 4 December 1943 at Kwajalein and [Wotje](/wiki/Wotje \"Wotje\"), but Japanese retaliation came in the evening, and *Chauncey* joined in the fire which splashed many enemy planes and drove them away just after midnight. Her task force sailed on to replenish and repair at Pearl Harbor. Bound for action once more, *Chauncey* sailed to [Funafuti](/wiki/Funafuti \"Funafuti\"), where she made rendezvous with a seaplane tender whom she and another destroyer escorted up to Tarawa. After brief patrol duty there, she returned to Funafuti to prepare for the next operation, [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\").", "*Chauncey* sailed on 22 January 1944 to screen escort carriers north to Majuro, assaulted on 30 January. The destroyer screened and patrolled at Majuro and Kwajalein during the assault and occupation of the atolls, and in mid\\-March returned to the [South Pacific](/wiki/South_Pacific_Area \"South Pacific Area\"). After 10 days early in April on watchful patrol off newly occupied [Emirau Island](/wiki/Emirau_Island \"Emirau Island\"), *Chauncey* screened escort carriers into position to cover the [Aitape](/wiki/Aitape \"Aitape\") landings 22 April, and guarded them as they provided close air support, sailed north to replenish at [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island \"Manus Island\") on 28 April, and returned to their covering strikes off [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\") until 12 May.", "Now *Chauncey* was assigned to guard the escort carriers assembling and rehearsing for the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas \"Marianas\") operation, and on 8 June 1944, arrived at Kwajalein for final preparations. She got underway two days later to screen carriers supporting the landings on [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\") with preassault raids on 13 and 14 June, and air cover during the assault on 15 June. Next day *Chauncey* joined the group operating off [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") for bombardments and air strikes, and her guns aided in driving off enemy air attacks on the 16th and 17th. Returning to Saipan, she screened carriers there until the 25th, when she got underway to escort transports to [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\"). She returned to operate with the carriers off Saipan and Guam from early July, and on 9 July began her part in the continuous bombardment of Guam before the landings there 21 July.", "*Chauncey* continued to screen carriers covering operations on Guam through July, aside from an escort voyage to Eniwetok with unladen transports, and on 10 August, left Guam eastern bound for Eniwetok and repairs at Pearl Harbor. She returned to Manus to prepare for the massive [Philippine](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") operation, and on 14 October sailed for [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 \"Leyte (island)\") guarding the Southern Attack Force transports. She offered close\\-in protection during the landings on 20 October, and that night patrolled watchfully around the transports, which remained dangerously close to shore in order to speed their unloading. On 22 October, two days before the opening of the decisive [Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf \"Battle of Leyte Gulf\"), *Chauncey* cleared to escort unloaded ships to Manus, from which she made two voyages to escort ships to Leyte and [Palau](/wiki/Palau \"Palau\") during November.", "After overhaul and training off the west coast until late February 1945, the destroyer returned to Pearl Harbor. Here she was joined by a carrier, whom she escorted to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\"), where *Chauncey* was assigned to mighty Task Force 58 for the preliminaries to the [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\") operation. The force got underway 14 March for strikes on airfields on [Kyūshū](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB \"Kyūshū\") and shipping in the Inland Sea and at [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima \"Kure, Hiroshima\") and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe \"Kobe\"), *Chauncey* and other destroyers providing the essential screening services. Japanese retaliation came in a bombing raid on 19 March, when carrier {{USS\\|Franklin\\|CV\\-13\\|2}} was badly damaged but kept afloat by her crew's heroic work. *Chauncey* moved in to protect the stricken giant, and to guard her as she was towed and later steamed under her own power toward safety. Japanese air attacks were beaten off once more on the 20th and 21st, *Chauncey* firing with the others to splash many enemy planes.", "Her force launched prelanding strikes at Okinawa and nearby islands, and after the landings on 1 April 1945, supported the ground forces and protected the transports. *Chauncey* continued her screening, and from 6 April, when the first great *[kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\")* attacks were hurled at American shipping off Okinawa, fired often to drive the would\\-be suicides off. She also served in shore bombardment and radar picket duty until 29 May, when she sailed for repairs and replenishment in [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), Philippine Islands. She then joined Task Force 38 for the final smashing air raids on Japan.", "Following the war, *Chauncey* remained in the Far East on occupation duty until 11 November, when she cleared [Tsingtao](/wiki/Qingdao \"Qingdao\"), China for the west coast. She was placed out of commission in reserve at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") 19 December 1945\\.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Karting Piquet began his racing career in karts at age 8 in 2006\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.piquetsports.com/biografia\-pedro\-piquet/\|title\=Biografia Pedro Piquet \- Piquet Sports\|work\=piquetsports.com\|accessdate\=8 July 2016}} During his karting career, he won numerous titles, including three Brazilian championships.{{cite web \|url\=http://piquetjrmania.com/pedro\-piquet/ \|title\=Pedro Piquet \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205093206/http://piquetjrmania.com/pedro\-piquet/ \|archivedate\=5 February 2016 \|accessdate\=8 July 2016}} ### Toyota Racing Series Piquet debuted in single\-seater cars in the [2014 Toyota Racing Series](/wiki/2014_Toyota_Racing_Series "2014 Toyota Racing Series"). He struggled in the first six races, finishing no higher than 13th. His season was then brought to a premature end by licensing problems relating to his age.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/qa\-with\-pedro\-piquet\-being\-a\-piquet\-doesnt\-affect\-my\-performance/18363\|title\=Q\&A with Pedro Piquet: "Being a Piquet doesn't affect my performance" \- PaddockScout\|work\=paddockscout.com\|date\=29 May 2014 \|access\-date\=8 July 2016}} In [2016](/wiki/2016_Toyota_Racing_Series "2016 Toyota Racing Series"), he returned to the series,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/pedro\-piquet\-to\-return\-to\-toyota\-racing\-series\-for\-2016\-edition/31835\|title\=Pedro Piquet to return to Toyota Racing Series for 2016 edition\|last\=Allen\|first\=Peter\|date\=9 November 2015\|publisher\=Paddock Scout\|access\-date\=27 November 2015}} racing for *M2 Competition* for two seasons. ### Brazilian Formula Three Following his derailed first attempt at the Toyota Racing Series, Piquet returned to Brazil and began racing in Brazilian Formula Three in [2014](/wiki/2014_Formula_3_Brasil_season "2014 Formula 3 Brasil season"). He had an extremely successful season, winning 11 of the 16 races and the championship.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-brazil/2014/\|title\=Campeonato Brasileiro de Fórmula 3 2014 standings \- Driver Database\|work\=driverdb.com\|accessdate\=8 July 2016}} In [2015](/wiki/2015_Formula_3_Brasil_season "2015 Formula 3 Brasil season"), he chose to continue racing in Brazilian Formula Three, winning it for the second time. ### European Formula 3 In 2016, Piquet joined [Van Amersfoort Racing](/wiki/Van_Amersfoort_Racing "Van Amersfoort Racing") for the [European Formula 3 championship](/wiki/FIA_European_Formula_Three_Championship "FIA European Formula Three Championship"). He competed for two seasons. ### GP3 Series In 2018, Piquet joined [Trident Racing](/wiki/Trident_Racing "Trident Racing") and competed In the [GP3 Series](/wiki/GP3_Series "GP3 Series"), winning in [Silverstone](/wiki/2018_Silverstone_GP3_Series_round "2018 Silverstone GP3 Series round") and [Monza](/wiki/2018_Monza_GP3_Series_round "2018 Monza GP3 Series round"). He finished the season in sixth place. ### FIA Formula 3 Championship For 2019, Piquet stayed in GP3, but the championship turned into the [FIA Formula 3 Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_Championship "FIA Formula 3 Championship"), remaining with [Trident](/wiki/Trident_Racing "Trident Racing"). He took 1 win at [Spa\-Francorchamps](/wiki/2019_Spa-Francorchamps_Formula_3_round "2019 Spa-Francorchamps Formula 3 round") and ended the championship in 5th, helping Trident to finish fourth in the team championship. ### FIA Formula 2 Championship in 2020, Piquet competed in [F2](/wiki/2020_FIA_Formula_2_Championship "2020 FIA Formula 2 Championship") with [Charouz](/wiki/Charouz_Racing_System "Charouz Racing System") alongside [Louis Delétraz](/wiki/Louis_Del%C3%A9traz "Louis Delétraz"). He took his first points in the sprint race at [Barcelona](/wiki/2020_Barcelona_Formula_2_round "2020 Barcelona Formula 2 round"), finishing in 7th place. He left at the end of the season citing financial reasons. ### Other racing experience Alongside his single\-seater racing, Piquet has participated in other events. In 2014, he entered and won the Brazilian Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge. He also entered one race in the Global Rallycross Championship, taking a podium, and one race in the Brazilian Mercedes\-Benz Challenge C250 Cup. In 2015, he started two races in the Porsche Mobil 1 Supercup, scoring no points. He also raced again in the Brazilian Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge, this time scoring two podiums in six races.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/drivers/pedro\-piquet/\|title\=Pedro Piquet \- Racing career profile \- Driver Database\|work\=driverdb.com\|accessdate\=8 July 2016}} Pedro Piquet is competing in the ROK Shifter class in karting in 2023, he competes in the Florida Winter Tour, competing against the likes of Marijn Kremers and former GP3 driver Giorgio Carrara.
[ "Career\n------", "### Karting", "Piquet began his racing career in karts at age 8 in 2006\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.piquetsports.com/biografia\\-pedro\\-piquet/\\|title\\=Biografia Pedro Piquet \\- Piquet Sports\\|work\\=piquetsports.com\\|accessdate\\=8 July 2016}} During his karting career, he won numerous titles, including three Brazilian championships.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://piquetjrmania.com/pedro\\-piquet/ \\|title\\=Pedro Piquet \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205093206/http://piquetjrmania.com/pedro\\-piquet/ \\|archivedate\\=5 February 2016 \\|accessdate\\=8 July 2016}}", "### Toyota Racing Series", "Piquet debuted in single\\-seater cars in the [2014 Toyota Racing Series](/wiki/2014_Toyota_Racing_Series \"2014 Toyota Racing Series\"). He struggled in the first six races, finishing no higher than 13th. His season was then brought to a premature end by licensing problems relating to his age.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/qa\\-with\\-pedro\\-piquet\\-being\\-a\\-piquet\\-doesnt\\-affect\\-my\\-performance/18363\\|title\\=Q\\&A with Pedro Piquet: \"Being a Piquet doesn't affect my performance\" \\- PaddockScout\\|work\\=paddockscout.com\\|date\\=29 May 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2016}}", "In [2016](/wiki/2016_Toyota_Racing_Series \"2016 Toyota Racing Series\"), he returned to the series,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/pedro\\-piquet\\-to\\-return\\-to\\-toyota\\-racing\\-series\\-for\\-2016\\-edition/31835\\|title\\=Pedro Piquet to return to Toyota Racing Series for 2016 edition\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=9 November 2015\\|publisher\\=Paddock Scout\\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2015}} racing for *M2 Competition* for two seasons.", "### Brazilian Formula Three", "Following his derailed first attempt at the Toyota Racing Series, Piquet returned to Brazil and began racing in Brazilian Formula Three in [2014](/wiki/2014_Formula_3_Brasil_season \"2014 Formula 3 Brasil season\"). He had an extremely successful season, winning 11 of the 16 races and the championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-brazil/2014/\\|title\\=Campeonato Brasileiro de Fórmula 3 2014 standings \\- Driver Database\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|accessdate\\=8 July 2016}} In [2015](/wiki/2015_Formula_3_Brasil_season \"2015 Formula 3 Brasil season\"), he chose to continue racing in Brazilian Formula Three, winning it for the second time.", "### European Formula 3", "In 2016, Piquet joined [Van Amersfoort Racing](/wiki/Van_Amersfoort_Racing \"Van Amersfoort Racing\") for the [European Formula 3 championship](/wiki/FIA_European_Formula_Three_Championship \"FIA European Formula Three Championship\"). He competed for two seasons.", "### GP3 Series", "In 2018, Piquet joined [Trident Racing](/wiki/Trident_Racing \"Trident Racing\") and competed In the [GP3 Series](/wiki/GP3_Series \"GP3 Series\"), winning in [Silverstone](/wiki/2018_Silverstone_GP3_Series_round \"2018 Silverstone GP3 Series round\") and [Monza](/wiki/2018_Monza_GP3_Series_round \"2018 Monza GP3 Series round\"). He finished the season in sixth place.", "### FIA Formula 3 Championship", "For 2019, Piquet stayed in GP3, but the championship turned into the [FIA Formula 3 Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_Championship \"FIA Formula 3 Championship\"), remaining with [Trident](/wiki/Trident_Racing \"Trident Racing\"). He took 1 win at [Spa\\-Francorchamps](/wiki/2019_Spa-Francorchamps_Formula_3_round \"2019 Spa-Francorchamps Formula 3 round\") and ended the championship in 5th, helping Trident to finish fourth in the team championship.", "### FIA Formula 2 Championship", "in 2020, Piquet competed in [F2](/wiki/2020_FIA_Formula_2_Championship \"2020 FIA Formula 2 Championship\") with [Charouz](/wiki/Charouz_Racing_System \"Charouz Racing System\") alongside [Louis Delétraz](/wiki/Louis_Del%C3%A9traz \"Louis Delétraz\"). He took his first points in the sprint race at [Barcelona](/wiki/2020_Barcelona_Formula_2_round \"2020 Barcelona Formula 2 round\"), finishing in 7th place. He left at the end of the season citing financial reasons.", "### Other racing experience", "Alongside his single\\-seater racing, Piquet has participated in other events. In 2014, he entered and won the Brazilian Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge. He also entered one race in the Global Rallycross Championship, taking a podium, and one race in the Brazilian Mercedes\\-Benz Challenge C250 Cup. In 2015, he started two races in the Porsche Mobil 1 Supercup, scoring no points. He also raced again in the Brazilian Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge, this time scoring two podiums in six races.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/drivers/pedro\\-piquet/\\|title\\=Pedro Piquet \\- Racing career profile \\- Driver Database\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|accessdate\\=8 July 2016}}\nPedro Piquet is competing in the ROK Shifter class in karting in 2023, he competes in the Florida Winter Tour, competing against the likes of Marijn Kremers and former GP3 driver Giorgio Carrara.", "" ]
Medical uses ------------ ### Hormone therapy #### Menopause {{See also\|Menopausal hormone therapy}} [thumb\|right\|425px\|Average number of moderate\-to\-severe [hot flashes](/wiki/Hot_flash "Hot flash") per week with [placebo](/wiki/Placebo "Placebo") and different doses of [oral estradiol](/wiki/Oral_estradiol "Oral estradiol") in menopausal women{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Notelovitz M, Lenihan JP, McDermott M, Kerber IJ, Nanavati N, Arce J \| title \= Initial 17beta\-estradiol dose for treating vasomotor symptoms \| journal \= Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume \= 95 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 726–731 \| date \= May 2000 \| pmid \= 10775738 \| doi \= 10\.1016/s0029\-7844(99\)00643\-2 \| s2cid \= 42621608 }}{{cite journal\| vauthors \= Wiegratz I, Kuhl H \|title\=Praxis der Hormontherapie in der Peri\- und Postmenopause\|trans\-title\=Practice of peri\- and postmenopausal hormone therapy\|journal\=Gynäkologische Endokrinologie\|volume\=5\|issue\=3\|year\=2007\|pages\=141–149\|issn\=1610\-2894\|doi\=10\.1007/s10304\-007\-0194\-9\|s2cid\=27130717}}](/wiki/File:Hot_flashes_with_placebo_and_different_doses_of_oral_estradiol_in_menopausal_women.png "Hot flashes with placebo and different doses of oral estradiol in menopausal women.png") Estradiol is used in [menopausal hormone therapy](/wiki/Menopausal_hormone_therapy "Menopausal hormone therapy") to prevent and treat moderate to severe [menopausal](/wiki/Menopause "Menopause") [symptoms](/wiki/Symptom "Symptom") such as [hot flashes](/wiki/Hot_flash "Hot flash"), [vaginal dryness](/wiki/Vaginal_dryness "Vaginal dryness") and [atrophy](/wiki/Atrophic_vaginitis "Atrophic vaginitis"), and [osteoporosis](/wiki/Osteoporosis "Osteoporosis") (bone loss). As unopposed estrogen therapy (using estrogen alone without progesterone) increases the risk of [endometrial hyperplasia](/wiki/Endometrial_hyperplasia "Endometrial hyperplasia") and [endometrial cancer](/wiki/Endometrial_cancer "Endometrial cancer") in women with intact [uteruses](/wiki/Uterus "Uterus"), estradiol is usually combined with a [progestogen](/wiki/Progestogen_%28medication%29 "Progestogen (medication)") like [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone_%28medication%29 "Progesterone (medication)") or [medroxyprogesterone acetate](/wiki/Medroxyprogesterone_acetate "Medroxyprogesterone acetate") to prevent the effects of estradiol on the [endometrium](/wiki/Endometrium "Endometrium").{{Cite book\| vauthors \= Mutschler E, Schäfer\-Korting M \|title\=Arzneimittelwirkungen\|language\=de\|location\=Stuttgart\|publisher\=Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft\|year\=2001\|edition\=8\|pages\=434, 444\|isbn\=978\-3\-8047\-1763\-3}} This is not necessary if the woman has undergone a [hysterectomy](/wiki/Hysterectomy "Hysterectomy") (surgical removal of the uterus). A 2017 [meta\-analysis](/wiki/Meta-analysis "Meta-analysis") found that estradiol had no effect on depressive symptoms in peri\- and postmenopausal women.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Whedon JM, KizhakkeVeettil A, Rugo NA, Kieffer KA \| title \= Bioidentical Estrogen for Menopausal Depressive Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta\-Analysis \| journal \= Journal of Women's Health \| volume \= 26 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 18–28 \| date \= January 2017 \| pmid \= 27603786 \| doi \= 10\.1089/jwh.2015\.5628 }} {{Estrogen dosages for menopausal hormone therapy}} #### Hypogonadism Estrogen is responsible for the mediation of [puberty](/wiki/Puberty "Puberty") in females, and in girls with [delayed puberty](/wiki/Delayed_puberty "Delayed puberty") due to [hypogonadism](/wiki/Hypogonadism "Hypogonadism") (low\-functioning [gonads](/wiki/Gonad "Gonad"), which can result in low [sex hormone](/wiki/Sex_hormone "Sex hormone") levels) such as in [Turner syndrome](/wiki/Turner_syndrome "Turner syndrome"), estradiol is used to induce the development of and maintain female [secondary sexual characteristics](/wiki/Secondary_sexual_characteristic "Secondary sexual characteristic") such as [breasts](/wiki/Breast "Breast"), wide [hips](/wiki/Hip "Hip"), and a [female fat distribution](/wiki/Gynoid_fat_distribution "Gynoid fat distribution").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Matthews D, Bath L, Högler W, Mason A, Smyth A, Skae M \| title \= Hormone supplementation for pubertal induction in girls \| journal \= Archives of Disease in Childhood \| volume \= 102 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= 975–980 \| date \= October 2017 \| pmid \= 28446424 \| doi \= 10\.1136/archdischild\-2016\-311372 \| url \= http://pure\-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40333585/Revised\_ADC\_paper\_accepted\_.pdf \| access\-date \= 16 August 2019 \| url\-status \= live \| s2cid \= 39539979 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200310044144/http://pure\-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40333585/Revised\_ADC\_paper\_accepted\_.pdf \| archive\-date \= 10 March 2020 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Christin\-Maitre S \| title \= Use of Hormone Replacement in Females with Endocrine Disorders \| journal \= Hormone Research in Paediatrics \| volume \= 87 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 215–223 \| date \= 2017 \| pmid \= 28376481 \| doi \= 10\.1159/000457125 \| s2cid \= 3785166 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Rosenthal L, Burchum J \|title\=Lehne's Pharmacotherapeutics for Advanced Practice Providers \- E\-Book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gfYoDgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA524\|date\=17 February 2017\|publisher\=Elsevier Health Sciences\|isbn\=978\-0\-323\-44779\-9\|pages\=524–\|access\-date\=3 July 2018\|archive\-date\=10 June 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610034548/https://books.google.com/books?id\=gfYoDgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA524\|url\-status\=live}} It is also used to restore estradiol levels in adult premenopausal women with hypogonadism, for instance those with [premature ovarian failure](/wiki/Premature_ovarian_failure "Premature ovarian failure") or who have undergone [oophorectomy](/wiki/Oophorectomy "Oophorectomy"). It is used to treat women with hypogonadism due to [hypopituitarism](/wiki/Hypopituitarism "Hypopituitarism") as well. #### Transgender women {{Main\|Feminizing hormone therapy}} Estradiol is used as part of [feminizing hormone therapy](/wiki/Feminizing_hormone_therapy "Feminizing hormone therapy") for [transgender women](/wiki/Transgender_women "Transgender women").{{citation \| author \= World Professional Association for Transgender Health \| title \= Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People, Seventh Version \| date \= September 2011 \| url \= http://www.wpath.org/uploaded\_files/140/files/IJT%20SOC,%20V7\.pdf \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20160106203349/http://www.wpath.org/uploaded\_files/140/files/IJT%20SOC%2C%20V7\.pdf \| archive\-date \= 6 January 2016 \| df \= dmy\-all \| author\-link \= World Professional Association for Transgender Health }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wesp LM, Deutsch MB \| title \= Hormonal and Surgical Treatment Options for Transgender Women and Transfeminine Spectrum Persons \| journal \= The Psychiatric Clinics of North America \| volume \= 40 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 99–111 \| date \= March 2017 \| pmid \= 28159148 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.psc.2016\.10\.006 }} The drug is used in higher dosages prior to [gender\-affirming surgery](/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery "Gender-affirming surgery") or [orchiectomy](/wiki/Orchiectomy "Orchiectomy") to help suppress [testosterone](/wiki/Testosterone "Testosterone") levels; after this procedure, estradiol continues to be used at lower dosages to maintain estradiol levels in the normal premenopausal female range. ### Birth control Although almost all [combined oral contraceptives](/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive "Combined oral contraceptive") contain the synthetic estrogen ethinylestradiol,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Evans G, Sutton EL \| title \= Oral contraception \| journal \= The Medical Clinics of North America \| volume \= 99 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 479–503 \| date \= May 2015 \| pmid \= 25841596 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.mcna.2015\.01\.004 }} natural estradiol itself is also used in some [hormonal contraceptives](/wiki/Hormonal_contraceptive "Hormonal contraceptive"), including in [estradiol\-containing oral contraceptives](/wiki/Estradiol-containing_oral_contraceptive "Estradiol-containing oral contraceptive") and [combined injectable contraceptives](/wiki/Combined_injectable_contraceptive "Combined injectable contraceptive").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Christin\-Maitre S, Laroche E, Bricaire L \| title \= A new contraceptive pill containing 17β\-estradiol and nomegestrol acetate \| journal \= Women's Health \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 13–23 \| date \= January 2013 \| pmid \= 23241152 \| doi \= 10\.2217/whe.12\.70 \| s2cid \= 31617961 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Newton JR, D'arcangues C, Hall PE \| title \= A review of "once\-a\-month" combined injectable contraceptives \| journal \= Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology \| volume \= 4 \| issue \= Suppl 1 \| pages \= S1\-34 \| year \= 1994 \| pmid \= 12290848 \| doi \= 10\.3109/01443619409027641 }} It is formulated in combination with a [progestin](/wiki/Progestin "Progestin") such as [dienogest](/wiki/Dienogest "Dienogest"), [nomegestrol acetate](/wiki/Nomegestrol_acetate "Nomegestrol acetate"), or medroxyprogesterone acetate, and is often used in the form of an ester prodrug like estradiol valerate or estradiol cypionate. Hormonal contraceptives contain a progestin and/or estrogen and prevent [ovulation](/wiki/Ovulation "Ovulation") and thus the possibility of [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy") by suppressing the secretion of the [gonadotropins](/wiki/Gonadotropin "Gonadotropin") [follicle\-stimulating hormone](/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone "Follicle-stimulating hormone") (FSH) and [luteinizing hormone](/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone "Luteinizing hormone") (LH), the peak of which around the middle of the [menstrual cycle](/wiki/Menstrual_cycle "Menstrual cycle") causes ovulation to occur.{{cite book\| vauthors \= Glasier A \| author\-link \= Anna Glasier \|year\=2010\|chapter\=Contraception\| veditors \= Jameson JL, De Groot LJ \|title\=Endocrinology \|edition\=6th \|location\=Philadelphia\|publisher\=Saunders Elsevier\|pages\=2417–2427\|isbn\=978\-1\-4160\-5583\-9}} ### Hormonal cancer #### Prostate cancer Estradiol is used as a form of [high\-dose estrogen](/wiki/High-dose_estrogen "High-dose estrogen") therapy to treat [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer "Prostate cancer") and is similarly effective to other therapies such as [androgen deprivation therapy](/wiki/Androgen_deprivation_therapy "Androgen deprivation therapy") with [castration](/wiki/Castration "Castration") and [antiandrogens](/wiki/Antiandrogen "Antiandrogen").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ali Shah SI \| title \= Emerging potential of parenteral estrogen as androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer \| journal \= South Asian Journal of Cancer \| volume \= 4 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 95–97 \| date \= 2015 \| pmid \= 25992351 \| pmc \= 4418092 \| doi \= 10\.4103/2278\-330X.155699 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lycette JL, Bland LB, Garzotto M, Beer TM \| title \= Parenteral estrogens for prostate cancer: can a new route of administration overcome old toxicities? \| journal \= Clinical Genitourinary Cancer \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 198–205 \| date \= December 2006 \| pmid \= 17239273 \| doi \= 10\.3816/CGC.2006\.n.037 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Cox RL, Crawford ED \| title \= Estrogens in the treatment of prostate cancer \| journal \= The Journal of Urology \| volume \= 154 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 1991–1998 \| date \= December 1995 \| pmid \= 7500443 \| doi \= 10\.1016/S0022\-5347(01\)66670\-9 }} It is used in the form of long\-lasting injected estradiol prodrugs like [polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate "Polyestradiol phosphate"), [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate "Estradiol valerate"), and [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate "Estradiol undecylate"),{{cite book\| vauthors \= Altwein J \|title\=Cancer of the Prostate and Kidney\|chapter\=Controversial Aspects of Hormone Manipulation in Prostatic Carcinoma\|series\=NATO Advanced Science Institutes Series \|year\=1983\|pages\=305–316\|publisher\=Springer \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-1\-4684\-4349\-3\_38\|isbn\=978\-1\-4684\-4351\-6}} and has also more recently been assessed in the form of transdermal estradiol patches.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ockrim JL, Lalani EN, Kakkar AK, Abel PD \| title \= Transdermal estradiol therapy for prostate cancer reduces thrombophilic activation and protects against thromboembolism \| journal \= The Journal of Urology \| volume \= 174 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 527–33; discussion 532–3 \| date \= August 2005 \| pmid \= 16006886 \| doi \= 10\.1097/01\.ju.0000165567\.99142\.1f }} Estrogens are effective in the treatment of prostate cancer by suppressing [testosterone](/wiki/Testosterone "Testosterone") levels into the castrate range, increasing levels of [sex hormone\-binding globulin](/wiki/Sex_hormone-binding_globulin "Sex hormone-binding globulin") (SHBG) and thereby decreasing the fraction of free testosterone, and possibly also via direct [cytotoxic](/wiki/Cytotoxic "Cytotoxic") effects on prostate cancer cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Coss CC, Jones A, Parke DN, Narayanan R, Barrett CM, Kearbey JD, Veverka KA, Miller DD, Morton RA, Steiner MS, Dalton JT \| title \= Preclinical characterization of a novel diphenyl benzamide selective ERα agonist for hormone therapy in prostate cancer \| journal \= Endocrinology \| volume \= 153 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 1070–1081 \| date \= March 2012 \| pmid \= 22294742 \| doi \= 10\.1210/en.2011\-1608 \| doi\-access \= free }} [Parenteral](/wiki/Parenteral "Parenteral") estradiol is largely free of the [cardiovascular](/wiki/Cardiovascular "Cardiovascular") [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect "Side effect") of the high oral dosages of synthetic estrogens like [diethylstilbestrol](/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol "Diethylstilbestrol") ad ethinylestradiol that were used previously.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= von Schoultz B, Carlström K, Collste L, Eriksson A, Henriksson P, Pousette A, Stege R \| title \= Estrogen therapy and liver function\-\-metabolic effects of oral and parenteral administration \| journal \= The Prostate \| volume \= 14 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 389–395 \| year \= 1989 \| pmid \= 2664738 \| doi \= 10\.1002/pros.2990140410 \| s2cid \= 21510744 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ockrim J, Lalani EN, Abel P \| title \= Therapy Insight: parenteral estrogen treatment for prostate cancer\-\-a new dawn for an old therapy \| journal \= Nature Clinical Practice. Oncology \| volume \= 3 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= 552–563 \| date \= October 2006 \| pmid \= 17019433 \| doi \= 10\.1038/ncponc0602 \| s2cid \= 6847203 }} In addition, estrogens may have advantages relative to castration in terms of hot flashes, sexual interest and function, osteoporosis, cognitive function, and [quality of life](/wiki/Quality_of_life "Quality of life").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Scherr DS, Pitts WR \| title \= The nonsteroidal effects of diethylstilbestrol: the rationale for androgen deprivation therapy without estrogen deprivation in the treatment of prostate cancer \| journal \= The Journal of Urology \| volume \= 170 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 1703–1708 \| date \= November 2003 \| pmid \= 14532759 \| doi \= 10\.1097/01\.ju.0000077558\.48257\.3d }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wibowo E, Schellhammer P, Wassersug RJ \| title \= Role of estrogen in normal male function: clinical implications for patients with prostate cancer on androgen deprivation therapy \| journal \= The Journal of Urology \| volume \= 185 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 17–23 \| date \= January 2011 \| pmid \= 21074215 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.juro.2010\.08\.094 }} However, side effects such as gynecomastia and feminization in general may be difficult to tolerate and unacceptable for many men. #### Breast cancer [High\-dose estrogen](/wiki/High-dose_estrogen "High-dose estrogen") therapy is effective in the treatment of about 35% of cases of [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer") in women who are at least 5 years menopausal and has comparable effectiveness to [antiestrogen](/wiki/Antiestrogen "Antiestrogen") therapy with medications like the [selective estrogen receptor modulator](/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator "Selective estrogen receptor modulator") (SERM) [tamoxifen](/wiki/Tamoxifen "Tamoxifen").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Coelingh Bennink HJ, Verhoeven C, Dutman AE, Thijssen J \| title \= The use of high\-dose estrogens for the treatment of breast cancer \| journal \= Maturitas \| volume \= 95 \| pages \= 11–23 \| date \= January 2017 \| pmid \= 27889048 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.maturitas.2016\.10\.010 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Thomas JA, Keenan EJ \|title\=Principles of Endocrine Pharmacology\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mTagBQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA148\|date\=6 December 2012\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-1\-4684\-5036\-1\|pages\=148–}}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Miller WR, Ingle JN \|title\=Endocrine Therapy in Breast Cancer\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=00\_LBQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA49\|date\=8 March 2002\|publisher\=CRC Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-203\-90983\-6\|pages\=49–52\|access\-date\=9 December 2016\|archive\-date\=14 January 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114075229/https://books.google.com/books?id\=00\_LBQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA49\|url\-status\=live}} Although estrogens are rarely used in the treatment of breast cancer today and synthetic estrogens like diethylstilbestrol and ethinylestradiol have most commonly been used, estradiol itself has been used in the treatment of breast cancer as well.{{cite journal\| vauthors \= Ellis MJ, Dehdahti F, Kommareddy A, Jamalabadi\-Majidi S, Crowder R, Jeffe DB, Gao F, Fleming G, Silverman P, Dickler M, Carey L \|title\=A randomized phase 2 trial of low dose (6 mg daily) versus high dose (30 mg daily) estradiol for patients with estrogen receptor positive aromatase inhibitor resistant advanced breast cancer.\|journal\=Cancer Research\|volume\=69\|issue\=2 Supplement\|year\=2014\|pages\=16\|issn\=0008\-5472\|doi\=10\.1158/0008\-5472\.SABCS\-16}} It has been used orally at very high doses (30 mg/day) in the treatment of therapy\-naive breast cancer and orally at low doses (2 to 6 mg/day) in the treatment of breast cancer in women who were previously treated with and benefited from but acquired resistance to [aromatase inhibitors](/wiki/Aromatase_inhibitor "Aromatase inhibitor").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Palmieri C, Patten DK, Januszewski A, Zucchini G, Howell SJ \| title \= Breast cancer: current and future endocrine therapies \| journal \= Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology \| volume \= 382 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 695–723 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 23933149 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.mce.2013\.08\.001 \| s2cid \= 3363705 }} [Polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate "Polyestradiol phosphate") is also used to treat breast cancer.{{Cite web \|url\=http://pharmanovia.com/product/estradurin/ \|title\=Estradurin (Polyestradiol Phosphate) \| work \= Pharmanovia \|access\-date\=29 June 2018 \|archive\-date\=2 January 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102072958/http://pharmanovia.com/product/estradurin/ \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ostrowski MJ, Jackson AW \| title \= Polyestradiol phosphate: a preliminary evaluation of its effect on breast carcinoma \| journal \= Cancer Treatment Reports \| volume \= 63 \| issue \= 11–12 \| pages \= 1803–1807 \| date \= 1979 \| pmid \= 393380 }} ### Other uses #### Infertility Estrogens may be used in treatment of [infertility](/wiki/Infertility "Infertility") in women when there is a need to develop [sperm](/wiki/Sperm "Sperm")\-friendly [cervical mucus](/wiki/Cervical_mucus "Cervical mucus") or an appropriate [uterine lining](/wiki/Uterine_lining "Uterine lining").{{cite book\| vauthors \= Aiman J \|title\=Infertility: Diagnosis and Management\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=D4\_TBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA133\|date\=6 December 2012\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-1\-4613\-8265\-2\|pages\=133–134}}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Schattman GL, Esteves S, Agarwal A \|title\=Unexplained Infertility: Pathophysiology, Evaluation and Treatment\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wCdACQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA266\|date\=12 May 2015\|publisher\=Springer\|isbn\=978\-1\-4939\-2140\-9\|pages\=266–}} It is also commonly used during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Estrogen helps maintain the endometrial lining of the uterus and help prepare for pregnancy. Research shows higher pregnancy rate if the mother takes estrogen in addition to progesterone.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Pinheiro LM, Cândido PD, Moreto TC, Almeida WG, Castro EC \| title \= Estradiol use in the luteal phase and its effects on pregnancy rates in IVF cycles with GnRH antagonist: a systematic review \| journal \= JBRA Assisted Reproduction \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 247–250 \| date \= September 2017 \| pmid \= 28837035 \| pmc \= 5574648 \| doi \= 10\.5935/1518\-0557\.20170046 }} Estradiol is the predominant form of estrogen during reproductive years and is most commonly prescribed. #### Lactation suppression Estrogens can be used to suppress and cease [lactation](/wiki/Lactation "Lactation") and [breast engorgement](/wiki/Breast_engorgement "Breast engorgement") in [postpartum](/wiki/Postpartum "Postpartum") women who do not wish to [breastfeed](/wiki/Breastfeeding "Breastfeeding").{{cite book\| vauthors \= Labhart A \|title\=Clinical Endocrinology: Theory and Practice\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DAgJCAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA696\|date\=6 December 2012\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-96158\-8\|pages\=512, 696}} They do this by directly decreasing the sensitivity of the [alveoli](/wiki/Mammary_alveolus "Mammary alveolus") of the [mammary glands](/wiki/Mammary_gland "Mammary gland") to the [lactogenic hormone](/wiki/Galactagogue "Galactagogue") [prolactin](/wiki/Prolactin "Prolactin"). #### Tall stature Estrogens have been used to limit final [height](/wiki/Human_height "Human height") in adolescent girls with [tall stature](/wiki/Tall_stature "Tall stature").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Juul A \| title \= The effects of oestrogens on linear bone growth \| journal \= Human Reproduction Update \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 303–313 \| year \= 2001 \| pmid \= 11392377 \| doi \= 10\.1093/humupd/7\.3\.303 \| doi\-access \= free }} They do this by inducing [epiphyseal closure](/wiki/Epiphyseal_closure "Epiphyseal closure") and suppressing [growth hormone](/wiki/Growth_hormone "Growth hormone")\-induced hepatic production and by extension circulating levels of [insulin\-like growth factor\-1](/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor-1 "Insulin-like growth factor-1") (IGF\-1\), a hormone that causes the body to grow and increase in size. Although [ethinylestradiol](/wiki/Ethinylestradiol "Ethinylestradiol") and [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens "Conjugated estrogens") have mainly been used for this purpose, estradiol can also be employed.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Albuquerque EV, Scalco RC, Jorge AA \| title \= MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Diagnostic and therapeutic approach of tall stature \| journal \= European Journal of Endocrinology \| volume \= 176 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= R339–R353 \| date \= June 2017 \| pmid \= 28274950 \| doi \= 10\.1530/EJE\-16\-1054 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Upners EN, Juul A \| title \= Evaluation and phenotypic characteristics of 293 Danish girls with tall stature: effects of oral administration of natural 17β\-estradiol \| journal \= Pediatric Research \| volume \= 80 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 693–701 \| date \= November 2016 \| pmid \= 27410906 \| doi \= 10\.1038/pr.2016\.128 \| s2cid \= 24233612 \| doi\-access \= free }} #### Breast enhancement Estrogens are involved in [breast development](/wiki/Breast_development "Breast development") and estradiol may be used as a form of hormonal breast enhancement to increase the [size of the breasts](/wiki/Breast_size "Breast size").{{cite book\| vauthors \= Göretzlehner G, Lauritzen C, Römer T, Rossmanith W \|title\=Praktische Hormontherapie in der Gynäkologie\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\&pg\=PA385\|date\=1 January 2012\|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-024568\-4\|pages\=385–\|access\-date\=22 July 2018\|archive\-date\=6 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006093318/https://books.google.com/books?id\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\&pg\=PA385\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Mansel RE, Fodstad O, Jiang WG \|title\=Metastasis of Breast Cancer\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=14pb5b6gT\-oC\&pg\=PA217\|date\=14 June 2007\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-1\-4020\-5866\-0\|pages\=217–\|access\-date\=22 July 2018\|archive\-date\=1 December 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201061335/https://books.google.com/books?id\=14pb5b6gT\-oC\&pg\=PA217\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hartmann BW, Laml T, Kirchengast S, Albrecht AE, Huber JC \| title \= Hormonal breast augmentation: prognostic relevance of insulin\-like growth factor\-I \| journal \= Gynecological Endocrinology \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 123–127 \| date \= April 1998 \| pmid \= 9610425 \| doi \= 10\.3109/09513599809024960 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lauritzen C \| title \= Hormonkur kann hypoplastischer Mamma aufhelfen \| trans\-title \= Hormone therapy can help hypoplastic breasts \| journal \= Selecta \| language \= de \| year \= 1980 \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 43 \| pages \= 3798–3801 \| publisher \= Selecta\-Verlag \| location \= Planegg \| issn \= 0582\-4877 \| oclc \= 643821347 }}{{cite book \| vauthors \= Kaiser R, Leidenberger FA \| title \= Hormonbehandlung in der gynäkologischen Praxis \| year \= 1991 \| edition \= 6 \| publisher \= Georg Thieme Verlag \| location \= Stuttgart, New York \| pages \= 138–139 \| isbn \= 978\-3133574075 }} Both polyestradiol phosphate monotherapy and [pseudopregnancy](/wiki/Pseudopregnancy "Pseudopregnancy") with a combination of high\-dosage intramuscular estradiol valerate and [hydroxyprogesterone caproate](/wiki/Hydroxyprogesterone_caproate "Hydroxyprogesterone caproate") have been assessed for this purpose in clinical studies. However, acute or temporary [breast enlargement](/wiki/Breast_enlargement "Breast enlargement") is a well\-known side effect of estrogens, and increases in breast size tend to regress following discontinuation of treatment. Aside from those without prior established breast development, evidence is lacking for a sustained increases in breast size with estrogens. #### Schizophrenia Estradiol has been found to be effective in the [adjunctive](/wiki/Adjunct_therapy "Adjunct therapy") treatment of [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia "Schizophrenia") in women.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Begemann MJ, Dekker CF, van Lunenburg M, Sommer IE \| title \= Estrogen augmentation in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of current evidence \| journal \= Schizophrenia Research \| volume \= 141 \| issue \= 2–3 \| pages \= 179–184 \| date \= November 2012 \| pmid \= 22998932 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.schres.2012\.08\.016 \| s2cid \= 40584474 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kulkarni J, Gavrilidis E, Wang W, Worsley R, Fitzgerald PB, Gurvich C, Van Rheenen T, Berk M, Burger H \| title \= Estradiol for treatment\-resistant schizophrenia: a large\-scale randomized\-controlled trial in women of child\-bearing age \| journal \= Molecular Psychiatry \| volume \= 20 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 695–702 \| date \= June 2015 \| pmid \= 24732671 \| doi \= 10\.1038/mp.2014\.33 \| s2cid \= 30322760 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Brzezinski A, Brzezinski\-Sinai NA, Seeman MV \| title \= Treating schizophrenia during menopause \| journal \= Menopause \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 582–588 \| date \= May 2017 \| pmid \= 27824682 \| doi \= 10\.1097/GME.0000000000000772 \| s2cid \= 3452898 }} It has been found to significantly reduce [positive](/wiki/Positive_symptoms "Positive symptoms"), [negative](/wiki/Negative_symptoms "Negative symptoms"), and [cognitive symptoms](/wiki/Schizophrenia%23Cognitive_dysfunction "Schizophrenia#Cognitive dysfunction"), with particular benefits on positive symptoms.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= McGregor C, Riordan A, Thornton J \| title \= Estrogens and the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia: Possible neuroprotective mechanisms \| journal \= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \| volume \= 47 \| pages \= 19–33 \| date \= October 2017 \| pmid \= 28673758 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.yfrne.2017\.06\.003 \| s2cid \= 43291520 }} Other estrogens, as well as [selective estrogen receptor modulators](/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator "Selective estrogen receptor modulator") (SERMs) like [raloxifene](/wiki/Raloxifene "Raloxifene"), have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in women similarly.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= de Boer J, Prikken M, Lei WU, Begemann M, Sommer I \| title \= The effect of raloxifene augmentation in men and women with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta\-analysis \| journal \= npj Schizophrenia \| volume \= 4 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1 \| date \= January 2018 \| pmid \= 29321530 \| pmc \= 5762671 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41537\-017\-0043\-3 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Khan MM \| title \= Neurocognitive, Neuroprotective, and Cardiometabolic Effects of Raloxifene: Potential for Improving Therapeutic Outcomes in Schizophrenia \| journal \= CNS Drugs \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 589–601 \| date \= July 2016 \| pmid \= 27193386 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s40263\-016\-0343\-6 \| s2cid \= 22284610 }} Estrogens may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia in men as well, but their use in this population is limited by [feminizing](/wiki/Feminization_%28biology%29 "Feminization (biology)") [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect "Side effect").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Owens SJ, Murphy CE, Purves\-Tyson TD, Weickert TW, Shannon Weickert C \| title \= Considering the role of adolescent sex steroids in schizophrenia \| journal \= Journal of Neuroendocrinology \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= e12538 \| date \= February 2018 \| pmid \= 28941299 \| doi \= 10\.1111/jne.12538 \| s2cid \= 3391650 \| hdl \= 1959\.4/unsworks\_49994 \| url \= https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/95caebf2\-19c8\-404b\-a527\-c55f4a60aa99/download \| hdl\-access \= free }} SERMs, which have few or no feminizing side effects, have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in men similarly to in women and may be more useful than estrogens in this sex. #### Sexual deviance Estradiol has been used at high doses to suppress [sex drive](/wiki/Sex_drive "Sex drive") in men with [sexual deviance](/wiki/Sexual_deviance "Sexual deviance") such as [paraphilias](/wiki/Paraphilia "Paraphilia") and in [sex offenders](/wiki/Sex_offender "Sex offender").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Guay DR \| title \= Drug treatment of paraphilic and nonparaphilic sexual disorders \| journal \= Clinical Therapeutics \| volume \= 31 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1–31 \| date \= January 2009 \| pmid \= 19243704 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.clinthera.2009\.01\.009 }}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Morgan HG, Morgan MH \|title\=Aids to Psychiatry\|url\=https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1984\|publisher\=Churchill Livingstone\|isbn\=978\-0\-443\-02613\-3\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg/page/75 75]\|quote\=Treatment of sexual offenders. Hormone therapy. \[...] Oestrogens may cause breast hypertrophy, testicular atrophy, osteoporosis (oral ethinyl oestradiol 0\.01\-0\.05 mg/day causes least nausea). Depot preparation: oestradiol \[undecyleate] 50\-100mg once every 3–4 weeks. Benperidol or butyrophenone and the antiandrogen cyproterone acetate also used.}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chatz TL \| title \= Recognizing and Treating Dangerous Sex Offenders \| journal \= International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology \| date \= June 1972 \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 109–115 \| issn \= 0306\-624X \| eissn \= 1552\-6933 \| doi \= 10\.1177/0306624X7201600202 \| pmid \= \| s2cid \= 74365268 \| url \= }} It has specifically been used for this indication in the forms of [intramuscular injections](/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection") of [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate "Estradiol valerate") and [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate "Estradiol undecylate") and of [subcutaneous pellet implants](/wiki/Subcutaneous_pellet_implant "Subcutaneous pellet implant") of estradiol. ### Available forms {{Available forms of estradiol}} Estradiol is available in a variety of different formulations, including oral, intranasal, transdermal/topical, vaginal, injectable, and implantable preparations.{{cite book\| vauthors \= Lemke TL, Williams DA \|title\=Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Sd6ot9ul\-bUC\&pg\=PA1419\|date\=24 January 2012\|publisher\=Lippincott Williams \& Wilkins\|isbn\=978\-1\-60913\-345\-0\|pages\=1419–\|access\-date\=29 June 2018\|archive\-date\=10 June 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610034548/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Sd6ot9ul\-bUC\&pg\=PA1419\|url\-status\=live}} An [ester](/wiki/Ester "Ester") may be attached to one or both of the [hydroxyl groups](/wiki/Hydroxyl_group "Hydroxyl group") of estradiol to improve its oral bioavailability and/or duration of action with injection. Such modifications give rise to forms such as [estradiol acetate](/wiki/Estradiol_acetate "Estradiol acetate") (oral and vaginal), [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate "Estradiol valerate") (oral and injectable), [estradiol cypionate](/wiki/Estradiol_cypionate "Estradiol cypionate") (injectable), [estradiol benzoate](/wiki/Estradiol_benzoate "Estradiol benzoate") (injectable), [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate "Estradiol undecylate") (injectable), and [polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate "Polyestradiol phosphate") (injectable; a [polymerized](/wiki/Polymer "Polymer") ester of estradiol), which are all [prodrugs](/wiki/Prodrug "Prodrug") of estradiol.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mikkola A, Ruutu M, Aro J, Rannikko S, Salo J \| title \= The role of parenteral polyestradiol phosphate in the treatment of advanced prostatic cancer on the threshold of the new millennium \| journal \= Annales Chirurgiae et Gynaecologiae \| volume \= 88 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 18–21 \| year \= 1999 \| pmid \= 10230677 }} {{Gallery \| title\= Gallery of available forms of estradiol \| width\=165 \| height\=155 \| align\=center \| style\="font\-size:small;" \| File:Progynova (estradiol valerate) tablets in the United Kingdom.jpg \| Progynova ({{No selflink\|estradiol valerate}}) 2 mg \[\[oral administration\|oral]] \[\[tablet (pharmacy)\|tablet]]s. \| File:Generic estradiol (Mylan) 0\.1 mg per day once\-weekly transdermal systems.jpg \| \[\[Generic drug\|Generic]] {{No selflink\|estradiol (medication)\|estradiol}} (Mylan) 100 μg/day once\-weekly \[\[transdermal patch]]es. \| File:Estrogen patch.jpg \| Vivelle\-Dot ({{No selflink\|estradiol (medication)\|estradiol}}) 100 μg/day twice\-weekly \[\[transdermal patch]]es. \| File:EstroGel 0\.06% (estradiol transdermal gel) pumps.jpg \| EstroGel 0\.06% ({{No selflink\|estradiol (medication)\|estradiol}}) once\-daily \[\[hydroalcoholic]] \[\[transdermal gel]]. Delivers 0\.75 mg estradiol per pump. \| File:Depo\-Estradiol (estradiol cypionate) vials.jpg \| Depo\-Estradiol 5 mg/mL ({{No selflink\|estradiol cypionate}} in \[\[oil solution]]) \[\[vial]]s. Used by \[\[depot injection\|depot]] \[\[intramuscular injection]]. }}
[ "Medical uses\n------------", "### Hormone therapy", "#### Menopause", "{{See also\\|Menopausal hormone therapy}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|425px\\|Average number of moderate\\-to\\-severe [hot flashes](/wiki/Hot_flash \"Hot flash\") per week with [placebo](/wiki/Placebo \"Placebo\") and different doses of [oral estradiol](/wiki/Oral_estradiol \"Oral estradiol\") in menopausal women{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Notelovitz M, Lenihan JP, McDermott M, Kerber IJ, Nanavati N, Arce J \\| title \\= Initial 17beta\\-estradiol dose for treating vasomotor symptoms \\| journal \\= Obstetrics and Gynecology \\| volume \\= 95 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 726–731 \\| date \\= May 2000 \\| pmid \\= 10775738 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/s0029\\-7844(99\\)00643\\-2 \\| s2cid \\= 42621608 }}{{cite journal\\| vauthors \\= Wiegratz I, Kuhl H \\|title\\=Praxis der Hormontherapie in der Peri\\- und Postmenopause\\|trans\\-title\\=Practice of peri\\- and postmenopausal hormone therapy\\|journal\\=Gynäkologische Endokrinologie\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=3\\|year\\=2007\\|pages\\=141–149\\|issn\\=1610\\-2894\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10304\\-007\\-0194\\-9\\|s2cid\\=27130717}}](/wiki/File:Hot_flashes_with_placebo_and_different_doses_of_oral_estradiol_in_menopausal_women.png \"Hot flashes with placebo and different doses of oral estradiol in menopausal women.png\")", "Estradiol is used in [menopausal hormone therapy](/wiki/Menopausal_hormone_therapy \"Menopausal hormone therapy\") to prevent and treat moderate to severe [menopausal](/wiki/Menopause \"Menopause\") [symptoms](/wiki/Symptom \"Symptom\") such as [hot flashes](/wiki/Hot_flash \"Hot flash\"), [vaginal dryness](/wiki/Vaginal_dryness \"Vaginal dryness\") and [atrophy](/wiki/Atrophic_vaginitis \"Atrophic vaginitis\"), and [osteoporosis](/wiki/Osteoporosis \"Osteoporosis\") (bone loss). As unopposed estrogen therapy (using estrogen alone without progesterone) increases the risk of [endometrial hyperplasia](/wiki/Endometrial_hyperplasia \"Endometrial hyperplasia\") and [endometrial cancer](/wiki/Endometrial_cancer \"Endometrial cancer\") in women with intact [uteruses](/wiki/Uterus \"Uterus\"), estradiol is usually combined with a [progestogen](/wiki/Progestogen_%28medication%29 \"Progestogen (medication)\") like [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone_%28medication%29 \"Progesterone (medication)\") or [medroxyprogesterone acetate](/wiki/Medroxyprogesterone_acetate \"Medroxyprogesterone acetate\") to prevent the effects of estradiol on the [endometrium](/wiki/Endometrium \"Endometrium\").{{Cite book\\| vauthors \\= Mutschler E, Schäfer\\-Korting M \\|title\\=Arzneimittelwirkungen\\|language\\=de\\|location\\=Stuttgart\\|publisher\\=Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft\\|year\\=2001\\|edition\\=8\\|pages\\=434, 444\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-8047\\-1763\\-3}} This is not necessary if the woman has undergone a [hysterectomy](/wiki/Hysterectomy \"Hysterectomy\") (surgical removal of the uterus). A 2017 [meta\\-analysis](/wiki/Meta-analysis \"Meta-analysis\") found that estradiol had no effect on depressive symptoms in peri\\- and postmenopausal women.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Whedon JM, KizhakkeVeettil A, Rugo NA, Kieffer KA \\| title \\= Bioidentical Estrogen for Menopausal Depressive Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta\\-Analysis \\| journal \\= Journal of Women's Health \\| volume \\= 26 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 18–28 \\| date \\= January 2017 \\| pmid \\= 27603786 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1089/jwh.2015\\.5628 }}", "{{Estrogen dosages for menopausal hormone therapy}}", "#### Hypogonadism", "Estrogen is responsible for the mediation of [puberty](/wiki/Puberty \"Puberty\") in females, and in girls with [delayed puberty](/wiki/Delayed_puberty \"Delayed puberty\") due to [hypogonadism](/wiki/Hypogonadism \"Hypogonadism\") (low\\-functioning [gonads](/wiki/Gonad \"Gonad\"), which can result in low [sex hormone](/wiki/Sex_hormone \"Sex hormone\") levels) such as in [Turner syndrome](/wiki/Turner_syndrome \"Turner syndrome\"), estradiol is used to induce the development of and maintain female [secondary sexual characteristics](/wiki/Secondary_sexual_characteristic \"Secondary sexual characteristic\") such as [breasts](/wiki/Breast \"Breast\"), wide [hips](/wiki/Hip \"Hip\"), and a [female fat distribution](/wiki/Gynoid_fat_distribution \"Gynoid fat distribution\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Matthews D, Bath L, Högler W, Mason A, Smyth A, Skae M \\| title \\= Hormone supplementation for pubertal induction in girls \\| journal \\= Archives of Disease in Childhood \\| volume \\= 102 \\| issue \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 975–980 \\| date \\= October 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28446424 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1136/archdischild\\-2016\\-311372 \\| url \\= http://pure\\-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40333585/Revised\\_ADC\\_paper\\_accepted\\_.pdf \\| access\\-date \\= 16 August 2019 \\| url\\-status \\= live \\| s2cid \\= 39539979 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200310044144/http://pure\\-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40333585/Revised\\_ADC\\_paper\\_accepted\\_.pdf \\| archive\\-date \\= 10 March 2020 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Christin\\-Maitre S \\| title \\= Use of Hormone Replacement in Females with Endocrine Disorders \\| journal \\= Hormone Research in Paediatrics \\| volume \\= 87 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 215–223 \\| date \\= 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28376481 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1159/000457125 \\| s2cid \\= 3785166 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Rosenthal L, Burchum J \\|title\\=Lehne's Pharmacotherapeutics for Advanced Practice Providers \\- E\\-Book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gfYoDgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA524\\|date\\=17 February 2017\\|publisher\\=Elsevier Health Sciences\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-323\\-44779\\-9\\|pages\\=524–\\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=10 June 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610034548/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gfYoDgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA524\\|url\\-status\\=live}} It is also used to restore estradiol levels in adult premenopausal women with hypogonadism, for instance those with [premature ovarian failure](/wiki/Premature_ovarian_failure \"Premature ovarian failure\") or who have undergone [oophorectomy](/wiki/Oophorectomy \"Oophorectomy\"). It is used to treat women with hypogonadism due to [hypopituitarism](/wiki/Hypopituitarism \"Hypopituitarism\") as well.", "#### Transgender women", "{{Main\\|Feminizing hormone therapy}}", "Estradiol is used as part of [feminizing hormone therapy](/wiki/Feminizing_hormone_therapy \"Feminizing hormone therapy\") for [transgender women](/wiki/Transgender_women \"Transgender women\").{{citation \\| author \\= World Professional Association for Transgender Health \\| title \\= Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People, Seventh Version \\| date \\= September 2011 \\| url \\= http://www.wpath.org/uploaded\\_files/140/files/IJT%20SOC,%20V7\\.pdf \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160106203349/http://www.wpath.org/uploaded\\_files/140/files/IJT%20SOC%2C%20V7\\.pdf \\| archive\\-date \\= 6 January 2016 \\| df \\= dmy\\-all \\| author\\-link \\= World Professional Association for Transgender Health }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wesp LM, Deutsch MB \\| title \\= Hormonal and Surgical Treatment Options for Transgender Women and Transfeminine Spectrum Persons \\| journal \\= The Psychiatric Clinics of North America \\| volume \\= 40 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 99–111 \\| date \\= March 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28159148 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.psc.2016\\.10\\.006 }} The drug is used in higher dosages prior to [gender\\-affirming surgery](/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery \"Gender-affirming surgery\") or [orchiectomy](/wiki/Orchiectomy \"Orchiectomy\") to help suppress [testosterone](/wiki/Testosterone \"Testosterone\") levels; after this procedure, estradiol continues to be used at lower dosages to maintain estradiol levels in the normal premenopausal female range.", "### Birth control", "Although almost all [combined oral contraceptives](/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive \"Combined oral contraceptive\") contain the synthetic estrogen ethinylestradiol,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Evans G, Sutton EL \\| title \\= Oral contraception \\| journal \\= The Medical Clinics of North America \\| volume \\= 99 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 479–503 \\| date \\= May 2015 \\| pmid \\= 25841596 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.mcna.2015\\.01\\.004 }} natural estradiol itself is also used in some [hormonal contraceptives](/wiki/Hormonal_contraceptive \"Hormonal contraceptive\"), including in [estradiol\\-containing oral contraceptives](/wiki/Estradiol-containing_oral_contraceptive \"Estradiol-containing oral contraceptive\") and [combined injectable contraceptives](/wiki/Combined_injectable_contraceptive \"Combined injectable contraceptive\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Christin\\-Maitre S, Laroche E, Bricaire L \\| title \\= A new contraceptive pill containing 17β\\-estradiol and nomegestrol acetate \\| journal \\= Women's Health \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 13–23 \\| date \\= January 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23241152 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2217/whe.12\\.70 \\| s2cid \\= 31617961 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Newton JR, D'arcangues C, Hall PE \\| title \\= A review of \"once\\-a\\-month\" combined injectable contraceptives \\| journal \\= Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology \\| volume \\= 4 \\| issue \\= Suppl 1 \\| pages \\= S1\\-34 \\| year \\= 1994 \\| pmid \\= 12290848 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/01443619409027641 }} It is formulated in combination with a [progestin](/wiki/Progestin \"Progestin\") such as [dienogest](/wiki/Dienogest \"Dienogest\"), [nomegestrol acetate](/wiki/Nomegestrol_acetate \"Nomegestrol acetate\"), or medroxyprogesterone acetate, and is often used in the form of an ester prodrug like estradiol valerate or estradiol cypionate. Hormonal contraceptives contain a progestin and/or estrogen and prevent [ovulation](/wiki/Ovulation \"Ovulation\") and thus the possibility of [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\") by suppressing the secretion of the [gonadotropins](/wiki/Gonadotropin \"Gonadotropin\") [follicle\\-stimulating hormone](/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone \"Follicle-stimulating hormone\") (FSH) and [luteinizing hormone](/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone \"Luteinizing hormone\") (LH), the peak of which around the middle of the [menstrual cycle](/wiki/Menstrual_cycle \"Menstrual cycle\") causes ovulation to occur.{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Glasier A \\| author\\-link \\= Anna Glasier \\|year\\=2010\\|chapter\\=Contraception\\| veditors \\= Jameson JL, De Groot LJ \\|title\\=Endocrinology \\|edition\\=6th \\|location\\=Philadelphia\\|publisher\\=Saunders Elsevier\\|pages\\=2417–2427\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4160\\-5583\\-9}}", "### Hormonal cancer", "#### Prostate cancer", "Estradiol is used as a form of [high\\-dose estrogen](/wiki/High-dose_estrogen \"High-dose estrogen\") therapy to treat [prostate cancer](/wiki/Prostate_cancer \"Prostate cancer\") and is similarly effective to other therapies such as [androgen deprivation therapy](/wiki/Androgen_deprivation_therapy \"Androgen deprivation therapy\") with [castration](/wiki/Castration \"Castration\") and [antiandrogens](/wiki/Antiandrogen \"Antiandrogen\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ali Shah SI \\| title \\= Emerging potential of parenteral estrogen as androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer \\| journal \\= South Asian Journal of Cancer \\| volume \\= 4 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 95–97 \\| date \\= 2015 \\| pmid \\= 25992351 \\| pmc \\= 4418092 \\| doi \\= 10\\.4103/2278\\-330X.155699 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lycette JL, Bland LB, Garzotto M, Beer TM \\| title \\= Parenteral estrogens for prostate cancer: can a new route of administration overcome old toxicities? \\| journal \\= Clinical Genitourinary Cancer \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 198–205 \\| date \\= December 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17239273 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3816/CGC.2006\\.n.037 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Cox RL, Crawford ED \\| title \\= Estrogens in the treatment of prostate cancer \\| journal \\= The Journal of Urology \\| volume \\= 154 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 1991–1998 \\| date \\= December 1995 \\| pmid \\= 7500443 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/S0022\\-5347(01\\)66670\\-9 }} It is used in the form of long\\-lasting injected estradiol prodrugs like [polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate \"Polyestradiol phosphate\"), [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate \"Estradiol valerate\"), and [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate \"Estradiol undecylate\"),{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Altwein J \\|title\\=Cancer of the Prostate and Kidney\\|chapter\\=Controversial Aspects of Hormone Manipulation in Prostatic Carcinoma\\|series\\=NATO Advanced Science Institutes Series \\|year\\=1983\\|pages\\=305–316\\|publisher\\=Springer \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-4684\\-4349\\-3\\_38\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4684\\-4351\\-6}} and has also more recently been assessed in the form of transdermal estradiol patches.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ockrim JL, Lalani EN, Kakkar AK, Abel PD \\| title \\= Transdermal estradiol therapy for prostate cancer reduces thrombophilic activation and protects against thromboembolism \\| journal \\= The Journal of Urology \\| volume \\= 174 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 527–33; discussion 532–3 \\| date \\= August 2005 \\| pmid \\= 16006886 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1097/01\\.ju.0000165567\\.99142\\.1f }} Estrogens are effective in the treatment of prostate cancer by suppressing [testosterone](/wiki/Testosterone \"Testosterone\") levels into the castrate range, increasing levels of [sex hormone\\-binding globulin](/wiki/Sex_hormone-binding_globulin \"Sex hormone-binding globulin\") (SHBG) and thereby decreasing the fraction of free testosterone, and possibly also via direct [cytotoxic](/wiki/Cytotoxic \"Cytotoxic\") effects on prostate cancer cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Coss CC, Jones A, Parke DN, Narayanan R, Barrett CM, Kearbey JD, Veverka KA, Miller DD, Morton RA, Steiner MS, Dalton JT \\| title \\= Preclinical characterization of a novel diphenyl benzamide selective ERα agonist for hormone therapy in prostate cancer \\| journal \\= Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 153 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 1070–1081 \\| date \\= March 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22294742 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1210/en.2011\\-1608 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} [Parenteral](/wiki/Parenteral \"Parenteral\") estradiol is largely free of the [cardiovascular](/wiki/Cardiovascular \"Cardiovascular\") [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect \"Side effect\") of the high oral dosages of synthetic estrogens like [diethylstilbestrol](/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol \"Diethylstilbestrol\") ad ethinylestradiol that were used previously.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= von Schoultz B, Carlström K, Collste L, Eriksson A, Henriksson P, Pousette A, Stege R \\| title \\= Estrogen therapy and liver function\\-\\-metabolic effects of oral and parenteral administration \\| journal \\= The Prostate \\| volume \\= 14 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 389–395 \\| year \\= 1989 \\| pmid \\= 2664738 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/pros.2990140410 \\| s2cid \\= 21510744 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ockrim J, Lalani EN, Abel P \\| title \\= Therapy Insight: parenteral estrogen treatment for prostate cancer\\-\\-a new dawn for an old therapy \\| journal \\= Nature Clinical Practice. Oncology \\| volume \\= 3 \\| issue \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 552–563 \\| date \\= October 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17019433 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/ncponc0602 \\| s2cid \\= 6847203 }} In addition, estrogens may have advantages relative to castration in terms of hot flashes, sexual interest and function, osteoporosis, cognitive function, and [quality of life](/wiki/Quality_of_life \"Quality of life\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Scherr DS, Pitts WR \\| title \\= The nonsteroidal effects of diethylstilbestrol: the rationale for androgen deprivation therapy without estrogen deprivation in the treatment of prostate cancer \\| journal \\= The Journal of Urology \\| volume \\= 170 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 1703–1708 \\| date \\= November 2003 \\| pmid \\= 14532759 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1097/01\\.ju.0000077558\\.48257\\.3d }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wibowo E, Schellhammer P, Wassersug RJ \\| title \\= Role of estrogen in normal male function: clinical implications for patients with prostate cancer on androgen deprivation therapy \\| journal \\= The Journal of Urology \\| volume \\= 185 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 17–23 \\| date \\= January 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21074215 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.juro.2010\\.08\\.094 }} However, side effects such as gynecomastia and feminization in general may be difficult to tolerate and unacceptable for many men.", "#### Breast cancer", "[High\\-dose estrogen](/wiki/High-dose_estrogen \"High-dose estrogen\") therapy is effective in the treatment of about 35% of cases of [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\") in women who are at least 5 years menopausal and has comparable effectiveness to [antiestrogen](/wiki/Antiestrogen \"Antiestrogen\") therapy with medications like the [selective estrogen receptor modulator](/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator \"Selective estrogen receptor modulator\") (SERM) [tamoxifen](/wiki/Tamoxifen \"Tamoxifen\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Coelingh Bennink HJ, Verhoeven C, Dutman AE, Thijssen J \\| title \\= The use of high\\-dose estrogens for the treatment of breast cancer \\| journal \\= Maturitas \\| volume \\= 95 \\| pages \\= 11–23 \\| date \\= January 2017 \\| pmid \\= 27889048 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.maturitas.2016\\.10\\.010 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Thomas JA, Keenan EJ \\|title\\=Principles of Endocrine Pharmacology\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mTagBQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA148\\|date\\=6 December 2012\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4684\\-5036\\-1\\|pages\\=148–}}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Miller WR, Ingle JN \\|title\\=Endocrine Therapy in Breast Cancer\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=00\\_LBQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA49\\|date\\=8 March 2002\\|publisher\\=CRC Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-203\\-90983\\-6\\|pages\\=49–52\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114075229/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=00\\_LBQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA49\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Although estrogens are rarely used in the treatment of breast cancer today and synthetic estrogens like diethylstilbestrol and ethinylestradiol have most commonly been used, estradiol itself has been used in the treatment of breast cancer as well.{{cite journal\\| vauthors \\= Ellis MJ, Dehdahti F, Kommareddy A, Jamalabadi\\-Majidi S, Crowder R, Jeffe DB, Gao F, Fleming G, Silverman P, Dickler M, Carey L \\|title\\=A randomized phase 2 trial of low dose (6 mg daily) versus high dose (30 mg daily) estradiol for patients with estrogen receptor positive aromatase inhibitor resistant advanced breast cancer.\\|journal\\=Cancer Research\\|volume\\=69\\|issue\\=2 Supplement\\|year\\=2014\\|pages\\=16\\|issn\\=0008\\-5472\\|doi\\=10\\.1158/0008\\-5472\\.SABCS\\-16}} It has been used orally at very high doses (30 mg/day) in the treatment of therapy\\-naive breast cancer and orally at low doses (2 to 6 mg/day) in the treatment of breast cancer in women who were previously treated with and benefited from but acquired resistance to [aromatase inhibitors](/wiki/Aromatase_inhibitor \"Aromatase inhibitor\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Palmieri C, Patten DK, Januszewski A, Zucchini G, Howell SJ \\| title \\= Breast cancer: current and future endocrine therapies \\| journal \\= Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 382 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 695–723 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 23933149 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.mce.2013\\.08\\.001 \\| s2cid \\= 3363705 }} [Polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate \"Polyestradiol phosphate\") is also used to treat breast cancer.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://pharmanovia.com/product/estradurin/ \\|title\\=Estradurin (Polyestradiol Phosphate) \\| work \\= Pharmanovia \\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 January 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102072958/http://pharmanovia.com/product/estradurin/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ostrowski MJ, Jackson AW \\| title \\= Polyestradiol phosphate: a preliminary evaluation of its effect on breast carcinoma \\| journal \\= Cancer Treatment Reports \\| volume \\= 63 \\| issue \\= 11–12 \\| pages \\= 1803–1807 \\| date \\= 1979 \\| pmid \\= 393380 }}", "### Other uses", "#### Infertility", "Estrogens may be used in treatment of [infertility](/wiki/Infertility \"Infertility\") in women when there is a need to develop [sperm](/wiki/Sperm \"Sperm\")\\-friendly [cervical mucus](/wiki/Cervical_mucus \"Cervical mucus\") or an appropriate [uterine lining](/wiki/Uterine_lining \"Uterine lining\").{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Aiman J \\|title\\=Infertility: Diagnosis and Management\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=D4\\_TBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA133\\|date\\=6 December 2012\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4613\\-8265\\-2\\|pages\\=133–134}}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Schattman GL, Esteves S, Agarwal A \\|title\\=Unexplained Infertility: Pathophysiology, Evaluation and Treatment\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wCdACQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA266\\|date\\=12 May 2015\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4939\\-2140\\-9\\|pages\\=266–}}", "It is also commonly used during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Estrogen helps maintain the endometrial lining of the uterus and help prepare for pregnancy. Research shows higher pregnancy rate if the mother takes estrogen in addition to progesterone.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Pinheiro LM, Cândido PD, Moreto TC, Almeida WG, Castro EC \\| title \\= Estradiol use in the luteal phase and its effects on pregnancy rates in IVF cycles with GnRH antagonist: a systematic review \\| journal \\= JBRA Assisted Reproduction \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 247–250 \\| date \\= September 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28837035 \\| pmc \\= 5574648 \\| doi \\= 10\\.5935/1518\\-0557\\.20170046 }} Estradiol is the predominant form of estrogen during reproductive years and is most commonly prescribed.", "#### Lactation suppression", "Estrogens can be used to suppress and cease [lactation](/wiki/Lactation \"Lactation\") and [breast engorgement](/wiki/Breast_engorgement \"Breast engorgement\") in [postpartum](/wiki/Postpartum \"Postpartum\") women who do not wish to [breastfeed](/wiki/Breastfeeding \"Breastfeeding\").{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Labhart A \\|title\\=Clinical Endocrinology: Theory and Practice\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DAgJCAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA696\\|date\\=6 December 2012\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-96158\\-8\\|pages\\=512, 696}} They do this by directly decreasing the sensitivity of the [alveoli](/wiki/Mammary_alveolus \"Mammary alveolus\") of the [mammary glands](/wiki/Mammary_gland \"Mammary gland\") to the [lactogenic hormone](/wiki/Galactagogue \"Galactagogue\") [prolactin](/wiki/Prolactin \"Prolactin\").", "#### Tall stature", "Estrogens have been used to limit final [height](/wiki/Human_height \"Human height\") in adolescent girls with [tall stature](/wiki/Tall_stature \"Tall stature\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Juul A \\| title \\= The effects of oestrogens on linear bone growth \\| journal \\= Human Reproduction Update \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 303–313 \\| year \\= 2001 \\| pmid \\= 11392377 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/humupd/7\\.3\\.303 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} They do this by inducing [epiphyseal closure](/wiki/Epiphyseal_closure \"Epiphyseal closure\") and suppressing [growth hormone](/wiki/Growth_hormone \"Growth hormone\")\\-induced hepatic production and by extension circulating levels of [insulin\\-like growth factor\\-1](/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor-1 \"Insulin-like growth factor-1\") (IGF\\-1\\), a hormone that causes the body to grow and increase in size. Although [ethinylestradiol](/wiki/Ethinylestradiol \"Ethinylestradiol\") and [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens \"Conjugated estrogens\") have mainly been used for this purpose, estradiol can also be employed.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Albuquerque EV, Scalco RC, Jorge AA \\| title \\= MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Diagnostic and therapeutic approach of tall stature \\| journal \\= European Journal of Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 176 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= R339–R353 \\| date \\= June 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28274950 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1530/EJE\\-16\\-1054 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Upners EN, Juul A \\| title \\= Evaluation and phenotypic characteristics of 293 Danish girls with tall stature: effects of oral administration of natural 17β\\-estradiol \\| journal \\= Pediatric Research \\| volume \\= 80 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 693–701 \\| date \\= November 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27410906 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/pr.2016\\.128 \\| s2cid \\= 24233612 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "#### Breast enhancement", "Estrogens are involved in [breast development](/wiki/Breast_development \"Breast development\") and estradiol may be used as a form of hormonal breast enhancement to increase the [size of the breasts](/wiki/Breast_size \"Breast size\").{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Göretzlehner G, Lauritzen C, Römer T, Rossmanith W \\|title\\=Praktische Hormontherapie in der Gynäkologie\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\\&pg\\=PA385\\|date\\=1 January 2012\\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-024568\\-4\\|pages\\=385–\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006093318/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\\&pg\\=PA385\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Mansel RE, Fodstad O, Jiang WG \\|title\\=Metastasis of Breast Cancer\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=14pb5b6gT\\-oC\\&pg\\=PA217\\|date\\=14 June 2007\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4020\\-5866\\-0\\|pages\\=217–\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=1 December 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201061335/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=14pb5b6gT\\-oC\\&pg\\=PA217\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hartmann BW, Laml T, Kirchengast S, Albrecht AE, Huber JC \\| title \\= Hormonal breast augmentation: prognostic relevance of insulin\\-like growth factor\\-I \\| journal \\= Gynecological Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 123–127 \\| date \\= April 1998 \\| pmid \\= 9610425 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/09513599809024960 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lauritzen C \\| title \\= Hormonkur kann hypoplastischer Mamma aufhelfen \\| trans\\-title \\= Hormone therapy can help hypoplastic breasts \\| journal \\= Selecta \\| language \\= de \\| year \\= 1980 \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 43 \\| pages \\= 3798–3801 \\| publisher \\= Selecta\\-Verlag \\| location \\= Planegg \\| issn \\= 0582\\-4877 \\| oclc \\= 643821347 }}{{cite book \\| vauthors \\= Kaiser R, Leidenberger FA \\| title \\= Hormonbehandlung in der gynäkologischen Praxis \\| year \\= 1991 \\| edition \\= 6 \\| publisher \\= Georg Thieme Verlag \\| location \\= Stuttgart, New York \\| pages \\= 138–139 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-3133574075 }} Both polyestradiol phosphate monotherapy and [pseudopregnancy](/wiki/Pseudopregnancy \"Pseudopregnancy\") with a combination of high\\-dosage intramuscular estradiol valerate and [hydroxyprogesterone caproate](/wiki/Hydroxyprogesterone_caproate \"Hydroxyprogesterone caproate\") have been assessed for this purpose in clinical studies. However, acute or temporary [breast enlargement](/wiki/Breast_enlargement \"Breast enlargement\") is a well\\-known side effect of estrogens, and increases in breast size tend to regress following discontinuation of treatment. Aside from those without prior established breast development, evidence is lacking for a sustained increases in breast size with estrogens.", "#### Schizophrenia", "Estradiol has been found to be effective in the [adjunctive](/wiki/Adjunct_therapy \"Adjunct therapy\") treatment of [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia \"Schizophrenia\") in women.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Begemann MJ, Dekker CF, van Lunenburg M, Sommer IE \\| title \\= Estrogen augmentation in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of current evidence \\| journal \\= Schizophrenia Research \\| volume \\= 141 \\| issue \\= 2–3 \\| pages \\= 179–184 \\| date \\= November 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22998932 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.schres.2012\\.08\\.016 \\| s2cid \\= 40584474 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kulkarni J, Gavrilidis E, Wang W, Worsley R, Fitzgerald PB, Gurvich C, Van Rheenen T, Berk M, Burger H \\| title \\= Estradiol for treatment\\-resistant schizophrenia: a large\\-scale randomized\\-controlled trial in women of child\\-bearing age \\| journal \\= Molecular Psychiatry \\| volume \\= 20 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 695–702 \\| date \\= June 2015 \\| pmid \\= 24732671 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/mp.2014\\.33 \\| s2cid \\= 30322760 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Brzezinski A, Brzezinski\\-Sinai NA, Seeman MV \\| title \\= Treating schizophrenia during menopause \\| journal \\= Menopause \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 582–588 \\| date \\= May 2017 \\| pmid \\= 27824682 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1097/GME.0000000000000772 \\| s2cid \\= 3452898 }} It has been found to significantly reduce [positive](/wiki/Positive_symptoms \"Positive symptoms\"), [negative](/wiki/Negative_symptoms \"Negative symptoms\"), and [cognitive symptoms](/wiki/Schizophrenia%23Cognitive_dysfunction \"Schizophrenia#Cognitive dysfunction\"), with particular benefits on positive symptoms.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= McGregor C, Riordan A, Thornton J \\| title \\= Estrogens and the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia: Possible neuroprotective mechanisms \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \\| volume \\= 47 \\| pages \\= 19–33 \\| date \\= October 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28673758 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.yfrne.2017\\.06\\.003 \\| s2cid \\= 43291520 }} Other estrogens, as well as [selective estrogen receptor modulators](/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator \"Selective estrogen receptor modulator\") (SERMs) like [raloxifene](/wiki/Raloxifene \"Raloxifene\"), have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in women similarly.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= de Boer J, Prikken M, Lei WU, Begemann M, Sommer I \\| title \\= The effect of raloxifene augmentation in men and women with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta\\-analysis \\| journal \\= npj Schizophrenia \\| volume \\= 4 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1 \\| date \\= January 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29321530 \\| pmc \\= 5762671 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41537\\-017\\-0043\\-3 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Khan MM \\| title \\= Neurocognitive, Neuroprotective, and Cardiometabolic Effects of Raloxifene: Potential for Improving Therapeutic Outcomes in Schizophrenia \\| journal \\= CNS Drugs \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 589–601 \\| date \\= July 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27193386 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s40263\\-016\\-0343\\-6 \\| s2cid \\= 22284610 }} Estrogens may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia in men as well, but their use in this population is limited by [feminizing](/wiki/Feminization_%28biology%29 \"Feminization (biology)\") [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect \"Side effect\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Owens SJ, Murphy CE, Purves\\-Tyson TD, Weickert TW, Shannon Weickert C \\| title \\= Considering the role of adolescent sex steroids in schizophrenia \\| journal \\= Journal of Neuroendocrinology \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= e12538 \\| date \\= February 2018 \\| pmid \\= 28941299 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/jne.12538 \\| s2cid \\= 3391650 \\| hdl \\= 1959\\.4/unsworks\\_49994 \\| url \\= https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/95caebf2\\-19c8\\-404b\\-a527\\-c55f4a60aa99/download \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }} SERMs, which have few or no feminizing side effects, have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in men similarly to in women and may be more useful than estrogens in this sex.", "#### Sexual deviance", "Estradiol has been used at high doses to suppress [sex drive](/wiki/Sex_drive \"Sex drive\") in men with [sexual deviance](/wiki/Sexual_deviance \"Sexual deviance\") such as [paraphilias](/wiki/Paraphilia \"Paraphilia\") and in [sex offenders](/wiki/Sex_offender \"Sex offender\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Guay DR \\| title \\= Drug treatment of paraphilic and nonparaphilic sexual disorders \\| journal \\= Clinical Therapeutics \\| volume \\= 31 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1–31 \\| date \\= January 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19243704 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.clinthera.2009\\.01\\.009 }}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Morgan HG, Morgan MH \\|title\\=Aids to Psychiatry\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1984\\|publisher\\=Churchill Livingstone\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-443\\-02613\\-3\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg/page/75 75]\\|quote\\=Treatment of sexual offenders. Hormone therapy. \\[...] Oestrogens may cause breast hypertrophy, testicular atrophy, osteoporosis (oral ethinyl oestradiol 0\\.01\\-0\\.05 mg/day causes least nausea). Depot preparation: oestradiol \\[undecyleate] 50\\-100mg once every 3–4 weeks. Benperidol or butyrophenone and the antiandrogen cyproterone acetate also used.}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chatz TL \\| title \\= Recognizing and Treating Dangerous Sex Offenders \\| journal \\= International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology \\| date \\= June 1972 \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 109–115 \\| issn \\= 0306\\-624X \\| eissn \\= 1552\\-6933 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/0306624X7201600202 \\| pmid \\= \\| s2cid \\= 74365268 \\| url \\= }} It has specifically been used for this indication in the forms of [intramuscular injections](/wiki/Intramuscular_injection \"Intramuscular injection\") of [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate \"Estradiol valerate\") and [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate \"Estradiol undecylate\") and of [subcutaneous pellet implants](/wiki/Subcutaneous_pellet_implant \"Subcutaneous pellet implant\") of estradiol.", "### Available forms", "{{Available forms of estradiol}}\nEstradiol is available in a variety of different formulations, including oral, intranasal, transdermal/topical, vaginal, injectable, and implantable preparations.{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Lemke TL, Williams DA \\|title\\=Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Sd6ot9ul\\-bUC\\&pg\\=PA1419\\|date\\=24 January 2012\\|publisher\\=Lippincott Williams \\& Wilkins\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-60913\\-345\\-0\\|pages\\=1419–\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=10 June 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610034548/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Sd6ot9ul\\-bUC\\&pg\\=PA1419\\|url\\-status\\=live}} An [ester](/wiki/Ester \"Ester\") may be attached to one or both of the [hydroxyl groups](/wiki/Hydroxyl_group \"Hydroxyl group\") of estradiol to improve its oral bioavailability and/or duration of action with injection. Such modifications give rise to forms such as [estradiol acetate](/wiki/Estradiol_acetate \"Estradiol acetate\") (oral and vaginal), [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate \"Estradiol valerate\") (oral and injectable), [estradiol cypionate](/wiki/Estradiol_cypionate \"Estradiol cypionate\") (injectable), [estradiol benzoate](/wiki/Estradiol_benzoate \"Estradiol benzoate\") (injectable), [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate \"Estradiol undecylate\") (injectable), and [polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate \"Polyestradiol phosphate\") (injectable; a [polymerized](/wiki/Polymer \"Polymer\") ester of estradiol), which are all [prodrugs](/wiki/Prodrug \"Prodrug\") of estradiol.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mikkola A, Ruutu M, Aro J, Rannikko S, Salo J \\| title \\= The role of parenteral polyestradiol phosphate in the treatment of advanced prostatic cancer on the threshold of the new millennium \\| journal \\= Annales Chirurgiae et Gynaecologiae \\| volume \\= 88 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 18–21 \\| year \\= 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10230677 }}", "{{Gallery\n\\| title\\= Gallery of available forms of estradiol\n\\| width\\=165 \\| height\\=155\n\\| align\\=center", "\\| style\\=\"font\\-size:small;\"", "\\| File:Progynova (estradiol valerate) tablets in the United Kingdom.jpg \\| Progynova ({{No selflink\\|estradiol valerate}}) 2 mg \\[\\[oral administration\\|oral]] \\[\\[tablet (pharmacy)\\|tablet]]s.", "\\| File:Generic estradiol (Mylan) 0\\.1 mg per day once\\-weekly transdermal systems.jpg \\| \\[\\[Generic drug\\|Generic]] {{No selflink\\|estradiol (medication)\\|estradiol}} (Mylan) 100 μg/day once\\-weekly \\[\\[transdermal patch]]es.", "\\| File:Estrogen patch.jpg \\| Vivelle\\-Dot ({{No selflink\\|estradiol (medication)\\|estradiol}}) 100 μg/day twice\\-weekly \\[\\[transdermal patch]]es.", "\\| File:EstroGel 0\\.06% (estradiol transdermal gel) pumps.jpg \\| EstroGel 0\\.06% ({{No selflink\\|estradiol (medication)\\|estradiol}}) once\\-daily \\[\\[hydroalcoholic]] \\[\\[transdermal gel]]. Delivers 0\\.75 mg estradiol per pump.", "\\| File:Depo\\-Estradiol (estradiol cypionate) vials.jpg \\| Depo\\-Estradiol 5 mg/mL ({{No selflink\\|estradiol cypionate}} in \\[\\[oil solution]]) \\[\\[vial]]s. Used by \\[\\[depot injection\\|depot]] \\[\\[intramuscular injection]].", "}}", "" ]
### Other uses #### Infertility Estrogens may be used in treatment of [infertility](/wiki/Infertility "Infertility") in women when there is a need to develop [sperm](/wiki/Sperm "Sperm")\-friendly [cervical mucus](/wiki/Cervical_mucus "Cervical mucus") or an appropriate [uterine lining](/wiki/Uterine_lining "Uterine lining").{{cite book\| vauthors \= Aiman J \|title\=Infertility: Diagnosis and Management\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=D4\_TBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA133\|date\=6 December 2012\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-1\-4613\-8265\-2\|pages\=133–134}}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Schattman GL, Esteves S, Agarwal A \|title\=Unexplained Infertility: Pathophysiology, Evaluation and Treatment\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wCdACQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA266\|date\=12 May 2015\|publisher\=Springer\|isbn\=978\-1\-4939\-2140\-9\|pages\=266–}} It is also commonly used during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Estrogen helps maintain the endometrial lining of the uterus and help prepare for pregnancy. Research shows higher pregnancy rate if the mother takes estrogen in addition to progesterone.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Pinheiro LM, Cândido PD, Moreto TC, Almeida WG, Castro EC \| title \= Estradiol use in the luteal phase and its effects on pregnancy rates in IVF cycles with GnRH antagonist: a systematic review \| journal \= JBRA Assisted Reproduction \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 247–250 \| date \= September 2017 \| pmid \= 28837035 \| pmc \= 5574648 \| doi \= 10\.5935/1518\-0557\.20170046 }} Estradiol is the predominant form of estrogen during reproductive years and is most commonly prescribed. #### Lactation suppression Estrogens can be used to suppress and cease [lactation](/wiki/Lactation "Lactation") and [breast engorgement](/wiki/Breast_engorgement "Breast engorgement") in [postpartum](/wiki/Postpartum "Postpartum") women who do not wish to [breastfeed](/wiki/Breastfeeding "Breastfeeding").{{cite book\| vauthors \= Labhart A \|title\=Clinical Endocrinology: Theory and Practice\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DAgJCAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA696\|date\=6 December 2012\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-96158\-8\|pages\=512, 696}} They do this by directly decreasing the sensitivity of the [alveoli](/wiki/Mammary_alveolus "Mammary alveolus") of the [mammary glands](/wiki/Mammary_gland "Mammary gland") to the [lactogenic hormone](/wiki/Galactagogue "Galactagogue") [prolactin](/wiki/Prolactin "Prolactin"). #### Tall stature Estrogens have been used to limit final [height](/wiki/Human_height "Human height") in adolescent girls with [tall stature](/wiki/Tall_stature "Tall stature").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Juul A \| title \= The effects of oestrogens on linear bone growth \| journal \= Human Reproduction Update \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 303–313 \| year \= 2001 \| pmid \= 11392377 \| doi \= 10\.1093/humupd/7\.3\.303 \| doi\-access \= free }} They do this by inducing [epiphyseal closure](/wiki/Epiphyseal_closure "Epiphyseal closure") and suppressing [growth hormone](/wiki/Growth_hormone "Growth hormone")\-induced hepatic production and by extension circulating levels of [insulin\-like growth factor\-1](/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor-1 "Insulin-like growth factor-1") (IGF\-1\), a hormone that causes the body to grow and increase in size. Although [ethinylestradiol](/wiki/Ethinylestradiol "Ethinylestradiol") and [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens "Conjugated estrogens") have mainly been used for this purpose, estradiol can also be employed.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Albuquerque EV, Scalco RC, Jorge AA \| title \= MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Diagnostic and therapeutic approach of tall stature \| journal \= European Journal of Endocrinology \| volume \= 176 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= R339–R353 \| date \= June 2017 \| pmid \= 28274950 \| doi \= 10\.1530/EJE\-16\-1054 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Upners EN, Juul A \| title \= Evaluation and phenotypic characteristics of 293 Danish girls with tall stature: effects of oral administration of natural 17β\-estradiol \| journal \= Pediatric Research \| volume \= 80 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 693–701 \| date \= November 2016 \| pmid \= 27410906 \| doi \= 10\.1038/pr.2016\.128 \| s2cid \= 24233612 \| doi\-access \= free }} #### Breast enhancement Estrogens are involved in [breast development](/wiki/Breast_development "Breast development") and estradiol may be used as a form of hormonal breast enhancement to increase the [size of the breasts](/wiki/Breast_size "Breast size").{{cite book\| vauthors \= Göretzlehner G, Lauritzen C, Römer T, Rossmanith W \|title\=Praktische Hormontherapie in der Gynäkologie\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\&pg\=PA385\|date\=1 January 2012\|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-024568\-4\|pages\=385–\|access\-date\=22 July 2018\|archive\-date\=6 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006093318/https://books.google.com/books?id\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\&pg\=PA385\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Mansel RE, Fodstad O, Jiang WG \|title\=Metastasis of Breast Cancer\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=14pb5b6gT\-oC\&pg\=PA217\|date\=14 June 2007\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-1\-4020\-5866\-0\|pages\=217–\|access\-date\=22 July 2018\|archive\-date\=1 December 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201061335/https://books.google.com/books?id\=14pb5b6gT\-oC\&pg\=PA217\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hartmann BW, Laml T, Kirchengast S, Albrecht AE, Huber JC \| title \= Hormonal breast augmentation: prognostic relevance of insulin\-like growth factor\-I \| journal \= Gynecological Endocrinology \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 123–127 \| date \= April 1998 \| pmid \= 9610425 \| doi \= 10\.3109/09513599809024960 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lauritzen C \| title \= Hormonkur kann hypoplastischer Mamma aufhelfen \| trans\-title \= Hormone therapy can help hypoplastic breasts \| journal \= Selecta \| language \= de \| year \= 1980 \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 43 \| pages \= 3798–3801 \| publisher \= Selecta\-Verlag \| location \= Planegg \| issn \= 0582\-4877 \| oclc \= 643821347 }}{{cite book \| vauthors \= Kaiser R, Leidenberger FA \| title \= Hormonbehandlung in der gynäkologischen Praxis \| year \= 1991 \| edition \= 6 \| publisher \= Georg Thieme Verlag \| location \= Stuttgart, New York \| pages \= 138–139 \| isbn \= 978\-3133574075 }} Both polyestradiol phosphate monotherapy and [pseudopregnancy](/wiki/Pseudopregnancy "Pseudopregnancy") with a combination of high\-dosage intramuscular estradiol valerate and [hydroxyprogesterone caproate](/wiki/Hydroxyprogesterone_caproate "Hydroxyprogesterone caproate") have been assessed for this purpose in clinical studies. However, acute or temporary [breast enlargement](/wiki/Breast_enlargement "Breast enlargement") is a well\-known side effect of estrogens, and increases in breast size tend to regress following discontinuation of treatment. Aside from those without prior established breast development, evidence is lacking for a sustained increases in breast size with estrogens. #### Schizophrenia Estradiol has been found to be effective in the [adjunctive](/wiki/Adjunct_therapy "Adjunct therapy") treatment of [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia "Schizophrenia") in women.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Begemann MJ, Dekker CF, van Lunenburg M, Sommer IE \| title \= Estrogen augmentation in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of current evidence \| journal \= Schizophrenia Research \| volume \= 141 \| issue \= 2–3 \| pages \= 179–184 \| date \= November 2012 \| pmid \= 22998932 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.schres.2012\.08\.016 \| s2cid \= 40584474 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kulkarni J, Gavrilidis E, Wang W, Worsley R, Fitzgerald PB, Gurvich C, Van Rheenen T, Berk M, Burger H \| title \= Estradiol for treatment\-resistant schizophrenia: a large\-scale randomized\-controlled trial in women of child\-bearing age \| journal \= Molecular Psychiatry \| volume \= 20 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 695–702 \| date \= June 2015 \| pmid \= 24732671 \| doi \= 10\.1038/mp.2014\.33 \| s2cid \= 30322760 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Brzezinski A, Brzezinski\-Sinai NA, Seeman MV \| title \= Treating schizophrenia during menopause \| journal \= Menopause \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 582–588 \| date \= May 2017 \| pmid \= 27824682 \| doi \= 10\.1097/GME.0000000000000772 \| s2cid \= 3452898 }} It has been found to significantly reduce [positive](/wiki/Positive_symptoms "Positive symptoms"), [negative](/wiki/Negative_symptoms "Negative symptoms"), and [cognitive symptoms](/wiki/Schizophrenia%23Cognitive_dysfunction "Schizophrenia#Cognitive dysfunction"), with particular benefits on positive symptoms.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= McGregor C, Riordan A, Thornton J \| title \= Estrogens and the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia: Possible neuroprotective mechanisms \| journal \= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \| volume \= 47 \| pages \= 19–33 \| date \= October 2017 \| pmid \= 28673758 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.yfrne.2017\.06\.003 \| s2cid \= 43291520 }} Other estrogens, as well as [selective estrogen receptor modulators](/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator "Selective estrogen receptor modulator") (SERMs) like [raloxifene](/wiki/Raloxifene "Raloxifene"), have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in women similarly.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= de Boer J, Prikken M, Lei WU, Begemann M, Sommer I \| title \= The effect of raloxifene augmentation in men and women with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta\-analysis \| journal \= npj Schizophrenia \| volume \= 4 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1 \| date \= January 2018 \| pmid \= 29321530 \| pmc \= 5762671 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41537\-017\-0043\-3 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Khan MM \| title \= Neurocognitive, Neuroprotective, and Cardiometabolic Effects of Raloxifene: Potential for Improving Therapeutic Outcomes in Schizophrenia \| journal \= CNS Drugs \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 589–601 \| date \= July 2016 \| pmid \= 27193386 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s40263\-016\-0343\-6 \| s2cid \= 22284610 }} Estrogens may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia in men as well, but their use in this population is limited by [feminizing](/wiki/Feminization_%28biology%29 "Feminization (biology)") [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect "Side effect").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Owens SJ, Murphy CE, Purves\-Tyson TD, Weickert TW, Shannon Weickert C \| title \= Considering the role of adolescent sex steroids in schizophrenia \| journal \= Journal of Neuroendocrinology \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= e12538 \| date \= February 2018 \| pmid \= 28941299 \| doi \= 10\.1111/jne.12538 \| s2cid \= 3391650 \| hdl \= 1959\.4/unsworks\_49994 \| url \= https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/95caebf2\-19c8\-404b\-a527\-c55f4a60aa99/download \| hdl\-access \= free }} SERMs, which have few or no feminizing side effects, have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in men similarly to in women and may be more useful than estrogens in this sex. #### Sexual deviance Estradiol has been used at high doses to suppress [sex drive](/wiki/Sex_drive "Sex drive") in men with [sexual deviance](/wiki/Sexual_deviance "Sexual deviance") such as [paraphilias](/wiki/Paraphilia "Paraphilia") and in [sex offenders](/wiki/Sex_offender "Sex offender").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Guay DR \| title \= Drug treatment of paraphilic and nonparaphilic sexual disorders \| journal \= Clinical Therapeutics \| volume \= 31 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1–31 \| date \= January 2009 \| pmid \= 19243704 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.clinthera.2009\.01\.009 }}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Morgan HG, Morgan MH \|title\=Aids to Psychiatry\|url\=https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1984\|publisher\=Churchill Livingstone\|isbn\=978\-0\-443\-02613\-3\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg/page/75 75]\|quote\=Treatment of sexual offenders. Hormone therapy. \[...] Oestrogens may cause breast hypertrophy, testicular atrophy, osteoporosis (oral ethinyl oestradiol 0\.01\-0\.05 mg/day causes least nausea). Depot preparation: oestradiol \[undecyleate] 50\-100mg once every 3–4 weeks. Benperidol or butyrophenone and the antiandrogen cyproterone acetate also used.}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chatz TL \| title \= Recognizing and Treating Dangerous Sex Offenders \| journal \= International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology \| date \= June 1972 \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 109–115 \| issn \= 0306\-624X \| eissn \= 1552\-6933 \| doi \= 10\.1177/0306624X7201600202 \| pmid \= \| s2cid \= 74365268 \| url \= }} It has specifically been used for this indication in the forms of [intramuscular injections](/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection") of [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate "Estradiol valerate") and [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate "Estradiol undecylate") and of [subcutaneous pellet implants](/wiki/Subcutaneous_pellet_implant "Subcutaneous pellet implant") of estradiol.
[ "### Other uses", "#### Infertility", "Estrogens may be used in treatment of [infertility](/wiki/Infertility \"Infertility\") in women when there is a need to develop [sperm](/wiki/Sperm \"Sperm\")\\-friendly [cervical mucus](/wiki/Cervical_mucus \"Cervical mucus\") or an appropriate [uterine lining](/wiki/Uterine_lining \"Uterine lining\").{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Aiman J \\|title\\=Infertility: Diagnosis and Management\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=D4\\_TBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA133\\|date\\=6 December 2012\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4613\\-8265\\-2\\|pages\\=133–134}}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Schattman GL, Esteves S, Agarwal A \\|title\\=Unexplained Infertility: Pathophysiology, Evaluation and Treatment\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wCdACQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA266\\|date\\=12 May 2015\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4939\\-2140\\-9\\|pages\\=266–}}", "It is also commonly used during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Estrogen helps maintain the endometrial lining of the uterus and help prepare for pregnancy. Research shows higher pregnancy rate if the mother takes estrogen in addition to progesterone.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Pinheiro LM, Cândido PD, Moreto TC, Almeida WG, Castro EC \\| title \\= Estradiol use in the luteal phase and its effects on pregnancy rates in IVF cycles with GnRH antagonist: a systematic review \\| journal \\= JBRA Assisted Reproduction \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 247–250 \\| date \\= September 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28837035 \\| pmc \\= 5574648 \\| doi \\= 10\\.5935/1518\\-0557\\.20170046 }} Estradiol is the predominant form of estrogen during reproductive years and is most commonly prescribed.", "#### Lactation suppression", "Estrogens can be used to suppress and cease [lactation](/wiki/Lactation \"Lactation\") and [breast engorgement](/wiki/Breast_engorgement \"Breast engorgement\") in [postpartum](/wiki/Postpartum \"Postpartum\") women who do not wish to [breastfeed](/wiki/Breastfeeding \"Breastfeeding\").{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Labhart A \\|title\\=Clinical Endocrinology: Theory and Practice\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DAgJCAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA696\\|date\\=6 December 2012\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-96158\\-8\\|pages\\=512, 696}} They do this by directly decreasing the sensitivity of the [alveoli](/wiki/Mammary_alveolus \"Mammary alveolus\") of the [mammary glands](/wiki/Mammary_gland \"Mammary gland\") to the [lactogenic hormone](/wiki/Galactagogue \"Galactagogue\") [prolactin](/wiki/Prolactin \"Prolactin\").", "#### Tall stature", "Estrogens have been used to limit final [height](/wiki/Human_height \"Human height\") in adolescent girls with [tall stature](/wiki/Tall_stature \"Tall stature\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Juul A \\| title \\= The effects of oestrogens on linear bone growth \\| journal \\= Human Reproduction Update \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 303–313 \\| year \\= 2001 \\| pmid \\= 11392377 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/humupd/7\\.3\\.303 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} They do this by inducing [epiphyseal closure](/wiki/Epiphyseal_closure \"Epiphyseal closure\") and suppressing [growth hormone](/wiki/Growth_hormone \"Growth hormone\")\\-induced hepatic production and by extension circulating levels of [insulin\\-like growth factor\\-1](/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor-1 \"Insulin-like growth factor-1\") (IGF\\-1\\), a hormone that causes the body to grow and increase in size. Although [ethinylestradiol](/wiki/Ethinylestradiol \"Ethinylestradiol\") and [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens \"Conjugated estrogens\") have mainly been used for this purpose, estradiol can also be employed.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Albuquerque EV, Scalco RC, Jorge AA \\| title \\= MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Diagnostic and therapeutic approach of tall stature \\| journal \\= European Journal of Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 176 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= R339–R353 \\| date \\= June 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28274950 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1530/EJE\\-16\\-1054 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Upners EN, Juul A \\| title \\= Evaluation and phenotypic characteristics of 293 Danish girls with tall stature: effects of oral administration of natural 17β\\-estradiol \\| journal \\= Pediatric Research \\| volume \\= 80 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 693–701 \\| date \\= November 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27410906 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/pr.2016\\.128 \\| s2cid \\= 24233612 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "#### Breast enhancement", "Estrogens are involved in [breast development](/wiki/Breast_development \"Breast development\") and estradiol may be used as a form of hormonal breast enhancement to increase the [size of the breasts](/wiki/Breast_size \"Breast size\").{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Göretzlehner G, Lauritzen C, Römer T, Rossmanith W \\|title\\=Praktische Hormontherapie in der Gynäkologie\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\\&pg\\=PA385\\|date\\=1 January 2012\\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-024568\\-4\\|pages\\=385–\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006093318/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TIs2WhfYzZ4C\\&pg\\=PA385\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Mansel RE, Fodstad O, Jiang WG \\|title\\=Metastasis of Breast Cancer\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=14pb5b6gT\\-oC\\&pg\\=PA217\\|date\\=14 June 2007\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4020\\-5866\\-0\\|pages\\=217–\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=1 December 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201061335/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=14pb5b6gT\\-oC\\&pg\\=PA217\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hartmann BW, Laml T, Kirchengast S, Albrecht AE, Huber JC \\| title \\= Hormonal breast augmentation: prognostic relevance of insulin\\-like growth factor\\-I \\| journal \\= Gynecological Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 123–127 \\| date \\= April 1998 \\| pmid \\= 9610425 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/09513599809024960 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lauritzen C \\| title \\= Hormonkur kann hypoplastischer Mamma aufhelfen \\| trans\\-title \\= Hormone therapy can help hypoplastic breasts \\| journal \\= Selecta \\| language \\= de \\| year \\= 1980 \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 43 \\| pages \\= 3798–3801 \\| publisher \\= Selecta\\-Verlag \\| location \\= Planegg \\| issn \\= 0582\\-4877 \\| oclc \\= 643821347 }}{{cite book \\| vauthors \\= Kaiser R, Leidenberger FA \\| title \\= Hormonbehandlung in der gynäkologischen Praxis \\| year \\= 1991 \\| edition \\= 6 \\| publisher \\= Georg Thieme Verlag \\| location \\= Stuttgart, New York \\| pages \\= 138–139 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-3133574075 }} Both polyestradiol phosphate monotherapy and [pseudopregnancy](/wiki/Pseudopregnancy \"Pseudopregnancy\") with a combination of high\\-dosage intramuscular estradiol valerate and [hydroxyprogesterone caproate](/wiki/Hydroxyprogesterone_caproate \"Hydroxyprogesterone caproate\") have been assessed for this purpose in clinical studies. However, acute or temporary [breast enlargement](/wiki/Breast_enlargement \"Breast enlargement\") is a well\\-known side effect of estrogens, and increases in breast size tend to regress following discontinuation of treatment. Aside from those without prior established breast development, evidence is lacking for a sustained increases in breast size with estrogens.", "#### Schizophrenia", "Estradiol has been found to be effective in the [adjunctive](/wiki/Adjunct_therapy \"Adjunct therapy\") treatment of [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia \"Schizophrenia\") in women.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Begemann MJ, Dekker CF, van Lunenburg M, Sommer IE \\| title \\= Estrogen augmentation in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of current evidence \\| journal \\= Schizophrenia Research \\| volume \\= 141 \\| issue \\= 2–3 \\| pages \\= 179–184 \\| date \\= November 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22998932 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.schres.2012\\.08\\.016 \\| s2cid \\= 40584474 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kulkarni J, Gavrilidis E, Wang W, Worsley R, Fitzgerald PB, Gurvich C, Van Rheenen T, Berk M, Burger H \\| title \\= Estradiol for treatment\\-resistant schizophrenia: a large\\-scale randomized\\-controlled trial in women of child\\-bearing age \\| journal \\= Molecular Psychiatry \\| volume \\= 20 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 695–702 \\| date \\= June 2015 \\| pmid \\= 24732671 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/mp.2014\\.33 \\| s2cid \\= 30322760 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Brzezinski A, Brzezinski\\-Sinai NA, Seeman MV \\| title \\= Treating schizophrenia during menopause \\| journal \\= Menopause \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 582–588 \\| date \\= May 2017 \\| pmid \\= 27824682 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1097/GME.0000000000000772 \\| s2cid \\= 3452898 }} It has been found to significantly reduce [positive](/wiki/Positive_symptoms \"Positive symptoms\"), [negative](/wiki/Negative_symptoms \"Negative symptoms\"), and [cognitive symptoms](/wiki/Schizophrenia%23Cognitive_dysfunction \"Schizophrenia#Cognitive dysfunction\"), with particular benefits on positive symptoms.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= McGregor C, Riordan A, Thornton J \\| title \\= Estrogens and the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia: Possible neuroprotective mechanisms \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \\| volume \\= 47 \\| pages \\= 19–33 \\| date \\= October 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28673758 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.yfrne.2017\\.06\\.003 \\| s2cid \\= 43291520 }} Other estrogens, as well as [selective estrogen receptor modulators](/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator \"Selective estrogen receptor modulator\") (SERMs) like [raloxifene](/wiki/Raloxifene \"Raloxifene\"), have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in women similarly.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= de Boer J, Prikken M, Lei WU, Begemann M, Sommer I \\| title \\= The effect of raloxifene augmentation in men and women with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta\\-analysis \\| journal \\= npj Schizophrenia \\| volume \\= 4 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1 \\| date \\= January 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29321530 \\| pmc \\= 5762671 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41537\\-017\\-0043\\-3 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Khan MM \\| title \\= Neurocognitive, Neuroprotective, and Cardiometabolic Effects of Raloxifene: Potential for Improving Therapeutic Outcomes in Schizophrenia \\| journal \\= CNS Drugs \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 589–601 \\| date \\= July 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27193386 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s40263\\-016\\-0343\\-6 \\| s2cid \\= 22284610 }} Estrogens may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia in men as well, but their use in this population is limited by [feminizing](/wiki/Feminization_%28biology%29 \"Feminization (biology)\") [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect \"Side effect\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Owens SJ, Murphy CE, Purves\\-Tyson TD, Weickert TW, Shannon Weickert C \\| title \\= Considering the role of adolescent sex steroids in schizophrenia \\| journal \\= Journal of Neuroendocrinology \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= e12538 \\| date \\= February 2018 \\| pmid \\= 28941299 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/jne.12538 \\| s2cid \\= 3391650 \\| hdl \\= 1959\\.4/unsworks\\_49994 \\| url \\= https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/95caebf2\\-19c8\\-404b\\-a527\\-c55f4a60aa99/download \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }} SERMs, which have few or no feminizing side effects, have been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in men similarly to in women and may be more useful than estrogens in this sex.", "#### Sexual deviance", "Estradiol has been used at high doses to suppress [sex drive](/wiki/Sex_drive \"Sex drive\") in men with [sexual deviance](/wiki/Sexual_deviance \"Sexual deviance\") such as [paraphilias](/wiki/Paraphilia \"Paraphilia\") and in [sex offenders](/wiki/Sex_offender \"Sex offender\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Guay DR \\| title \\= Drug treatment of paraphilic and nonparaphilic sexual disorders \\| journal \\= Clinical Therapeutics \\| volume \\= 31 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1–31 \\| date \\= January 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19243704 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.clinthera.2009\\.01\\.009 }}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Morgan HG, Morgan MH \\|title\\=Aids to Psychiatry\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1984\\|publisher\\=Churchill Livingstone\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-443\\-02613\\-3\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/aidstopsychiatry0000morg/page/75 75]\\|quote\\=Treatment of sexual offenders. Hormone therapy. \\[...] Oestrogens may cause breast hypertrophy, testicular atrophy, osteoporosis (oral ethinyl oestradiol 0\\.01\\-0\\.05 mg/day causes least nausea). Depot preparation: oestradiol \\[undecyleate] 50\\-100mg once every 3–4 weeks. Benperidol or butyrophenone and the antiandrogen cyproterone acetate also used.}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chatz TL \\| title \\= Recognizing and Treating Dangerous Sex Offenders \\| journal \\= International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology \\| date \\= June 1972 \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 109–115 \\| issn \\= 0306\\-624X \\| eissn \\= 1552\\-6933 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/0306624X7201600202 \\| pmid \\= \\| s2cid \\= 74365268 \\| url \\= }} It has specifically been used for this indication in the forms of [intramuscular injections](/wiki/Intramuscular_injection \"Intramuscular injection\") of [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate \"Estradiol valerate\") and [estradiol undecylate](/wiki/Estradiol_undecylate \"Estradiol undecylate\") and of [subcutaneous pellet implants](/wiki/Subcutaneous_pellet_implant \"Subcutaneous pellet implant\") of estradiol.", "" ]
Side effects ------------ {{See also\|Estrogen (medication)\#Side effects\|List of side effects of estradiol}} Common [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect "Side effect") of estradiol in women include [headache](/wiki/Headache "Headache"), [breast pain or tenderness](/wiki/Breast_pain "Breast pain"), [breast enlargement](/wiki/Breast_enlargement "Breast enlargement"), [irregular](/wiki/Irregular_menstruation "Irregular menstruation") [vaginal bleeding or spotting](/wiki/Vaginal_bleeding "Vaginal bleeding"), [abdominal cramps](/wiki/Abdominal_cramp "Abdominal cramp"), [bloating](/wiki/Bloating "Bloating"), [fluid retention](/wiki/Water_retention_%28medicine%29 "Water retention (medicine)"), and [nausea](/wiki/Nausea "Nausea").{{cite web \| title\=Estrace\- estradiol tablet \| website\=DailyMed \| date\=11 March 2024 \| url\=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid\=a3803ba3\-4eee\-4e2e\-ac8c\-821a4e6720cc \| access\-date\=17 May 2024}}{{cite web \| title\=Estring\- estradiol ring \| website\=DailyMed \| date\=18 September 2023 \| url\=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid\=aa530dfd\-3a48\-46b9\-9678\-a7bc48316e41 \| access\-date\=17 May 2024}}{{cite web \| title\=Estring\- estradiol system \| website\=DailyMed \| date\=27 February 2024 \| url\=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid\=110b9865\-5a07\-4d45\-b560\-e89947f12600 \| access\-date\=17 May 2024}} Other possible side effects of estrogens may include [high blood pressure](/wiki/High_blood_pressure "High blood pressure"), [high blood sugar](/wiki/High_blood_sugar "High blood sugar"), enlargement of [uterine fibroids](/wiki/Uterine_fibroid "Uterine fibroid"), [melasma](/wiki/Melasma "Melasma"), [vaginal yeast infections](/wiki/Vaginal_yeast_infection "Vaginal yeast infection"), and [liver problems](/wiki/Liver_problems "Liver problems"). In men, estrogens can cause breast pain or tenderness, [gynecomastia](/wiki/Gynecomastia "Gynecomastia") (male [breast development](/wiki/Breast_development "Breast development")), [feminization](/wiki/Feminization_%28biology%29 "Feminization (biology)"), [demasculinization](/wiki/Demasculinization "Demasculinization"), [sexual dysfunction](/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction "Sexual dysfunction") ([decreased libido](/wiki/Decreased_libido "Decreased libido") and [erectile dysfunction](/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction "Erectile dysfunction")), [hypogonadism](/wiki/Hypogonadism "Hypogonadism"), [testicular atrophy](/wiki/Testicular_atrophy "Testicular atrophy"), and [infertility](/wiki/Infertility "Infertility").{{cite book\|author\=Richard P. Pohanish\|title\=Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=f6HclgoIkjcC\&pg\=PA1167\|year\=2011\|publisher\=William Andrew\|isbn\=978\-1\-4377\-7869\-4\|pages\=1167–\|access\-date\=29 June 2018\|archive\-date\=6 May 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506202804/https://books.google.com/books?id\=f6HclgoIkjcC\&pg\=PA1167\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite book\| vauthors \= Cecil RL, Bennett JC, Plum F \|title\=Cecil Textbook of Medicine\|url\=https://archive.org/details/ceciltextbookofm02ceci\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1996\|publisher\=Saunders\|isbn\=978\-0\-7216\-3575\-0\|quote\=Estrogen excess in men causes inhibition of gonadotropin secretion and secondary hypogonadism. Estrogen excess may result from either exogenous administration of estrogens or estrogenic substances (e.g., diethylstilbestrol administration \[...]}} {{Side effects of lower versus higher dose oral estradiol}} ### Blood clots {{See also\|Estrogen (medication)\#Cardiovascular events}} [Oral](/wiki/Oral_administration "Oral administration") estradiol and [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate "Estradiol valerate"), for instance in [menopausal hormone therapy](/wiki/Menopausal_hormone_therapy "Menopausal hormone therapy") or [birth control pills](/wiki/Birth_control_pill "Birth control pill"), are associated with a significantly higher risk of [venous thromboembolism](/wiki/Venous_thromboembolism "Venous thromboembolism") (VTE) than non\-use.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rovinski D, Ramos RB, Fighera TM, Casanova GK, Spritzer PM \| title \= Risk of venous thromboembolism events in postmenopausal women using oral versus non\-oral hormone therapy: A systematic review and meta\-analysis \| journal \= Thrombosis Research \| volume \= 168 \| pages \= 83–95 \| date \= August 2018 \| pmid \= 29936403 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.thromres.2018\.06\.014 \| s2cid \= 49421543 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Fruzzetti F, Cagnacci A \| title \= Venous thrombosis and hormonal contraception: what's new with estradiol\-based hormonal contraceptives? \| journal \= Open Access Journal of Contraception \| volume \= 9 \| pages \= 75–79 \| date \= 2018 \| pmid \= 30519125 \| pmc \= 6239102 \| doi \= 10\.2147/OAJC.S179673 \| doi\-access \= free }} Higher doses of oral estrogens are associated with higher risks of VTE.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gialeraki A, Valsami S, Pittaras T, Panayiotakopoulos G, Politou M \| title \= Oral Contraceptives and HRT Risk of Thrombosis \| journal \= Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 217–225 \| date \= March 2018 \| pmid \= 28049361 \| pmc \= 6714678 \| doi \= 10\.1177/1076029616683802 }} In contrast to oral estradiol, [transdermal](/wiki/Transdermal_administration "Transdermal administration") and [vaginal](/wiki/Vaginal_administration "Vaginal administration") estradiol at menopausal replacement dosages are not associated with a higher incidence of VTE. Low doses (e.g., 50 μg/day) and high doses (e.g., 100 μg/day) of transdermal estradiol for menopausal replacement do not differ in terms of VTE risk.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Olié V, Canonico M, Scarabin PY \| title \= Postmenopausal hormone therapy and venous thromboembolism \| journal \= Thrombosis Research \| volume \= 127 \| issue \= Suppl 3 \| pages \= S26–S29 \| date \= February 2011 \| pmid \= 21262434 \| doi \= 10\.1016/S0049\-3848(11\)70008\-1 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Scarabin PY \| title \= Hormones and venous thromboembolism among postmenopausal women \| journal \= Climacteric \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= Suppl 2 \| pages \= 34–37 \| date \= December 2014 \| pmid \= 25223916 \| doi \= 10\.3109/13697137\.2014\.956717 \| s2cid \= 5084606 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bińkowska M \| title \= Menopausal hormone therapy and venous thromboembolism \| journal \= Przeglad Menopauzalny \= Menopause Review \| volume \= 13 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 267–272 \| date \= October 2014 \| pmid \= 26327865 \| pmc \= 4520375 \| doi \= 10\.5114/pm.2014\.46468 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Vinogradova Y, Coupland C, Hippisley\-Cox J \| title \= Use of hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism: nested case\-control studies using the QResearch and CPRD databases \| journal \= BMJ \| volume \= 364 \| pages \= k4810 \| date \= January 2019 \| pmid \= 30626577 \| pmc \= 6326068 \| doi \= 10\.1136/bmj.k4810 }} The higher risk of VTE with oral estradiol can be attributed to the [first pass](/wiki/First-pass_effect "First-pass effect") and a disproportionate effect on [liver synthesis](/wiki/Liver_protein_synthesis "Liver protein synthesis") of [coagulation factors](/wiki/Coagulation_factor "Coagulation factor"). Even high doses of [parenteral](/wiki/Parenteral "Parenteral") estradiol, such as high\-dose [polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate "Polyestradiol phosphate"), have minimal influence on coagulation factors, in contrast to oral estrogen therapy.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Phillips I, Shah SI, Duong T, Abel P, Langley RE \| title \= Androgen Deprivation Therapy and the Re\-emergence of Parenteral Estrogen in Prostate Cancer \| journal \= Oncology \& Hematology Review \| volume \= 10 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 42–47 \| date \= 2014 \| pmid \= 24932461 \| pmc \= 4052190 \| doi \= 10\.17925/ohr.2014\.10\.1\.42 }} However, sufficient doses of parenteral estradiol, for instance very high doses of estradiol valerate by [intramuscular injection](/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection"), can nonetheless activate coagulation, presumably increasing VTE risk.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kohli M \| title \= Phase II study of transdermal estradiol in androgen\-independent prostate carcinoma \| journal \= Cancer \| volume \= 106 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 234–5; author reply 235 \| date \= January 2006 \| pmid \= 16284988 \| doi \= 10\.1002/cncr.21528 \| s2cid \= 11047031 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite book \| vauthors \= Horský J, Presl J \| chapter \= Hormonal Treatment of Disorders of the Menstrual Cycle \| pages \= 309–332 \| doi \= 10\.1007/978\-94\-009\-8195\-9\_11 \| editor1 \= J. Horsky \| editor2 \= J. Presl \| title \= Ovarian Function and its Disorders: Diagnosis and Therapy \| series \= Developments in Obstetrics and Gynecology \| chapter\-url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=7IrpCAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA310 \| date \= 1981 \| publisher \= Springer Science \& Business Media \| isbn \= 978\-94\-009\-8195\-9 \| access\-date \= 26 December 2019 \| archive\-date \= 18 June 2020 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200618033124/https://books.google.com/books?id\=7IrpCAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA310 \| url\-status \= live }} In addition to the [route of administration](/wiki/Route_of_administration "Route of administration"), the type of estrogen influences VTE risk. Oral [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens "Conjugated estrogens") are associated with a higher risk of VTE than oral estradiol.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Stuenkel CA, Davis SR, Gompel A, Lumsden MA, Murad MH, Pinkerton JV, Santen RJ \| title \= Treatment of Symptoms of the Menopause: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline \| journal \= The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism \| volume \= 100 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 3975–4011 \| date \= November 2015 \| pmid \= 26444994 \| doi \= 10\.1210/jc.2015\-2236 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Smith NL, Blondon M, Wiggins KL, Harrington LB, van Hylckama Vlieg A, Floyd JS, Hwang M, Bis JC, McKnight B, Rice KM, Lumley T, Rosendaal FR, Heckbert SR, Psaty BM \| title \= Lower risk of cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women taking oral estradiol compared with oral conjugated equine estrogens \| journal \= JAMA Internal Medicine \| volume \= 174 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 25–31 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 24081194 \| pmc \= 4636198 \| doi \= 10\.1001/jamainternmed.2013\.11074 }} [Estradiol\- and estradiol valerate\-containing birth control pills](/wiki/Estradiol-containing_birth_control_pill "Estradiol-containing birth control pill") are associated with a lower risk of VTE than birth control pills containing [ethinylestradiol](/wiki/Ethinylestradiol "Ethinylestradiol"). The relative risk of VTE is thought to be highest with oral ethinylestradiol, intermediate with oral conjugated estrogens, low with oral estradiol and parenteral estradiol valerate, and very low with transdermal estradiol.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Connors JM, Middeldorp S \| title \= Transgender patients and the role of the coagulation clinician \| journal \= Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 1790–1797 \| date \= November 2019 \| pmid \= 31465627 \| doi \= 10\.1111/jth.14626 \| s2cid \= 201673648 }} Conjugated estrogens and ethinylestradiol are thought to have a higher risk of VTE than estradiol because they are resistant to [hepatic](/wiki/Liver "Liver") [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism") and have a disproportionate influence on liver production of coagulation factors. The combination of oral or transdermal estradiol and a progestin is associated with a higher risk of VTE than estradiol alone.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Scarabin PY \| title \= Progestogens and venous thromboembolism in menopausal women: an updated oral versus transdermal estrogen meta\-analysis \| journal \= Climacteric \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 341–345 \| date \= August 2018 \| pmid \= 29570359 \| doi \= 10\.1080/13697137\.2018\.1446931 \| s2cid \= 4229701 }} [Dydrogesterone](/wiki/Dydrogesterone "Dydrogesterone") is associated with a lower risk than other progestins such as [medroxyprogesterone acetate](/wiki/Medroxyprogesterone_acetate "Medroxyprogesterone acetate") and [norethisterone](/wiki/Norethisterone "Norethisterone"), while oral [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone_%28medication%29 "Progesterone (medication)") is associated with no increase in risk of VTE. Older [age](/wiki/Ageing "Ageing"), higher [body weight](/wiki/Body_weight "Body weight"), lower [physical activity](/wiki/Physical_activity "Physical activity"), and [smoking](/wiki/Smoking "Smoking") are all associated with a higher risk of VTE with oral estrogen therapy.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Beyer\-Westendorf J, Bauersachs R, Hach\-Wunderle V, Zotz RB, Rott H \| title \= Sex hormones and venous thromboembolism \- from contraception to hormone replacement therapy \| journal \= VASA. Zeitschrift für Gefässkrankheiten \| volume \= 47 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 441–450 \| date \= October 2018 \| pmid \= 30008249 \| doi \= 10\.1024/0301\-1526/a000726 \| s2cid \= 51628832 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Davey DA \| title \= Menopausal hormone therapy: a better and safer future \| journal \= Climacteric \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 454–461 \| date \= October 2018 \| pmid \= 29526116 \| doi \= 10\.1080/13697137\.2018\.1439915 \| s2cid \= 3850275 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Roach RE, Lijfering WM, Helmerhorst FM, Cannegieter SC, Rosendaal FR, van Hylckama Vlieg A \| title \= The risk of venous thrombosis in women over 50 years old using oral contraception or postmenopausal hormone therapy \| journal \= Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 124–131 \| date \= January 2013 \| pmid \= 23136837 \| doi \= 10\.1111/jth.12060 \| s2cid \= 22306721 \| doi\-access \= free }} Risk of VTE with estrogen therapy is highest at the start of treatment, particularly during the first year, and decreases over time. The [absolute risk](/wiki/Absolute_risk "Absolute risk") of VTE with estrogen and/or progestin therapy is small.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bateson D, Butcher BE, Donovan C, Farrell L, Kovacs G, Mezzini T, Raynes\-Greenow C, Pecoraro G, Read C, Baber R \| title \= Risk of venous thromboembolism in women taking the combined oral contraceptive: A systematic review and meta\-analysis \| journal \= Australian Family Physician \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 59–64 \| date \= 2016 \| pmid \= 27051991 \| url \= https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/januaryfebruary/risk\-of\-venous\-thromboembolism\-in\-women\-taking\-the\-combined\-oral\-contraceptive\-a\-systematic\-review\-and\-meta\-analysis/ \| access\-date \= 26 December 2019 \| url\-status \= live \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210408052059/https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/januaryfebruary/risk\-of\-venous\-thromboembolism\-in\-women\-taking\-the\-combined\-oral\-contraceptive\-a\-systematic\-review\-and\-meta\-analysis/ \| archive\-date \= 8 April 2021 }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug\-safety\-and\-availability/fda\-drug\-safety\-communication\-updated\-information\-about\-risk\-blood\-clots\-women\-taking\-birth\-control \| work \= FDA Drug Safety Communication \| title \= Updated information about the risk of blood clots in women taking birth control pills containing drospirenone \|access\-date\=15 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427143241/https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug\-safety\-and\-availability/fda\-drug\-safety\-communication\-updated\-information\-about\-risk\-blood\-clots\-women\-taking\-birth\-control \|archive\-date\=27 April 2019 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Goldstein Z, Khan M, Reisman T, Safer JD \| title \= Managing the risk of venous thromboembolism in transgender adults undergoing hormone therapy \| journal \= Journal of Blood Medicine \| volume \= 10 \| pages \= 209–216 \| date \= 2019 \| pmid \= 31372078 \| pmc \= 6628137 \| doi \= 10\.2147/JBM.S166780 \| doi\-access \= free }} Women who are not on a birth control pill or hormone therapy have a risk of VTE of about 1 to 5 out of 10,000 women per year. In women taking a birth control pill containing ethinylestradiol and a progestin, the risk of VTE is in the range of 3 to 10 out of 10,000 women per year. Birth control pills containing estradiol valerate and a progestin are associated with about half the risk of VTE of ethinylestradiol/progestin\-containing birth control pills.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Grandi G, Facchinetti F, Bitzer J \| title \= Estradiol in hormonal contraception: real evolution or just same old wine in a new bottle? \| journal \= The European Journal of Contraception \& Reproductive Health Care \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 245–246 \| date \= August 2017 \| pmid \= 28902531 \| doi \= 10\.1080/13625187\.2017\.1372571 \| s2cid \= 13776462 \| doi\-access \= free \| hdl \= 11380/1153791 \| hdl\-access \= free }} [Hormone therapy](/wiki/Transgender_hormone_therapy_%28male-to-female%29 "Transgender hormone therapy (male-to-female)") for [transgender women](/wiki/Transgender_women "Transgender women") likewise is associated with a lower risk of VTE than birth control pills containing ethinylestradiol and a progestin.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Khan J, Schmidt RL, Spittal MJ, Goldstein Z, Smock KJ, Greene DN \| title \= Venous Thrombotic Risk in Transgender Women Undergoing Estrogen Therapy: A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis \| journal \= Clinical Chemistry \| volume \= 65 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 57–66 \| date \= January 2019 \| pmid \= 30602475 \| doi \= 10\.1373/clinchem.2018\.288316 \| doi\-access \= free \| hdl \= 11343/240661 \| hdl\-access \= free }} The risk of VTE during [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy"), when estrogens and progesterone increase to very high levels, is 5 to 20 in 10,000 women per year, while the risk is 40 to 65 per 10,000 women per year during the [postpartum period](/wiki/Postpartum_period "Postpartum period"). {{Risk of venous thromboembolism with hormone therapy and birth control pills (QResearch/CPRD)}} ### Long\-term effects Uncommon but serious possible side effects of estrogens associated with long\-term therapy may include [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer"), [uterine cancer](/wiki/Uterine_cancer "Uterine cancer"), [stroke](/wiki/Stroke "Stroke"), [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack "Heart attack"), [blood clots](/wiki/Blood_clot "Blood clot"), [dementia](/wiki/Dementia "Dementia"), [gallbladder disease](/wiki/Gallbladder_disease "Gallbladder disease"), and [ovarian cancer](/wiki/Ovarian_cancer "Ovarian cancer"). Warning signs of these serious side effects include [breast lumps](/wiki/Breast_lump "Breast lump"), unusual vaginal bleeding, [dizziness](/wiki/Dizziness "Dizziness"), [faintness](/wiki/Faintness "Faintness"), changes in [speech](/wiki/Speech "Speech"), severe headaches, [chest pain](/wiki/Chest_pain "Chest pain"), [shortness of breath](/wiki/Shortness_of_breath "Shortness of breath"), [pain](/wiki/Pain "Pain") in the legs, changes in [vision](/wiki/Visual_perception "Visual perception"), and [vomiting](/wiki/Vomiting "Vomiting"). Due to health risks observed with the combination of [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens "Conjugated estrogens") and [medroxyprogesterone acetate](/wiki/Medroxyprogesterone_acetate "Medroxyprogesterone acetate") in the [Women's Health Initiative](/wiki/Women%27s_Health_Initiative "Women's Health Initiative") (WHI) studies (see below), the US [Food and Drug Administration](/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration "Food and Drug Administration") (FDA) label for Estrace (estradiol) advises that estrogens should be used in menopausal hormone therapy only for the shortest time possible and at the lowest effective dose. While the FDA states that is unknown if these risks generalize to estradiol (alone or in combination with progesterone or a progestin), it advises that in the absence of comparable data, the risks should be assumed to be similar. When used to treat menopausal symptoms, the FDA recommends that discontinuation of estradiol should be attempted every three to six months via a gradual dose taper. The combination of bioidentical [transdermal](/wiki/Transdermal_administration "Transdermal administration") or [vaginal](/wiki/Vaginal_administration "Vaginal administration") estradiol and [oral](/wiki/Oral_administration "Oral administration") or vaginal [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone_%28medication%29 "Progesterone (medication)") appears to be a safer form of hormone therapy than the combination of oral conjugated estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate and may not share the same health risks.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= L'hermite M, Simoncini T, Fuller S, Genazzani AR \| title \= Could transdermal estradiol \+ progesterone be a safer postmenopausal HRT? A review \| journal \= Maturitas \| volume \= 60 \| issue \= 3–4 \| pages \= 185–201 \| date \= 2008 \| pmid \= 18775609 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.maturitas.2008\.07\.007 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Holtorf K \| title \= The bioidentical hormone debate: are bioidentical hormones (estradiol, estriol, and progesterone) safer or more efficacious than commonly used synthetic versions in hormone replacement therapy? \| journal \= Postgraduate Medicine \| volume \= 121 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 73–85 \| date \= January 2009 \| pmid \= 19179815 \| doi \= 10\.3810/pgm.2009\.01\.1949 \| s2cid \= 2060730 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Conaway E \| title \= Bioidentical hormones: an evidence\-based review for primary care providers \| journal \= The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association \| volume \= 111 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 153–164 \| date \= March 2011 \| pmid \= 21464264 \| url \= http://jaoa.org/article.aspx?articleid\=2094168 \| access\-date \= 29 June 2018 \| url\-status \= live \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629155035/http://jaoa.org/article.aspx?articleid\=2094168 \| archive\-date \= 29 June 2018 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Simon JA \| title \= What's new in hormone replacement therapy: focus on transdermal estradiol and micronized progesterone \| journal \= Climacteric \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= Suppl 1 \| pages \= 3–10 \| date \= April 2012 \| pmid \= 22432810 \| doi \= 10\.3109/13697137\.2012\.669332 \| s2cid \= 27797540 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mueck AO \| title \= Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease: the value of transdermal estradiol and micronized progesterone \| journal \= Climacteric \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= Suppl 1 \| pages \= 11–17 \| date \= April 2012 \| pmid \= 22432811 \| doi \= 10\.3109/13697137\.2012\.669624 \| s2cid \= 8100346 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= L'Hermite M \| title \= HRT optimization, using transdermal estradiol plus micronized progesterone, a safer HRT \| journal \= Climacteric \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= Suppl 1 \| pages \= 44–53 \| date \= August 2013 \| pmid \= 23848491 \| doi \= 10\.3109/13697137\.2013\.808563 \| s2cid \= 20401584 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Simon JA \| title \= What if the Women's Health Initiative had used transdermal estradiol and oral progesterone instead? \| journal \= Menopause \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 769–783 \| date \= July 2014 \| pmid \= 24398406 \| doi \= 10\.1097/GME.0000000000000169 \| s2cid \= 30292136 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= L'Hermite M \| title \= Bioidentical menopausal hormone therapy: registered hormones (non\-oral estradiol ± progesterone) are optimal \| journal \= Climacteric \| volume \= 20 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 331–338 \| date \= August 2017 \| pmid \= 28301216 \| doi \= 10\.1080/13697137\.2017\.1291607 \| s2cid \= 4771048 }} Advantages may include reduced or no risk of [venous thromboembolism](/wiki/Venous_thromboembolism "Venous thromboembolism"), [cardiovascular disease](/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease "Cardiovascular disease"), and [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer"), among others. {{Results of the Women's Health Initiative menopausal hormone therapy randomized controlled trials}}
[ "Side effects\n------------", "{{See also\\|Estrogen (medication)\\#Side effects\\|List of side effects of estradiol}}", "Common [side effects](/wiki/Side_effect \"Side effect\") of estradiol in women include [headache](/wiki/Headache \"Headache\"), [breast pain or tenderness](/wiki/Breast_pain \"Breast pain\"), [breast enlargement](/wiki/Breast_enlargement \"Breast enlargement\"), [irregular](/wiki/Irregular_menstruation \"Irregular menstruation\") [vaginal bleeding or spotting](/wiki/Vaginal_bleeding \"Vaginal bleeding\"), [abdominal cramps](/wiki/Abdominal_cramp \"Abdominal cramp\"), [bloating](/wiki/Bloating \"Bloating\"), [fluid retention](/wiki/Water_retention_%28medicine%29 \"Water retention (medicine)\"), and [nausea](/wiki/Nausea \"Nausea\").{{cite web \\| title\\=Estrace\\- estradiol tablet \\| website\\=DailyMed \\| date\\=11 March 2024 \\| url\\=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid\\=a3803ba3\\-4eee\\-4e2e\\-ac8c\\-821a4e6720cc \\| access\\-date\\=17 May 2024}}{{cite web \\| title\\=Estring\\- estradiol ring \\| website\\=DailyMed \\| date\\=18 September 2023 \\| url\\=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid\\=aa530dfd\\-3a48\\-46b9\\-9678\\-a7bc48316e41 \\| access\\-date\\=17 May 2024}}{{cite web \\| title\\=Estring\\- estradiol system \\| website\\=DailyMed \\| date\\=27 February 2024 \\| url\\=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid\\=110b9865\\-5a07\\-4d45\\-b560\\-e89947f12600 \\| access\\-date\\=17 May 2024}} Other possible side effects of estrogens may include [high blood pressure](/wiki/High_blood_pressure \"High blood pressure\"), [high blood sugar](/wiki/High_blood_sugar \"High blood sugar\"), enlargement of [uterine fibroids](/wiki/Uterine_fibroid \"Uterine fibroid\"), [melasma](/wiki/Melasma \"Melasma\"), [vaginal yeast infections](/wiki/Vaginal_yeast_infection \"Vaginal yeast infection\"), and [liver problems](/wiki/Liver_problems \"Liver problems\"). In men, estrogens can cause breast pain or tenderness, [gynecomastia](/wiki/Gynecomastia \"Gynecomastia\") (male [breast development](/wiki/Breast_development \"Breast development\")), [feminization](/wiki/Feminization_%28biology%29 \"Feminization (biology)\"), [demasculinization](/wiki/Demasculinization \"Demasculinization\"), [sexual dysfunction](/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction \"Sexual dysfunction\") ([decreased libido](/wiki/Decreased_libido \"Decreased libido\") and [erectile dysfunction](/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction \"Erectile dysfunction\")), [hypogonadism](/wiki/Hypogonadism \"Hypogonadism\"), [testicular atrophy](/wiki/Testicular_atrophy \"Testicular atrophy\"), and [infertility](/wiki/Infertility \"Infertility\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Richard P. Pohanish\\|title\\=Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=f6HclgoIkjcC\\&pg\\=PA1167\\|year\\=2011\\|publisher\\=William Andrew\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4377\\-7869\\-4\\|pages\\=1167–\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506202804/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=f6HclgoIkjcC\\&pg\\=PA1167\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite book\\| vauthors \\= Cecil RL, Bennett JC, Plum F \\|title\\=Cecil Textbook of Medicine\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/ceciltextbookofm02ceci\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Saunders\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7216\\-3575\\-0\\|quote\\=Estrogen excess in men causes inhibition of gonadotropin secretion and secondary hypogonadism. Estrogen excess may result from either exogenous administration of estrogens or estrogenic substances (e.g., diethylstilbestrol administration \\[...]}}\n{{Side effects of lower versus higher dose oral estradiol}}", "### Blood clots", "{{See also\\|Estrogen (medication)\\#Cardiovascular events}}", "[Oral](/wiki/Oral_administration \"Oral administration\") estradiol and [estradiol valerate](/wiki/Estradiol_valerate \"Estradiol valerate\"), for instance in [menopausal hormone therapy](/wiki/Menopausal_hormone_therapy \"Menopausal hormone therapy\") or [birth control pills](/wiki/Birth_control_pill \"Birth control pill\"), are associated with a significantly higher risk of [venous thromboembolism](/wiki/Venous_thromboembolism \"Venous thromboembolism\") (VTE) than non\\-use.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rovinski D, Ramos RB, Fighera TM, Casanova GK, Spritzer PM \\| title \\= Risk of venous thromboembolism events in postmenopausal women using oral versus non\\-oral hormone therapy: A systematic review and meta\\-analysis \\| journal \\= Thrombosis Research \\| volume \\= 168 \\| pages \\= 83–95 \\| date \\= August 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29936403 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.thromres.2018\\.06\\.014 \\| s2cid \\= 49421543 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Fruzzetti F, Cagnacci A \\| title \\= Venous thrombosis and hormonal contraception: what's new with estradiol\\-based hormonal contraceptives? \\| journal \\= Open Access Journal of Contraception \\| volume \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 75–79 \\| date \\= 2018 \\| pmid \\= 30519125 \\| pmc \\= 6239102 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2147/OAJC.S179673 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Higher doses of oral estrogens are associated with higher risks of VTE.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gialeraki A, Valsami S, Pittaras T, Panayiotakopoulos G, Politou M \\| title \\= Oral Contraceptives and HRT Risk of Thrombosis \\| journal \\= Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 217–225 \\| date \\= March 2018 \\| pmid \\= 28049361 \\| pmc \\= 6714678 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/1076029616683802 }} In contrast to oral estradiol, [transdermal](/wiki/Transdermal_administration \"Transdermal administration\") and [vaginal](/wiki/Vaginal_administration \"Vaginal administration\") estradiol at menopausal replacement dosages are not associated with a higher incidence of VTE. Low doses (e.g., 50 μg/day) and high doses (e.g., 100 μg/day) of transdermal estradiol for menopausal replacement do not differ in terms of VTE risk.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Olié V, Canonico M, Scarabin PY \\| title \\= Postmenopausal hormone therapy and venous thromboembolism \\| journal \\= Thrombosis Research \\| volume \\= 127 \\| issue \\= Suppl 3 \\| pages \\= S26–S29 \\| date \\= February 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21262434 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/S0049\\-3848(11\\)70008\\-1 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Scarabin PY \\| title \\= Hormones and venous thromboembolism among postmenopausal women \\| journal \\= Climacteric \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= Suppl 2 \\| pages \\= 34–37 \\| date \\= December 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25223916 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/13697137\\.2014\\.956717 \\| s2cid \\= 5084606 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bińkowska M \\| title \\= Menopausal hormone therapy and venous thromboembolism \\| journal \\= Przeglad Menopauzalny \\= Menopause Review \\| volume \\= 13 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 267–272 \\| date \\= October 2014 \\| pmid \\= 26327865 \\| pmc \\= 4520375 \\| doi \\= 10\\.5114/pm.2014\\.46468 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Vinogradova Y, Coupland C, Hippisley\\-Cox J \\| title \\= Use of hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism: nested case\\-control studies using the QResearch and CPRD databases \\| journal \\= BMJ \\| volume \\= 364 \\| pages \\= k4810 \\| date \\= January 2019 \\| pmid \\= 30626577 \\| pmc \\= 6326068 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1136/bmj.k4810 }} The higher risk of VTE with oral estradiol can be attributed to the [first pass](/wiki/First-pass_effect \"First-pass effect\") and a disproportionate effect on [liver synthesis](/wiki/Liver_protein_synthesis \"Liver protein synthesis\") of [coagulation factors](/wiki/Coagulation_factor \"Coagulation factor\"). Even high doses of [parenteral](/wiki/Parenteral \"Parenteral\") estradiol, such as high\\-dose [polyestradiol phosphate](/wiki/Polyestradiol_phosphate \"Polyestradiol phosphate\"), have minimal influence on coagulation factors, in contrast to oral estrogen therapy.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Phillips I, Shah SI, Duong T, Abel P, Langley RE \\| title \\= Androgen Deprivation Therapy and the Re\\-emergence of Parenteral Estrogen in Prostate Cancer \\| journal \\= Oncology \\& Hematology Review \\| volume \\= 10 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 42–47 \\| date \\= 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24932461 \\| pmc \\= 4052190 \\| doi \\= 10\\.17925/ohr.2014\\.10\\.1\\.42 }} However, sufficient doses of parenteral estradiol, for instance very high doses of estradiol valerate by [intramuscular injection](/wiki/Intramuscular_injection \"Intramuscular injection\"), can nonetheless activate coagulation, presumably increasing VTE risk.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kohli M \\| title \\= Phase II study of transdermal estradiol in androgen\\-independent prostate carcinoma \\| journal \\= Cancer \\| volume \\= 106 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 234–5; author reply 235 \\| date \\= January 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16284988 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/cncr.21528 \\| s2cid \\= 11047031 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite book \\| vauthors \\= Horský J, Presl J \\| chapter \\= Hormonal Treatment of Disorders of the Menstrual Cycle \\| pages \\= 309–332 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/978\\-94\\-009\\-8195\\-9\\_11 \\| editor1 \\= J. Horsky \\| editor2 \\= J. Presl \\| title \\= Ovarian Function and its Disorders: Diagnosis and Therapy \\| series \\= Developments in Obstetrics and Gynecology \\| chapter\\-url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7IrpCAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA310 \\| date \\= 1981 \\| publisher \\= Springer Science \\& Business Media \\| isbn \\= 978\\-94\\-009\\-8195\\-9 \\| access\\-date \\= 26 December 2019 \\| archive\\-date \\= 18 June 2020 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200618033124/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7IrpCAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA310 \\| url\\-status \\= live }}", "In addition to the [route of administration](/wiki/Route_of_administration \"Route of administration\"), the type of estrogen influences VTE risk. Oral [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens \"Conjugated estrogens\") are associated with a higher risk of VTE than oral estradiol.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Stuenkel CA, Davis SR, Gompel A, Lumsden MA, Murad MH, Pinkerton JV, Santen RJ \\| title \\= Treatment of Symptoms of the Menopause: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline \\| journal \\= The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism \\| volume \\= 100 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 3975–4011 \\| date \\= November 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26444994 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1210/jc.2015\\-2236 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Smith NL, Blondon M, Wiggins KL, Harrington LB, van Hylckama Vlieg A, Floyd JS, Hwang M, Bis JC, McKnight B, Rice KM, Lumley T, Rosendaal FR, Heckbert SR, Psaty BM \\| title \\= Lower risk of cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women taking oral estradiol compared with oral conjugated equine estrogens \\| journal \\= JAMA Internal Medicine \\| volume \\= 174 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 25–31 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24081194 \\| pmc \\= 4636198 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1001/jamainternmed.2013\\.11074 }} [Estradiol\\- and estradiol valerate\\-containing birth control pills](/wiki/Estradiol-containing_birth_control_pill \"Estradiol-containing birth control pill\") are associated with a lower risk of VTE than birth control pills containing [ethinylestradiol](/wiki/Ethinylestradiol \"Ethinylestradiol\"). The relative risk of VTE is thought to be highest with oral ethinylestradiol, intermediate with oral conjugated estrogens, low with oral estradiol and parenteral estradiol valerate, and very low with transdermal estradiol.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Connors JM, Middeldorp S \\| title \\= Transgender patients and the role of the coagulation clinician \\| journal \\= Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 1790–1797 \\| date \\= November 2019 \\| pmid \\= 31465627 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/jth.14626 \\| s2cid \\= 201673648 }} Conjugated estrogens and ethinylestradiol are thought to have a higher risk of VTE than estradiol because they are resistant to [hepatic](/wiki/Liver \"Liver\") [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\") and have a disproportionate influence on liver production of coagulation factors.", "The combination of oral or transdermal estradiol and a progestin is associated with a higher risk of VTE than estradiol alone.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Scarabin PY \\| title \\= Progestogens and venous thromboembolism in menopausal women: an updated oral versus transdermal estrogen meta\\-analysis \\| journal \\= Climacteric \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 341–345 \\| date \\= August 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29570359 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/13697137\\.2018\\.1446931 \\| s2cid \\= 4229701 }} [Dydrogesterone](/wiki/Dydrogesterone \"Dydrogesterone\") is associated with a lower risk than other progestins such as [medroxyprogesterone acetate](/wiki/Medroxyprogesterone_acetate \"Medroxyprogesterone acetate\") and [norethisterone](/wiki/Norethisterone \"Norethisterone\"), while oral [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone_%28medication%29 \"Progesterone (medication)\") is associated with no increase in risk of VTE. Older [age](/wiki/Ageing \"Ageing\"), higher [body weight](/wiki/Body_weight \"Body weight\"), lower [physical activity](/wiki/Physical_activity \"Physical activity\"), and [smoking](/wiki/Smoking \"Smoking\") are all associated with a higher risk of VTE with oral estrogen therapy.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Beyer\\-Westendorf J, Bauersachs R, Hach\\-Wunderle V, Zotz RB, Rott H \\| title \\= Sex hormones and venous thromboembolism \\- from contraception to hormone replacement therapy \\| journal \\= VASA. Zeitschrift für Gefässkrankheiten \\| volume \\= 47 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 441–450 \\| date \\= October 2018 \\| pmid \\= 30008249 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1024/0301\\-1526/a000726 \\| s2cid \\= 51628832 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Davey DA \\| title \\= Menopausal hormone therapy: a better and safer future \\| journal \\= Climacteric \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 454–461 \\| date \\= October 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29526116 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/13697137\\.2018\\.1439915 \\| s2cid \\= 3850275 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Roach RE, Lijfering WM, Helmerhorst FM, Cannegieter SC, Rosendaal FR, van Hylckama Vlieg A \\| title \\= The risk of venous thrombosis in women over 50 years old using oral contraception or postmenopausal hormone therapy \\| journal \\= Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis \\| volume \\= 11 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 124–131 \\| date \\= January 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23136837 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/jth.12060 \\| s2cid \\= 22306721 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Risk of VTE with estrogen therapy is highest at the start of treatment, particularly during the first year, and decreases over time.", "The [absolute risk](/wiki/Absolute_risk \"Absolute risk\") of VTE with estrogen and/or progestin therapy is small.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bateson D, Butcher BE, Donovan C, Farrell L, Kovacs G, Mezzini T, Raynes\\-Greenow C, Pecoraro G, Read C, Baber R \\| title \\= Risk of venous thromboembolism in women taking the combined oral contraceptive: A systematic review and meta\\-analysis \\| journal \\= Australian Family Physician \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 59–64 \\| date \\= 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27051991 \\| url \\= https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/januaryfebruary/risk\\-of\\-venous\\-thromboembolism\\-in\\-women\\-taking\\-the\\-combined\\-oral\\-contraceptive\\-a\\-systematic\\-review\\-and\\-meta\\-analysis/ \\| access\\-date \\= 26 December 2019 \\| url\\-status \\= live \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210408052059/https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/januaryfebruary/risk\\-of\\-venous\\-thromboembolism\\-in\\-women\\-taking\\-the\\-combined\\-oral\\-contraceptive\\-a\\-systematic\\-review\\-and\\-meta\\-analysis/ \\| archive\\-date \\= 8 April 2021 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug\\-safety\\-and\\-availability/fda\\-drug\\-safety\\-communication\\-updated\\-information\\-about\\-risk\\-blood\\-clots\\-women\\-taking\\-birth\\-control \\| work \\= FDA Drug Safety Communication \\| title \\= Updated information about the risk of blood clots in women taking birth control pills containing drospirenone \\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427143241/https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug\\-safety\\-and\\-availability/fda\\-drug\\-safety\\-communication\\-updated\\-information\\-about\\-risk\\-blood\\-clots\\-women\\-taking\\-birth\\-control \\|archive\\-date\\=27 April 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Goldstein Z, Khan M, Reisman T, Safer JD \\| title \\= Managing the risk of venous thromboembolism in transgender adults undergoing hormone therapy \\| journal \\= Journal of Blood Medicine \\| volume \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 209–216 \\| date \\= 2019 \\| pmid \\= 31372078 \\| pmc \\= 6628137 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2147/JBM.S166780 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Women who are not on a birth control pill or hormone therapy have a risk of VTE of about 1 to 5 out of 10,000 women per year. In women taking a birth control pill containing ethinylestradiol and a progestin, the risk of VTE is in the range of 3 to 10 out of 10,000 women per year. Birth control pills containing estradiol valerate and a progestin are associated with about half the risk of VTE of ethinylestradiol/progestin\\-containing birth control pills.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Grandi G, Facchinetti F, Bitzer J \\| title \\= Estradiol in hormonal contraception: real evolution or just same old wine in a new bottle? \\| journal \\= The European Journal of Contraception \\& Reproductive Health Care \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 245–246 \\| date \\= August 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28902531 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/13625187\\.2017\\.1372571 \\| s2cid \\= 13776462 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| hdl \\= 11380/1153791 \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }} [Hormone therapy](/wiki/Transgender_hormone_therapy_%28male-to-female%29 \"Transgender hormone therapy (male-to-female)\") for [transgender women](/wiki/Transgender_women \"Transgender women\") likewise is associated with a lower risk of VTE than birth control pills containing ethinylestradiol and a progestin.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Khan J, Schmidt RL, Spittal MJ, Goldstein Z, Smock KJ, Greene DN \\| title \\= Venous Thrombotic Risk in Transgender Women Undergoing Estrogen Therapy: A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis \\| journal \\= Clinical Chemistry \\| volume \\= 65 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 57–66 \\| date \\= January 2019 \\| pmid \\= 30602475 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1373/clinchem.2018\\.288316 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| hdl \\= 11343/240661 \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }} The risk of VTE during [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\"), when estrogens and progesterone increase to very high levels, is 5 to 20 in 10,000 women per year, while the risk is 40 to 65 per 10,000 women per year during the [postpartum period](/wiki/Postpartum_period \"Postpartum period\").", "{{Risk of venous thromboembolism with hormone therapy and birth control pills (QResearch/CPRD)}}", "### Long\\-term effects", "Uncommon but serious possible side effects of estrogens associated with long\\-term therapy may include [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\"), [uterine cancer](/wiki/Uterine_cancer \"Uterine cancer\"), [stroke](/wiki/Stroke \"Stroke\"), [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack \"Heart attack\"), [blood clots](/wiki/Blood_clot \"Blood clot\"), [dementia](/wiki/Dementia \"Dementia\"), [gallbladder disease](/wiki/Gallbladder_disease \"Gallbladder disease\"), and [ovarian cancer](/wiki/Ovarian_cancer \"Ovarian cancer\"). Warning signs of these serious side effects include [breast lumps](/wiki/Breast_lump \"Breast lump\"), unusual vaginal bleeding, [dizziness](/wiki/Dizziness \"Dizziness\"), [faintness](/wiki/Faintness \"Faintness\"), changes in [speech](/wiki/Speech \"Speech\"), severe headaches, [chest pain](/wiki/Chest_pain \"Chest pain\"), [shortness of breath](/wiki/Shortness_of_breath \"Shortness of breath\"), [pain](/wiki/Pain \"Pain\") in the legs, changes in [vision](/wiki/Visual_perception \"Visual perception\"), and [vomiting](/wiki/Vomiting \"Vomiting\").", "Due to health risks observed with the combination of [conjugated estrogens](/wiki/Conjugated_estrogens \"Conjugated estrogens\") and [medroxyprogesterone acetate](/wiki/Medroxyprogesterone_acetate \"Medroxyprogesterone acetate\") in the [Women's Health Initiative](/wiki/Women%27s_Health_Initiative \"Women's Health Initiative\") (WHI) studies (see below), the US [Food and Drug Administration](/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration \"Food and Drug Administration\") (FDA) label for Estrace (estradiol) advises that estrogens should be used in menopausal hormone therapy only for the shortest time possible and at the lowest effective dose. While the FDA states that is unknown if these risks generalize to estradiol (alone or in combination with progesterone or a progestin), it advises that in the absence of comparable data, the risks should be assumed to be similar. When used to treat menopausal symptoms, the FDA recommends that discontinuation of estradiol should be attempted every three to six months via a gradual dose taper.", "The combination of bioidentical [transdermal](/wiki/Transdermal_administration \"Transdermal administration\") or [vaginal](/wiki/Vaginal_administration \"Vaginal administration\") estradiol and [oral](/wiki/Oral_administration \"Oral administration\") or vaginal [progesterone](/wiki/Progesterone_%28medication%29 \"Progesterone (medication)\") appears to be a safer form of hormone therapy than the combination of oral conjugated estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate and may not share the same health risks.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= L'hermite M, Simoncini T, Fuller S, Genazzani AR \\| title \\= Could transdermal estradiol \\+ progesterone be a safer postmenopausal HRT? A review \\| journal \\= Maturitas \\| volume \\= 60 \\| issue \\= 3–4 \\| pages \\= 185–201 \\| date \\= 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18775609 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.maturitas.2008\\.07\\.007 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Holtorf K \\| title \\= The bioidentical hormone debate: are bioidentical hormones (estradiol, estriol, and progesterone) safer or more efficacious than commonly used synthetic versions in hormone replacement therapy? \\| journal \\= Postgraduate Medicine \\| volume \\= 121 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 73–85 \\| date \\= January 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19179815 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3810/pgm.2009\\.01\\.1949 \\| s2cid \\= 2060730 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Conaway E \\| title \\= Bioidentical hormones: an evidence\\-based review for primary care providers \\| journal \\= The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association \\| volume \\= 111 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 153–164 \\| date \\= March 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21464264 \\| url \\= http://jaoa.org/article.aspx?articleid\\=2094168 \\| access\\-date \\= 29 June 2018 \\| url\\-status \\= live \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629155035/http://jaoa.org/article.aspx?articleid\\=2094168 \\| archive\\-date \\= 29 June 2018 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Simon JA \\| title \\= What's new in hormone replacement therapy: focus on transdermal estradiol and micronized progesterone \\| journal \\= Climacteric \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= Suppl 1 \\| pages \\= 3–10 \\| date \\= April 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22432810 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/13697137\\.2012\\.669332 \\| s2cid \\= 27797540 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mueck AO \\| title \\= Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease: the value of transdermal estradiol and micronized progesterone \\| journal \\= Climacteric \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= Suppl 1 \\| pages \\= 11–17 \\| date \\= April 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22432811 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/13697137\\.2012\\.669624 \\| s2cid \\= 8100346 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= L'Hermite M \\| title \\= HRT optimization, using transdermal estradiol plus micronized progesterone, a safer HRT \\| journal \\= Climacteric \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= Suppl 1 \\| pages \\= 44–53 \\| date \\= August 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23848491 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/13697137\\.2013\\.808563 \\| s2cid \\= 20401584 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Simon JA \\| title \\= What if the Women's Health Initiative had used transdermal estradiol and oral progesterone instead? \\| journal \\= Menopause \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 769–783 \\| date \\= July 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24398406 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1097/GME.0000000000000169 \\| s2cid \\= 30292136 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= L'Hermite M \\| title \\= Bioidentical menopausal hormone therapy: registered hormones (non\\-oral estradiol ± progesterone) are optimal \\| journal \\= Climacteric \\| volume \\= 20 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 331–338 \\| date \\= August 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28301216 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/13697137\\.2017\\.1291607 \\| s2cid \\= 4771048 }} Advantages may include reduced or no risk of [venous thromboembolism](/wiki/Venous_thromboembolism \"Venous thromboembolism\"), [cardiovascular disease](/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease \"Cardiovascular disease\"), and [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\"), among others.", "{{Results of the Women's Health Initiative menopausal hormone therapy randomized controlled trials}}", "" ]
Songs and reception ------------------- Described as a loose concept album, *The Serpent Is Rising* contains a number of sexual innuendos. The baroque prog "The Grove of Eglantine" (written by DeYoung) was about a woman's vagina. It has some harpsichord and accordion, to give a British/European sound. The proggish title track was written by [John Curulewski](/wiki/John_Curulewski "John Curulewski"), is about the serpent beginning to rise. Musically, it has some [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson") influence especially on [their debut album](/wiki/In_the_Court_of_the_Crimson_King "In the Court of the Crimson King"). The screaming spoken word "Krakatoa" by Curulewski was named for the volcano event of the [same name](/wiki/Krakatoa "Krakatoa") in 1883\. It features an ending glissando which was taken from a [Beaver and Krause](/wiki/Beaver_and_Krause "Beaver and Krause") track called "Spaced" in 1970, for which they were credited on the album. The acoustic bluesy track "As Bad as This" by Curulewski has a hidden track called "Don't Sit Down on the Plexiglas Toilet" which is a calypso humor about a boy who is sitting on a Plexiglas toilet and having problems. The track features only Curulewski and the Panozzo brothers. The song was played on the [Dr. Demento](/wiki/Dr._Demento "Dr. Demento") radio show and ["Weird Al" Yankovic](/wiki/%22Weird_Al%22_Yankovic) supposedly loved it.{{cite magazine \|title\='Weird Al': 5 Songs to Scare the Neighbors \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-lists/weird\-al\-5\-songs\-to\-scare\-the\-neighbors\-80140/ \|magazine\=Rolling Stone \|access\-date\=10 March 2019 \|date\=16 March 2016}} The album also includes [James Young](/wiki/James_Young_%28American_musician%29 "James Young (American musician)") rockers "Witch Wolf" and "Young Man", the upbeat "Winner Take All" (written by DeYoung and sung by Young) and the boogie\-woogie track "22 Years" (written by Curulewski but sung as a duet by DeYoung and Young); the outro for that track features the producer and president of Wooden Nickel records [Bill Traut](/wiki/Bill_Traut "Bill Traut") on saxophone. The prog rocker "Jonas Psalter" was written by DeYoung and sung by Young. Lyrically, it was about pirates. Musically, it has elements of the contemporary sound of [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 "Yes (band)"), and also featured a [Moog synthesizer](/wiki/Moog_synthesizer "Moog synthesizer"). The album finished with Handel's Hallelujah classical piece, features all the band members singing and DeYoung played a pipe organ on cathedral in Chicago. Styx considers *The Serpent Is Rising* to be their worst recording. [Dennis DeYoung](/wiki/Dennis_DeYoung "Dennis DeYoung") is indirectly quoted as saying it was "one of the worst recorded and produced in the history of music."{{cite web \|last1\=Koch \|first1\=Bob \|title\=Vinyl Cave: "The Serpent is Rising" by Styx \|url\=https://isthmus.com/music/vinyl\-cave/vinyl\-cave\-the\-serpent\-is\-rising\-by\-styx/ \|website\=Isthmus, Madison, Wisconsin \|access\-date\=11 July 2018 \|language\=en\-us \|date\=8 January 2011}}{{cite book \|last1\=Whitaker \|first1\=Sterling \|title\=The Grand Delusion: The Unauthorized True Story of Styx \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=S. Whitaker \|isbn\=9781419653537 \|page\=142 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=39mrwdXo71YC\&q\=the\+grand\+delusion\+book\+%22worst\+recorded\+and\+produced%22 \|access\-date\=11 July 2018 \|language\=en}}
[ "Songs and reception\n-------------------", "Described as a loose concept album, *The Serpent Is Rising* contains a number of sexual innuendos. The baroque prog \"The Grove of Eglantine\" (written by DeYoung) was about a woman's vagina. It has some harpsichord and accordion, to give a British/European sound.", "The proggish title track was written by [John Curulewski](/wiki/John_Curulewski \"John Curulewski\"), is about the serpent beginning to rise. Musically, it has some [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\") influence especially on [their debut album](/wiki/In_the_Court_of_the_Crimson_King \"In the Court of the Crimson King\").", "The screaming spoken word \"Krakatoa\" by Curulewski was named for the volcano event of the [same name](/wiki/Krakatoa \"Krakatoa\") in 1883\\. It features an ending glissando which was taken from a [Beaver and Krause](/wiki/Beaver_and_Krause \"Beaver and Krause\") track called \"Spaced\" in 1970, for which they were credited on the album.", "The acoustic bluesy track \"As Bad as This\" by Curulewski has a hidden track called \"Don't Sit Down on the Plexiglas Toilet\" which is a calypso humor about a boy who is sitting on a Plexiglas toilet and having problems. The track features only Curulewski and the Panozzo brothers. The song was played on the [Dr. Demento](/wiki/Dr._Demento \"Dr. Demento\") radio show and [\"Weird Al\" Yankovic](/wiki/%22Weird_Al%22_Yankovic) supposedly loved it.{{cite magazine \\|title\\='Weird Al': 5 Songs to Scare the Neighbors \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-lists/weird\\-al\\-5\\-songs\\-to\\-scare\\-the\\-neighbors\\-80140/ \\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2019 \\|date\\=16 March 2016}}", "The album also includes [James Young](/wiki/James_Young_%28American_musician%29 \"James Young (American musician)\") rockers \"Witch Wolf\" and \"Young Man\", the upbeat \"Winner Take All\" (written by DeYoung and sung by Young) and the boogie\\-woogie track \"22 Years\" (written by Curulewski but sung as a duet by DeYoung and Young); the outro for that track features the producer and president of Wooden Nickel records [Bill Traut](/wiki/Bill_Traut \"Bill Traut\") on saxophone.", "The prog rocker \"Jonas Psalter\" was written by DeYoung and sung by Young. Lyrically, it was about pirates. Musically, it has elements of the contemporary sound of [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 \"Yes (band)\"), and also featured a [Moog synthesizer](/wiki/Moog_synthesizer \"Moog synthesizer\").", "The album finished with Handel's Hallelujah classical piece, features all the band members singing and DeYoung played a pipe organ on cathedral in Chicago.", "Styx considers *The Serpent Is Rising* to be their worst recording. [Dennis DeYoung](/wiki/Dennis_DeYoung \"Dennis DeYoung\") is indirectly quoted as saying it was \"one of the worst recorded and produced in the history of music.\"{{cite web \\|last1\\=Koch \\|first1\\=Bob \\|title\\=Vinyl Cave: \"The Serpent is Rising\" by Styx \\|url\\=https://isthmus.com/music/vinyl\\-cave/vinyl\\-cave\\-the\\-serpent\\-is\\-rising\\-by\\-styx/ \\|website\\=Isthmus, Madison, Wisconsin \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2018 \\|language\\=en\\-us \\|date\\=8 January 2011}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Whitaker \\|first1\\=Sterling \\|title\\=The Grand Delusion: The Unauthorized True Story of Styx \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=S. Whitaker \\|isbn\\=9781419653537 \\|page\\=142 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=39mrwdXo71YC\\&q\\=the\\+grand\\+delusion\\+book\\+%22worst\\+recorded\\+and\\+produced%22 \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2018 \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
History ------- Colombian conservatism holds [Simón Bolívar](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar "Simón Bolívar") and his ideals as central to its political principles. The first formal conservative Colombian party, known as "Republicanos Moderados" (Moderate Republicans) was created in 1837 by [Jose Ignacio de Marquez](/wiki/Jose_Ignacio_de_Marquez "Jose Ignacio de Marquez"). In the image of Bolivar, the party held to religious principles and favored order and control. In 1840, a civil war occurred that caused the proliferation of future political parties, including the [Colombian Conservative Party](/wiki/Colombian_Conservative_Party "Colombian Conservative Party"), the current principal representative of this [Bolivarian ideal](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26225770). Colombia has experienced many conservative movements. An example is the "Conservatismo Colombiano" party. Other movements, such as that of [Gustavo Rojas Pinilla](/wiki/Gustavo_Rojas_Pinilla "Gustavo Rojas Pinilla"), were also influenced by conservative [ideals](/wiki/Ideal_%28ethics%29 "Ideal (ethics)"). Another important movement, created by Nuñez, was a coalition between conservatives and moderate liberals called "Partido Nacional" (National Party). The [National Popular Alliance](/wiki/National_Popular_Alliance "National Popular Alliance") was established in the 1960s by disillusioned conservatives, and it later developed into a populist opposition party. Before the creation of the party, the members were called "Godos". These "Republicanos Moderados" and some other "radical conservatives" led to the beginnings of the [Colombian Conservative Party](/wiki/Colombian_Conservative_Party "Colombian Conservative Party").
[ "History\n-------", "Colombian conservatism holds [Simón Bolívar](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Simón Bolívar\") and his ideals as central to its political principles. The first formal conservative Colombian party, known as \"Republicanos Moderados\" (Moderate Republicans) was created in 1837 by [Jose Ignacio de Marquez](/wiki/Jose_Ignacio_de_Marquez \"Jose Ignacio de Marquez\"). In the image of Bolivar, the party held to religious principles and favored order and control. In 1840, a civil war occurred that caused the proliferation of future political parties, including the [Colombian Conservative Party](/wiki/Colombian_Conservative_Party \"Colombian Conservative Party\"), the current principal representative of this [Bolivarian ideal](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26225770).", "Colombia has experienced many conservative movements. An example is the \"Conservatismo Colombiano\" party.", "Other movements, such as that of [Gustavo Rojas Pinilla](/wiki/Gustavo_Rojas_Pinilla \"Gustavo Rojas Pinilla\"), were also influenced by conservative [ideals](/wiki/Ideal_%28ethics%29 \"Ideal (ethics)\").", "Another important movement, created by Nuñez, was a coalition between conservatives and moderate liberals called \"Partido Nacional\" (National Party).", "The [National Popular Alliance](/wiki/National_Popular_Alliance \"National Popular Alliance\") was established in the 1960s by disillusioned conservatives, and it later developed into a populist opposition party. Before the creation of the party, the members were called \"Godos\". These \"Republicanos Moderados\" and some other \"radical conservatives\" led to the beginnings of the [Colombian Conservative Party](/wiki/Colombian_Conservative_Party \"Colombian Conservative Party\").", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early life Fr. Jaime C. Bulatao, SJ was born on September 22, 1922, in Paco, Manila. His father, Dr. Emilio Bulatao, headed the Physiology Department at the University of the Philippines College of Medicine. His mother, Encarnacion Ungson, taught in the public school system before her marriage. Dr. Emilio Bulatao was a dedicated researcher, which was highlighted during the intense carpet\-bombing at the close of World War II, Dr. Bulatao saved and brought along only his valuable research papers while fleeing their home in Paco, Manila. ### Education Bulatao attended St. Theresa's College, Manila, under Mother Redempta. He continued to attend Jesuit schools for the rest of his academic life. He excelled academically, becoming the valedictorian of his 1939 high school class at the Ateneo de Manila, then located on Padre Faura Street in Ermita, Manila. At sixteen, he joined the Jesuit novitiate in Novaliches as a college freshman. He earned his theology degree from Woodstock College New York, followed by an MA in Experimental Psychology and a PhD in Clinical Psychology from Fordham University. Upon his return to the Philippines, he was appointed head of Central Guidance Office of the Ateneo de Manila University. He established the Ateneo Department of Psychology in 1960\. ### Teaching {{More citations needed section\|date\=March 2024}} Fr. Bulatao began teaching in 1946 at the Ateneo before leaving to pursue his postgraduate studies at Fordham University. He returned to the Philippines and established the Ateneo de Manila's Department of Psychology in 1960, where he taught for almost five decades. He also helped found the Psychological Association of the Philippines in 1962\. Two years later, he co\-founded the Philippine Guidance and Personnel Association along with colleagues from various local universities. Fr. Bulatao was known for his [hypnosis](/wiki/Hypnosis "Hypnosis") and hypnotherapy classes at the Ateneo de Manila University. His distinctive method, outlined in *Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy* (2000\) and earlier elaborated through his foundational work in *Phenomena and Their Interpretation: Landmark Essays, 1957\-1989* (1992\) merges conventional hypnotherapy techniques with the cultural and spiritual nuances of the Filipino society. The Fr. Bulatao approach perceives hypnosis as an [altered state of consciousness](/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness "Altered state of consciousness") (ASC) and echoes Freud's theory that dreams and symbolic language are pivotal in accessing and influencing the unconscious mind. In the Fr. Bulatao style, narratives and metaphors become the tools for engaging and transforming the unconscious, creating a deeply resonant and culturally\-attuned therapeutic process. John Wesley Y. Bayot, a student of Fr. Bulatao, summarized the key elements of the Bulatao style of hypnosis and hypnotherapy{{Cite book \|title\=Fr Bu, Seer of Minds and Hearts: The Legacy of Fr. Jaime C. Bulatao, SJ \|publisher\=De La Salle University Publishing House \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=978\-971\-555\-724\-5 \|editor1\=Alexis P. Ofreneo \|editor2\=Maria Lourdes Rosita A. Mesa \|editor3\=Gilda Dans Lopez \|editor4\=Susan L. Cellano \|pages\=78\-89 \|chapter\=Trance·formation: The Power of the Unconscious Mind}} to include: * ***Cultural Integration***: Fr. Bulatao incorporates Filipino animistic beliefs and spirituality into his hypnotherapy practice, recognizing and leveraging these elements to enhance therapeutic efficacy. * ***Symbolic Communication***: Fr. Bulatao emphasizes the use of symbols, metaphors, hyperboles, and imagery in hypnosis, drawing parallels with dream interpretation, to facilitate a deeper engagement with the unconscious mind. * ***Utilization Principle***: Following [Milton H. Erickson](/wiki/Milton_H._Erickson "Milton H. Erickson")'s principle of utilization, Fr. Bulatao respects and utilizes the client's cultural beliefs and narratives rather than challenging them, which fosters a more effective and respectful therapeutic environment. * ***Transformation and Influence***: By mastering the ability to induce [altered states of consciousness](/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness "Altered state of consciousness") (ASC) and communicating in the language of the unconscious, this approach aims to influence the unconscious mind, promoting significant and lasting change. Overall, the Fr. Bulatao style of hypnosis is a culturally\-sensitive approach that respects and integrates the cultural backdrop of the client into the therapeutic process, making it a distinct and effective form of hypnotherapy, particularly for Filipino clients. In a memo after Bulatao's death, the Psychology Department stated that although Bulatao received many awards for his contribution to psychology, he believed that his greatest achievement was teaching.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-02\-12 \|title\=Fr Jaime C Bulatao SJ, 92 \|url\=http://www.ateneo.edu/news/features/fr\-jaime\-c\-bulatao\-sj\-92 \|access\-date\=2019\-03\-29 \|website\=Ateneo de Manila University \|language\=en}} ### Later Life and Death Father Bulatao died at the Ateneo's Jesuit Residence on the evening of February 10, 2015, following a brief hospitalization lasting four days. The specifics surrounding the cause of his passing were not disclosed by the University. He was 92\.{{Cite web \|last\=Doyo \|first\=Ceres \|date\=2015\-02\-15 \|title\=Father Bu: Jedi Master of unknown universe; 92 \|url\=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/672974/father\-bu\-jedi\-master\-of\-unknown\-universe\-92 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-22 \|website\=INQUIRER.net \|language\=en}} A solemn funeral Mass was held in his honor at the [Church of Gesù](/wiki/Church_of_the_Ges%C3%B9%2C_Quezon_City "Church of the Gesù, Quezon City") at the Ateneo de Manila University, on February 11\. Ateneo President [Jose Ramon Villarin](/wiki/Jose_Ramon_Villarin "Jose Ramon Villarin") in his homily described Bulatao as "*a seer—a seer of minds and hearts*".{{Cite web \|last\=II \|first\=Paterno Esmaquel \|date\=2015\-02\-14 \|title\=Jesuit psychologist Jaime Bulatao: 'Seer of hearts' \|url\=https://www.rappler.com/nation/83939\-jesuit\-jaime\-bulatao\-psychology/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-22 \|website\=RAPPLER \|language\=en\-US}} He said: *Pray for us, please, to see what you saw, to be fascinated by the unknown, to be unafraid, to be driven to explore the unexplored frontier, to have the courage to risk our lives in commitment even if we do not see everything appearing... Pray for us to be crazy, to be crazy enough to stand on our heads, to be able to imagine what life can be, who God is, who we can become, be who God dreams us to be*. Fr. Bulatao's remains were interred at the Sacred Heart Novitiate Cemetery in Novaliches, Quezon City on February 14, 2015\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life", "Fr. Jaime C. Bulatao, SJ was born on September 22, 1922, in Paco, Manila. His father, Dr. Emilio Bulatao, headed the Physiology Department at the University of the Philippines College of Medicine. His mother, Encarnacion Ungson, taught in the public school system before her marriage.", "Dr. Emilio Bulatao was a dedicated researcher, which was highlighted during the intense carpet\\-bombing at the close of World War II, Dr. Bulatao saved and brought along only his valuable research papers while fleeing their home in Paco, Manila.", "### Education", "Bulatao attended St. Theresa's College, Manila, under Mother Redempta. He continued to attend Jesuit schools for the rest of his academic life. He excelled academically, becoming the valedictorian of his 1939 high school class at the Ateneo de Manila, then located on Padre Faura Street in Ermita, Manila.", "At sixteen, he joined the Jesuit novitiate in Novaliches as a college freshman. He earned his theology degree from Woodstock College New York, followed by an MA in Experimental Psychology and a PhD in Clinical Psychology from Fordham University. Upon his return to the Philippines, he was appointed head of Central Guidance Office of the Ateneo de Manila University. He established the Ateneo Department of Psychology in 1960\\.", "### Teaching", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=March 2024}}\nFr. Bulatao began teaching in 1946 at the Ateneo before leaving to pursue his postgraduate studies at Fordham University. He returned to the Philippines and established the Ateneo de Manila's Department of Psychology in 1960, where he taught for almost five decades. He also helped found the Psychological Association of the Philippines in 1962\\. Two years later, he co\\-founded the Philippine Guidance and Personnel Association along with colleagues from various local universities.", "Fr. Bulatao was known for his [hypnosis](/wiki/Hypnosis \"Hypnosis\") and hypnotherapy classes at the Ateneo de Manila University. His distinctive method, outlined in *Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy* (2000\\) and earlier elaborated through his foundational work in *Phenomena and Their Interpretation: Landmark Essays, 1957\\-1989* (1992\\) merges conventional hypnotherapy techniques with the cultural and spiritual nuances of the Filipino society.", "The Fr. Bulatao approach perceives hypnosis as an [altered state of consciousness](/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness \"Altered state of consciousness\") (ASC) and echoes Freud's theory that dreams and symbolic language are pivotal in accessing and influencing the unconscious mind. In the Fr. Bulatao style, narratives and metaphors become the tools for engaging and transforming the unconscious, creating a deeply resonant and culturally\\-attuned therapeutic process.", "John Wesley Y. Bayot, a student of Fr. Bulatao, summarized the key elements of the Bulatao style of hypnosis and hypnotherapy{{Cite book \\|title\\=Fr Bu, Seer of Minds and Hearts: The Legacy of Fr. Jaime C. Bulatao, SJ \\|publisher\\=De La Salle University Publishing House \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=978\\-971\\-555\\-724\\-5 \\|editor1\\=Alexis P. Ofreneo \\|editor2\\=Maria Lourdes Rosita A. Mesa \\|editor3\\=Gilda Dans Lopez \\|editor4\\=Susan L. Cellano \\|pages\\=78\\-89 \\|chapter\\=Trance·formation: The Power of the Unconscious Mind}} to include:", "* ***Cultural Integration***: Fr. Bulatao incorporates Filipino animistic beliefs and spirituality into his hypnotherapy practice, recognizing and leveraging these elements to enhance therapeutic efficacy.\n* ***Symbolic Communication***: Fr. Bulatao emphasizes the use of symbols, metaphors, hyperboles, and imagery in hypnosis, drawing parallels with dream interpretation, to facilitate a deeper engagement with the unconscious mind.\n* ***Utilization Principle***: Following [Milton H. Erickson](/wiki/Milton_H._Erickson \"Milton H. Erickson\")'s principle of utilization, Fr. Bulatao respects and utilizes the client's cultural beliefs and narratives rather than challenging them, which fosters a more effective and respectful therapeutic environment.\n* ***Transformation and Influence***: By mastering the ability to induce [altered states of consciousness](/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness \"Altered state of consciousness\") (ASC) and communicating in the language of the unconscious, this approach aims to influence the unconscious mind, promoting significant and lasting change.", "Overall, the Fr. Bulatao style of hypnosis is a culturally\\-sensitive approach that respects and integrates the cultural backdrop of the client into the therapeutic process, making it a distinct and effective form of hypnotherapy, particularly for Filipino clients.", "In a memo after Bulatao's death, the Psychology Department stated that although Bulatao received many awards for his contribution to psychology, he believed that his greatest achievement was teaching.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-12 \\|title\\=Fr Jaime C Bulatao SJ, 92 \\|url\\=http://www.ateneo.edu/news/features/fr\\-jaime\\-c\\-bulatao\\-sj\\-92 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-29 \\|website\\=Ateneo de Manila University \\|language\\=en}}", "### Later Life and Death", "Father Bulatao died at the Ateneo's Jesuit Residence on the evening of February 10, 2015, following a brief hospitalization lasting four days. The specifics surrounding the cause of his passing were not disclosed by the University. He was 92\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Doyo \\|first\\=Ceres \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-15 \\|title\\=Father Bu: Jedi Master of unknown universe; 92 \\|url\\=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/672974/father\\-bu\\-jedi\\-master\\-of\\-unknown\\-universe\\-92 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-22 \\|website\\=INQUIRER.net \\|language\\=en}}", "A solemn funeral Mass was held in his honor at the [Church of Gesù](/wiki/Church_of_the_Ges%C3%B9%2C_Quezon_City \"Church of the Gesù, Quezon City\") at the Ateneo de Manila University, on February 11\\. Ateneo President [Jose Ramon Villarin](/wiki/Jose_Ramon_Villarin \"Jose Ramon Villarin\") in his homily described Bulatao as \"*a seer—a seer of minds and hearts*\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=II \\|first\\=Paterno Esmaquel \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-14 \\|title\\=Jesuit psychologist Jaime Bulatao: 'Seer of hearts' \\|url\\=https://www.rappler.com/nation/83939\\-jesuit\\-jaime\\-bulatao\\-psychology/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-22 \\|website\\=RAPPLER \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He said: *Pray for us, please, to see what you saw, to be fascinated by the unknown, to be unafraid, to be driven to explore the unexplored frontier, to have the courage to risk our lives in commitment even if we do not see everything appearing... Pray for us to be crazy, to be crazy enough to stand on our heads, to be able to imagine what life can be, who God is, who we can become, be who God dreams us to be*.", "Fr. Bulatao's remains were interred at the Sacred Heart Novitiate Cemetery in Novaliches, Quezon City on February 14, 2015\\.", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- ### Maxbo–Bianchi (2006–2007\) Boasson Hagen joined the Norwegian continental team {{UCI team code\|TMB\|2006}} in 2006 and in his first season in the continental circuits he took eight wins including three stages of the [Tour de l'Avenir](/wiki/Tour_de_l%27Avenir "Tour de l'Avenir").{{cite web \| title \= Cruising into the ProTour, Norwegian style \| publisher \= cyclingnews.com \| date \= 24 August 2007 \| url \= http://autobus.cyclingnews.com/riders/2007/interviews/?id\=edvald\_boasson\_hagen\_aug07 \| access\-date \= 26 November 2007 }} In 2007 he enjoyed a successful season and scored fifteen wins, ending up second in number of victories behind [ProTour](/wiki/ProTour "ProTour") sprinter [Alessandro Petacchi](/wiki/Alessandro_Petacchi "Alessandro Petacchi"). But, after the disqualification of the Italian in May 2008 for doping, [Alessandro Petacchi](/wiki/Alessandro_Petacchi "Alessandro Petacchi") lost 5 stage wins in the 2007 Giro resulting in Boasson Hagen having the most victories. Boasson Hagen won the overall classification as well as stages at [Paris–Corrèze](/wiki/Paris%E2%80%93Corr%C3%A8ze "Paris–Corrèze"), [Ringerike GP](/wiki/Ringerike_GP "Ringerike GP") and [Istrian Spring Trophy](/wiki/Istrian_Spring_Trophy "Istrian Spring Trophy"). He also took stages at [Tour of Ireland](/wiki/2007_Tour_of_Ireland "2007 Tour of Ireland"), [Tour de Normandie](/wiki/Tour_de_Normandie "Tour de Normandie") and [Tour de Bretagne](/wiki/Tour_de_Bretagne "Tour de Bretagne") as well as the [Norwegian time trial championship](/wiki/2007_National_Road_Cycling_Championships "2007 National Road Cycling Championships"). As a result of these achievements, he finished fifth in the individual point standings of [2006\-2007 UCI Europe Tour](/wiki/2006-2007_UCI_Europe_Tour "2006-2007 UCI Europe Tour"). In early 2007 it was announced that for 2008 season he would leave Team Maxbo Bianchi for the German [UCI ProTeam](/wiki/UCI_ProTeam "UCI ProTeam") {{UCI team code\|THR\|2007a}}.{{cite web\| title \= Norwegian youngster to T\-Mobile\| publisher \= cyclingnews.com\| date \= 26 May 2007\| url \= http://autobus.cyclingnews.com/news.php?id\=news/2007/may07/may26news2\| access\-date \= 8 December 2007 }} In late 2007 it was announced that Deutsche Telekom was to end sponsorship of T\-Mobile Team with immediate effect. The team continued under the name Team High Road.{{cite news\| title \= T\-Mobile ends cycling sponsorship\| work \= BBC Sport\| date \= 27 November 2007\| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\_sports/cycling/7115547\.stm\| access\-date \= 6 December 2007}} ### Team High Road (2008–2009\) #### 2008 [thumb\|right\|Boasson Hagen during the prologue of the [2009 Eneco Tour](/wiki/2009_Eneco_Tour "2009 Eneco Tour"), in the [Norwegian National Time Trial Champion](/wiki/2009_national_cycling_championships "2009 national cycling championships") jersey](/wiki/File:Edvald_Boasson_Hagen_Eneco_Tour_2009.jpg "Edvald Boasson Hagen Eneco Tour 2009.jpg") Boasson Hagen began the 2008 season with a fifth place in the prologue of [Tour of California](/wiki/2008_Tour_of_California "2008 Tour of California"), ahead of established time trial specialists like [David Millar](/wiki/David_Millar "David Millar") and [Gustav Larsson](/wiki/Gustav_Larsson "Gustav Larsson"). He later won the concluding [individual time trial](/wiki/Individual_time_trial "Individual time trial") of [Critérium International](/wiki/Crit%C3%A9rium_International "Critérium International") ahead of teammate [Tony Martin](/wiki/Tony_Martin_%28cyclist%29 "Tony Martin (cyclist)") and the [Grand Prix de Denain](/wiki/Grand_Prix_de_Denain "Grand Prix de Denain"). He also finished second at the [Commerce Bank Reading Classic](/wiki/Commerce_Bank_Reading_Classic "Commerce Bank Reading Classic") and became the [Norway National Time Trial Champion](/wiki/2008_National_Cycling_Championships "2008 National Cycling Championships") for the second year in a row. Later in the year he competed in the [Beijing Olympics Road Race](/wiki/Cycling_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics%C2%A0%E2%80%93_Men%27s_road_race "Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men's road race"), finishing 71st, and entered the [ProTour](/wiki/UCI_ProTour "UCI ProTour") race [Eneco Tour](/wiki/2008_Eneco_Tour "2008 Eneco Tour") aiming for the overall classification. He finished third in the prologue and was well placed in the following stages when in the fifth stage the front of the peloton split in the strong [crosswinds](/wiki/Crosswind "Crosswind") and left him 14 minutes behind the leaders. Boasson Hagen lost any chance of overall victory but made up by winning the following stage in Brussels by passing [Jimmy Engoulvent](/wiki/Jimmy_Engoulvent "Jimmy Engoulvent") in the final fifteen meters of the race.[Eneco Tour 2008 – Stage 6](http://www.dailypeloton.com/displayarticle.asp?pk=13309) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522002540/http://www.dailypeloton.com/displayarticle.asp?pk\=13309 \|date\=22 May 2009 }}. Dailypeloton.com (26 August 2008\). Retrieved 18 August 2011\. At the Tour of Britain he won three stages and the points competition. #### 2009 In 2009, he won the cobbled classic [Gent–Wevelgem](/wiki/2009_Gent%E2%80%93Wevelgem "2009 Gent–Wevelgem") in a two\-man sprint against Liquigas rider [Aleksandr Kuschynski](/wiki/Aleksandr_Kuschynski "Aleksandr Kuschynski"). He also rode in the [Giro d'Italia](/wiki/2009_Giro_d%27Italia "2009 Giro d'Italia"), his first ever [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour_%28cycling%29 "Grand Tour (cycling)"), where Team Columbia won the Team Time trial, Boasson Hagen won the seventh stage in a sprint and finished second in the sixth and eighth stages. In the [Tour de Pologne](/wiki/2009_Tour_de_Pologne "2009 Tour de Pologne") he won the fourth and sixth stages to finish third overall, and secure Norway ten riders in the upcoming [UCI Road World Championships](/wiki/UCI_Road_World_Championships "UCI Road World Championships"). Hagen also won his first stage race in 2009, the [Eneco Tour](/wiki/Eneco_Tour "Eneco Tour"), confirming his huge talent, and rising to third overall in the [world ranking](/wiki/2009_UCI_World_Ranking "2009 UCI World Ranking") in August. Later in 2009 Boasson Hagen finished his season by winning four of the eight stages in the [Tour of Britain](/wiki/2009_Tour_of_Britain "2009 Tour of Britain"), and winning the race overall. After months of rumours, it was official on 10 September 2009 that Boasson Hagen would be joining {{UCI team code\|SKY\|2010}} from the 2010 season, along with fellow Norwegians [Lars Petter Nordhaug](/wiki/Lars_Petter_Nordhaug "Lars Petter Nordhaug") and [Kurt Asle Arvesen](/wiki/Kurt_Asle_Arvesen "Kurt Asle Arvesen").{{cite news \|title\=More stars for Team Sky \|url\=http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11979\_5547881,00\.html \|date\=10 September 2010 \|access\-date\=10 September 2009 \|publisher\=\[\[Sky News]]}} ### Team Sky (2010–2014\) #### 2010 Boasson Hagen started his first race with {{UCI team code\|SKY\|2010\|nolink\=yes}} in the [Tour of Qatar](/wiki/2010_Tour_of_Qatar "2010 Tour of Qatar"). After an impressive effort and stage win in the opening team time trial, Boasson Hagen secured 3rd and 6th\-place finishes as his best results. In the [Tour of Oman](/wiki/2010_Tour_of_Oman "2010 Tour of Oman") one week after the race in Qatar, Boasson Hagen won two stages, including the final stage in which he beat world time trial champion [Fabian Cancellara](/wiki/Fabian_Cancellara "Fabian Cancellara") by seventeen seconds in the individual time trial. With this win Boasson Hagen claimed second place in the overall classification, taking the young riders jersey and winning the overall points classification. Boasson Hagen won the seventh stage of the [Critérium du Dauphiné](/wiki/2010_Crit%C3%A9rium_du_Dauphin%C3%A9 "2010 Critérium du Dauphiné"). He also retained his national time trial title. #### 2011 [thumb\|Boasson Hagen at the [2011 Tour de France](/wiki/2011_Tour_de_France "2011 Tour de France"); he won two stages during the race.](/wiki/File:Boasson_Haggen_wins_the_stage_%28cropped%29.jpg "Boasson Haggen wins the stage (cropped).jpg") In 2011, Boasson Hagen again finished second in the [Tour of Oman](/wiki/2011_Tour_of_Oman "2011 Tour of Oman"), also winning the points jersey for the second year running.[Tour of Oman 2011 – Key moments](http://www.paris-nice.fr/2011/TOO/LIVE/us/600/journal_etape.html). Paris\-nice.fr. Retrieved 18 August 2011\. Boasson Hagen won the 1st stage of [Bayern Rundfahrt](/wiki/2011_Bayern_Rundfahrt "2011 Bayern Rundfahrt"),[Boasson Hagen wins Bayern\-Rundfahrt opener – Yahoo! Eurosport](http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/25052011/58/boasson-hagen-wins-bayern-rundfahrt-opener.html). Uk.eurosport.yahoo.com. Retrieved 18 August 2011\. and went on to win the points jersey, as well as helping team\-mate [Geraint Thomas](/wiki/Geraint_Thomas "Geraint Thomas") win to first overall in the event.[News: Thomas wins Bayern\-Rundfahrt « A Report «](http://www.velouk.net/2011/06/01/news-geraint-thomas-wins-bayern-rundfahrt/). Velouk.net. Retrieved 18 August 2011\. He won the Norwegian National Time Trial Championships for the fifth year running in June, but then contracted an illness that put his [Tour de France](/wiki/2011_Tour_de_France "2011 Tour de France") in doubt.[Team Sky's Edvald Boasson Hagen a doubt for Tour de France \| Sport](https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jun/25/team-sky-edvald-boasson-hagen). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 18 August 2011\. He did recover though, and was given the go\-ahead to ride the Tour.[Boasson Hagen over illness, gets green light for Tour](http://www.velonation.com/News/ID/8909/Boasson-Hagen-over-illness-gets-green-light-for-Tour.aspx). Velonation.com. Retrieved 18 August 2011\. He won stage six of the Tour, the first ever victory by a British\-registered professional cycling team in the Tour de France.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jul/07/team\-sky\-tour\-de\-france\-stage\-win\|title\=Team Sky's first Tour de France stage win gives Murdoch some good news\|date\=7 July 2011\|work\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=7 July 2011\|location\=London\|first\=William\|last\=Fotheringham}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/cycling/tour\-de\-france/8623462/Tour\-de\-France\-2011\-Team\-Sky\-records\-first\-win\-after\-Norwegian\-rider\-Edvald\-Boasson\-Hagen\-wins\-stage\-six.html\|title\=Team Sky records first win after Norwegian rider Edvald Boasson Hagen wins stage six\|date\=7 July 2011\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|access\-date\=7 July 2011\|location\=London\|first\=Mick\|last\=Cleary}} Boasson Hagen finished second to compatriot [Thor Hushovd](/wiki/Thor_Hushovd "Thor Hushovd") on stage sixteen after the pair were in a three\-man breakaway with [Ryder Hesjedal](/wiki/Ryder_Hesjedal "Ryder Hesjedal").[Tour de France 2011: Thor Hushovd beats Boasson Hagen to the line \| Sport](https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jul/19/thor-hushovd-tour-de-france). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 18 August 2011\. The next day he was again in a breakaway, and broke clear on the final climb of the day to take his second stage win of the Tour.[Tour de France: Boasson Hagen wins for Sky as Voeckler suffers on fast descent – Others, More Sports](https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/others/tour-de-france-boasson-hagen-wins-for-sky-as-voeckler-suffers-on-fast-descent-2317627.html). The Independent (21 July 2011\). Retrieved 18 August 2011\. Boasson Hagen finished second to Mark Cavendish on the [final stage on the Champs Elysees](/wiki/Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_stage_in_the_Tour_de_France "Champs-Élysées stage in the Tour de France").[IG Markets Rider of the Day Stage 21 – Edvald Boasson Hagen – News – Tour de France](http://www.itv.com/tourdefrance/2011/news/ig-markets-rider-of-the-day-stage-21-edvald-boasson-hagen/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017072335/http://www.itv.com/tourdefrance/2011/news/ig\-markets\-rider\-of\-the\-day\-stage\-21\-edvald\-boasson\-hagen/ \|date\=17 October 2012 }}. ITV (26 July 2011\). Retrieved 18 August 2011\. In August, Boasson Hagen took a clean sweep of the jerseys at the [Eneco Tour](/wiki/2011_Eneco_Tour "2011 Eneco Tour"), winning the event overall, as well as the points and young riders competitions, and finishing first on the final stage.[Clean sweep for Boasson Hagen \| Sky Sports \| Cycling \| News](http://www.skysports.com/story/0,,15264_7101275,00.html). Sky Sports. Retrieved 18 August 2011\. #### 2012 [thumb\|left\|Boasson Hagen at the [2012 Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec](/wiki/2012_Grand_Prix_Cycliste_de_Qu%C3%A9bec "2012 Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec")](/wiki/File:Edvald_Boasson_Hagen%2C_2012_Grand_Prix_Cycliste_de_Qu%C3%A9bec.jpg "Edvald Boasson Hagen, 2012 Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec.jpg") Boasson Hagen began the 2012 season with a second place to [André Greipel](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Greipel "André Greipel") in the [Down Under Classic](/wiki/Cancer_Council_Helpline_Classic "Cancer Council Helpline Classic").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/cycling/story/2012\-01\-15/down\-under\-classic/52582588/1\|date\=15 January 2012\|access\-date\=21 January 2012\|work\=\[\[USA Today]]\|publisher\=David Hunke; \[\[Gannett Company]]\|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|title\=Andre Greipel wins Down Under Classic}} After three top\-five placings in stage finishes, he took the lead of the sprints classification after the fourth stage of the [Tour Down Under](/wiki/2012_Tour_Down_Under "2012 Tour Down Under"){{cite news \|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/tourdownunder/stage\-4/results \|first\=Jane \|last\=Aubrey \|title\=Freire back in the winner's circle with Tour Down Under victory \|date\=20 January 2012 \|access\-date\=21 January 2012 \|work\=Cycling News \|publisher\=Future Publishing Limited \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121210053/http://www.cyclingnews.com/tourdownunder/stage\-4/results \|archive\-date\=21 January 2012}} and held the jersey until the end of the race. Boasson Hagen took the lead of the [Volta ao Algarve](/wiki/2012_Volta_ao_Algarve "2012 Volta ao Algarve") after winning the second stage with a well\-timed uphill sprint. He lost the race lead to team\-mate [Richie Porte](/wiki/Richie_Porte "Richie Porte") on the next stage, after setting Porte up on the final climb, but he won the points jersey. He also won a stage of [Tirreno–Adriatico](/wiki/2012_Tirreno%E2%80%93Adriatico "2012 Tirreno–Adriatico"), and acted as lead out man for [Mark Cavendish](/wiki/Mark_Cavendish "Mark Cavendish"). Boasson Hagen had a disappointing classics campaign, failing to post any major results. He did return to form at his home race, the [Tour of Norway](/wiki/2012_Glava_Tour_of_Norway "2012 Glava Tour of Norway"), winning the race overall, the points and young rider jerseys, and stage four which finished in his home town, [Lillehammer](/wiki/Lillehammer "Lillehammer"). [thumb\|Boasson Hagen after winning stage 3 of the [2013 Criterium du Dauphine](/wiki/2013_Criterium_du_Dauphine "2013 Criterium du Dauphine")](/wiki/File:Podium_de_la_3e_%C3%A9tape_%C3%A0_Tarare_%2813%29.JPG "Podium de la 3e étape à Tarare (13).JPG") In June 2012, Boasson Hagen won the Norwegian National Road Race Championships to take the national jersey for the first time; he did however lose his time trial national championship jersey to {{UCI team code\|TJM\|2012}}'s Reidar Borgersen. Boasson Hagen was selected in the Sky squad for the [Tour de France](/wiki/2012_Tour_de_France "2012 Tour de France"). He finished fifth in the opening prologue in Liège, then took third on stage one, after bridging across to [Peter Sagan](/wiki/Peter_Sagan "Peter Sagan") and Cancellara in the closing stages, but being unable to beat them both in the sprint. He also finished second to Sagan on stage three, another hilltop finish. At the end of August, Boasson Hagen took the victory in the one day [World Tour](/wiki/2012_UCI_World_Tour "2012 UCI World Tour") race the [GP Ouest\-France](/wiki/2012_GP_Ouest-France "2012 GP Ouest-France"). He broke away from the bunch with a little more than two kilometers to go, caught and dropped the remaining man in front, [Rui Costa](/wiki/Rui_Costa_%28cyclist%29 "Rui Costa (cyclist)") ({{UCI team code\|MOV\|2012}}) on the last uphill section and descended to the finish solo. He denied the sprinters in the eighty\-man chasing group a chance at victory by holding on to a five\-second advantage.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/gp\-ouest\-france\-plouay\-2012/results\|title\=Boasson Hagen wins GP Plouay\|work\=Cycling News\|publisher\=Future Publishing Limited\|date\=26 August 2012\|access\-date\=31 August 2012}} #### 2013 Boasson Hagen began the season with the stated ambition of winning one of the Spring classics,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.velonation.com/News/ID/13473/Edvald\-Boasson\-Hagen\-to\-lead\-Team\-Sky\-in\-the\-Santos\-Tour\-Down\-Under\-once\-again.aspx\|title\=Edvald Boasson Hagen to lead Team Sky in the Santos Tour Down Under once again\|first\=Ben\|last\=Atkins\|work\=VeloNation\|publisher\=VeloNation LLC\|date\=11 December 2012\|access\-date\=13 January 2013}} but failed to attain any notable results.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2013/04/10/not\-a\-classic\-time\-as\-team\-skys\-training\-fails/\|title\=Not a classic time as Team Sky's training fails\|publisher\=The Roar\|date\=10 April 2013}} However, Boasson Hagen returned to defend his title at the [Glava Tour of Norway](/wiki/2013_Glava_Tour_of_Norway "2013 Glava Tour of Norway"). After finishing as runner\-up in two of the previous sprint stages, Boasson Hagen sparked a two\-man breakaway with [Sérgio Paulinho](/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_Paulinho "Sérgio Paulinho") to win the fourth stage and consequently both the overall and points classifications.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/glava\-tour\-of\-norway\-2013/stage\-4/results\|title\=Boasson Hagen prevails on home soil\|work\=\[\[Cyclingnews.com]]\|date\=18 May 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607170742/http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/glava\-tour\-of\-norway\-2013/stage\-4/results\|archive\-date\=7 June 2013}} Boasson Hagen would follow this up with a sprint victory on stage three of the [Critérium du Dauphiné](/wiki/2013_Crit%C3%A9rium_du_Dauphin%C3%A9 "2013 Critérium du Dauphiné").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.letour.fr/2013/CDD/COURSE/us/300/etape\_par\_etape.html\|title\=Stage 3\|work\=\[\[Critérium du Dauphiné]]\|publisher\=\[\[Amaury Sport Organisation]]\|access\-date\=5 June 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606130313/http://www.letour.fr/2013/CDD/COURSE/us/300/etape\_par\_etape.html\|archive\-date\=6 June 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} He was also named in the startlist for the Tour de France that year but on stage 12 he broke his collarbone in a huge crash ten kilometers from the finish line and was forced to abandon the race. #### 2014 2014 was Boasson Hagen's worst year of his career in the fact that he did not record a single stage win. On 14 August, Boasson Hagen announced that he would leave {{UCI team code\|SKY\|2014}} at the end of the 2014 season.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/edvald\-boasson\-hagen\-to\-leave\-team\-sky\|title \= Edvald Boasson Hagen to leave Team Sky\|date \= 13 August 2014}} On 27 August, Boasson Hagen announced that he would join African [UCI Professional Continental](/wiki/UCI_Professional_Continental "UCI Professional Continental") Team {{UCI team code\|MTN\|2015}} on a 2\-year deal.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/report\-boasson\-hagen\-signs\-for\-mtn\-qhubeka\|title \= Report: Boasson Hagen signs for MTN\-Qhubeka\|date \= 27 August 2014}} ### MTN–Qhubeka (2015–2020\) [thumb\|Boasson Hagen at the [2015 Tour de France](/wiki/2015_Tour_de_France "2015 Tour de France").](/wiki/File:Edvald_Boasson_Hagen%2C_TDF_2015%2C_%C3%A9tape_13%2C_Montgiscard.jpg "Edvald Boasson Hagen, TDF 2015, étape 13, Montgiscard.jpg") #### 2015 After finishing second overall of the [Tour of Norway](/wiki/2015_Tour_of_Norway "2015 Tour of Norway"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\-of\-norway\-2015/stage\-5/results \|title\=Tour of Norway: Vangstad solos to victory on final day \|last1\=Quénet \|first1\=Jean\-François \|date\=25 May 2015 \|website\=\[\[cyclingnews.com]] \|access\-date\=26 May 2015}} Boasson Hagen picked up his first win in two years at the [Tour des Fjords](/wiki/2015_Tour_des_Fjords "2015 Tour des Fjords"), on the last stage of the race. He outsprinted a small leading group of four riders to accomplish the feat.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\-des\-fjords\-2015/stage\-5/results\|title\=Tour des Fjords: Boasson Hagen wins final stage\|work\=\[\[Cyclingnews.com]]\|date\=31 May 2015\|access\-date\=4 June 2015\|author\=Jean\-François Quénet}} In June, Boasson Hagen won the [Norwegian National Time Trial Championships](/wiki/Norwegian_National_Time_Trial_Championships "Norwegian National Time Trial Championships") and the [Norwegian National Road Race Championships](/wiki/Norwegian_National_Road_Race_Championships "Norwegian National Road Race Championships") after jumping from the chasing group to join the lead group in the final kilometer. He won the title in a close sprint. In the final kilometers of the [UCI Road World Championships](/wiki/2015_UCI_Road_World_Championships "2015 UCI Road World Championships"), Boasson Hagen refused to cooperate with [Greg van Avermaet](/wiki/Greg_van_Avermaet "Greg van Avermaet") to close the 10\-second gap to later winner [Peter Sagan](/wiki/Peter_Sagan "Peter Sagan"). The most likely reason for Boasson Hagen not to put an effort in the chase was his fellow countryman and sprinter [Alexander Kristoff](/wiki/Alexander_Kristoff "Alexander Kristoff") who was in the main peloton just seconds behind the duo. Boasson Hagen eventually finished 20th, just 3 seconds behind the winner. #### 2016 Boasson Hagen enjoyed a return to form in the early part of the 2016 campaign; taking three stage victories at the [Tour of Qatar](/wiki/Tour_of_Qatar "Tour of Qatar") and [Tour of Oman](/wiki/Tour_of_Oman "Tour of Oman"), holding race leader jerseys in both races. He then ended up 5th in Paris\-Roubaix after being a part of a five\-man group that sprinted for the victory. In the late season, he was 6th at the World Championships in Qatar after not following orders from his team\-mate Alexander Kristoff, who finished 7th in the sprint. #### 2017 Boasson Hagen soloed to victory on stage 19 of the [Tour de France](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France "2017 Tour de France"), successfully attacking from the breakaway in the final few kilometres. Boasson Hagen, along with [Nikias Arndt](/wiki/Nikias_Arndt "Nikias Arndt"), took the right side of a roundabout with only 2\.2 kilometers remaining, whilst the remainder of the breakaway took the left. The right side of this roundabout ended up being shorter than the left and thus created a gap for the two cyclists. Boasson Hagen was then able to drop Arndt from his wheel to take the victory.{{Cite web\|last\=July 2017\|first\=Cycling News 21\|title\=Tour de France 2017: Stage 19 Results\|url\=https://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\-de\-france\-2017/stage\-19/results/\|access\-date\=19 June 2020\|website\=cyclingnews.com\|date\=21 July 2017\|language\=en}} This victory marked Boasson Hagen's only triumph at the [2017 Tour de France](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France "2017 Tour de France") despite finishing on the podium 5 other times, on stages [7, 11](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_1_to_Stage_11 "2017 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11"), [14, 16](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_12_to_Stage_21 "2017 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21") and [21](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_12_to_Stage_21 "2017 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21").{{Cite web\|title\=Edvald Boasson Hagen\|url\=https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/edvald\-boasson\-hagen/2017\|access\-date\=19 June 2020\|website\=procyclingstats.com}} #### 2018 In January Boasson Hagen had his [gallbladder](/wiki/Gallbladder "Gallbladder") removed.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/boasson\-hagen\-to\-delay\-season\-start\-after\-gallbladder\-surgery/\|title \= Boasson Hagen to delay season start after gallbladder surgery\|date \= 16 January 2018}} He started his season with an appearance at the [Volta ao Algarve](/wiki/2018_Volta_ao_Algarve "2018 Volta ao Algarve"). In 2018 Boasson Hagen was shut out of world tour victories, only winning on stage 2 of the [Tour of Norway](/wiki/2018_Tour_of_Norway "2018 Tour of Norway") and the Norwegian National Championships in the Individual Time Trial event. #### 2019 In 2019, Boasson Hagen was the only rider on Team Dimension Data's roster to take a victory in a World Tour race, winning stage 1 of the [Critérium du Dauphiné](/wiki/2019_Crit%C3%A9rium_du_Dauphin%C3%A9 "2019 Critérium du Dauphiné").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cycling/48574112\|title\=Criterium du Dauphine 2019: Boasson Hagen wins stage one with Froome in peloton\|publisher\=BBC\|date\=9 June 2019\|access\-date\=18 June 2020}}{{cite web\| url \= https://www.procyclingstats.com/team/team\-dimension\-data\-2019\| title \= Team Dimension Data 2019}} #### 2020 Participating in his 10th [Tour de France](/wiki/Tour_de_France "Tour de France"),{{Cite web\|date\=18 August 2020\|title\=Edvald Boasson Hagen set for 10th Tour de France with NTT Pro Cycling\|url\=https://www.eurosport.co.uk/cycling/tour\-de\-france/2020/edvald\-boasson\-hagen\-set\-for\-10th\-tour\-de\-france\-with\-ntt\-pro\-cycling\_sto7842385/story.shtml\|access\-date\=28 October 2020\|website\=Eurosport UK}} Boasson Hagen only achieved one top 10 finish in the race, finishing 2nd on [Stage 7](/wiki/2020_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_1_to_Stage_11 "2020 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11").{{Cite web\|date\=4 September 2020\|first\=Daniel\|last\=Benson\|title\=Tour de France: Wout van Aert wins stage 7\|url\=https://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\-de\-france\-2020/stage\-7/results/\|access\-date\=28 October 2020\|website\=cyclingnews.com}}{{Cite web\|title\=Edvald Boasson Hagen\|url\=https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/edvald\-boasson\-hagen/overview/start\|access\-date\=28 October 2020\|website\=www.procyclingstats.com}} Boasson Hagen also made headlines in the [Tour of Flanders](/wiki/2020_Tour_of_Flanders "2020 Tour of Flanders") by attacking from the peloton right before a train arrived at a level crossing, holding up the peloton and allowing Boasson Hagen to continue.{{Cite web\|date\=18 October 2020\|title\=Tour of Flanders 2020: Peloton held up by train at level crossing, riders force way through\|url\=https://www.eurosport.com/cycling/ronde\-van\-vlaanderen/2020/tour\-of\-flanders\-2020\-peloton\-held\-up\-by\-train\-at\-level\-crossing\-riders\-force\-way\-through\_sto7956024/story.shtml\|access\-date\=28 October 2020\|website\=Eurosport}} ### Total Direct Énergie (2021–2023\) In November 2020, Boasson Hagen signed a one\-year contract with {{UCI team code\|TDE\|2021a}}, for the 2021 season.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cyclingnews.com/news/total\-direct\-energie\-sign\-lawless\-with\-boasson\-hagen\-also\-set\-to\-join/\|title\=Total Direct Energie sign Lawless and Boasson Hagen\|work\=\[\[Cyclingnews.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Future plc]]\|date\=17 November 2020\|access\-date\=17 November 2020}} He finished sixth at the [Tour de Vendée](/wiki/Tour_de_Vend%C3%A9e "Tour de Vendée"), and took top\-ten stage finishes at the [Arctic Race of Norway](/wiki/2021_Arctic_Race_of_Norway "2021 Arctic Race of Norway") and the [Tour de Luxembourg](/wiki/2021_Tour_de_Luxembourg "2021 Tour de Luxembourg"). He extended his contract with the team, renamed {{UCI team code\|TDE\|2021b\|nolink\=yes}} earlier in 2021, by a further two years.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.velonews.com/news/vn\-news\-ticker\-team\-totalenergies\-renews\-boasson\-hagen\-fdj\-withdraws\-from\-ronde\-van\-drenthe/\|title\=VN ticker: Team TotalEnergies renews Boasson\-Hagen, three new signings for Astana, FDJ withdraws from Drenthe\|work\=\[\[VeloNews]]\|publisher\=Outside Media\|date\=22 October 2021\|accessdate\=13 March 2022}} At the [2022 Tour de France](/wiki/2022_Tour_de_France "2022 Tour de France"), Boasson Hagen formed part of a successful breakaway on the fifth stage, finishing third on the stage to move up to third place in the general classification.{{cite news\|url\=https://teamtotalenergies.com/en/edvald\-boasson\-hagen\-close\-to\-a\-big\-win/\|title\=Edvald Boasson\-Hagen close to a big win\|work\={{UCI team code\|TDE\|2022}}\|publisher\=TotalEnergies SE\|date\=6 July 2022\|accessdate\=19 September 2022}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cycling/62068724\|title\=Tour de France 2022: Australia's Simon Clarke wins stage five\|work\=\[\[BBC Sport]]\|publisher\=\[\[BBC]]\|date\=6 July 2022\|accessdate\=19 September 2022}} He ultimately finished 58th overall,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.letour.fr/en/rider/182/totalenergies/edvald\-boasson\-hagen\|title\=Edvald Boasson Hagen\|work\=\[\[Tour de France]]\|publisher\=\[\[Amaury Sport Organisation]]\|accessdate\=19 September 2022\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724181631/https://www.letour.fr/en/rider/182/totalenergies/edvald\-boasson\-hagen\|archivedate\=24 July 2022}} his best overall Tour de France finish for a decade. Boasson Hagen's contract was not extended beyond the end of the 2023 season by {{UCI team code\|TDE\|2023\|nolink\=yes}}.{{cite news\|first\=Jarle\|last\=Fredagsvik\|url\=https://www.eurosport.no/sykkel/tilbyr\-edvald\-minimumslonn\-han\-er\-verdt\-mer\-enn\-det\_sto9834968/story.shtml\|title\=Tilbyr kontraktsløs Boasson Hagen minstelønn: – Ønsker ikke å sykle gratis\|language\=Norwegian\|trans\-title\=Offers contract\-free Boasson Hagen minimum wage: – does not want to ride for free\|work\=\[\[Eurosport]]\|publisher\=\[\[Warner Bros. Discovery]]\|date\=14 October 2023\|accessdate\=3 December 2023}}{{cite news\|first\=George\|last\=Poole\|url\=https://www.globalcyclingnetwork.com/racing/interviews/edvald\-boasson\-hagen\-out\-of\-contract\-and\-rejected\-by\-uno\-x\-but\-still\-wants\-to\-continue\|title\=Edvald Boasson Hagen Out Of Contract And Rejected By Uno\-X, But Still Wants To Continue\|work\=\[\[Global Cycling Network]]\|publisher\=Play Sports Group\|date\=15 October 2023\|accessdate\=3 December 2023\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129201239/https://www.globalcyclingnetwork.com/racing/interviews/edvald\-boasson\-hagen\-out\-of\-contract\-and\-rejected\-by\-uno\-x\-but\-still\-wants\-to\-continue\|archivedate\=29 November 2023\|quote\=The 36\-year\-old has not been offered a new contract by TotalEnergies and despite hoping for a deal from Uno\-X Pro Cycling, Boasson Hagen is still without a team to race for next season.}}
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "### Maxbo–Bianchi (2006–2007\\)", "Boasson Hagen joined the Norwegian continental team {{UCI team code\\|TMB\\|2006}} in 2006 and in his first season in the continental circuits he took eight wins including three stages of the [Tour de l'Avenir](/wiki/Tour_de_l%27Avenir \"Tour de l'Avenir\").{{cite web\n\\| title \\= Cruising into the ProTour, Norwegian style\n\\| publisher \\= cyclingnews.com\n\\| date \\= 24 August 2007\n\\| url \\= http://autobus.cyclingnews.com/riders/2007/interviews/?id\\=edvald\\_boasson\\_hagen\\_aug07\n\\| access\\-date \\= 26 November 2007 }}", "In 2007 he enjoyed a successful season and scored fifteen wins, ending up second in number of victories behind [ProTour](/wiki/ProTour \"ProTour\") sprinter [Alessandro Petacchi](/wiki/Alessandro_Petacchi \"Alessandro Petacchi\"). But, after the disqualification of the Italian in May 2008 for doping, [Alessandro Petacchi](/wiki/Alessandro_Petacchi \"Alessandro Petacchi\") lost 5 stage wins in the 2007 Giro resulting in Boasson Hagen having the most victories. Boasson Hagen won the overall classification as well as stages at [Paris–Corrèze](/wiki/Paris%E2%80%93Corr%C3%A8ze \"Paris–Corrèze\"), [Ringerike GP](/wiki/Ringerike_GP \"Ringerike GP\") and [Istrian Spring Trophy](/wiki/Istrian_Spring_Trophy \"Istrian Spring Trophy\"). He also took stages at [Tour of Ireland](/wiki/2007_Tour_of_Ireland \"2007 Tour of Ireland\"), [Tour de Normandie](/wiki/Tour_de_Normandie \"Tour de Normandie\") and [Tour de Bretagne](/wiki/Tour_de_Bretagne \"Tour de Bretagne\") as well as the [Norwegian time trial championship](/wiki/2007_National_Road_Cycling_Championships \"2007 National Road Cycling Championships\"). As a result of these achievements, he finished fifth in the individual point standings of [2006\\-2007 UCI Europe Tour](/wiki/2006-2007_UCI_Europe_Tour \"2006-2007 UCI Europe Tour\"). In early 2007 it was announced that for 2008 season he would leave Team Maxbo Bianchi for the German [UCI ProTeam](/wiki/UCI_ProTeam \"UCI ProTeam\") {{UCI team code\\|THR\\|2007a}}.{{cite web\\| title \\= Norwegian youngster to T\\-Mobile\\| publisher \\= cyclingnews.com\\| date \\= 26 May 2007\\| url \\= http://autobus.cyclingnews.com/news.php?id\\=news/2007/may07/may26news2\\| access\\-date \\= 8 December 2007 }} In late 2007 it was announced that Deutsche Telekom was to end sponsorship of T\\-Mobile Team with immediate effect. The team continued under the name Team High Road.{{cite news\\| title \\= T\\-Mobile ends cycling sponsorship\\| work \\= BBC Sport\\| date \\= 27 November 2007\\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other\\_sports/cycling/7115547\\.stm\\| access\\-date \\= 6 December 2007}}", "### Team High Road (2008–2009\\)", "#### 2008", "[thumb\\|right\\|Boasson Hagen during the prologue of the [2009 Eneco Tour](/wiki/2009_Eneco_Tour \"2009 Eneco Tour\"), in the [Norwegian National Time Trial Champion](/wiki/2009_national_cycling_championships \"2009 national cycling championships\") jersey](/wiki/File:Edvald_Boasson_Hagen_Eneco_Tour_2009.jpg \"Edvald Boasson Hagen Eneco Tour 2009.jpg\")\nBoasson Hagen began the 2008 season with a fifth place in the prologue of [Tour of California](/wiki/2008_Tour_of_California \"2008 Tour of California\"), ahead of established time trial specialists like [David Millar](/wiki/David_Millar \"David Millar\") and [Gustav Larsson](/wiki/Gustav_Larsson \"Gustav Larsson\"). He later won the concluding [individual time trial](/wiki/Individual_time_trial \"Individual time trial\") of [Critérium International](/wiki/Crit%C3%A9rium_International \"Critérium International\") ahead of teammate [Tony Martin](/wiki/Tony_Martin_%28cyclist%29 \"Tony Martin (cyclist)\") and the [Grand Prix de Denain](/wiki/Grand_Prix_de_Denain \"Grand Prix de Denain\"). He also finished second at the [Commerce Bank Reading Classic](/wiki/Commerce_Bank_Reading_Classic \"Commerce Bank Reading Classic\") and became the [Norway National Time Trial Champion](/wiki/2008_National_Cycling_Championships \"2008 National Cycling Championships\") for the second year in a row. Later in the year he competed in the [Beijing Olympics Road Race](/wiki/Cycling_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics%C2%A0%E2%80%93_Men%27s_road_race \"Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men's road race\"), finishing 71st, and entered the [ProTour](/wiki/UCI_ProTour \"UCI ProTour\") race [Eneco Tour](/wiki/2008_Eneco_Tour \"2008 Eneco Tour\") aiming for the overall classification. He finished third in the prologue and was well placed in the following stages when in the fifth stage the front of the peloton split in the strong [crosswinds](/wiki/Crosswind \"Crosswind\") and left him 14 minutes behind the leaders. Boasson Hagen lost any chance of overall victory but made up by winning the following stage in Brussels by passing [Jimmy Engoulvent](/wiki/Jimmy_Engoulvent \"Jimmy Engoulvent\") in the final fifteen meters of the race.[Eneco Tour 2008 – Stage 6](http://www.dailypeloton.com/displayarticle.asp?pk=13309) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522002540/http://www.dailypeloton.com/displayarticle.asp?pk\\=13309 \\|date\\=22 May 2009 }}. Dailypeloton.com (26 August 2008\\). Retrieved 18 August 2011\\. At the Tour of Britain he won three stages and the points competition.", "#### 2009", "In 2009, he won the cobbled classic [Gent–Wevelgem](/wiki/2009_Gent%E2%80%93Wevelgem \"2009 Gent–Wevelgem\") in a two\\-man sprint against Liquigas rider [Aleksandr Kuschynski](/wiki/Aleksandr_Kuschynski \"Aleksandr Kuschynski\"). He also rode in the [Giro d'Italia](/wiki/2009_Giro_d%27Italia \"2009 Giro d'Italia\"), his first ever [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour_%28cycling%29 \"Grand Tour (cycling)\"), where Team Columbia won the Team Time trial, Boasson Hagen won the seventh stage in a sprint and finished second in the sixth and eighth stages. In the [Tour de Pologne](/wiki/2009_Tour_de_Pologne \"2009 Tour de Pologne\") he won the fourth and sixth stages to finish third overall, and secure Norway ten riders in the upcoming [UCI Road World Championships](/wiki/UCI_Road_World_Championships \"UCI Road World Championships\"). Hagen also won his first stage race in 2009, the [Eneco Tour](/wiki/Eneco_Tour \"Eneco Tour\"), confirming his huge talent, and rising to third overall in the [world ranking](/wiki/2009_UCI_World_Ranking \"2009 UCI World Ranking\") in August. Later in 2009 Boasson Hagen finished his season by winning four of the eight stages in the [Tour of Britain](/wiki/2009_Tour_of_Britain \"2009 Tour of Britain\"), and winning the race overall. After months of rumours, it was official on 10 September 2009 that Boasson Hagen would be joining {{UCI team code\\|SKY\\|2010}} from the 2010 season, along with fellow Norwegians [Lars Petter Nordhaug](/wiki/Lars_Petter_Nordhaug \"Lars Petter Nordhaug\") and [Kurt Asle Arvesen](/wiki/Kurt_Asle_Arvesen \"Kurt Asle Arvesen\").{{cite news \\|title\\=More stars for Team Sky \\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11979\\_5547881,00\\.html \\|date\\=10 September 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=10 September 2009 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sky News]]}}", "### Team Sky (2010–2014\\)", "#### 2010", "Boasson Hagen started his first race with {{UCI team code\\|SKY\\|2010\\|nolink\\=yes}} in the [Tour of Qatar](/wiki/2010_Tour_of_Qatar \"2010 Tour of Qatar\"). After an impressive effort and stage win in the opening team time trial, Boasson Hagen secured 3rd and 6th\\-place finishes as his best results. In the [Tour of Oman](/wiki/2010_Tour_of_Oman \"2010 Tour of Oman\") one week after the race in Qatar, Boasson Hagen won two stages, including the final stage in which he beat world time trial champion [Fabian Cancellara](/wiki/Fabian_Cancellara \"Fabian Cancellara\") by seventeen seconds in the individual time trial. With this win Boasson Hagen claimed second place in the overall classification, taking the young riders jersey and winning the overall points classification. Boasson Hagen won the seventh stage of the [Critérium du Dauphiné](/wiki/2010_Crit%C3%A9rium_du_Dauphin%C3%A9 \"2010 Critérium du Dauphiné\"). He also retained his national time trial title.", "#### 2011", "[thumb\\|Boasson Hagen at the [2011 Tour de France](/wiki/2011_Tour_de_France \"2011 Tour de France\"); he won two stages during the race.](/wiki/File:Boasson_Haggen_wins_the_stage_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Boasson Haggen wins the stage (cropped).jpg\")\nIn 2011, Boasson Hagen again finished second in the [Tour of Oman](/wiki/2011_Tour_of_Oman \"2011 Tour of Oman\"), also winning the points jersey for the second year running.[Tour of Oman 2011 – Key moments](http://www.paris-nice.fr/2011/TOO/LIVE/us/600/journal_etape.html). Paris\\-nice.fr. Retrieved 18 August 2011\\. Boasson Hagen won the 1st stage of [Bayern Rundfahrt](/wiki/2011_Bayern_Rundfahrt \"2011 Bayern Rundfahrt\"),[Boasson Hagen wins Bayern\\-Rundfahrt opener – Yahoo! Eurosport](http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/25052011/58/boasson-hagen-wins-bayern-rundfahrt-opener.html). Uk.eurosport.yahoo.com. Retrieved 18 August 2011\\. and went on to win the points jersey, as well as helping team\\-mate [Geraint Thomas](/wiki/Geraint_Thomas \"Geraint Thomas\") win to first overall in the event.[News: Thomas wins Bayern\\-Rundfahrt « A Report «](http://www.velouk.net/2011/06/01/news-geraint-thomas-wins-bayern-rundfahrt/). Velouk.net. Retrieved 18 August 2011\\. He won the Norwegian National Time Trial Championships for the fifth year running in June, but then contracted an illness that put his [Tour de France](/wiki/2011_Tour_de_France \"2011 Tour de France\") in doubt.[Team Sky's Edvald Boasson Hagen a doubt for Tour de France \\| Sport](https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jun/25/team-sky-edvald-boasson-hagen). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 18 August 2011\\.", "He did recover though, and was given the go\\-ahead to ride the Tour.[Boasson Hagen over illness, gets green light for Tour](http://www.velonation.com/News/ID/8909/Boasson-Hagen-over-illness-gets-green-light-for-Tour.aspx). Velonation.com. Retrieved 18 August 2011\\. He won stage six of the Tour, the first ever victory by a British\\-registered professional cycling team in the Tour de France.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jul/07/team\\-sky\\-tour\\-de\\-france\\-stage\\-win\\|title\\=Team Sky's first Tour de France stage win gives Murdoch some good news\\|date\\=7 July 2011\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2011\\|location\\=London\\|first\\=William\\|last\\=Fotheringham}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/cycling/tour\\-de\\-france/8623462/Tour\\-de\\-France\\-2011\\-Team\\-Sky\\-records\\-first\\-win\\-after\\-Norwegian\\-rider\\-Edvald\\-Boasson\\-Hagen\\-wins\\-stage\\-six.html\\|title\\=Team Sky records first win after Norwegian rider Edvald Boasson Hagen wins stage six\\|date\\=7 July 2011\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2011\\|location\\=London\\|first\\=Mick\\|last\\=Cleary}} Boasson Hagen finished second to compatriot [Thor Hushovd](/wiki/Thor_Hushovd \"Thor Hushovd\") on stage sixteen after the pair were in a three\\-man breakaway with [Ryder Hesjedal](/wiki/Ryder_Hesjedal \"Ryder Hesjedal\").[Tour de France 2011: Thor Hushovd beats Boasson Hagen to the line \\| Sport](https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jul/19/thor-hushovd-tour-de-france). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 18 August 2011\\. The next day he was again in a breakaway, and broke clear on the final climb of the day to take his second stage win of the Tour.[Tour de France: Boasson Hagen wins for Sky as Voeckler suffers on fast descent – Others, More Sports](https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/others/tour-de-france-boasson-hagen-wins-for-sky-as-voeckler-suffers-on-fast-descent-2317627.html). The Independent (21 July 2011\\). Retrieved 18 August 2011\\. Boasson Hagen finished second to Mark Cavendish on the [final stage on the Champs Elysees](/wiki/Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_stage_in_the_Tour_de_France \"Champs-Élysées stage in the Tour de France\").[IG Markets Rider of the Day Stage 21 – Edvald Boasson Hagen – News – Tour de France](http://www.itv.com/tourdefrance/2011/news/ig-markets-rider-of-the-day-stage-21-edvald-boasson-hagen/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017072335/http://www.itv.com/tourdefrance/2011/news/ig\\-markets\\-rider\\-of\\-the\\-day\\-stage\\-21\\-edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen/ \\|date\\=17 October 2012 }}. ITV (26 July 2011\\). Retrieved 18 August 2011\\.\nIn August, Boasson Hagen took a clean sweep of the jerseys at the [Eneco Tour](/wiki/2011_Eneco_Tour \"2011 Eneco Tour\"), winning the event overall, as well as the points and young riders competitions, and finishing first on the final stage.[Clean sweep for Boasson Hagen \\| Sky Sports \\| Cycling \\| News](http://www.skysports.com/story/0,,15264_7101275,00.html). Sky Sports. Retrieved 18 August 2011\\.", "#### 2012", "[thumb\\|left\\|Boasson Hagen at the [2012 Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec](/wiki/2012_Grand_Prix_Cycliste_de_Qu%C3%A9bec \"2012 Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec\")](/wiki/File:Edvald_Boasson_Hagen%2C_2012_Grand_Prix_Cycliste_de_Qu%C3%A9bec.jpg \"Edvald Boasson Hagen, 2012 Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec.jpg\")\nBoasson Hagen began the 2012 season with a second place to [André Greipel](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Greipel \"André Greipel\") in the [Down Under Classic](/wiki/Cancer_Council_Helpline_Classic \"Cancer Council Helpline Classic\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/cycling/story/2012\\-01\\-15/down\\-under\\-classic/52582588/1\\|date\\=15 January 2012\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2012\\|work\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]\\|publisher\\=David Hunke; \\[\\[Gannett Company]]\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|title\\=Andre Greipel wins Down Under Classic}} After three top\\-five placings in stage finishes, he took the lead of the sprints classification after the fourth stage of the [Tour Down Under](/wiki/2012_Tour_Down_Under \"2012 Tour Down Under\"){{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/tourdownunder/stage\\-4/results \\|first\\=Jane \\|last\\=Aubrey \\|title\\=Freire back in the winner's circle with Tour Down Under victory \\|date\\=20 January 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2012 \\|work\\=Cycling News \\|publisher\\=Future Publishing Limited \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121210053/http://www.cyclingnews.com/tourdownunder/stage\\-4/results \\|archive\\-date\\=21 January 2012}} and held the jersey until the end of the race. Boasson Hagen took the lead of the [Volta ao Algarve](/wiki/2012_Volta_ao_Algarve \"2012 Volta ao Algarve\") after winning the second stage with a well\\-timed uphill sprint. He lost the race lead to team\\-mate [Richie Porte](/wiki/Richie_Porte \"Richie Porte\") on the next stage, after setting Porte up on the final climb, but he won the points jersey. He also won a stage of [Tirreno–Adriatico](/wiki/2012_Tirreno%E2%80%93Adriatico \"2012 Tirreno–Adriatico\"), and acted as lead out man for [Mark Cavendish](/wiki/Mark_Cavendish \"Mark Cavendish\"). Boasson Hagen had a disappointing classics campaign, failing to post any major results. He did return to form at his home race, the [Tour of Norway](/wiki/2012_Glava_Tour_of_Norway \"2012 Glava Tour of Norway\"), winning the race overall, the points and young rider jerseys, and stage four which finished in his home town, [Lillehammer](/wiki/Lillehammer \"Lillehammer\").\n[thumb\\|Boasson Hagen after winning stage 3 of the [2013 Criterium du Dauphine](/wiki/2013_Criterium_du_Dauphine \"2013 Criterium du Dauphine\")](/wiki/File:Podium_de_la_3e_%C3%A9tape_%C3%A0_Tarare_%2813%29.JPG \"Podium de la 3e étape à Tarare (13).JPG\")", "In June 2012, Boasson Hagen won the Norwegian National Road Race Championships to take the national jersey for the first time; he did however lose his time trial national championship jersey to {{UCI team code\\|TJM\\|2012}}'s Reidar Borgersen. Boasson Hagen was selected in the Sky squad for the [Tour de France](/wiki/2012_Tour_de_France \"2012 Tour de France\"). He finished fifth in the opening prologue in Liège, then took third on stage one, after bridging across to [Peter Sagan](/wiki/Peter_Sagan \"Peter Sagan\") and Cancellara in the closing stages, but being unable to beat them both in the sprint. He also finished second to Sagan on stage three, another hilltop finish. At the end of August, Boasson Hagen took the victory in the one day [World Tour](/wiki/2012_UCI_World_Tour \"2012 UCI World Tour\") race the [GP Ouest\\-France](/wiki/2012_GP_Ouest-France \"2012 GP Ouest-France\"). He broke away from the bunch with a little more than two kilometers to go, caught and dropped the remaining man in front, [Rui Costa](/wiki/Rui_Costa_%28cyclist%29 \"Rui Costa (cyclist)\") ({{UCI team code\\|MOV\\|2012}}) on the last uphill section and descended to the finish solo. He denied the sprinters in the eighty\\-man chasing group a chance at victory by holding on to a five\\-second advantage.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/gp\\-ouest\\-france\\-plouay\\-2012/results\\|title\\=Boasson Hagen wins GP Plouay\\|work\\=Cycling News\\|publisher\\=Future Publishing Limited\\|date\\=26 August 2012\\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2012}}", "#### 2013", "Boasson Hagen began the season with the stated ambition of winning one of the Spring classics,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.velonation.com/News/ID/13473/Edvald\\-Boasson\\-Hagen\\-to\\-lead\\-Team\\-Sky\\-in\\-the\\-Santos\\-Tour\\-Down\\-Under\\-once\\-again.aspx\\|title\\=Edvald Boasson Hagen to lead Team Sky in the Santos Tour Down Under once again\\|first\\=Ben\\|last\\=Atkins\\|work\\=VeloNation\\|publisher\\=VeloNation LLC\\|date\\=11 December 2012\\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2013}} but failed to attain any notable results.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theroar.com.au/2013/04/10/not\\-a\\-classic\\-time\\-as\\-team\\-skys\\-training\\-fails/\\|title\\=Not a classic time as Team Sky's training fails\\|publisher\\=The Roar\\|date\\=10 April 2013}} However, Boasson Hagen returned to defend his title at the [Glava Tour of Norway](/wiki/2013_Glava_Tour_of_Norway \"2013 Glava Tour of Norway\"). After finishing as runner\\-up in two of the previous sprint stages, Boasson Hagen sparked a two\\-man breakaway with [Sérgio Paulinho](/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_Paulinho \"Sérgio Paulinho\") to win the fourth stage and consequently both the overall and points classifications.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/glava\\-tour\\-of\\-norway\\-2013/stage\\-4/results\\|title\\=Boasson Hagen prevails on home soil\\|work\\=\\[\\[Cyclingnews.com]]\\|date\\=18 May 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607170742/http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/glava\\-tour\\-of\\-norway\\-2013/stage\\-4/results\\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2013}} Boasson Hagen would follow this up with a sprint victory on stage three of the [Critérium du Dauphiné](/wiki/2013_Crit%C3%A9rium_du_Dauphin%C3%A9 \"2013 Critérium du Dauphiné\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.letour.fr/2013/CDD/COURSE/us/300/etape\\_par\\_etape.html\\|title\\=Stage 3\\|work\\=\\[\\[Critérium du Dauphiné]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Amaury Sport Organisation]]\\|access\\-date\\=5 June 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606130313/http://www.letour.fr/2013/CDD/COURSE/us/300/etape\\_par\\_etape.html\\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was also named in the startlist for the Tour de France that year but on stage 12 he broke his collarbone in a huge crash ten kilometers from the finish line and was forced to abandon the race.", "#### 2014", "2014 was Boasson Hagen's worst year of his career in the fact that he did not record a single stage win. On 14 August, Boasson Hagen announced that he would leave {{UCI team code\\|SKY\\|2014}} at the end of the 2014 season.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-to\\-leave\\-team\\-sky\\|title \\= Edvald Boasson Hagen to leave Team Sky\\|date \\= 13 August 2014}} On 27 August, Boasson Hagen announced that he would join African [UCI Professional Continental](/wiki/UCI_Professional_Continental \"UCI Professional Continental\") Team {{UCI team code\\|MTN\\|2015}} on a 2\\-year deal.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/report\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-signs\\-for\\-mtn\\-qhubeka\\|title \\= Report: Boasson Hagen signs for MTN\\-Qhubeka\\|date \\= 27 August 2014}}", "### MTN–Qhubeka (2015–2020\\)", "[thumb\\|Boasson Hagen at the [2015 Tour de France](/wiki/2015_Tour_de_France \"2015 Tour de France\").](/wiki/File:Edvald_Boasson_Hagen%2C_TDF_2015%2C_%C3%A9tape_13%2C_Montgiscard.jpg \"Edvald Boasson Hagen, TDF 2015, étape 13, Montgiscard.jpg\")", "#### 2015", "After finishing second overall of the [Tour of Norway](/wiki/2015_Tour_of_Norway \"2015 Tour of Norway\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\\-of\\-norway\\-2015/stage\\-5/results \\|title\\=Tour of Norway: Vangstad solos to victory on final day \\|last1\\=Quénet \\|first1\\=Jean\\-François \\|date\\=25 May 2015 \\|website\\=\\[\\[cyclingnews.com]] \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2015}} Boasson Hagen picked up his first win in two years at the [Tour des Fjords](/wiki/2015_Tour_des_Fjords \"2015 Tour des Fjords\"), on the last stage of the race. He outsprinted a small leading group of four riders to accomplish the feat.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\\-des\\-fjords\\-2015/stage\\-5/results\\|title\\=Tour des Fjords: Boasson Hagen wins final stage\\|work\\=\\[\\[Cyclingnews.com]]\\|date\\=31 May 2015\\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2015\\|author\\=Jean\\-François Quénet}} In June, Boasson Hagen won the [Norwegian National Time Trial Championships](/wiki/Norwegian_National_Time_Trial_Championships \"Norwegian National Time Trial Championships\") and the [Norwegian National Road Race Championships](/wiki/Norwegian_National_Road_Race_Championships \"Norwegian National Road Race Championships\") after jumping from the chasing group to join the lead group in the final kilometer. He won the title in a close sprint. In the final kilometers of the [UCI Road World Championships](/wiki/2015_UCI_Road_World_Championships \"2015 UCI Road World Championships\"), Boasson Hagen refused to cooperate with [Greg van Avermaet](/wiki/Greg_van_Avermaet \"Greg van Avermaet\") to close the 10\\-second gap to later winner [Peter Sagan](/wiki/Peter_Sagan \"Peter Sagan\"). The most likely reason for Boasson Hagen not to put an effort in the chase was his fellow countryman and sprinter [Alexander Kristoff](/wiki/Alexander_Kristoff \"Alexander Kristoff\") who was in the main peloton just seconds behind the duo. Boasson Hagen eventually finished 20th, just 3 seconds behind the winner.", "#### 2016", "Boasson Hagen enjoyed a return to form in the early part of the 2016 campaign; taking three stage victories at the [Tour of Qatar](/wiki/Tour_of_Qatar \"Tour of Qatar\") and [Tour of Oman](/wiki/Tour_of_Oman \"Tour of Oman\"), holding race leader jerseys in both races. He then ended up 5th in Paris\\-Roubaix after being a part of a five\\-man group that sprinted for the victory. In the late season, he was 6th at the World Championships in Qatar after not following orders from his team\\-mate Alexander Kristoff, who finished 7th in the sprint.", "#### 2017", "Boasson Hagen soloed to victory on stage 19 of the [Tour de France](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France \"2017 Tour de France\"), successfully attacking from the breakaway in the final few kilometres. Boasson Hagen, along with [Nikias Arndt](/wiki/Nikias_Arndt \"Nikias Arndt\"), took the right side of a roundabout with only 2\\.2 kilometers remaining, whilst the remainder of the breakaway took the left. The right side of this roundabout ended up being shorter than the left and thus created a gap for the two cyclists. Boasson Hagen was then able to drop Arndt from his wheel to take the victory.{{Cite web\\|last\\=July 2017\\|first\\=Cycling News 21\\|title\\=Tour de France 2017: Stage 19 Results\\|url\\=https://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\\-de\\-france\\-2017/stage\\-19/results/\\|access\\-date\\=19 June 2020\\|website\\=cyclingnews.com\\|date\\=21 July 2017\\|language\\=en}} This victory marked Boasson Hagen's only triumph at the [2017 Tour de France](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France \"2017 Tour de France\") despite finishing on the podium 5 other times, on stages [7, 11](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_1_to_Stage_11 \"2017 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11\"), [14, 16](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_12_to_Stage_21 \"2017 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21\") and [21](/wiki/2017_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_12_to_Stage_21 \"2017 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 21\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Edvald Boasson Hagen\\|url\\=https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen/2017\\|access\\-date\\=19 June 2020\\|website\\=procyclingstats.com}}", "#### 2018", "In January Boasson Hagen had his [gallbladder](/wiki/Gallbladder \"Gallbladder\") removed.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/boasson\\-hagen\\-to\\-delay\\-season\\-start\\-after\\-gallbladder\\-surgery/\\|title \\= Boasson Hagen to delay season start after gallbladder surgery\\|date \\= 16 January 2018}} He started his season with an appearance at the [Volta ao Algarve](/wiki/2018_Volta_ao_Algarve \"2018 Volta ao Algarve\"). In 2018 Boasson Hagen was shut out of world tour victories, only winning on stage 2 of the [Tour of Norway](/wiki/2018_Tour_of_Norway \"2018 Tour of Norway\") and the Norwegian National Championships in the Individual Time Trial event.", "#### 2019", "In 2019, Boasson Hagen was the only rider on Team Dimension Data's roster to take a victory in a World Tour race, winning stage 1 of the [Critérium du Dauphiné](/wiki/2019_Crit%C3%A9rium_du_Dauphin%C3%A9 \"2019 Critérium du Dauphiné\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cycling/48574112\\|title\\=Criterium du Dauphine 2019: Boasson Hagen wins stage one with Froome in peloton\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|date\\=9 June 2019\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2020}}{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.procyclingstats.com/team/team\\-dimension\\-data\\-2019\\| title \\= Team Dimension Data 2019}}", "#### 2020", "Participating in his 10th [Tour de France](/wiki/Tour_de_France \"Tour de France\"),{{Cite web\\|date\\=18 August 2020\\|title\\=Edvald Boasson Hagen set for 10th Tour de France with NTT Pro Cycling\\|url\\=https://www.eurosport.co.uk/cycling/tour\\-de\\-france/2020/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-set\\-for\\-10th\\-tour\\-de\\-france\\-with\\-ntt\\-pro\\-cycling\\_sto7842385/story.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2020\\|website\\=Eurosport UK}} Boasson Hagen only achieved one top 10 finish in the race, finishing 2nd on [Stage 7](/wiki/2020_Tour_de_France%2C_Stage_1_to_Stage_11 \"2020 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=4 September 2020\\|first\\=Daniel\\|last\\=Benson\\|title\\=Tour de France: Wout van Aert wins stage 7\\|url\\=https://www.cyclingnews.com/races/tour\\-de\\-france\\-2020/stage\\-7/results/\\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2020\\|website\\=cyclingnews.com}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Edvald Boasson Hagen\\|url\\=https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen/overview/start\\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2020\\|website\\=www.procyclingstats.com}} Boasson Hagen also made headlines in the [Tour of Flanders](/wiki/2020_Tour_of_Flanders \"2020 Tour of Flanders\") by attacking from the peloton right before a train arrived at a level crossing, holding up the peloton and allowing Boasson Hagen to continue.{{Cite web\\|date\\=18 October 2020\\|title\\=Tour of Flanders 2020: Peloton held up by train at level crossing, riders force way through\\|url\\=https://www.eurosport.com/cycling/ronde\\-van\\-vlaanderen/2020/tour\\-of\\-flanders\\-2020\\-peloton\\-held\\-up\\-by\\-train\\-at\\-level\\-crossing\\-riders\\-force\\-way\\-through\\_sto7956024/story.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2020\\|website\\=Eurosport}}", "### Total Direct Énergie (2021–2023\\)", "In November 2020, Boasson Hagen signed a one\\-year contract with {{UCI team code\\|TDE\\|2021a}}, for the 2021 season.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cyclingnews.com/news/total\\-direct\\-energie\\-sign\\-lawless\\-with\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-also\\-set\\-to\\-join/\\|title\\=Total Direct Energie sign Lawless and Boasson Hagen\\|work\\=\\[\\[Cyclingnews.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Future plc]]\\|date\\=17 November 2020\\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2020}} He finished sixth at the [Tour de Vendée](/wiki/Tour_de_Vend%C3%A9e \"Tour de Vendée\"), and took top\\-ten stage finishes at the [Arctic Race of Norway](/wiki/2021_Arctic_Race_of_Norway \"2021 Arctic Race of Norway\") and the [Tour de Luxembourg](/wiki/2021_Tour_de_Luxembourg \"2021 Tour de Luxembourg\"). He extended his contract with the team, renamed {{UCI team code\\|TDE\\|2021b\\|nolink\\=yes}} earlier in 2021, by a further two years.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.velonews.com/news/vn\\-news\\-ticker\\-team\\-totalenergies\\-renews\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-fdj\\-withdraws\\-from\\-ronde\\-van\\-drenthe/\\|title\\=VN ticker: Team TotalEnergies renews Boasson\\-Hagen, three new signings for Astana, FDJ withdraws from Drenthe\\|work\\=\\[\\[VeloNews]]\\|publisher\\=Outside Media\\|date\\=22 October 2021\\|accessdate\\=13 March 2022}} At the [2022 Tour de France](/wiki/2022_Tour_de_France \"2022 Tour de France\"), Boasson Hagen formed part of a successful breakaway on the fifth stage, finishing third on the stage to move up to third place in the general classification.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://teamtotalenergies.com/en/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-close\\-to\\-a\\-big\\-win/\\|title\\=Edvald Boasson\\-Hagen close to a big win\\|work\\={{UCI team code\\|TDE\\|2022}}\\|publisher\\=TotalEnergies SE\\|date\\=6 July 2022\\|accessdate\\=19 September 2022}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cycling/62068724\\|title\\=Tour de France 2022: Australia's Simon Clarke wins stage five\\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC]]\\|date\\=6 July 2022\\|accessdate\\=19 September 2022}} He ultimately finished 58th overall,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.letour.fr/en/rider/182/totalenergies/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen\\|title\\=Edvald Boasson Hagen\\|work\\=\\[\\[Tour de France]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Amaury Sport Organisation]]\\|accessdate\\=19 September 2022\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724181631/https://www.letour.fr/en/rider/182/totalenergies/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen\\|archivedate\\=24 July 2022}} his best overall Tour de France finish for a decade. Boasson Hagen's contract was not extended beyond the end of the 2023 season by {{UCI team code\\|TDE\\|2023\\|nolink\\=yes}}.{{cite news\\|first\\=Jarle\\|last\\=Fredagsvik\\|url\\=https://www.eurosport.no/sykkel/tilbyr\\-edvald\\-minimumslonn\\-han\\-er\\-verdt\\-mer\\-enn\\-det\\_sto9834968/story.shtml\\|title\\=Tilbyr kontraktsløs Boasson Hagen minstelønn: – Ønsker ikke å sykle gratis\\|language\\=Norwegian\\|trans\\-title\\=Offers contract\\-free Boasson Hagen minimum wage: – does not want to ride for free\\|work\\=\\[\\[Eurosport]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Warner Bros. Discovery]]\\|date\\=14 October 2023\\|accessdate\\=3 December 2023}}{{cite news\\|first\\=George\\|last\\=Poole\\|url\\=https://www.globalcyclingnetwork.com/racing/interviews/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-out\\-of\\-contract\\-and\\-rejected\\-by\\-uno\\-x\\-but\\-still\\-wants\\-to\\-continue\\|title\\=Edvald Boasson Hagen Out Of Contract And Rejected By Uno\\-X, But Still Wants To Continue\\|work\\=\\[\\[Global Cycling Network]]\\|publisher\\=Play Sports Group\\|date\\=15 October 2023\\|accessdate\\=3 December 2023\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129201239/https://www.globalcyclingnetwork.com/racing/interviews/edvald\\-boasson\\-hagen\\-out\\-of\\-contract\\-and\\-rejected\\-by\\-uno\\-x\\-but\\-still\\-wants\\-to\\-continue\\|archivedate\\=29 November 2023\\|quote\\=The 36\\-year\\-old has not been offered a new contract by TotalEnergies and despite hoping for a deal from Uno\\-X Pro Cycling, Boasson Hagen is still without a team to race for next season.}}", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early formation After brilliant studies at the [St Michael College, Brussels](/wiki/St_Michael_College%2C_Brussels "St Michael College, Brussels"), Pierre entered the [noviciate](/wiki/Noviciate "Noviciate") of the [Society of Jesus](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus "Society of Jesus") on 23 September 1899, at [Tronchiennes](/wiki/Drongen_Abbey "Drongen Abbey"). The initial spiritual formation completed, it was clear that he would be destined for intellectual work in the Society of Jesus. For his years of Theological training (1907\-1910\) the young Jesuit was in [Hastings](/wiki/Hastings "Hastings") (England) where the French Jesuits had their Theologate in exile. He had among his professors Léonce de Grandmaison and Albert Condamin and as companions: [Pierre Rousselot](/wiki/Pierre_Rousselot "Pierre Rousselot"), Joseph Huby, Auguste Valensin, Paul Doncœur and [Pierre Teilhard de Chardin](/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin "Pierre Teilhard de Chardin"). He was ordained [priest](/wiki/Catholic_Priest "Catholic Priest") (along with his brother Jean) on 24 August 1910, in [Louvain](/wiki/Louvain%2C_Belgium "Louvain, Belgium") (Belgium). This was followed by another year of [Theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology"). The last year of Jesuit formation, known as "[Tertianship](/wiki/Tertianship "Tertianship")", was made under the direction of Father [August Petit](/wiki/August_Petit "August Petit"), in [Tronchiennes](/wiki/Drongen_Abbey "Drongen Abbey") (1911\-1912\). During a further two years of theological specialization at the [University of Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_%281835%E2%80%931968%29 "Catholic University of Leuven (1835–1968)") he went to Paris where he studied at the [Catholic Institute](/wiki/Institut_Catholique_de_Paris "Institut Catholique de Paris"), the [Sorbonne](/wiki/University_of_Paris "University of Paris"), the [College of France](/wiki/College_of_France "College of France") and the School of higher studies. He thus attended the classes of [Henri Bergson](/wiki/Henri_Bergson "Henri Bergson") and [Victor Delbos](/wiki/Victor_Delbos "Victor Delbos"). ### Career Pierre Charles was a professor of [Dogmatic theology](/wiki/Dogmatic_theology "Dogmatic theology") for the rest of his life in the Jesuit Theologate of Louvain. As a teacher he captivated his students and, although he taught almost all theological treatises, his favourite was that of the [Incarnation](/wiki/Incarnation "Incarnation"). Solidly based on a deep knowledge of [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy") and [theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology"), and enlivened by deep personal conviction, was always oriented towards a synthesis. His theology thinking inspired his own inner life and shed light upon all human realities. His original approach and ideas crystallized in his best\-selling book of meditations: ‘*La prière de toutes les heures*’, published in 1924\. ### "Missiology" pioneer Possibly incited by the encyclical *[Maximum Illud](/wiki/Maximum_illud "Maximum illud")* of [Benedict XV](/wiki/Benedict_XV "Benedict XV") (1919\) he turned his attention to missionary issues. From 1923, responding to requests coming from the Lemfu Seminary \- first ever training centre for seminarians of the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo "Belgian Congo") \- Charles launches the "Xaveriana" collection, a series of pamphlets that dealt with aspects of missionary life and activities, starting with down\-to\-earth pastoral issues: [polygamy](/wiki/Polygamy "Polygamy"), [sorcery](/wiki/Witchcraft "Witchcraft"), etc. Since then, he has endeavoured to develop a "Missiology", to the point that it was fully accepted as one of the theological subjects in [Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_%281835%E2%80%931968%29 "Catholic University of Leuven (1835–1968)"). If not the first in the Catholic Church,Among [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") [Joseph Schmidlin](/wiki/Joseph_Schmidlin "Joseph Schmidlin") is considered as the pioneer in "Missions studies" Charles stands however as unique in the French speaking theological area. Almost from the beginning (the first *Semaine...* in 1923\) Charles acted as true animator and promoter of the *Semaine missiologique de Louvain* begun by [Albert Lallemand](/wiki/Albert_Lallemand "Albert Lallemand") (1890\-1966\)Albert Lallemand was still a Jesuit [Theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology") student when he founded the *semaine missiologique...* He was later himself a [missionary](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") in the Bengal Jesuit Mission of India, where he distinguished himself as a writer for the *New Review* of Calcutta. In 1926, Charles began the publication of *dossiers de l'Action Missionnaire*,The collection of theological publications of the Jesuit theological faculty of Louvain – *Museum Lessianum* \- had an important "Section missiologique" a means for the dissemination of important documents on missionary problems. It maintained that the essential work of the missions was, in the first place, to "plant" the [Church](/wiki/Christian_Church "Christian Church"). This is why their primary objective was the establishment of the native clergy. [Pius XI](/wiki/Pius_XI "Pius XI") continued his efforts and, by consecrating the first indigenous bishops in Africa, China, India, indirectly approved these ideas of Charles. After some [Advent](/wiki/Advent "Advent") sermons preached to the students of Louvain, he founded with a group of them the *Association Universitaire Catholique pour l'Aide aux missions* \[AUCAM], which would eventually mature into an organization to form African health assistants, and another sister organization "for the scientific progress of agriculture". These associations helped establish (1940\) the first Congolese University level institute (which developed into the [Lovanium University](/wiki/Lovanium_University "Lovanium University")). Charles was the cheerleading force of all these projects, always ready to help them with his word and pen. In response to multiple requests, he travelled a lot, and his knowledge of mission lands and their peoples taught him how to collaborate with national and international agencies. Charles gave also numerous retreats to priests and religious, enjoying it, because he could better expose his ideas than in pulpit preaching. He was a distinguished professor and theologian, lecturer and writer, and acknowledged as a [Missiology](/wiki/Missiology "Missiology") pioneer, particularly in the French speaking area of Europe, and founder of partnerships to assist mission initiatives. Pierre Charles died in the Jesuit theologate of Louvain on 11 February 1954\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early formation", "After brilliant studies at the [St Michael College, Brussels](/wiki/St_Michael_College%2C_Brussels \"St Michael College, Brussels\"), Pierre entered the [noviciate](/wiki/Noviciate \"Noviciate\") of the [Society of Jesus](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus \"Society of Jesus\") on 23 September 1899, at [Tronchiennes](/wiki/Drongen_Abbey \"Drongen Abbey\"). The initial spiritual formation completed, it was clear that he would be destined for intellectual work in the Society of Jesus. For his years of Theological training (1907\\-1910\\) the young Jesuit was in [Hastings](/wiki/Hastings \"Hastings\") (England) where the French Jesuits had their Theologate in exile. He had among his professors Léonce de Grandmaison and Albert Condamin and as companions: [Pierre Rousselot](/wiki/Pierre_Rousselot \"Pierre Rousselot\"), Joseph Huby, Auguste Valensin, Paul Doncœur and [Pierre Teilhard de Chardin](/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin \"Pierre Teilhard de Chardin\"). He was ordained [priest](/wiki/Catholic_Priest \"Catholic Priest\") (along with his brother Jean) on 24 August 1910, in [Louvain](/wiki/Louvain%2C_Belgium \"Louvain, Belgium\") (Belgium). This was followed by another year of [Theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\").", "The last year of Jesuit formation, known as \"[Tertianship](/wiki/Tertianship \"Tertianship\")\", was made under the direction of Father [August Petit](/wiki/August_Petit \"August Petit\"), in [Tronchiennes](/wiki/Drongen_Abbey \"Drongen Abbey\") (1911\\-1912\\). During a further two years of theological specialization at the [University of Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_%281835%E2%80%931968%29 \"Catholic University of Leuven (1835–1968)\") he went to Paris where he studied at the [Catholic Institute](/wiki/Institut_Catholique_de_Paris \"Institut Catholique de Paris\"), the [Sorbonne](/wiki/University_of_Paris \"University of Paris\"), the [College of France](/wiki/College_of_France \"College of France\") and the School of higher studies. He thus attended the classes of [Henri Bergson](/wiki/Henri_Bergson \"Henri Bergson\") and [Victor Delbos](/wiki/Victor_Delbos \"Victor Delbos\").", "### Career", "Pierre Charles was a professor of [Dogmatic theology](/wiki/Dogmatic_theology \"Dogmatic theology\") for the rest of his life in the Jesuit Theologate of Louvain. As a teacher he captivated his students and, although he taught almost all theological treatises, his favourite was that of the [Incarnation](/wiki/Incarnation \"Incarnation\"). Solidly based on a deep knowledge of [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\") and [theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\"), and enlivened by deep personal conviction, was always oriented towards a synthesis. His theology thinking inspired his own inner life and shed light upon all human realities. His original approach and ideas crystallized in his best\\-selling book of meditations: ‘*La prière de toutes les heures*’, published in 1924\\.", "### \"Missiology\" pioneer", "Possibly incited by the encyclical *[Maximum Illud](/wiki/Maximum_illud \"Maximum illud\")* of [Benedict XV](/wiki/Benedict_XV \"Benedict XV\") (1919\\) he turned his attention to missionary issues. From 1923, responding to requests coming from the Lemfu Seminary \\- first ever training centre for seminarians of the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo \"Belgian Congo\") \\- Charles launches the \"Xaveriana\" collection, a series of pamphlets that dealt with aspects of missionary life and activities, starting with down\\-to\\-earth pastoral issues: [polygamy](/wiki/Polygamy \"Polygamy\"), [sorcery](/wiki/Witchcraft \"Witchcraft\"), etc. Since then, he has endeavoured to develop a \"Missiology\", to the point that it was fully accepted as one of the theological subjects in [Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_%281835%E2%80%931968%29 \"Catholic University of Leuven (1835–1968)\"). If not the first in the Catholic Church,Among [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") [Joseph Schmidlin](/wiki/Joseph_Schmidlin \"Joseph Schmidlin\") is considered as the pioneer in \"Missions studies\" Charles stands however as unique in the French speaking theological area.", "Almost from the beginning (the first *Semaine...* in 1923\\) Charles acted as true animator and promoter of the *Semaine missiologique de Louvain* begun by [Albert Lallemand](/wiki/Albert_Lallemand \"Albert Lallemand\") (1890\\-1966\\)Albert Lallemand was still a Jesuit [Theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") student when he founded the *semaine missiologique...* He was later himself a [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") in the Bengal Jesuit Mission of India, where he distinguished himself as a writer for the *New Review* of Calcutta.", "In 1926, Charles began the publication of *dossiers de l'Action Missionnaire*,The collection of theological publications of the Jesuit theological faculty of Louvain – *Museum Lessianum* \\- had an important \"Section missiologique\" a means for the dissemination of important documents on missionary problems. It maintained that the essential work of the missions was, in the first place, to \"plant\" the [Church](/wiki/Christian_Church \"Christian Church\"). This is why their primary objective was the establishment of the native clergy. [Pius XI](/wiki/Pius_XI \"Pius XI\") continued his efforts and, by consecrating the first indigenous bishops in Africa, China, India, indirectly approved these ideas of Charles.", "After some [Advent](/wiki/Advent \"Advent\") sermons preached to the students of Louvain, he founded with a group of them the *Association Universitaire Catholique pour l'Aide aux missions* \\[AUCAM], which would eventually mature into an organization to form African health assistants, and another sister organization \"for the scientific progress of agriculture\". These associations helped establish (1940\\) the first Congolese University level institute (which developed into the [Lovanium University](/wiki/Lovanium_University \"Lovanium University\")). Charles was the cheerleading force of all these projects, always ready to help them with his word and pen.", "In response to multiple requests, he travelled a lot, and his knowledge of mission lands and their peoples taught him how to collaborate with national and international agencies. Charles gave also numerous retreats to priests and religious, enjoying it, because he could better expose his ideas than in pulpit preaching. He was a distinguished professor and theologian, lecturer and writer, and acknowledged as a [Missiology](/wiki/Missiology \"Missiology\") pioneer, particularly in the French speaking area of Europe, and founder of partnerships to assist mission initiatives.", "Pierre Charles died in the Jesuit theologate of Louvain on 11 February 1954\\.", "" ]
### "Missiology" pioneer Possibly incited by the encyclical *[Maximum Illud](/wiki/Maximum_illud "Maximum illud")* of [Benedict XV](/wiki/Benedict_XV "Benedict XV") (1919\) he turned his attention to missionary issues. From 1923, responding to requests coming from the Lemfu Seminary \- first ever training centre for seminarians of the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo "Belgian Congo") \- Charles launches the "Xaveriana" collection, a series of pamphlets that dealt with aspects of missionary life and activities, starting with down\-to\-earth pastoral issues: [polygamy](/wiki/Polygamy "Polygamy"), [sorcery](/wiki/Witchcraft "Witchcraft"), etc. Since then, he has endeavoured to develop a "Missiology", to the point that it was fully accepted as one of the theological subjects in [Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_%281835%E2%80%931968%29 "Catholic University of Leuven (1835–1968)"). If not the first in the Catholic Church,Among [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") [Joseph Schmidlin](/wiki/Joseph_Schmidlin "Joseph Schmidlin") is considered as the pioneer in "Missions studies" Charles stands however as unique in the French speaking theological area. Almost from the beginning (the first *Semaine...* in 1923\) Charles acted as true animator and promoter of the *Semaine missiologique de Louvain* begun by [Albert Lallemand](/wiki/Albert_Lallemand "Albert Lallemand") (1890\-1966\)Albert Lallemand was still a Jesuit [Theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology") student when he founded the *semaine missiologique...* He was later himself a [missionary](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") in the Bengal Jesuit Mission of India, where he distinguished himself as a writer for the *New Review* of Calcutta. In 1926, Charles began the publication of *dossiers de l'Action Missionnaire*,The collection of theological publications of the Jesuit theological faculty of Louvain – *Museum Lessianum* \- had an important "Section missiologique" a means for the dissemination of important documents on missionary problems. It maintained that the essential work of the missions was, in the first place, to "plant" the [Church](/wiki/Christian_Church "Christian Church"). This is why their primary objective was the establishment of the native clergy. [Pius XI](/wiki/Pius_XI "Pius XI") continued his efforts and, by consecrating the first indigenous bishops in Africa, China, India, indirectly approved these ideas of Charles. After some [Advent](/wiki/Advent "Advent") sermons preached to the students of Louvain, he founded with a group of them the *Association Universitaire Catholique pour l'Aide aux missions* \[AUCAM], which would eventually mature into an organization to form African health assistants, and another sister organization "for the scientific progress of agriculture". These associations helped establish (1940\) the first Congolese University level institute (which developed into the [Lovanium University](/wiki/Lovanium_University "Lovanium University")). Charles was the cheerleading force of all these projects, always ready to help them with his word and pen. In response to multiple requests, he travelled a lot, and his knowledge of mission lands and their peoples taught him how to collaborate with national and international agencies. Charles gave also numerous retreats to priests and religious, enjoying it, because he could better expose his ideas than in pulpit preaching. He was a distinguished professor and theologian, lecturer and writer, and acknowledged as a [Missiology](/wiki/Missiology "Missiology") pioneer, particularly in the French speaking area of Europe, and founder of partnerships to assist mission initiatives. Pierre Charles died in the Jesuit theologate of Louvain on 11 February 1954\.
[ "### \"Missiology\" pioneer", "Possibly incited by the encyclical *[Maximum Illud](/wiki/Maximum_illud \"Maximum illud\")* of [Benedict XV](/wiki/Benedict_XV \"Benedict XV\") (1919\\) he turned his attention to missionary issues. From 1923, responding to requests coming from the Lemfu Seminary \\- first ever training centre for seminarians of the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo \"Belgian Congo\") \\- Charles launches the \"Xaveriana\" collection, a series of pamphlets that dealt with aspects of missionary life and activities, starting with down\\-to\\-earth pastoral issues: [polygamy](/wiki/Polygamy \"Polygamy\"), [sorcery](/wiki/Witchcraft \"Witchcraft\"), etc. Since then, he has endeavoured to develop a \"Missiology\", to the point that it was fully accepted as one of the theological subjects in [Louvain](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_%281835%E2%80%931968%29 \"Catholic University of Leuven (1835–1968)\"). If not the first in the Catholic Church,Among [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") [Joseph Schmidlin](/wiki/Joseph_Schmidlin \"Joseph Schmidlin\") is considered as the pioneer in \"Missions studies\" Charles stands however as unique in the French speaking theological area.", "Almost from the beginning (the first *Semaine...* in 1923\\) Charles acted as true animator and promoter of the *Semaine missiologique de Louvain* begun by [Albert Lallemand](/wiki/Albert_Lallemand \"Albert Lallemand\") (1890\\-1966\\)Albert Lallemand was still a Jesuit [Theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") student when he founded the *semaine missiologique...* He was later himself a [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") in the Bengal Jesuit Mission of India, where he distinguished himself as a writer for the *New Review* of Calcutta.", "In 1926, Charles began the publication of *dossiers de l'Action Missionnaire*,The collection of theological publications of the Jesuit theological faculty of Louvain – *Museum Lessianum* \\- had an important \"Section missiologique\" a means for the dissemination of important documents on missionary problems. It maintained that the essential work of the missions was, in the first place, to \"plant\" the [Church](/wiki/Christian_Church \"Christian Church\"). This is why their primary objective was the establishment of the native clergy. [Pius XI](/wiki/Pius_XI \"Pius XI\") continued his efforts and, by consecrating the first indigenous bishops in Africa, China, India, indirectly approved these ideas of Charles.", "After some [Advent](/wiki/Advent \"Advent\") sermons preached to the students of Louvain, he founded with a group of them the *Association Universitaire Catholique pour l'Aide aux missions* \\[AUCAM], which would eventually mature into an organization to form African health assistants, and another sister organization \"for the scientific progress of agriculture\". These associations helped establish (1940\\) the first Congolese University level institute (which developed into the [Lovanium University](/wiki/Lovanium_University \"Lovanium University\")). Charles was the cheerleading force of all these projects, always ready to help them with his word and pen.", "In response to multiple requests, he travelled a lot, and his knowledge of mission lands and their peoples taught him how to collaborate with national and international agencies. Charles gave also numerous retreats to priests and religious, enjoying it, because he could better expose his ideas than in pulpit preaching. He was a distinguished professor and theologian, lecturer and writer, and acknowledged as a [Missiology](/wiki/Missiology \"Missiology\") pioneer, particularly in the French speaking area of Europe, and founder of partnerships to assist mission initiatives.", "Pierre Charles died in the Jesuit theologate of Louvain on 11 February 1954\\.", "" ]
History ------- RK Puram lake's also Known as **Mukidigan Cheruvu (Original Name)** roots can be traced back to 1798 when the '[subsidiary alliance](/wiki/Subsidiary_alliance "Subsidiary alliance")' was proposed by then British Governor\-General in India, [Lord Wellesley](/wiki/Richard_Wellesley%2C_1st_Marquess_Wellesley "Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley"). By the early 1800s, the Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (EME), which is presently the Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (MCEME), had been set up at [Trimulgherry](/wiki/Trimulgherry "Trimulgherry"). The engineers and electricians who worked here needed water, So RK Puram Lake was commissioned by the [Nizam](/wiki/Nizam_of_Hyderabad "Nizam of Hyderabad") and dug up in the mid\-1800s, occupying a space of around 100 acres.{{Cite web\|date\=2018\-01\-06\|title\=From bird paradise to frothing mess: Tracing the history of Secunderabad's RK Puram lake\|url\=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/pristine\-bird\-paradise\-frothing\-mess\-tracing\-secunderabads\-rk\-puram\-lake\-74293\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-31\|website\=The News Minute\|language\=en}} There is no established date for when the RK Puram lake was dug up, but its roots can be traced back to 1798 when the 'subsidiary alliance' was proposed by then British Governor\-General in India, Lord Wellesley. As part of the alliance, the East India Company offered protection to the rulers of princely states, in exchange for money or land. Nizam Sikander Jah, the third ruler from the Asaf Jahi dynasty, was said to be one of the first princely states to sign the pact. At this time, Secunderabad was a small taluk, described as a low flat ridge, near a village north of the Hussain Sagar Lake. It was here that the British built the cantonment area. Speaking to TNM, Murali Chemuturi, a writer and long\-time resident of the area, narrates, “Mudfort, which is now just the name of an area, was the first place where the East India Company built its garrison. Over time, the garrison expanded, and soon it had spread all the way up to Bolaram.” By the early 1800s, the Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (EME), which is presently the Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (MCEME), had been set up. Though it is now a populated area in the city, this was the time that people first settled in then Neredmet village. “The engineers and electricians who worked there needed two main services. First, they had dry toilets and needed someone for manual scavenging, and secondly, they needed milk and food. For the first, they hired some Scheduled Caste people from Tamil Nadu and for the second purpose, they hired Yadavs (a cattle\-breeding caste), from Uttar Pradesh,” Murali says. “The two groups were housed nearby, and while Neredmet became the village RK Puram was the hamlet where the SC persons stayed,” he adds. All three of these groups needed water, so the RK Puram Lake was commissioned by the Nizam and dug up in the mid\-1800s, occupying a space of around 100 acres. After the sepoy mutiny in 1857, the British continued to expand aggressively, and the area's population began to grow. The lake remained a major source of drinking water and largely clean, until the late 1960s, when the Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) was established. “There was no shortage of water, which is why the old houses in RK Puram have no well or borewell. In 1965, Sainik Nagar was the first colony to be allotted. Despite this, the lake remained clean, as the colony remained downstream of the lake,” says Murali. “After ECIL came up, the politicians of the time laid a road right through the lake, to create a shortcut. In 1976, the lake flooded the road, following which it was raised by 5 feet by the gram panchayat with the help of mud and stones,” he adds. According to locals, this was when a large portion of the lake was killed, as the water that was cut off from the rest of the lake, was eventually dumped with debris and flattened. “However, it was only in the mid\-80s that things started going downhill, as several colonies like GK Colony, Sri Colony, Bank Colony and Bhagat Singh Nagar were built upstream, and untreated sewage started flowing directly into the lake,” Murali says.
[ "History\n-------", "RK Puram lake's also Known as **Mukidigan Cheruvu (Original Name)**\nroots can be traced back to 1798 when the '[subsidiary alliance](/wiki/Subsidiary_alliance \"Subsidiary alliance\")' was proposed by then British Governor\\-General in India, [Lord Wellesley](/wiki/Richard_Wellesley%2C_1st_Marquess_Wellesley \"Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley\").", "By the early 1800s, the Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (EME), which is presently the Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (MCEME), had been set up at [Trimulgherry](/wiki/Trimulgherry \"Trimulgherry\"). The engineers and electricians who worked here needed water, So RK Puram Lake was commissioned by the [Nizam](/wiki/Nizam_of_Hyderabad \"Nizam of Hyderabad\") and dug up in the mid\\-1800s, occupying a space of around 100 acres.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-06\\|title\\=From bird paradise to frothing mess: Tracing the history of Secunderabad's RK Puram lake\\|url\\=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/pristine\\-bird\\-paradise\\-frothing\\-mess\\-tracing\\-secunderabads\\-rk\\-puram\\-lake\\-74293\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-31\\|website\\=The News Minute\\|language\\=en}}", "There is no established date for when the RK Puram lake was dug up, but its roots can be traced back to 1798 when the 'subsidiary alliance' was proposed by then British Governor\\-General in India, Lord Wellesley.", "As part of the alliance, the East India Company offered protection to the rulers of princely states, in exchange for money or land.", "Nizam Sikander Jah, the third ruler from the Asaf Jahi dynasty, was said to be one of the first princely states to sign the pact.", "At this time, Secunderabad was a small taluk, described as a low flat ridge, near a village north of the Hussain Sagar Lake. It was here that the British built the cantonment area.", "Speaking to TNM, Murali Chemuturi, a writer and long\\-time resident of the area, narrates, “Mudfort, which is now just the name of an area, was the first place where the East India Company built its garrison. Over time, the garrison expanded, and soon it had spread all the way up to Bolaram.”", "By the early 1800s, the Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (EME), which is presently the Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (MCEME), had been set up.", "Though it is now a populated area in the city, this was the time that people first settled in then Neredmet village.", "“The engineers and electricians who worked there needed two main services. First, they had dry toilets and needed someone for manual scavenging, and secondly, they needed milk and food. For the first, they hired some Scheduled Caste people from Tamil Nadu and for the second purpose, they hired Yadavs (a cattle\\-breeding caste), from Uttar Pradesh,” Murali says.", "“The two groups were housed nearby, and while Neredmet became the village\nRK Puram was the hamlet where the SC persons stayed,” he adds.", "All three of these groups needed water, so the RK Puram Lake was commissioned by the Nizam and dug up in the mid\\-1800s, occupying a space of around 100 acres.", "After the sepoy mutiny in 1857, the British continued to expand aggressively, and the area's population began to grow.", "The lake remained a major source of drinking water and largely clean, until the late 1960s, when the Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) was established.", "“There was no shortage of water, which is why the old houses in RK Puram have no well or borewell. In 1965, Sainik Nagar was the first colony to be allotted. Despite this, the lake remained clean, as the colony remained downstream of the lake,” says Murali.", "“After ECIL came up, the politicians of the time laid a road right through the lake, to create a shortcut. In 1976, the lake flooded the road, following which it was raised by 5 feet by the gram panchayat with the help of mud and stones,” he adds.", "According to locals, this was when a large portion of the lake was killed, as the water that was cut off from the rest of the lake, was eventually dumped with debris and flattened.", "“However, it was only in the mid\\-80s that things started going downhill, as several colonies like GK Colony, Sri Colony, Bank Colony and Bhagat Singh Nagar were built upstream, and untreated sewage started flowing directly into the lake,” Murali says.", "" ]
Career ------ [thumb\|150px\|Clement at the 2007 World Championships](/wiki/File:Osaka07_D4A_Kerron_Clement_interviewed.jpg "Osaka07 D4A Kerron Clement interviewed.jpg") Clement was born in [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain "Port of Spain"), [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago "Trinidad and Tobago"). His family moved to the United States in 1998, where he became a successful high school athlete at [La Porte High School](/wiki/La_Porte_High_School_%28Texas%29 "La Porte High School (Texas)") in [La Porte](/wiki/La_Porte%2C_Texas "La Porte, Texas"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"). He won both 110 and [400\-meter hurdles](/wiki/400-meter_hurdles "400-meter hurdles") at the [USATF](/wiki/USATF "USATF") Youth Athletics Championships. He also won the (high school) National Scholastic Championship in the 110\-meter high hurdles in 2002, and finished fifth in that same event his senior year in 2003\. He won the 400\-meter hurdles at the 2003 National Scholastic meet.[Kerron Clement 48\.75 Men's 400mH \| Zurich Diamond League](http://en.omriyadat.com/videos/kerron-clement-400m-diamond-league). Retrieved on 2016\-09\-10 Clement accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida "University of Florida") in Gainesville, Florida, where he ran for coach [Mike Holloway](/wiki/Mike_Holloway "Mike Holloway")'s [Florida Gators track and field](/wiki/Florida_Gators_track_and_field "Florida Gators track and field") team in [National Collegiate Athletic Association](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association "National Collegiate Athletic Association") (NCAA) competition in 2004 and 2005\.{{Cite web \|title\=Kerron Clement \- Olympics \|url\=https://floridagators.com/sports/olympics/roster/kerron\-\-clement/9616 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-25 \|website\=Florida Gators \|language\=en}} At the end of his freshman year in 2004, he won the NCAA outdoor championships in the 400\-meter hurdles (a feat he would repeat in 2005\). Clement became a U.S. citizen in June 2004 and was eligible to compete for a spot on the U.S. Olympic team, but instead opted to skip the Olympic Trials in favor of competing at the [2004 World Junior Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2004_World_Junior_Championships_in_Athletics "2004 World Junior Championships in Athletics"). At the World Junior Championships in July, he won the gold medal in the 400\-meter hurdles in a championship record time of 48\.51 seconds. Clement also ran a leg for the American [4x400\-meter relay](/wiki/4x400-meter_relay "4x400-meter relay") team and set a [world junior record](/wiki/List_of_world_junior_records_in_athletics "List of world junior records in athletics") of 3:01\.09\. On March 12, 2005, representing the University of Florida, he broke the indoor world record for the 400\-meter sprint at the NCAA indoor championships in [Randal Tyson Track Center](/wiki/Randal_Tyson_Track_Center "Randal Tyson Track Center") in [Fayetteville, Arkansas](/wiki/Fayetteville%2C_Arkansas "Fayetteville, Arkansas") with a time of 44\.57 seconds. His split at 200\-meter was 21\.08 seconds. The record was held for ten years previously by [Michael Johnson](/wiki/Michael_Johnson_%28athlete%29 "Michael Johnson (athlete)") at 44\.63 seconds. Afterwards, Clement anchored Florida's 4x400\-meter indoor relay to a time of 3:03\.51\.Dunaway, Jim (2005\-03\-13\). [Clement demolishes Johnson's World Indoor 400m record](http://www.iaaf.org/news/Kind=2/newsId=28846.html). IAAF; Retrieved August 30, 2010 Clement set a personal best and 2005 world leading performance in the 400\-meter hurdles with a 47\.24 seconds, winning the [2005 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2005_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships "2005 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships") title at [Carson, California](/wiki/Carson%2C_California "Carson, California"). This was the fastest time posted for the 400\-meter hurdles in seven years. He opted to turn professional in the summer of 2005 and, while he no longer represented the University of Florida he continued to live and train in Gainesville. Clement faded during the [2005 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2005_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2005 World Championships in Athletics") in [Helsinki, Finland](/wiki/Helsinki%2C_Finland "Helsinki, Finland") and missed out on the medals, finishing fourth. He represented the United States at the [2006 IAAF World Cup](/wiki/2006_IAAF_World_Cup "2006 IAAF World Cup") and won the hurdles title ahead of [South African](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") [L. J. van Zyl](/wiki/L._J._van_Zyl "L. J. van Zyl"). Clement earned a gold medal in the 400\-meter hurdles at the [2007 World Championship](/wiki/2007_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2007 World Championships in Athletics") in [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka "Osaka"). His time of 47\.61 seconds was a season's best, and he was ranked the number 1 400\-meter hurdler in the world. In the fall of 2007, he decided to leave Gainesville, and moved to California to train under legendary track coach [Bob Kersee](/wiki/Bob_Kersee "Bob Kersee") to prepare for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing.***Track \& Field News***, June 2008 (pp.16\-18\), feature "**T\&FN Interview: Kerron Clement**"; accessed March 4, 2012 Clement qualified in the 400\-meter hurdles for the 2008 Summer Olympics on June 29, 2008, at the Olympic Trials in Eugene, Oregon.{{cite news\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-16 \|url\=http://sc.lpisd.org/education/components/whatsnew/default.php?sectiondetailid\=4\&id\=1913\&viewType\=detail\&PHPSESSID\=9dc5cdced178724018b4863908b3bd58 \|title\=2003 LPHS graduate Kerron Clement headed for Beijing Olympics \|date\=June 30, 2008 \|work\=News and Spotlights \|publisher\=La Porte ISD \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820231843/http://sc.lpisd.org/education/components/whatsnew/default.php?sectiondetailid\=4\&id\=1913\&viewType\=detail\&PHPSESSID\=9dc5cdced178724018b4863908b3bd58 \|archive\-date\=August 20, 2009 }} Clement advanced to the final where he was a slight favourite over compatriot [Angelo Taylor](/wiki/Angelo_Taylor "Angelo Taylor"), but Taylor ran a personal best time to win the gold medal. Clement came second for silver, and later won a gold medal in the 4x400\-meter relay despite not racing in the final. He closed the year on the top of the podium with a gold medal at the [2008 IAAF World Athletics Final](/wiki/2008_IAAF_World_Athletics_Final "2008 IAAF World Athletics Final"). The following year he competed at the [2009 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2009_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2009 World Championships in Athletics"). Reigning Olympic champion, Taylor, was eliminated in the heats. Clement won the gold medal in a season's best time of 47\.91, beating [Javier Culson](/wiki/Javier_Culson "Javier Culson") and [Bershawn Jackson](/wiki/Bershawn_Jackson "Bershawn Jackson") to the title. He took another gold at the [2009 IAAF World Athletics Final](/wiki/2009_IAAF_World_Athletics_Final "2009 IAAF World Athletics Final"), which was the last edition of the competition. In 2011 he started off the outdoor season well, running a 48\.74 on May 7, but he failed to improve on that time the rest of the year. As the two\-time defending champion, Clement received an automatic entry to the 13th IAAF World Championships in Daegu, South Korea, but his time of 52\.11 on 30 August was not good enough to advance to the finals. Clement finished 3rd in the 400 metres hurdles in 48\.44 at [2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2015_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships "2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events\-\-\-Calendar/2015/USATF\-Outdoor\-Championships/Results\-by\-Day/Results\-FULL.aspx \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219082059/http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events\-\-\-Calendar/2015/USATF\-Outdoor\-Championships/Results\-by\-Day/Results\-FULL.aspx \|archive\-date\=2019\-12\-19 \|title\=USA Track \& Field \- Results \- FULL}} to qualify for the [2015 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2015_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2015 World Championships in Athletics").{{Cite web \|title\=Clement Takes Fourth in 400\-Meter Hurdles, Williams\-Mills Sprints into History at IAAF World Championships \|url\=https://floridagators.com/news/2015/8/25/31108 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-07 \|website\=Florida Gators \|language\=en}}
[ "Career\n------", "[thumb\\|150px\\|Clement at the 2007 World Championships](/wiki/File:Osaka07_D4A_Kerron_Clement_interviewed.jpg \"Osaka07 D4A Kerron Clement interviewed.jpg\")\nClement was born in [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain \"Port of Spain\"), [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago \"Trinidad and Tobago\"). His family moved to the United States in 1998, where he became a successful high school athlete at [La Porte High School](/wiki/La_Porte_High_School_%28Texas%29 \"La Porte High School (Texas)\") in [La Porte](/wiki/La_Porte%2C_Texas \"La Porte, Texas\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"). He won both 110 and [400\\-meter hurdles](/wiki/400-meter_hurdles \"400-meter hurdles\") at the [USATF](/wiki/USATF \"USATF\") Youth Athletics Championships. He also won the (high school) National Scholastic Championship in the 110\\-meter high hurdles in 2002, and finished fifth in that same event his senior year in 2003\\. He won the 400\\-meter hurdles at the 2003 National Scholastic meet.[Kerron Clement 48\\.75 Men's 400mH \\| Zurich Diamond League](http://en.omriyadat.com/videos/kerron-clement-400m-diamond-league). Retrieved on 2016\\-09\\-10", "Clement accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida \"University of Florida\") in Gainesville, Florida, where he ran for coach [Mike Holloway](/wiki/Mike_Holloway \"Mike Holloway\")'s [Florida Gators track and field](/wiki/Florida_Gators_track_and_field \"Florida Gators track and field\") team in [National Collegiate Athletic Association](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association \"National Collegiate Athletic Association\") (NCAA) competition in 2004 and 2005\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kerron Clement \\- Olympics \\|url\\=https://floridagators.com/sports/olympics/roster/kerron\\-\\-clement/9616 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-25 \\|website\\=Florida Gators \\|language\\=en}} At the end of his freshman year in 2004, he won the NCAA outdoor championships in the 400\\-meter hurdles (a feat he would repeat in 2005\\). Clement became a U.S. citizen in June 2004 and was eligible to compete for a spot on the U.S. Olympic team, but instead opted to skip the Olympic Trials in favor of competing at the [2004 World Junior Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2004_World_Junior_Championships_in_Athletics \"2004 World Junior Championships in Athletics\"). At the World Junior Championships in July, he won the gold medal in the 400\\-meter hurdles in a championship record time of 48\\.51 seconds. Clement also ran a leg for the American [4x400\\-meter relay](/wiki/4x400-meter_relay \"4x400-meter relay\") team and set a [world junior record](/wiki/List_of_world_junior_records_in_athletics \"List of world junior records in athletics\") of 3:01\\.09\\.", "On March 12, 2005, representing the University of Florida, he broke the indoor world record for the 400\\-meter sprint at the NCAA indoor championships in [Randal Tyson Track Center](/wiki/Randal_Tyson_Track_Center \"Randal Tyson Track Center\") in [Fayetteville, Arkansas](/wiki/Fayetteville%2C_Arkansas \"Fayetteville, Arkansas\") with a time of 44\\.57 seconds. His split at 200\\-meter was 21\\.08 seconds. The record was held for ten years previously by [Michael Johnson](/wiki/Michael_Johnson_%28athlete%29 \"Michael Johnson (athlete)\") at 44\\.63 seconds. Afterwards, Clement anchored Florida's 4x400\\-meter indoor relay to a time of 3:03\\.51\\.Dunaway, Jim (2005\\-03\\-13\\). [Clement demolishes Johnson's World Indoor 400m record](http://www.iaaf.org/news/Kind=2/newsId=28846.html). IAAF; Retrieved August 30, 2010", "Clement set a personal best and 2005 world leading performance in the 400\\-meter hurdles with a 47\\.24 seconds, winning the [2005 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2005_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships \"2005 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships\") title at [Carson, California](/wiki/Carson%2C_California \"Carson, California\"). This was the fastest time posted for the 400\\-meter hurdles in seven years. He opted to turn professional in the summer of 2005 and, while he no longer represented the University of Florida he continued to live and train in Gainesville. Clement faded during the [2005 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2005_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2005 World Championships in Athletics\") in [Helsinki, Finland](/wiki/Helsinki%2C_Finland \"Helsinki, Finland\") and missed out on the medals, finishing fourth. He represented the United States at the [2006 IAAF World Cup](/wiki/2006_IAAF_World_Cup \"2006 IAAF World Cup\") and won the hurdles title ahead of [South African](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") [L. J. van Zyl](/wiki/L._J._van_Zyl \"L. J. van Zyl\").", "Clement earned a gold medal in the 400\\-meter hurdles at the [2007 World Championship](/wiki/2007_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2007 World Championships in Athletics\") in [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka \"Osaka\"). His time of 47\\.61 seconds was a season's best, and he was ranked the number 1 400\\-meter hurdler in the world. In the fall of 2007, he decided to leave Gainesville, and moved to California to train under legendary track coach [Bob Kersee](/wiki/Bob_Kersee \"Bob Kersee\") to prepare for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing.***Track \\& Field News***, June 2008 (pp.16\\-18\\), feature \"**T\\&FN Interview: Kerron Clement**\"; accessed March 4, 2012", "Clement qualified in the 400\\-meter hurdles for the 2008 Summer Olympics on June 29, 2008, at the Olympic Trials in Eugene, Oregon.{{cite news\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-16 \\|url\\=http://sc.lpisd.org/education/components/whatsnew/default.php?sectiondetailid\\=4\\&id\\=1913\\&viewType\\=detail\\&PHPSESSID\\=9dc5cdced178724018b4863908b3bd58 \\|title\\=2003 LPHS graduate Kerron Clement headed for Beijing Olympics \\|date\\=June 30, 2008 \\|work\\=News and Spotlights \\|publisher\\=La Porte ISD \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820231843/http://sc.lpisd.org/education/components/whatsnew/default.php?sectiondetailid\\=4\\&id\\=1913\\&viewType\\=detail\\&PHPSESSID\\=9dc5cdced178724018b4863908b3bd58 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2009 }} Clement advanced to the final where he was a slight favourite over compatriot [Angelo Taylor](/wiki/Angelo_Taylor \"Angelo Taylor\"), but Taylor ran a personal best time to win the gold medal. Clement came second for silver, and later won a gold medal in the 4x400\\-meter relay despite not racing in the final. He closed the year on the top of the podium with a gold medal at the [2008 IAAF World Athletics Final](/wiki/2008_IAAF_World_Athletics_Final \"2008 IAAF World Athletics Final\").", "The following year he competed at the [2009 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2009_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2009 World Championships in Athletics\"). Reigning Olympic champion, Taylor, was eliminated in the heats. Clement won the gold medal in a season's best time of 47\\.91, beating [Javier Culson](/wiki/Javier_Culson \"Javier Culson\") and [Bershawn Jackson](/wiki/Bershawn_Jackson \"Bershawn Jackson\") to the title. He took another gold at the [2009 IAAF World Athletics Final](/wiki/2009_IAAF_World_Athletics_Final \"2009 IAAF World Athletics Final\"), which was the last edition of the competition.", "In 2011 he started off the outdoor season well, running a 48\\.74 on May 7, but he failed to improve on that time the rest of the year. As the two\\-time defending champion, Clement received an automatic entry to the 13th IAAF World Championships in Daegu, South Korea, but his time of 52\\.11 on 30 August was not good enough to advance to the finals.", "Clement finished 3rd in the 400 metres hurdles in 48\\.44 at [2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2015_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships \"2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events\\-\\-\\-Calendar/2015/USATF\\-Outdoor\\-Championships/Results\\-by\\-Day/Results\\-FULL.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219082059/http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events\\-\\-\\-Calendar/2015/USATF\\-Outdoor\\-Championships/Results\\-by\\-Day/Results\\-FULL.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-19 \\|title\\=USA Track \\& Field \\- Results \\- FULL}} to qualify for the [2015 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2015_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2015 World Championships in Athletics\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Clement Takes Fourth in 400\\-Meter Hurdles, Williams\\-Mills Sprints into History at IAAF World Championships \\|url\\=https://floridagators.com/news/2015/8/25/31108 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-07 \\|website\\=Florida Gators \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
Description ----------- Claudel began working on *The Waltz* in about 1889, while her relationship with Rodin was still passionate. As originally conceived, the work depicts two naked dancers, a man and a woman, in a [dance hold](/wiki/Hold_%28dance%29 "Hold (dance)"), frozen at a moment in time in their amorous embrace. The woman's head rests tenderly on the man's right shoulder, with their bodies fluidly merging into a single shape as the man turns his head towards the woman's face as if to kiss her. Claudel continued to work on the subject for several years, eventually seeking a public commission to create a half\-life\-size marble version. Her plaster model of the sculpture was reviewed in 1892 by the art critic [Armand Dayot](/wiki/Armand_Dayot "Armand Dayot"), who was working as an inspector for the French [Ministry of Beaux\-Arts](/wiki/Ministry_of_Beaux-Arts "Ministry of Beaux-Arts"). In his report to the ministry, he praised the sensuality and expression of the work, and the modelling of the figures, but concluded that it was not acceptable for public display due to the indecency of the naked dancers. In response to Dayot's comments, Claudel reworked the sculpture, draping the lower half of the female figure with a flowing skirt which billows out with the twisting movement of the waltzing dancers, and curled around the dancer's heads. Dayot reviewed the amended plaster model in 1893: he was impressed with the sense of movement added by the drapery, and supported the new work, known as *La valse avec voiles* ("The waltz with veils"). He described it as "un gracieux enlacement de formes superbes balancées dans un rythme harmonieux au milieu de l'enveloppement tournoyant des draperies" ("a gracious intertwining of superb shapes balanced in an harmonious rhythm among swirling drapes"), concluding that Claudel was an artist with great talent. Claudel exhibited this revised plaster model in 1893 at the [Paris Salon](/wiki/Paris_Salon "Paris Salon") of the [Société Nationale des Beaux\-Arts](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Nationale_des_Beaux-Arts "Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts"), but the minister [Henry Roujon](/wiki/Henry_Roujon "Henry Roujon") deemed it unacceptable for a woman to be given a public commission for artwork which included a naked man. Despite support from Rodin, the ministry declined to commission a marble version. Emulating Rodin's reuse of figures from earlier sculptures in his later works, Claudel adapted the female figure from *The Waltz* as the figure of *Fortune* in her 1904 bronze cast.
[ "Description\n-----------", "Claudel began working on *The Waltz* in about 1889, while her relationship with Rodin was still passionate. As originally conceived, the work depicts two naked dancers, a man and a woman, in a [dance hold](/wiki/Hold_%28dance%29 \"Hold (dance)\"), frozen at a moment in time in their amorous embrace. The woman's head rests tenderly on the man's right shoulder, with their bodies fluidly merging into a single shape as the man turns his head towards the woman's face as if to kiss her.", "Claudel continued to work on the subject for several years, eventually seeking a public commission to create a half\\-life\\-size marble version. Her plaster model of the sculpture was reviewed in 1892 by the art critic [Armand Dayot](/wiki/Armand_Dayot \"Armand Dayot\"), who was working as an inspector for the French [Ministry of Beaux\\-Arts](/wiki/Ministry_of_Beaux-Arts \"Ministry of Beaux-Arts\"). In his report to the ministry, he praised the sensuality and expression of the work, and the modelling of the figures, but concluded that it was not acceptable for public display due to the indecency of the naked dancers.", "In response to Dayot's comments, Claudel reworked the sculpture, draping the lower half of the female figure with a flowing skirt which billows out with the twisting movement of the waltzing dancers, and curled around the dancer's heads. Dayot reviewed the amended plaster model in 1893: he was impressed with the sense of movement added by the drapery, and supported the new work, known as *La valse avec voiles* (\"The waltz with veils\"). He described it as \"un gracieux enlacement de formes superbes balancées dans un rythme harmonieux au milieu de l'enveloppement tournoyant des draperies\" (\"a gracious intertwining of superb shapes balanced in an harmonious rhythm among swirling drapes\"), concluding that Claudel was an artist with great talent.", "Claudel exhibited this revised plaster model in 1893 at the [Paris Salon](/wiki/Paris_Salon \"Paris Salon\") of the [Société Nationale des Beaux\\-Arts](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Nationale_des_Beaux-Arts \"Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts\"), but the minister [Henry Roujon](/wiki/Henry_Roujon \"Henry Roujon\") deemed it unacceptable for a woman to be given a public commission for artwork which included a naked man. Despite support from Rodin, the ministry declined to commission a marble version.", "Emulating Rodin's reuse of figures from earlier sculptures in his later works, Claudel adapted the female figure from *The Waltz* as the figure of *Fortune* in her 1904 bronze cast.", "" ]
History ------- The first program for the development of the ANTEX M was created by the Portuguese Air Force in 2002\. This program had the objective of jointly researching and developing an experimental military UAV with the [Portuguese Air Force Academy](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force_Academy "Portuguese Air Force Academy")'s Investigation Center ({{lang\-pt\|Centro de Investigação Academia da Força Aérea}}) and several national and international institutes, universities, and industry partners ([EDISOFT](/wiki/EDISOFT "EDISOFT")). The program's cost was estimated to be [€](/wiki/Euro "Euro")2 million and was canceled before starting due to lack of funding. Another program, under the same name, was established in partnership with the [Technical Institute](/wiki/Instituto_Superior_T%C3%A9cnico "Instituto Superior Técnico") (IST) of the University of Lisbon for the development of a remotely controlled vehicle for flight testing new aeronautical composites and materials. During this program the ANTEX\-M models X00, X01 and X02 were developed and participated in the European projects Active Aeroelastic Aircraft Structures (3AS) and Aircraft Reliability Through Intelligent Materials Application (ARTIMA). From 2006 to 2008, the Air Force Academy and the [Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto](/wiki/Faculdade_de_Engenharia_da_Universidade_do_Porto "Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto") (FEUP) collaborated in developing an autonomous flight control system for unmanned aircraft. In 2007, the Portuguese Air Force created the PITVANT ({{lang\-pt\|Projecto de Investigação e Tecnologia em Veículos Aéreos Não Tripulados}}, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Investigation and Technology Project), and presented it as a proposal to the National Defense Ministry for the allocation of €2 million in funding to be distributed during the seven years in which the project would be active. The project focus on the design, construction and testing of small and medium UAV platforms, interoperability of unmanned systems, data fusion, navigation systems. Included is also the testing of the systems in military scenarios, such as: maritime patrol, search and rescue, coastal surveillance, sea pollution control, and reconnaissance. The development of the ANTEX\-M as part of PITVANT involves the FEUP (AsasF Project), IST, Institute of Geodesy and Navigation at the [University of the Federal Armed Forces Munich](/wiki/Bundeswehr_University_Munich "Bundeswehr University Munich"), and the [University of Victoria](/wiki/University_of_Victoria "University of Victoria").
[ "History\n-------", "The first program for the development of the ANTEX M was created by the Portuguese Air Force in 2002\\. This program had the objective of jointly researching and developing an experimental military UAV with the [Portuguese Air Force Academy](/wiki/Portuguese_Air_Force_Academy \"Portuguese Air Force Academy\")'s Investigation Center ({{lang\\-pt\\|Centro de Investigação Academia da Força Aérea}}) and several national and international institutes, universities, and industry partners ([EDISOFT](/wiki/EDISOFT \"EDISOFT\")). The program's cost was estimated to be [€](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\")2 million and was canceled before starting due to lack of funding.", "Another program, under the same name, was established in partnership with the [Technical Institute](/wiki/Instituto_Superior_T%C3%A9cnico \"Instituto Superior Técnico\") (IST) of the University of Lisbon for the development of a remotely controlled vehicle for flight testing new aeronautical composites and materials. During this program the ANTEX\\-M models X00, X01 and X02 were developed and participated in the European projects Active Aeroelastic Aircraft Structures (3AS) and Aircraft Reliability Through Intelligent Materials Application (ARTIMA).", "From 2006 to 2008, the Air Force Academy and the [Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto](/wiki/Faculdade_de_Engenharia_da_Universidade_do_Porto \"Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto\") (FEUP) collaborated in developing an autonomous flight control system for unmanned aircraft.", "In 2007, the Portuguese Air Force created the PITVANT ({{lang\\-pt\\|Projecto de Investigação e Tecnologia em Veículos Aéreos Não Tripulados}}, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Investigation and Technology Project), and presented it as a proposal to the National Defense Ministry for the allocation of €2 million in funding to be distributed during the seven years in which the project would be active.", "The project focus on the design, construction and testing of small and medium UAV platforms, interoperability of unmanned systems, data fusion, navigation systems. Included is also the testing of the systems in military scenarios, such as: maritime patrol, search and rescue, coastal surveillance, sea pollution control, and reconnaissance.", "The development of the ANTEX\\-M as part of PITVANT involves the FEUP (AsasF Project), IST, Institute of Geodesy and Navigation at the [University of the Federal Armed Forces Munich](/wiki/Bundeswehr_University_Munich \"Bundeswehr University Munich\"), and the [University of Victoria](/wiki/University_of_Victoria \"University of Victoria\").", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1860\= 835 \|1870\= 600 \|1880\= 822 \|1890\= 1472 \|1900\= 1690 \|1910\= 4738 \|1920\= 4258 \|1930\= 4362 \|1940\= 4924 \|1950\= 8390 \|1960\= 11467 \|1970\= 14461 \|1980\= 16644 \|1990\= 17032 \|2000\= 20017 \|2010\= 21181 \|2020\= 23683 \|footnote\=Source: United States Census BureauMoffatt, Riley. ''Population History of Western U.S. Cities \& Towns, 1850–1990''. \[\[Lanham, Maryland\|Lanham]]: Scarecrow, 1996, 215\. U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|author\=United States Census Bureau\|author\-link\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=October 2, 2014}} 2018 Estimate{{cite web\|title\=Population Estimates\|url\=https://census.gov/data/tables/2018/demo/popest/total\-cities\-and\-towns.html\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=June 8, 2018}} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2010, there were 21,181 people, 9,081 households, and 5,177 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|2116\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 9,732 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|972\.2\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.7% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.6% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 1\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 3\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 5\.5% of the population. There were 9,081 households, of which 27\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 13\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43\.0% were non\-families. 35\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.23 and the average family size was 2\.84\. The median age in the city was 41\.1 years. 21\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23\.8% were from 25 to 44; 26\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 19\.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48\.0% male and 52\.0% female. ### 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 20,017 people, 8,237 households, and 5,098 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|2,171\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 8,838 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|958\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\.56% White, 0\.3% African American, 1\.3% Native American, 0\.99% Asian, 0\.1% Pacific Islander, 1\.26% from other races, and 2\.48% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3\.73% of the population. There were 8,237 households, out of which 28\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\.2% were married couples living together, 11\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38\.1% were non\-families. 31\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.32 and the average family size was 2\.88\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 23\.2% under the age of 18, 8\.9% from 18 to 24, 26\.5% from 25 to 44, 22\.4% from 45 to 64, and 18\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 93\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,250, and the median income for a family was $40,172\. Males had a median income of $32,624 versus $25,707 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $17,082\. About 11\.0% of families and 15\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 18\.9% of those under age 18 and 9\.2% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1860\\= 835\n\\|1870\\= 600\n\\|1880\\= 822\n\\|1890\\= 1472\n\\|1900\\= 1690\n\\|1910\\= 4738\n\\|1920\\= 4258\n\\|1930\\= 4362\n\\|1940\\= 4924\n\\|1950\\= 8390\n\\|1960\\= 11467\n\\|1970\\= 14461\n\\|1980\\= 16644\n\\|1990\\= 17032\n\\|2000\\= 20017\n\\|2010\\= 21181\n\\|2020\\= 23683\n\\|footnote\\=Source: United States Census BureauMoffatt, Riley. ''Population History of Western U.S. Cities \\& Towns, 1850–1990''. \\[\\[Lanham, Maryland\\|Lanham]]: Scarecrow, 1996, 215\\. \nU.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|author\\=United States Census Bureau\\|author\\-link\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=October 2, 2014}} \n2018 Estimate{{cite web\\|title\\=Population Estimates\\|url\\=https://census.gov/data/tables/2018/demo/popest/total\\-cities\\-and\\-towns.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 8, 2018}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 21,181 people, 9,081 households, and 5,177 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|2116\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 9,732 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|972\\.2\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.7% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.6% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 3\\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 5\\.5% of the population.", "There were 9,081 households, of which 27\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 13\\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43\\.0% were non\\-families. 35\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.23 and the average family size was 2\\.84\\.", "The median age in the city was 41\\.1 years. 21\\.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23\\.8% were from 25 to 44; 26\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 19\\.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48\\.0% male and 52\\.0% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the census of 2000, there were 20,017 people, 8,237 households, and 5,098 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|2,171\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 8,838 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|958\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\\.56% White, 0\\.3% African American, 1\\.3% Native American, 0\\.99% Asian, 0\\.1% Pacific Islander, 1\\.26% from other races, and 2\\.48% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3\\.73% of the population.", "There were 8,237 households, out of which 28\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\\.2% were married couples living together, 11\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38\\.1% were non\\-families. 31\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.32 and the average family size was 2\\.88\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 23\\.2% under the age of 18, 8\\.9% from 18 to 24, 26\\.5% from 25 to 44, 22\\.4% from 45 to 64, and 18\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 93\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\\.5 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $31,250, and the median income for a family was $40,172\\. Males had a median income of $32,624 versus $25,707 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $17,082\\. About 11\\.0% of families and 15\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 18\\.9% of those under age 18 and 9\\.2% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Treatment --------- {{Medref\|section\|date\=October 2021}} Life\-saving heart surgery is always required. If the diagnosis is made in a standard [hospital](/wiki/Hospital "Hospital") or other [clinical facility](/wiki/Clinic "Clinic"), the baby will be transferred to a [children's hospital](/wiki/Children%27s_hospital "Children's hospital"), if such facilities are available, for specialized [paediatric](/wiki/Paediatric "Paediatric") treatment and equipment. The patient will require constant monitoring and care in an [intensive care unit](/wiki/Intensive_care_unit "Intensive care unit") (ICU). ### Palliative [Palliative](/wiki/Palliative "Palliative") treatment is normally administered prior to corrective surgery in order to reduce the symptoms of d\-TGA (and any other complications), giving the newborn or infant a better chance of surviving the surgery. Treatment may include any combination of: ### Surgery #### Minor * [Cardiac catheterization](/wiki/Cardiac_catheterization "Cardiac catheterization") + [Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy](/wiki/Rashkind_balloon_atrial_septostomy "Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy") + [Balloon angioplasty](/wiki/Balloon_angioplasty "Balloon angioplasty") + [Endovascular stenting](/wiki/Endovascular_stent "Endovascular stent") + [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography "Angiography") {{Dynamic list}} Cardiac catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure which provides a means of performing a number of other procedures. A balloon atrial septostomy is performed with a [balloon catheter](/wiki/Balloon_catheter "Balloon catheter"), which is inserted into a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale "Patent foramen ovale") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect "Atrial septal defect") (ASD) and inflated to enlarge the opening in the atrial septum; this creates a shunt which allows a larger amount of oxygenated ("red") blood to enter the systemic circulation. Angioplasty also requires a balloon catheter, which is used to stretch open a [stenotic](/wiki/Stenosis "Stenosis") vessel; this relieves restricted blood flow, which could otherwise lead to [congestive heart failure](/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure "Congestive heart failure") (CHF). An endovascular stent is sometimes placed in a stenotic vessel immediately following a balloon angioplasty to maintain the widened passage. Angiography involves using the catheter to release a [contrast medium](/wiki/Contrast_medium "Contrast medium") into the [chambers](/wiki/Heart_chamber "Heart chamber") and/or vessels of the heart; this process facilitates examining the flow of blood through the chambers during an echocardiogram, or shows the vessels clearly on a chest x\-ray, MRI, or CT scan \- this is of particular importance, as the coronary arteries must be carefully examined and "mapped out" prior to the corrective surgery. It is commonplace for any of these palliations to be performed on a d\-TGA patient. #### Moderate * [Left anterior thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_anterior_thoracotomy "Left anterior thoracotomy") + Isolated [pulmonary artery banding](/wiki/Pulmonary_artery_banding "Pulmonary artery banding") (PAB) * [Left lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_lateral_thoracotomy "Left lateral thoracotomy") + PAB (when coarctation or aortic arch repair also required) * [Right lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Right_lateral_thoracotomy "Right lateral thoracotomy") + [Blalock\-Hanlon atrial septectomy](/wiki/Blalock-Hanlon_atrial_septectomy "Blalock-Hanlon atrial septectomy") {{Dynamic list}} Each of these procedures is performed through an [incision](/wiki/Surgical_incision "Surgical incision") between the [ribs](/wiki/Ribs "Ribs") and visualized by echocardiogram; these are far less common than heart cath procedures. Pulmonary artery banding is used in a small number of cases of d\-TGA, usually when the corrective surgery needs to be delayed, to create an artificial stenosis in order to control pulmonary [blood pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure "Blood pressure"); PAB involves placing a band around the [pulmonary trunk](/wiki/Pulmonary_trunk "Pulmonary trunk"), this band can then be quickly and easily adjusted when necessary. An atrial septectomy is the surgical removal of the atrial septum; this is performed when a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale "Patent foramen ovale") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect "Atrial septal defect") (ASD) are not present and additional shunting is required to raise the oxygen saturation of the blood flowing eventually into the [aorta](/wiki/Aorta "Aorta"). #### Major * [Median sternotomy](/wiki/Median_sternotomy "Median sternotomy") + PAB (when intracardiac procedures also required) + Concomitant atrial septectomy {{Dynamic list}} In recent years, it is quite rare for palliative procedures to be done via median sternotomy. However, if a sternotomy is required for a different procedure, in most cases all procedures that are immediately required will be performed at the same time. ### Monitoring and maintenance [thumb\|right\|Palliated pre\-operative d\-TGA \+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Palliated_neonate.jpg "Palliated neonate.jpg") * [Nasogastric tube](/wiki/Nasogastric_tube "Nasogastric tube") (NG tube or simply NG) * [Intubation](/wiki/Intubation "Intubation"), [oxygen mask](/wiki/Oxygen_mask "Oxygen mask"), or [nasal cannula](/wiki/Nasal_cannula "Nasal cannula") * [Intravenous drip](/wiki/Intravenous_drip "Intravenous drip") (IV) * [Arterial line](/wiki/Arterial_line "Arterial line") * [Central venous catheter](/wiki/Central_venous_catheter "Central venous catheter") * [Fingerprick](/wiki/Fingerprick "Fingerprick") * [Sphygmomanometer](/wiki/Sphygmomanometer "Sphygmomanometer") * [Pulse oximeter](/wiki/Pulse_oximeter "Pulse oximeter") * [EKG](/wiki/Electrocardiogram "Electrocardiogram") {{Dynamic list}} An NG tube is used to deliver [nourishment](/wiki/Nourishment "Nourishment"), and occasionally [medication](/wiki/Medication "Medication"), to the patient. Since the tube extends right into the [stomach](/wiki/Stomach "Stomach"), it can also be used to monitor how well the patient is [digesting](/wiki/Digestion "Digestion") their "food". [Paediatric](/wiki/Paediatric "Paediatric") units normally provide facilities and equipment for mothers of infant patients to [pump](/wiki/Breast_pump "Breast pump") their [breastmilk](/wiki/Breastmilk "Breastmilk"), which can then be fed to the infant through the NG tube, and/or stored for later use. [Oxygen therapy](/wiki/Oxygen_therapy "Oxygen therapy") is commonplace for hospitalized d\-TGA patients. This may range from an oxygen mask resting on the bed nearby their head to intubation. In some cases, patients are intubated as a precaution; the machine can monitor [breathing](/wiki/Control_of_respiration "Control of respiration") and supplement the patient as much or as little as they need. IV's are used to deliver medication, blood products, or other fluids to the patient. Arterial lines provide a constant monitor of [blood pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure "Blood pressure"), as well as a method of obtaining samples for [blood gas](/wiki/Blood_gas "Blood gas") tests; central lines can also monitor blood pressure and provide blood samples, as well as provide a means to deliver medication and nourishment; fingerpricks (or heelpricks on small babies) are used to obtain blood samples for certain tests. A sphygmomanometer may be used for intermittent blood pressure monitoring even if a patient is being otherwise monitored using a central or arterial line. A pulse oximeter is attached to a finger or toe and provides constant or intermittent monitoring of the blood's oxygen saturation level. An EKG creates a visual readout of how well the heart rhythm is functioning. ### Medication * [Prostaglandin](/wiki/Prostaglandin "Prostaglandin") (PGE) * [Antibiotics](/wiki/Antibiotics "Antibiotics") * [Diuretics](/wiki/Diuretics "Diuretics") * [Analgesics](/wiki/Analgesics "Analgesics") * [Cardiac glycosides](/wiki/Cardiac_glycoside "Cardiac glycoside") * [Sedatives](/wiki/Sedatives "Sedatives") {{Dynamic list}} When PGE is administered to a newborn, it prevents the ductus arteriosus from closing, therefore providing an additional shunt through which to provide the systemic circulation with a higher level of oxygen. Antibiotics may be administered preventatively. However, due to the physical strain caused by uncorrected d\-TGA, as well as the potential for introduction of bacteria via arterial and central lines, infection is not uncommon in pre\-operative patients. Diuretics aid in flushing excess fluid from the body, thereby easing strain on the heart. Analgesics normally are not used pre\-operatively, but they may be used in certain cases. They are occasionally used partially for their sedative effects. Cardiac glycosides are used to maintain proper heart rhythm while increasing the strength of each [contraction](/wiki/Muscle_contraction "Muscle contraction"). Sedatives may be used palliatively to prevent a young child from thrashing about or pulling out any of their lines. ### Corrective surgery #### Nikaidoh Bex who introduced the possibility of aortic translocation in 1980\. But Nikaidoh has put the procedure in practice in 1984\. It results in an anatomical normal heart, even better than with an ASO, because also the cones are switched instead of only the arteries as with an ASO. The procedure is contra\-indicated by certain coronary anomalies. In 1984, Nikaidoh introduced a surgical approach for the management of TGA, VSD, and pulmonary stenosis (PS), which he called "aortic translocation and biventricular outflow tract reconstruction". The repair consisted of harvesting the aortic root from the right ventricle, with or without the coronary arteries attached, and relieving the LVOTO by dividing the outlet septum and pulmonary valve annulus. The LVOT is then restored by posteriorly translocating the aortic root and closing the VSD. Finally, the right ventricular outflow tract is reconstructed with a pericardial patch. This is a technically challenging procedure, but results in a more "normal" anatomic repair. The main thing is the repositioning of the native aortic root over to the LV cavity, avoiding the creation of a long tortuous intraventricular tunnel. This technique appears to prevent the development of LVOTO, which is a frequent complication of the Rastelli repair. The addition of the Lecompte maneuver may prevent branch pulmonary artery stenosis that may occur secondary to compression of the PA by the posteriorly displaced, translocated aortic root. It creates a direct RV to PA anastomosis and avoiding the use of a conduit, which should decrease the incidence of RVOT reinterventions. #### Lecompte Since 1981 LeCompte has put his [LeCompte manoeuvre](/wiki/LeCompte_manoeuvre "LeCompte manoeuvre") in use. This is used with the REV (Réparation à l'Etage Ventriculaire). This surgery is like the Rastelli procedure, but with the use of the pulmonary artery without a conduit. #### Rastelli When an arterials switch operation (ASO) is not possible e.g. in case of LVOTO an option is the [Rastelli procedure](/wiki/Rastelli_procedure "Rastelli procedure"). The pulmonal artery is shifted with help of conduit to the right ventricle. It has been used since 1960s. It has a disadvantage that the conduit does not grow, so re\-operation is necessary. #### Arterial switch [thumb\|150px\|left\|Arterial switch procedure](/wiki/File:Blausen_0046_ArterialSwitchOperation_01.png "Blausen 0046 ArterialSwitchOperation 01.png") [thumb\|right\|Immediate post\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\-TGA \+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate.jpg "Postop Jatene neonate.jpg") The **[Jatene procedure](/wiki/Jatene_procedure "Jatene procedure")** surgery is the preferred, and most frequently used, method of correcting d\-TGA.{{Citation\|last1\=Wong\|first1\=Tom\|title\=19 \- Pacemakers and Internal Cardioverter Defibrillators in Adult Congenital Heart Disease\|date\=2018\-01\-01\|url\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702069291000198\|work\=Diagnosis and Management of Adult Congenital Heart Disease (Third Edition)\|pages\=232–252\|editor\-last\=Gatzoulis\|editor\-first\=Michael A.\|publisher\=Elsevier\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1016/b978\-0\-7020\-6929\-1\.00019\-8\|isbn\=978\-0\-7020\-6929\-1\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-11\|last2\=Janousek\|first2\=Jan\|last3\=Lim\|first3\=Eric\|editor2\-last\=Webb\|editor2\-first\=Gary D.\|editor3\-last\=Daubeney\|editor3\-first\=Piers E. F.}} It is ideally performed on an infant between 8–14 days old. The heart and vessels are accessed via median sternotomy, and a [cardiopulmonary bypass](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_bypass "Cardiopulmonary bypass") machine is used; as this machine needs its "circulation" to be filled with blood, a child will require a [blood transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion "Blood transfusion") for this surgery. The procedure involves [transecting](/wiki/wikt:Transect "Transect") both the aorta and pulmonary artery; the coronary arteries are then detached from the aorta and reattached to the [neo\-aorta](/wiki/Neo- "Neo-"), before "swapping" the upper portion of the aorta and pulmonary artery to the opposite arterial [root](/wiki/Root "Root"). Including the [anaesthesia](/wiki/Anaesthesia "Anaesthesia") and immediate [post operative](/wiki/Post_operative "Post operative") recovery, this surgery takes an average of approximately six to eight hours to complete. Some arterial switch recipients may present with post\-operative pulmonary stenosis, which would then be repaired with angioplasty, pulmonary [stenting](/wiki/Stent "Stent") via heart cath or median sternotomy, and/or [xenograft](/wiki/Xenograft "Xenograft"). [thumb\|right\|One day post\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\-TGA \+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate2.jpg "Postop Jatene neonate2.jpg") #### Atrial switch In some cases, it is not possible to perform an arterial switch, either because of late diagnosis, [sepsis](/wiki/Sepsis "Sepsis"), or a [contraindicative](/wiki/Contraindication "Contraindication") coronary artery pattern. In the case of sepsis or late diagnosis, a delayed Arterial Switch can sometimes be made possible by PAB, which may also require a concomitant construction of an aortic\-to\-pulmonary artery shunt. When an arterial switch is impossible, an atrial switch will be attempted using either the **[Senning](/wiki/Senning_procedure "Senning procedure")** or **[Mustard](/wiki/Mustard_procedure "Mustard procedure")** procedure.{{Citation\|last1\=Issa\|first1\=Ziad F.\|title\=14 \- Atrial Tachyarrhythmias in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease\|date\=2019\-01\-01\|url\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323523561000141\|work\=Clinical Arrhythmology and Electrophysiology (Third Edition)\|pages\=407–420\|editor\-last\=Issa\|editor\-first\=Ziad F.\|place\=Philadelphia\|publisher\=Elsevier\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1016/b978\-0\-323\-52356\-1\.00014\-1\|isbn\=978\-0\-323\-52356\-1\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-11\|last2\=Miller\|first2\=John M.\|last3\=Zipes\|first3\=Douglas P.\|s2cid\=239401932 \|editor2\-last\=Miller\|editor2\-first\=John M.\|editor3\-last\=Zipes\|editor3\-first\=Douglas P.}} Both methods involve creating a [baffle](/wiki/Baffle_%28medical%29 "Baffle (medical)") to redirect red and blue blood flow to the appropriate artery. Since the late 1970s the Mustard procedure has been preferred. ### Post\-operative Following corrective surgery, but prior to cessation of anaesthesia, two small incisions are made immediately below the sternotomy incision which provide exit points for [chest tubes](/wiki/Chest_tube "Chest tube") used to drain fluid from the thoracic cavity, with one tube placed at the front and another at the rear of the heart. The patient returns to the ICU post\-operatively for recovery, maintenance, and close observation; recovery time may vary, but tends to average approximately two weeks, after which the patient may be transferred to a [Transitional Care Unit](/wiki/Transitional_Care_Unit "Transitional Care Unit") (**TCU**), and eventually to a [cardiac ward](/wiki/Cardiac_ward "Cardiac ward"). Post\-operative care is very similar to the palliative care received, with the exception that the patient no longer requires PGE or the surgical palliation procedures. Additionally, the patient is kept on a cooling blanket for a period of time to prevent [fever](/wiki/Fever "Fever"), which could cause [brain damage](/wiki/Brain_damage "Brain damage"). The sternum is not closed immediately which allows extra space in the [thoracic cavity](/wiki/Thoracic_cavity "Thoracic cavity"), preventing excess pressure on the heart, which [swells](/wiki/Edema "Edema") considerably following the surgery; the sternum and incision are closed after a few days, when swelling is sufficiently reduced. ### Follow\-up The infant will continue to see a [cardiologist](/wiki/Cardiologist "Cardiologist") on a regular basis. Although these appointments are required less frequently as time goes on, they will continue throughout the lifetime of the individual, and may increase in the event of complications or as the individual approaches [middle age](/wiki/Middle_age "Middle age"). The cardiology exam may include an echocardiogram, EKG, and/or [cardiac stress test](/wiki/Cardiac_stress_test "Cardiac stress test") in addition to consultation. Additionally, some individuals may require ongoing medication therapy at home, which may include diuretics (such as [furosemide](/wiki/Furosemide "Furosemide") or [spironolactone](/wiki/Spironolactone "Spironolactone")), analgesics (such as [paracetamol](/wiki/Paracetamol "Paracetamol")), cardiac glycosides (such as [digoxin](/wiki/Digoxin "Digoxin")), [anticoagulants](/wiki/Anticoagulant "Anticoagulant") (such as [heparin](/wiki/Heparin "Heparin") or [aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin "Aspirin")), or other medications. If the individual has undergone stenting, an anticoagulant will be a necessity to prevent build\-up around the stent(s), as the body will perceive the foreign body as a wound and attempt to heal it. Some patients who had alternate corrective surgery, such as the Mustard or Senning procedure, may have issues with SA and VA nodal transmissions in later life. Typical symptoms include palpitations and problems with low heart rates. This is commonly solved with a Pacemaker unit, providing scar tissue from the original operation does not block its functionality. More recently, ACE inhibitors have been prescribed to patients in the hope of relieving stress on the heart.
[ "Treatment\n---------", "{{Medref\\|section\\|date\\=October 2021}}\nLife\\-saving heart surgery is always required. If the diagnosis is made in a standard [hospital](/wiki/Hospital \"Hospital\") or other [clinical facility](/wiki/Clinic \"Clinic\"), the baby will be transferred to a [children's hospital](/wiki/Children%27s_hospital \"Children's hospital\"), if such facilities are available, for specialized [paediatric](/wiki/Paediatric \"Paediatric\") treatment and equipment.", "The patient will require constant monitoring and care in an [intensive care unit](/wiki/Intensive_care_unit \"Intensive care unit\") (ICU).", "### Palliative", "[Palliative](/wiki/Palliative \"Palliative\") treatment is normally administered prior to corrective surgery in order to reduce the symptoms of d\\-TGA (and any other complications), giving the newborn or infant a better chance of surviving the surgery. Treatment may include any combination of:", "### Surgery", "#### Minor", "* [Cardiac catheterization](/wiki/Cardiac_catheterization \"Cardiac catheterization\")\n\t+ [Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy](/wiki/Rashkind_balloon_atrial_septostomy \"Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy\")\n\t+ [Balloon angioplasty](/wiki/Balloon_angioplasty \"Balloon angioplasty\")\n\t+ [Endovascular stenting](/wiki/Endovascular_stent \"Endovascular stent\")\n\t+ [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography \"Angiography\")\n\t{{Dynamic list}}\n\tCardiac catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure which provides a means of performing a number of other procedures.", "A balloon atrial septostomy is performed with a [balloon catheter](/wiki/Balloon_catheter \"Balloon catheter\"), which is inserted into a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale \"Patent foramen ovale\") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect \"Atrial septal defect\") (ASD) and inflated to enlarge the opening in the atrial septum; this creates a shunt which allows a larger amount of oxygenated (\"red\") blood to enter the systemic circulation.", "Angioplasty also requires a balloon catheter, which is used to stretch open a [stenotic](/wiki/Stenosis \"Stenosis\") vessel; this relieves restricted blood flow, which could otherwise lead to [congestive heart failure](/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure \"Congestive heart failure\") (CHF).", "An endovascular stent is sometimes placed in a stenotic vessel immediately following a balloon angioplasty to maintain the widened passage.", "Angiography involves using the catheter to release a [contrast medium](/wiki/Contrast_medium \"Contrast medium\") into the [chambers](/wiki/Heart_chamber \"Heart chamber\") and/or vessels of the heart; this process facilitates examining the flow of blood through the chambers during an echocardiogram, or shows the vessels clearly on a chest x\\-ray, MRI, or CT scan \\- this is of particular importance, as the coronary arteries must be carefully examined and \"mapped out\" prior to the corrective surgery.", "It is commonplace for any of these palliations to be performed on a d\\-TGA patient.", "#### Moderate", "* [Left anterior thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_anterior_thoracotomy \"Left anterior thoracotomy\")\n\t+ Isolated [pulmonary artery banding](/wiki/Pulmonary_artery_banding \"Pulmonary artery banding\") (PAB)\n* [Left lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_lateral_thoracotomy \"Left lateral thoracotomy\")\n\t+ PAB (when coarctation or aortic arch repair also required)\n* [Right lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Right_lateral_thoracotomy \"Right lateral thoracotomy\")\n\t+ [Blalock\\-Hanlon atrial septectomy](/wiki/Blalock-Hanlon_atrial_septectomy \"Blalock-Hanlon atrial septectomy\")\n\t{{Dynamic list}}\n\tEach of these procedures is performed through an [incision](/wiki/Surgical_incision \"Surgical incision\") between the [ribs](/wiki/Ribs \"Ribs\") and visualized by echocardiogram; these are far less common than heart cath procedures.", "Pulmonary artery banding is used in a small number of cases of d\\-TGA, usually when the corrective surgery needs to be delayed, to create an artificial stenosis in order to control pulmonary [blood pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure \"Blood pressure\"); PAB involves placing a band around the [pulmonary trunk](/wiki/Pulmonary_trunk \"Pulmonary trunk\"), this band can then be quickly and easily adjusted when necessary.", "An atrial septectomy is the surgical removal of the atrial septum; this is performed when a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale \"Patent foramen ovale\") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect \"Atrial septal defect\") (ASD) are not present and additional shunting is required to raise the oxygen saturation of the blood flowing eventually into the [aorta](/wiki/Aorta \"Aorta\").", "#### Major", "* [Median sternotomy](/wiki/Median_sternotomy \"Median sternotomy\")\n\t+ PAB (when intracardiac procedures also required)\n\t+ Concomitant atrial septectomy\n\t{{Dynamic list}}\n\tIn recent years, it is quite rare for palliative procedures to be done via median sternotomy. However, if a sternotomy is required for a different procedure, in most cases all procedures that are immediately required will be performed at the same time.", "### Monitoring and maintenance", "[thumb\\|right\\|Palliated pre\\-operative d\\-TGA \\+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Palliated_neonate.jpg \"Palliated neonate.jpg\")\n* [Nasogastric tube](/wiki/Nasogastric_tube \"Nasogastric tube\") (NG tube or simply NG)\n* [Intubation](/wiki/Intubation \"Intubation\"), [oxygen mask](/wiki/Oxygen_mask \"Oxygen mask\"), or [nasal cannula](/wiki/Nasal_cannula \"Nasal cannula\")\n* [Intravenous drip](/wiki/Intravenous_drip \"Intravenous drip\") (IV)\n* [Arterial line](/wiki/Arterial_line \"Arterial line\")\n* [Central venous catheter](/wiki/Central_venous_catheter \"Central venous catheter\")\n* [Fingerprick](/wiki/Fingerprick \"Fingerprick\")\n* [Sphygmomanometer](/wiki/Sphygmomanometer \"Sphygmomanometer\")\n* [Pulse oximeter](/wiki/Pulse_oximeter \"Pulse oximeter\")\n* [EKG](/wiki/Electrocardiogram \"Electrocardiogram\")\n{{Dynamic list}}\nAn NG tube is used to deliver [nourishment](/wiki/Nourishment \"Nourishment\"), and occasionally [medication](/wiki/Medication \"Medication\"), to the patient. Since the tube extends right into the [stomach](/wiki/Stomach \"Stomach\"), it can also be used to monitor how well the patient is [digesting](/wiki/Digestion \"Digestion\") their \"food\". [Paediatric](/wiki/Paediatric \"Paediatric\") units normally provide facilities and equipment for mothers of infant patients to [pump](/wiki/Breast_pump \"Breast pump\") their [breastmilk](/wiki/Breastmilk \"Breastmilk\"), which can then be fed to the infant through the NG tube, and/or stored for later use.", "[Oxygen therapy](/wiki/Oxygen_therapy \"Oxygen therapy\") is commonplace for hospitalized d\\-TGA patients. This may range from an oxygen mask resting on the bed nearby their head to intubation. In some cases, patients are intubated as a precaution; the machine can monitor [breathing](/wiki/Control_of_respiration \"Control of respiration\") and supplement the patient as much or as little as they need.", "IV's are used to deliver medication, blood products, or other fluids to the patient. Arterial lines provide a constant monitor of [blood pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure \"Blood pressure\"), as well as a method of obtaining samples for [blood gas](/wiki/Blood_gas \"Blood gas\") tests; central lines can also monitor blood pressure and provide blood samples, as well as provide a means to deliver medication and nourishment; fingerpricks (or heelpricks on small babies) are used to obtain blood samples for certain tests.", "A sphygmomanometer may be used for intermittent blood pressure monitoring even if a patient is being otherwise monitored using a central or arterial line.", "A pulse oximeter is attached to a finger or toe and provides constant or intermittent monitoring of the blood's oxygen saturation level.", "An EKG creates a visual readout of how well the heart rhythm is functioning.", "### Medication", "* [Prostaglandin](/wiki/Prostaglandin \"Prostaglandin\") (PGE)\n* [Antibiotics](/wiki/Antibiotics \"Antibiotics\")\n* [Diuretics](/wiki/Diuretics \"Diuretics\")\n* [Analgesics](/wiki/Analgesics \"Analgesics\")\n* [Cardiac glycosides](/wiki/Cardiac_glycoside \"Cardiac glycoside\")\n* [Sedatives](/wiki/Sedatives \"Sedatives\")\n{{Dynamic list}}\nWhen PGE is administered to a newborn, it prevents the ductus arteriosus from closing, therefore providing an additional shunt through which to provide the systemic circulation with a higher level of oxygen.", "Antibiotics may be administered preventatively. However, due to the physical strain caused by uncorrected d\\-TGA, as well as the potential for introduction of bacteria via arterial and central lines, infection is not uncommon in pre\\-operative patients.", "Diuretics aid in flushing excess fluid from the body, thereby easing strain on the heart.", "Analgesics normally are not used pre\\-operatively, but they may be used in certain cases. They are occasionally used partially for their sedative effects.", "Cardiac glycosides are used to maintain proper heart rhythm while increasing the strength of each [contraction](/wiki/Muscle_contraction \"Muscle contraction\").", "Sedatives may be used palliatively to prevent a young child from thrashing about or pulling out any of their lines.", "### Corrective surgery", "#### Nikaidoh", "Bex who introduced the possibility of aortic translocation in 1980\\. But Nikaidoh has put the procedure in practice in 1984\\. It results in an anatomical normal heart, even better than with an ASO, because also the cones are switched instead of only the arteries as with an ASO. The procedure is contra\\-indicated by certain coronary anomalies.", "In 1984, Nikaidoh introduced a surgical approach for the management of TGA, VSD, and pulmonary stenosis (PS), which he called \"aortic translocation and biventricular outflow tract reconstruction\". The repair consisted of harvesting the aortic root from the right ventricle, with or without the coronary arteries attached, and relieving the LVOTO by dividing the outlet septum and pulmonary valve annulus. The LVOT is then restored by posteriorly translocating the aortic root and closing the VSD. Finally, the right ventricular outflow tract is reconstructed with a pericardial patch. This is a technically challenging procedure, but results in a more \"normal\" anatomic repair. The main thing is the repositioning of the native aortic root over to the LV cavity, avoiding the creation of a long tortuous intraventricular tunnel. This technique appears to prevent the development of LVOTO, which is a frequent complication of the Rastelli repair. The addition of the Lecompte maneuver may prevent branch pulmonary artery stenosis that may occur secondary to compression of the PA by the posteriorly displaced, translocated aortic root. It creates a direct RV to PA anastomosis and avoiding the use of a conduit, which should decrease the incidence of RVOT reinterventions.", "#### Lecompte", "Since 1981 LeCompte has put his [LeCompte manoeuvre](/wiki/LeCompte_manoeuvre \"LeCompte manoeuvre\") in use. This is used with the REV (Réparation à l'Etage Ventriculaire). This surgery is like the Rastelli procedure, but with the use of the pulmonary artery without a conduit.", "#### Rastelli", "When an arterials switch operation (ASO) is not possible e.g. in case of LVOTO an option is the [Rastelli procedure](/wiki/Rastelli_procedure \"Rastelli procedure\"). The pulmonal artery is shifted with help of conduit to the right ventricle. It has been used since 1960s. It has a disadvantage that the conduit does not grow, so re\\-operation is necessary.", "#### Arterial switch", "[thumb\\|150px\\|left\\|Arterial switch procedure](/wiki/File:Blausen_0046_ArterialSwitchOperation_01.png \"Blausen 0046 ArterialSwitchOperation 01.png\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Immediate post\\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\\-TGA \\+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate.jpg \"Postop Jatene neonate.jpg\")\nThe **[Jatene procedure](/wiki/Jatene_procedure \"Jatene procedure\")** surgery is the preferred, and most frequently used, method of correcting d\\-TGA.{{Citation\\|last1\\=Wong\\|first1\\=Tom\\|title\\=19 \\- Pacemakers and Internal Cardioverter Defibrillators in Adult Congenital Heart Disease\\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-01\\|url\\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702069291000198\\|work\\=Diagnosis and Management of Adult Congenital Heart Disease (Third Edition)\\|pages\\=232–252\\|editor\\-last\\=Gatzoulis\\|editor\\-first\\=Michael A.\\|publisher\\=Elsevier\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/b978\\-0\\-7020\\-6929\\-1\\.00019\\-8\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7020\\-6929\\-1\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-11\\|last2\\=Janousek\\|first2\\=Jan\\|last3\\=Lim\\|first3\\=Eric\\|editor2\\-last\\=Webb\\|editor2\\-first\\=Gary D.\\|editor3\\-last\\=Daubeney\\|editor3\\-first\\=Piers E. F.}} It is ideally performed on an infant between 8–14 days old.", "The heart and vessels are accessed via median sternotomy, and a [cardiopulmonary bypass](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_bypass \"Cardiopulmonary bypass\") machine is used; as this machine needs its \"circulation\" to be filled with blood, a child will require a [blood transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion \"Blood transfusion\") for this surgery. The procedure involves [transecting](/wiki/wikt:Transect \"Transect\") both the aorta and pulmonary artery; the coronary arteries are then detached from the aorta and reattached to the [neo\\-aorta](/wiki/Neo- \"Neo-\"), before \"swapping\" the upper portion of the aorta and pulmonary artery to the opposite arterial [root](/wiki/Root \"Root\"). Including the [anaesthesia](/wiki/Anaesthesia \"Anaesthesia\") and immediate [post operative](/wiki/Post_operative \"Post operative\") recovery, this surgery takes an average of approximately six to eight hours to complete.", "Some arterial switch recipients may present with post\\-operative pulmonary stenosis, which would then be repaired with angioplasty, pulmonary [stenting](/wiki/Stent \"Stent\") via heart cath or median sternotomy, and/or [xenograft](/wiki/Xenograft \"Xenograft\").\n[thumb\\|right\\|One day post\\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\\-TGA \\+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate2.jpg \"Postop Jatene neonate2.jpg\")", "#### Atrial switch", "In some cases, it is not possible to perform an arterial switch, either because of late diagnosis, [sepsis](/wiki/Sepsis \"Sepsis\"), or a [contraindicative](/wiki/Contraindication \"Contraindication\") coronary artery pattern. In the case of sepsis or late diagnosis, a delayed Arterial Switch can sometimes be made possible by PAB, which may also require a concomitant construction of an aortic\\-to\\-pulmonary artery shunt.", "When an arterial switch is impossible, an atrial switch will be attempted using either the **[Senning](/wiki/Senning_procedure \"Senning procedure\")** or **[Mustard](/wiki/Mustard_procedure \"Mustard procedure\")** procedure.{{Citation\\|last1\\=Issa\\|first1\\=Ziad F.\\|title\\=14 \\- Atrial Tachyarrhythmias in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease\\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-01\\|url\\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323523561000141\\|work\\=Clinical Arrhythmology and Electrophysiology (Third Edition)\\|pages\\=407–420\\|editor\\-last\\=Issa\\|editor\\-first\\=Ziad F.\\|place\\=Philadelphia\\|publisher\\=Elsevier\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/b978\\-0\\-323\\-52356\\-1\\.00014\\-1\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-323\\-52356\\-1\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-11\\|last2\\=Miller\\|first2\\=John M.\\|last3\\=Zipes\\|first3\\=Douglas P.\\|s2cid\\=239401932 \\|editor2\\-last\\=Miller\\|editor2\\-first\\=John M.\\|editor3\\-last\\=Zipes\\|editor3\\-first\\=Douglas P.}} Both methods involve creating a [baffle](/wiki/Baffle_%28medical%29 \"Baffle (medical)\") to redirect red and blue blood flow to the appropriate artery. Since the late 1970s the Mustard procedure has been preferred.", "### Post\\-operative", "Following corrective surgery, but prior to cessation of anaesthesia, two small incisions are made immediately below the sternotomy incision which provide exit points for [chest tubes](/wiki/Chest_tube \"Chest tube\") used to drain fluid from the thoracic cavity, with one tube placed at the front and another at the rear of the heart.", "The patient returns to the ICU post\\-operatively for recovery, maintenance, and close observation; recovery time may vary, but tends to average approximately two weeks, after which the patient may be transferred to a [Transitional Care Unit](/wiki/Transitional_Care_Unit \"Transitional Care Unit\") (**TCU**), and eventually to a [cardiac ward](/wiki/Cardiac_ward \"Cardiac ward\").", "Post\\-operative care is very similar to the palliative care received, with the exception that the patient no longer requires PGE or the surgical palliation procedures. Additionally, the patient is kept on a cooling blanket for a period of time to prevent [fever](/wiki/Fever \"Fever\"), which could cause [brain damage](/wiki/Brain_damage \"Brain damage\"). The sternum is not closed immediately which allows extra space in the [thoracic cavity](/wiki/Thoracic_cavity \"Thoracic cavity\"), preventing excess pressure on the heart, which [swells](/wiki/Edema \"Edema\") considerably following the surgery; the sternum and incision are closed after a few days, when swelling is sufficiently reduced.", "### Follow\\-up", "The infant will continue to see a [cardiologist](/wiki/Cardiologist \"Cardiologist\") on a regular basis. Although these appointments are required less frequently as time goes on, they will continue throughout the lifetime of the individual, and may increase in the event of complications or as the individual approaches [middle age](/wiki/Middle_age \"Middle age\").", "The cardiology exam may include an echocardiogram, EKG, and/or [cardiac stress test](/wiki/Cardiac_stress_test \"Cardiac stress test\") in addition to consultation.", "Additionally, some individuals may require ongoing medication therapy at home, which may include diuretics (such as [furosemide](/wiki/Furosemide \"Furosemide\") or [spironolactone](/wiki/Spironolactone \"Spironolactone\")), analgesics (such as [paracetamol](/wiki/Paracetamol \"Paracetamol\")), cardiac glycosides (such as [digoxin](/wiki/Digoxin \"Digoxin\")), [anticoagulants](/wiki/Anticoagulant \"Anticoagulant\") (such as [heparin](/wiki/Heparin \"Heparin\") or [aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin \"Aspirin\")), or other medications. If the individual has undergone stenting, an anticoagulant will be a necessity to prevent build\\-up around the stent(s), as the body will perceive the foreign body as a wound and attempt to heal it.", "Some patients who had alternate corrective surgery, such as the Mustard or Senning procedure, may have issues with SA and VA nodal transmissions in later life. Typical symptoms include palpitations and problems with low heart rates. This is commonly solved with a Pacemaker unit, providing scar tissue from the original operation does not block its functionality.", "More recently, ACE inhibitors have been prescribed to patients in the hope of relieving stress on the heart.", "" ]
### Surgery #### Minor * [Cardiac catheterization](/wiki/Cardiac_catheterization "Cardiac catheterization") + [Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy](/wiki/Rashkind_balloon_atrial_septostomy "Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy") + [Balloon angioplasty](/wiki/Balloon_angioplasty "Balloon angioplasty") + [Endovascular stenting](/wiki/Endovascular_stent "Endovascular stent") + [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography "Angiography") {{Dynamic list}} Cardiac catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure which provides a means of performing a number of other procedures. A balloon atrial septostomy is performed with a [balloon catheter](/wiki/Balloon_catheter "Balloon catheter"), which is inserted into a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale "Patent foramen ovale") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect "Atrial septal defect") (ASD) and inflated to enlarge the opening in the atrial septum; this creates a shunt which allows a larger amount of oxygenated ("red") blood to enter the systemic circulation. Angioplasty also requires a balloon catheter, which is used to stretch open a [stenotic](/wiki/Stenosis "Stenosis") vessel; this relieves restricted blood flow, which could otherwise lead to [congestive heart failure](/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure "Congestive heart failure") (CHF). An endovascular stent is sometimes placed in a stenotic vessel immediately following a balloon angioplasty to maintain the widened passage. Angiography involves using the catheter to release a [contrast medium](/wiki/Contrast_medium "Contrast medium") into the [chambers](/wiki/Heart_chamber "Heart chamber") and/or vessels of the heart; this process facilitates examining the flow of blood through the chambers during an echocardiogram, or shows the vessels clearly on a chest x\-ray, MRI, or CT scan \- this is of particular importance, as the coronary arteries must be carefully examined and "mapped out" prior to the corrective surgery. It is commonplace for any of these palliations to be performed on a d\-TGA patient. #### Moderate * [Left anterior thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_anterior_thoracotomy "Left anterior thoracotomy") + Isolated [pulmonary artery banding](/wiki/Pulmonary_artery_banding "Pulmonary artery banding") (PAB) * [Left lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_lateral_thoracotomy "Left lateral thoracotomy") + PAB (when coarctation or aortic arch repair also required) * [Right lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Right_lateral_thoracotomy "Right lateral thoracotomy") + [Blalock\-Hanlon atrial septectomy](/wiki/Blalock-Hanlon_atrial_septectomy "Blalock-Hanlon atrial septectomy") {{Dynamic list}} Each of these procedures is performed through an [incision](/wiki/Surgical_incision "Surgical incision") between the [ribs](/wiki/Ribs "Ribs") and visualized by echocardiogram; these are far less common than heart cath procedures. Pulmonary artery banding is used in a small number of cases of d\-TGA, usually when the corrective surgery needs to be delayed, to create an artificial stenosis in order to control pulmonary [blood pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure "Blood pressure"); PAB involves placing a band around the [pulmonary trunk](/wiki/Pulmonary_trunk "Pulmonary trunk"), this band can then be quickly and easily adjusted when necessary. An atrial septectomy is the surgical removal of the atrial septum; this is performed when a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale "Patent foramen ovale") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect "Atrial septal defect") (ASD) are not present and additional shunting is required to raise the oxygen saturation of the blood flowing eventually into the [aorta](/wiki/Aorta "Aorta"). #### Major * [Median sternotomy](/wiki/Median_sternotomy "Median sternotomy") + PAB (when intracardiac procedures also required) + Concomitant atrial septectomy {{Dynamic list}} In recent years, it is quite rare for palliative procedures to be done via median sternotomy. However, if a sternotomy is required for a different procedure, in most cases all procedures that are immediately required will be performed at the same time.
[ "### Surgery", "#### Minor", "* [Cardiac catheterization](/wiki/Cardiac_catheterization \"Cardiac catheterization\")\n\t+ [Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy](/wiki/Rashkind_balloon_atrial_septostomy \"Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy\")\n\t+ [Balloon angioplasty](/wiki/Balloon_angioplasty \"Balloon angioplasty\")\n\t+ [Endovascular stenting](/wiki/Endovascular_stent \"Endovascular stent\")\n\t+ [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography \"Angiography\")\n\t{{Dynamic list}}\n\tCardiac catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure which provides a means of performing a number of other procedures.", "A balloon atrial septostomy is performed with a [balloon catheter](/wiki/Balloon_catheter \"Balloon catheter\"), which is inserted into a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale \"Patent foramen ovale\") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect \"Atrial septal defect\") (ASD) and inflated to enlarge the opening in the atrial septum; this creates a shunt which allows a larger amount of oxygenated (\"red\") blood to enter the systemic circulation.", "Angioplasty also requires a balloon catheter, which is used to stretch open a [stenotic](/wiki/Stenosis \"Stenosis\") vessel; this relieves restricted blood flow, which could otherwise lead to [congestive heart failure](/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure \"Congestive heart failure\") (CHF).", "An endovascular stent is sometimes placed in a stenotic vessel immediately following a balloon angioplasty to maintain the widened passage.", "Angiography involves using the catheter to release a [contrast medium](/wiki/Contrast_medium \"Contrast medium\") into the [chambers](/wiki/Heart_chamber \"Heart chamber\") and/or vessels of the heart; this process facilitates examining the flow of blood through the chambers during an echocardiogram, or shows the vessels clearly on a chest x\\-ray, MRI, or CT scan \\- this is of particular importance, as the coronary arteries must be carefully examined and \"mapped out\" prior to the corrective surgery.", "It is commonplace for any of these palliations to be performed on a d\\-TGA patient.", "#### Moderate", "* [Left anterior thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_anterior_thoracotomy \"Left anterior thoracotomy\")\n\t+ Isolated [pulmonary artery banding](/wiki/Pulmonary_artery_banding \"Pulmonary artery banding\") (PAB)\n* [Left lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Left_lateral_thoracotomy \"Left lateral thoracotomy\")\n\t+ PAB (when coarctation or aortic arch repair also required)\n* [Right lateral thoracotomy](/wiki/Right_lateral_thoracotomy \"Right lateral thoracotomy\")\n\t+ [Blalock\\-Hanlon atrial septectomy](/wiki/Blalock-Hanlon_atrial_septectomy \"Blalock-Hanlon atrial septectomy\")\n\t{{Dynamic list}}\n\tEach of these procedures is performed through an [incision](/wiki/Surgical_incision \"Surgical incision\") between the [ribs](/wiki/Ribs \"Ribs\") and visualized by echocardiogram; these are far less common than heart cath procedures.", "Pulmonary artery banding is used in a small number of cases of d\\-TGA, usually when the corrective surgery needs to be delayed, to create an artificial stenosis in order to control pulmonary [blood pressure](/wiki/Blood_pressure \"Blood pressure\"); PAB involves placing a band around the [pulmonary trunk](/wiki/Pulmonary_trunk \"Pulmonary trunk\"), this band can then be quickly and easily adjusted when necessary.", "An atrial septectomy is the surgical removal of the atrial septum; this is performed when a [patent foramen ovale](/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale \"Patent foramen ovale\") (PFO), or [atrial septal defect](/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect \"Atrial septal defect\") (ASD) are not present and additional shunting is required to raise the oxygen saturation of the blood flowing eventually into the [aorta](/wiki/Aorta \"Aorta\").", "#### Major", "* [Median sternotomy](/wiki/Median_sternotomy \"Median sternotomy\")\n\t+ PAB (when intracardiac procedures also required)\n\t+ Concomitant atrial septectomy\n\t{{Dynamic list}}\n\tIn recent years, it is quite rare for palliative procedures to be done via median sternotomy. However, if a sternotomy is required for a different procedure, in most cases all procedures that are immediately required will be performed at the same time." ]
### Corrective surgery #### Nikaidoh Bex who introduced the possibility of aortic translocation in 1980\. But Nikaidoh has put the procedure in practice in 1984\. It results in an anatomical normal heart, even better than with an ASO, because also the cones are switched instead of only the arteries as with an ASO. The procedure is contra\-indicated by certain coronary anomalies. In 1984, Nikaidoh introduced a surgical approach for the management of TGA, VSD, and pulmonary stenosis (PS), which he called "aortic translocation and biventricular outflow tract reconstruction". The repair consisted of harvesting the aortic root from the right ventricle, with or without the coronary arteries attached, and relieving the LVOTO by dividing the outlet septum and pulmonary valve annulus. The LVOT is then restored by posteriorly translocating the aortic root and closing the VSD. Finally, the right ventricular outflow tract is reconstructed with a pericardial patch. This is a technically challenging procedure, but results in a more "normal" anatomic repair. The main thing is the repositioning of the native aortic root over to the LV cavity, avoiding the creation of a long tortuous intraventricular tunnel. This technique appears to prevent the development of LVOTO, which is a frequent complication of the Rastelli repair. The addition of the Lecompte maneuver may prevent branch pulmonary artery stenosis that may occur secondary to compression of the PA by the posteriorly displaced, translocated aortic root. It creates a direct RV to PA anastomosis and avoiding the use of a conduit, which should decrease the incidence of RVOT reinterventions. #### Lecompte Since 1981 LeCompte has put his [LeCompte manoeuvre](/wiki/LeCompte_manoeuvre "LeCompte manoeuvre") in use. This is used with the REV (Réparation à l'Etage Ventriculaire). This surgery is like the Rastelli procedure, but with the use of the pulmonary artery without a conduit. #### Rastelli When an arterials switch operation (ASO) is not possible e.g. in case of LVOTO an option is the [Rastelli procedure](/wiki/Rastelli_procedure "Rastelli procedure"). The pulmonal artery is shifted with help of conduit to the right ventricle. It has been used since 1960s. It has a disadvantage that the conduit does not grow, so re\-operation is necessary. #### Arterial switch [thumb\|150px\|left\|Arterial switch procedure](/wiki/File:Blausen_0046_ArterialSwitchOperation_01.png "Blausen 0046 ArterialSwitchOperation 01.png") [thumb\|right\|Immediate post\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\-TGA \+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate.jpg "Postop Jatene neonate.jpg") The **[Jatene procedure](/wiki/Jatene_procedure "Jatene procedure")** surgery is the preferred, and most frequently used, method of correcting d\-TGA.{{Citation\|last1\=Wong\|first1\=Tom\|title\=19 \- Pacemakers and Internal Cardioverter Defibrillators in Adult Congenital Heart Disease\|date\=2018\-01\-01\|url\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702069291000198\|work\=Diagnosis and Management of Adult Congenital Heart Disease (Third Edition)\|pages\=232–252\|editor\-last\=Gatzoulis\|editor\-first\=Michael A.\|publisher\=Elsevier\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1016/b978\-0\-7020\-6929\-1\.00019\-8\|isbn\=978\-0\-7020\-6929\-1\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-11\|last2\=Janousek\|first2\=Jan\|last3\=Lim\|first3\=Eric\|editor2\-last\=Webb\|editor2\-first\=Gary D.\|editor3\-last\=Daubeney\|editor3\-first\=Piers E. F.}} It is ideally performed on an infant between 8–14 days old. The heart and vessels are accessed via median sternotomy, and a [cardiopulmonary bypass](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_bypass "Cardiopulmonary bypass") machine is used; as this machine needs its "circulation" to be filled with blood, a child will require a [blood transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion "Blood transfusion") for this surgery. The procedure involves [transecting](/wiki/wikt:Transect "Transect") both the aorta and pulmonary artery; the coronary arteries are then detached from the aorta and reattached to the [neo\-aorta](/wiki/Neo- "Neo-"), before "swapping" the upper portion of the aorta and pulmonary artery to the opposite arterial [root](/wiki/Root "Root"). Including the [anaesthesia](/wiki/Anaesthesia "Anaesthesia") and immediate [post operative](/wiki/Post_operative "Post operative") recovery, this surgery takes an average of approximately six to eight hours to complete. Some arterial switch recipients may present with post\-operative pulmonary stenosis, which would then be repaired with angioplasty, pulmonary [stenting](/wiki/Stent "Stent") via heart cath or median sternotomy, and/or [xenograft](/wiki/Xenograft "Xenograft"). [thumb\|right\|One day post\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\-TGA \+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate2.jpg "Postop Jatene neonate2.jpg") #### Atrial switch In some cases, it is not possible to perform an arterial switch, either because of late diagnosis, [sepsis](/wiki/Sepsis "Sepsis"), or a [contraindicative](/wiki/Contraindication "Contraindication") coronary artery pattern. In the case of sepsis or late diagnosis, a delayed Arterial Switch can sometimes be made possible by PAB, which may also require a concomitant construction of an aortic\-to\-pulmonary artery shunt. When an arterial switch is impossible, an atrial switch will be attempted using either the **[Senning](/wiki/Senning_procedure "Senning procedure")** or **[Mustard](/wiki/Mustard_procedure "Mustard procedure")** procedure.{{Citation\|last1\=Issa\|first1\=Ziad F.\|title\=14 \- Atrial Tachyarrhythmias in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease\|date\=2019\-01\-01\|url\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323523561000141\|work\=Clinical Arrhythmology and Electrophysiology (Third Edition)\|pages\=407–420\|editor\-last\=Issa\|editor\-first\=Ziad F.\|place\=Philadelphia\|publisher\=Elsevier\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1016/b978\-0\-323\-52356\-1\.00014\-1\|isbn\=978\-0\-323\-52356\-1\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-11\|last2\=Miller\|first2\=John M.\|last3\=Zipes\|first3\=Douglas P.\|s2cid\=239401932 \|editor2\-last\=Miller\|editor2\-first\=John M.\|editor3\-last\=Zipes\|editor3\-first\=Douglas P.}} Both methods involve creating a [baffle](/wiki/Baffle_%28medical%29 "Baffle (medical)") to redirect red and blue blood flow to the appropriate artery. Since the late 1970s the Mustard procedure has been preferred.
[ "### Corrective surgery", "#### Nikaidoh", "Bex who introduced the possibility of aortic translocation in 1980\\. But Nikaidoh has put the procedure in practice in 1984\\. It results in an anatomical normal heart, even better than with an ASO, because also the cones are switched instead of only the arteries as with an ASO. The procedure is contra\\-indicated by certain coronary anomalies.", "In 1984, Nikaidoh introduced a surgical approach for the management of TGA, VSD, and pulmonary stenosis (PS), which he called \"aortic translocation and biventricular outflow tract reconstruction\". The repair consisted of harvesting the aortic root from the right ventricle, with or without the coronary arteries attached, and relieving the LVOTO by dividing the outlet septum and pulmonary valve annulus. The LVOT is then restored by posteriorly translocating the aortic root and closing the VSD. Finally, the right ventricular outflow tract is reconstructed with a pericardial patch. This is a technically challenging procedure, but results in a more \"normal\" anatomic repair. The main thing is the repositioning of the native aortic root over to the LV cavity, avoiding the creation of a long tortuous intraventricular tunnel. This technique appears to prevent the development of LVOTO, which is a frequent complication of the Rastelli repair. The addition of the Lecompte maneuver may prevent branch pulmonary artery stenosis that may occur secondary to compression of the PA by the posteriorly displaced, translocated aortic root. It creates a direct RV to PA anastomosis and avoiding the use of a conduit, which should decrease the incidence of RVOT reinterventions.", "#### Lecompte", "Since 1981 LeCompte has put his [LeCompte manoeuvre](/wiki/LeCompte_manoeuvre \"LeCompte manoeuvre\") in use. This is used with the REV (Réparation à l'Etage Ventriculaire). This surgery is like the Rastelli procedure, but with the use of the pulmonary artery without a conduit.", "#### Rastelli", "When an arterials switch operation (ASO) is not possible e.g. in case of LVOTO an option is the [Rastelli procedure](/wiki/Rastelli_procedure \"Rastelli procedure\"). The pulmonal artery is shifted with help of conduit to the right ventricle. It has been used since 1960s. It has a disadvantage that the conduit does not grow, so re\\-operation is necessary.", "#### Arterial switch", "[thumb\\|150px\\|left\\|Arterial switch procedure](/wiki/File:Blausen_0046_ArterialSwitchOperation_01.png \"Blausen 0046 ArterialSwitchOperation 01.png\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Immediate post\\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\\-TGA \\+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate.jpg \"Postop Jatene neonate.jpg\")\nThe **[Jatene procedure](/wiki/Jatene_procedure \"Jatene procedure\")** surgery is the preferred, and most frequently used, method of correcting d\\-TGA.{{Citation\\|last1\\=Wong\\|first1\\=Tom\\|title\\=19 \\- Pacemakers and Internal Cardioverter Defibrillators in Adult Congenital Heart Disease\\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-01\\|url\\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702069291000198\\|work\\=Diagnosis and Management of Adult Congenital Heart Disease (Third Edition)\\|pages\\=232–252\\|editor\\-last\\=Gatzoulis\\|editor\\-first\\=Michael A.\\|publisher\\=Elsevier\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/b978\\-0\\-7020\\-6929\\-1\\.00019\\-8\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7020\\-6929\\-1\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-11\\|last2\\=Janousek\\|first2\\=Jan\\|last3\\=Lim\\|first3\\=Eric\\|editor2\\-last\\=Webb\\|editor2\\-first\\=Gary D.\\|editor3\\-last\\=Daubeney\\|editor3\\-first\\=Piers E. F.}} It is ideally performed on an infant between 8–14 days old.", "The heart and vessels are accessed via median sternotomy, and a [cardiopulmonary bypass](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_bypass \"Cardiopulmonary bypass\") machine is used; as this machine needs its \"circulation\" to be filled with blood, a child will require a [blood transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion \"Blood transfusion\") for this surgery. The procedure involves [transecting](/wiki/wikt:Transect \"Transect\") both the aorta and pulmonary artery; the coronary arteries are then detached from the aorta and reattached to the [neo\\-aorta](/wiki/Neo- \"Neo-\"), before \"swapping\" the upper portion of the aorta and pulmonary artery to the opposite arterial [root](/wiki/Root \"Root\"). Including the [anaesthesia](/wiki/Anaesthesia \"Anaesthesia\") and immediate [post operative](/wiki/Post_operative \"Post operative\") recovery, this surgery takes an average of approximately six to eight hours to complete.", "Some arterial switch recipients may present with post\\-operative pulmonary stenosis, which would then be repaired with angioplasty, pulmonary [stenting](/wiki/Stent \"Stent\") via heart cath or median sternotomy, and/or [xenograft](/wiki/Xenograft \"Xenograft\").\n[thumb\\|right\\|One day post\\-operative (Jatene procedure) d\\-TGA \\+ VSD neonate](/wiki/Image:Postop_Jatene_neonate2.jpg \"Postop Jatene neonate2.jpg\")", "#### Atrial switch", "In some cases, it is not possible to perform an arterial switch, either because of late diagnosis, [sepsis](/wiki/Sepsis \"Sepsis\"), or a [contraindicative](/wiki/Contraindication \"Contraindication\") coronary artery pattern. In the case of sepsis or late diagnosis, a delayed Arterial Switch can sometimes be made possible by PAB, which may also require a concomitant construction of an aortic\\-to\\-pulmonary artery shunt.", "When an arterial switch is impossible, an atrial switch will be attempted using either the **[Senning](/wiki/Senning_procedure \"Senning procedure\")** or **[Mustard](/wiki/Mustard_procedure \"Mustard procedure\")** procedure.{{Citation\\|last1\\=Issa\\|first1\\=Ziad F.\\|title\\=14 \\- Atrial Tachyarrhythmias in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease\\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-01\\|url\\=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323523561000141\\|work\\=Clinical Arrhythmology and Electrophysiology (Third Edition)\\|pages\\=407–420\\|editor\\-last\\=Issa\\|editor\\-first\\=Ziad F.\\|place\\=Philadelphia\\|publisher\\=Elsevier\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/b978\\-0\\-323\\-52356\\-1\\.00014\\-1\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-323\\-52356\\-1\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-11\\|last2\\=Miller\\|first2\\=John M.\\|last3\\=Zipes\\|first3\\=Douglas P.\\|s2cid\\=239401932 \\|editor2\\-last\\=Miller\\|editor2\\-first\\=John M.\\|editor3\\-last\\=Zipes\\|editor3\\-first\\=Douglas P.}} Both methods involve creating a [baffle](/wiki/Baffle_%28medical%29 \"Baffle (medical)\") to redirect red and blue blood flow to the appropriate artery. Since the late 1970s the Mustard procedure has been preferred.", "" ]
### Follow\-up The infant will continue to see a [cardiologist](/wiki/Cardiologist "Cardiologist") on a regular basis. Although these appointments are required less frequently as time goes on, they will continue throughout the lifetime of the individual, and may increase in the event of complications or as the individual approaches [middle age](/wiki/Middle_age "Middle age"). The cardiology exam may include an echocardiogram, EKG, and/or [cardiac stress test](/wiki/Cardiac_stress_test "Cardiac stress test") in addition to consultation. Additionally, some individuals may require ongoing medication therapy at home, which may include diuretics (such as [furosemide](/wiki/Furosemide "Furosemide") or [spironolactone](/wiki/Spironolactone "Spironolactone")), analgesics (such as [paracetamol](/wiki/Paracetamol "Paracetamol")), cardiac glycosides (such as [digoxin](/wiki/Digoxin "Digoxin")), [anticoagulants](/wiki/Anticoagulant "Anticoagulant") (such as [heparin](/wiki/Heparin "Heparin") or [aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin "Aspirin")), or other medications. If the individual has undergone stenting, an anticoagulant will be a necessity to prevent build\-up around the stent(s), as the body will perceive the foreign body as a wound and attempt to heal it. Some patients who had alternate corrective surgery, such as the Mustard or Senning procedure, may have issues with SA and VA nodal transmissions in later life. Typical symptoms include palpitations and problems with low heart rates. This is commonly solved with a Pacemaker unit, providing scar tissue from the original operation does not block its functionality. More recently, ACE inhibitors have been prescribed to patients in the hope of relieving stress on the heart.
[ "### Follow\\-up", "The infant will continue to see a [cardiologist](/wiki/Cardiologist \"Cardiologist\") on a regular basis. Although these appointments are required less frequently as time goes on, they will continue throughout the lifetime of the individual, and may increase in the event of complications or as the individual approaches [middle age](/wiki/Middle_age \"Middle age\").", "The cardiology exam may include an echocardiogram, EKG, and/or [cardiac stress test](/wiki/Cardiac_stress_test \"Cardiac stress test\") in addition to consultation.", "Additionally, some individuals may require ongoing medication therapy at home, which may include diuretics (such as [furosemide](/wiki/Furosemide \"Furosemide\") or [spironolactone](/wiki/Spironolactone \"Spironolactone\")), analgesics (such as [paracetamol](/wiki/Paracetamol \"Paracetamol\")), cardiac glycosides (such as [digoxin](/wiki/Digoxin \"Digoxin\")), [anticoagulants](/wiki/Anticoagulant \"Anticoagulant\") (such as [heparin](/wiki/Heparin \"Heparin\") or [aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin \"Aspirin\")), or other medications. If the individual has undergone stenting, an anticoagulant will be a necessity to prevent build\\-up around the stent(s), as the body will perceive the foreign body as a wound and attempt to heal it.", "Some patients who had alternate corrective surgery, such as the Mustard or Senning procedure, may have issues with SA and VA nodal transmissions in later life. Typical symptoms include palpitations and problems with low heart rates. This is commonly solved with a Pacemaker unit, providing scar tissue from the original operation does not block its functionality.", "More recently, ACE inhibitors have been prescribed to patients in the hope of relieving stress on the heart.", "" ]
Life and playing career ----------------------- Known affectionately as *Supersub* (because he was a talented goalscorer who, in comparison with other players, rarely started matches for Liverpool – but frequently came into the match as a [substitute](/wiki/Substitute_%28association_football%29%23Super-sub "Substitute (association football)#Super-sub") to make an impact), Fairclough was born in inner city Liverpool and as a child moved to the new [Cantril Farm](/wiki/Cantril_Farm "Cantril Farm") housing estate in the 1960s due to slum clearances. He rose through the Liverpool ranks as a teenager and made his debut for the club on 1 November 1975 in the 1–0 league win over [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. "Middlesbrough F.C.") at [Ayresome Park](/wiki/Ayresome_Park "Ayresome Park").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lfchistory.net/SeasonArchive/Game/878\|title\=Middlesbrough 0 – 1 Liverpool\|work\=LFCHistory.net\|access\-date\=27 June 2017}} As the season progressed, Fairclough scored seven crucial goals in just 14 appearances to land Liverpool the [League championship](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division"). Nine of these appearances were as substitute. His first goal for the club came three days after his debut on 4 November 1975, during the 6–0 defeat of Spanish side [Real Sociedad](/wiki/Real_Sociedad "Real Sociedad") at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield "Anfield") in a [UEFA Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Cup "UEFA Cup") 2nd round 2nd leg tie.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.lfchistory.net/SeasonArchive/Game/879\|title\=Matchdetails from Liverpool – Real Sociedad played on Tuesday 4 November 1975 – LFChistory – Stats galore for Liverpool FC!\|last\=LFChistory.net\|website\=lfchistory.net\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-26}} The pecking order of strikers at the club saw Fairclough trailing behind the 'dream duo' of [Kevin Keegan](/wiki/Kevin_Keegan "Kevin Keegan") and [John Toshack](/wiki/John_Toshack "John Toshack"), as well as [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") centre forward [David Johnson](/wiki/David_Johnson_%28footballer_born_1951%29 "David Johnson (footballer born 1951)"). In the [1976–77 season](/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_in_English_football "1976–77 in English football"), Fairclough made more appearances as a substitute, because of a succession of injuries to Toshack. His most famous Liverpool goal came at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield "Anfield") as a substitute in a crucial [European Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League") quarter final against the French side [St Etienne](/wiki/AS_Saint-%C3%89tienne "AS Saint-Étienne"). Liverpool had been a goal adrift from the first leg in France, and when they went 2–1 up in the home return, the [aggregate score](/wiki/Aggregate_score "Aggregate score") was level at 2–2 but St Etienne led on the [away goals rule](/wiki/Away_goals_rule "Away goals rule"). Liverpool's manager [Bob Paisley](/wiki/Bob_Paisley "Bob Paisley") sent Fairclough on in the last 20 minutes of the game and with six minutes remaining, Fairclough ran on to a long ball upfield and held off two St Etienne defenders to score the tie's decisive goal at the [Kop](/wiki/Spion_Kop_%28stadia%29 "Spion Kop (stadia)") end. [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 "ITV (TV network)") commentator [Gerald Sinstadt](/wiki/Gerald_Sinstadt "Gerald Sinstadt") famously bellowed: "Supersub strikes again!"{{Cite web\|url\=https://readtheleague.com/kit\-books\-around\-the\-web/dave\-fairclough\-supersub\|title\=Dave Fairclough – Interview {{!}} Read The League\|website\=readtheleague.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-27}} Liverpool won the League title again and reached both the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") final at [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium_%281923%29 "Wembley Stadium (1923)") and the European Cup final in Rome. Fairclough was not selected for the Wembley squad as Paisley named veteran winger [Ian Callaghan](/wiki/Ian_Callaghan "Ian Callaghan") as the substitute, and Liverpool lost to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C."). However, he was a substitute in Rome as Liverpool won 3–1\. The following season, Fairclough scored a goal in each leg as Liverpool thrashed Keegan's [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburger_SV "Hamburger SV") 7–1 on aggregate in the [European Super Cup](/wiki/1977_European_Super_Cup "1977 European Super Cup"). Liverpool reached the European Cup final again and this time Fairclough started the match. A 1–0 victory over [Bruges](/wiki/Club_Brugge "Club Brugge") retained the trophy for Liverpool. He managed 29 league appearances that season, scoring 10 goals, but the Reds were beaten to both the league title and the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") by newly promoted [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. "Nottingham Forest F.C.") under [Brian Clough](/wiki/Brian_Clough "Brian Clough"). In [1978–79](/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379_in_English_football "1978–79 in English football"), Liverpool regained their league championship crown but Fairclough did not play enough games to seal another title medal, as he had played just four times in the league, scoring twice. Fairclough scored his only Liverpool [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") on 9 February 1980 in the thrilling 5–3 league victory over [Norwich City](/wiki/Norwich_City_F.C. "Norwich City F.C.") at [Carrow Road](/wiki/Carrow_Road "Carrow Road"). His goals came in the 4th, 18th and 75th minutes, with [Kenny Dalglish](/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish "Kenny Dalglish") and [Jimmy Case](/wiki/Jimmy_Case "Jimmy Case") scoring to guarantee a late win for the Reds. However, Fairclough's league chances were again restricted that season, as he played just 14 league games and scored five goals. He came on as a substitute in the League Cup semi final second leg against Nottingham Forest four days after his hat trick at Norwich, and scored a late equaliser to preserve Liverpool's long two\-year unbeaten run at Anfield. Even though Liverpool went out on aggregate to Forest, Fairclough's goal helped create an English record of eighty five unbeaten matches in succession at home.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2018}} Fairclough spent another five years at Anfield, although in what was a golden era for the club, he was rarely in the first team. He was a prolific scorer in the reserves, but the phenomenal partnership of Dalglish and [Ian Rush](/wiki/Ian_Rush "Ian Rush") rendered him surplus to first team requirements. In the [1982–83 season](/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_in_English_football "1982–83 in English football") he scored three times in eight league appearances but failed to play enough games to merit a title medal. He had also failed to make the squad for the League Cup victories of the previous two seasons, and in the [1981–82 season](/wiki/1981%E2%80%9382_in_English_football "1981–82 in English football"), when the Reds won another league title as well as the League Cup, he did not play a single first team game. The *Supersub* tag belied the number of first team starts Fairclough made at Liverpool; of his 153 appearances, only 61 were from the bench. He scored 55 goals (34 of them in the league), averaging a goal every 2\.8 games.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.lfchistory.net/Players/Player/Profile/298\|title\=Liverpool career stats for David Fairclough\|website\=lfchistory.net\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-27}} Fairclough left Liverpool on 4 July 1983 after a loan spell at [NASL](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%281968%E2%80%931984%29 "North American Soccer League (1968–1984)") side [Toronto Blizzard](/wiki/Toronto_Blizzard_%28NASL%29 "Toronto Blizzard (NASL)"). He then moved to the Swiss side [FC Lucerne](/wiki/FC_Lucerne "FC Lucerne") before returning to England for spells with [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. "Manchester City F.C."), Norwich, [Oldham Athletic](/wiki/Oldham_Athletic_A.F.C. "Oldham Athletic A.F.C.") and [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_A.F.C. "Rochdale A.F.C."). He moved overseas once more to Belgium club [Beveren](/wiki/K.S.K._Beveren "K.S.K. Beveren") for three seasons before returning home for stints with [Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. "Tranmere Rovers F.C.") and [Wigan Athletic](/wiki/Wigan_Athletic_F.C. "Wigan Athletic F.C."). He ended his playing days at non\-league [Knowsley](/wiki/Knowsley_F.C. "Knowsley F.C.").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.lfchistory.net/Articles/Article/478/2 \|title\=David Fairclough – Don't call him a super \*\*\* \|publisher\=lfchistory.net \|access\-date\=12 June 2019}}
[ "Life and playing career\n-----------------------", "Known affectionately as *Supersub* (because he was a talented goalscorer who, in comparison with other players, rarely started matches for Liverpool – but frequently came into the match as a [substitute](/wiki/Substitute_%28association_football%29%23Super-sub \"Substitute (association football)#Super-sub\") to make an impact), Fairclough was born in inner city Liverpool and as a child moved to the new [Cantril Farm](/wiki/Cantril_Farm \"Cantril Farm\") housing estate in the 1960s due to slum clearances. He rose through the Liverpool ranks as a teenager and made his debut for the club on 1 November 1975 in the 1–0 league win over [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. \"Middlesbrough F.C.\") at [Ayresome Park](/wiki/Ayresome_Park \"Ayresome Park\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lfchistory.net/SeasonArchive/Game/878\\|title\\=Middlesbrough 0 – 1 Liverpool\\|work\\=LFCHistory.net\\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2017}} As the season progressed, Fairclough scored seven crucial goals in just 14 appearances to land Liverpool the [League championship](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\"). Nine of these appearances were as substitute. His first goal for the club came three days after his debut on 4 November 1975, during the 6–0 defeat of Spanish side [Real Sociedad](/wiki/Real_Sociedad \"Real Sociedad\") at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield \"Anfield\") in a [UEFA Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Cup \"UEFA Cup\") 2nd round 2nd leg tie.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lfchistory.net/SeasonArchive/Game/879\\|title\\=Matchdetails from Liverpool – Real Sociedad played on Tuesday 4 November 1975 – LFChistory – Stats galore for Liverpool FC!\\|last\\=LFChistory.net\\|website\\=lfchistory.net\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-26}}", "The pecking order of strikers at the club saw Fairclough trailing behind the 'dream duo' of [Kevin Keegan](/wiki/Kevin_Keegan \"Kevin Keegan\") and [John Toshack](/wiki/John_Toshack \"John Toshack\"), as well as [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") centre forward [David Johnson](/wiki/David_Johnson_%28footballer_born_1951%29 \"David Johnson (footballer born 1951)\"). In the [1976–77 season](/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_in_English_football \"1976–77 in English football\"), Fairclough made more appearances as a substitute, because of a succession of injuries to Toshack.", "His most famous Liverpool goal came at [Anfield](/wiki/Anfield \"Anfield\") as a substitute in a crucial [European Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\") quarter final against the French side [St Etienne](/wiki/AS_Saint-%C3%89tienne \"AS Saint-Étienne\"). Liverpool had been a goal adrift from the first leg in France, and when they went 2–1 up in the home return, the [aggregate score](/wiki/Aggregate_score \"Aggregate score\") was level at 2–2 but St Etienne led on the [away goals rule](/wiki/Away_goals_rule \"Away goals rule\"). Liverpool's manager [Bob Paisley](/wiki/Bob_Paisley \"Bob Paisley\") sent Fairclough on in the last 20 minutes of the game and with six minutes remaining, Fairclough ran on to a long ball upfield and held off two St Etienne defenders to score the tie's decisive goal at the [Kop](/wiki/Spion_Kop_%28stadia%29 \"Spion Kop (stadia)\") end. [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") commentator [Gerald Sinstadt](/wiki/Gerald_Sinstadt \"Gerald Sinstadt\") famously bellowed: \"Supersub strikes again!\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://readtheleague.com/kit\\-books\\-around\\-the\\-web/dave\\-fairclough\\-supersub\\|title\\=Dave Fairclough – Interview {{!}} Read The League\\|website\\=readtheleague.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-27}}", "Liverpool won the League title again and reached both the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") final at [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium_%281923%29 \"Wembley Stadium (1923)\") and the European Cup final in Rome. Fairclough was not selected for the Wembley squad as Paisley named veteran winger [Ian Callaghan](/wiki/Ian_Callaghan \"Ian Callaghan\") as the substitute, and Liverpool lost to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\"). However, he was a substitute in Rome as Liverpool won 3–1\\.", "The following season, Fairclough scored a goal in each leg as Liverpool thrashed Keegan's [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburger_SV \"Hamburger SV\") 7–1 on aggregate in the [European Super Cup](/wiki/1977_European_Super_Cup \"1977 European Super Cup\"). Liverpool reached the European Cup final again and this time Fairclough started the match. A 1–0 victory over [Bruges](/wiki/Club_Brugge \"Club Brugge\") retained the trophy for Liverpool. He managed 29 league appearances that season, scoring 10 goals, but the Reds were beaten to both the league title and the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") by newly promoted [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. \"Nottingham Forest F.C.\") under [Brian Clough](/wiki/Brian_Clough \"Brian Clough\").", "In [1978–79](/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379_in_English_football \"1978–79 in English football\"), Liverpool regained their league championship crown but Fairclough did not play enough games to seal another title medal, as he had played just four times in the league, scoring twice.", "Fairclough scored his only Liverpool [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") on 9 February 1980 in the thrilling 5–3 league victory over [Norwich City](/wiki/Norwich_City_F.C. \"Norwich City F.C.\") at [Carrow Road](/wiki/Carrow_Road \"Carrow Road\"). His goals came in the 4th, 18th and 75th minutes, with [Kenny Dalglish](/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish \"Kenny Dalglish\") and [Jimmy Case](/wiki/Jimmy_Case \"Jimmy Case\") scoring to guarantee a late win for the Reds. However, Fairclough's league chances were again restricted that season, as he played just 14 league games and scored five goals. He came on as a substitute in the League Cup semi final second leg against Nottingham Forest four days after his hat trick at Norwich, and scored a late equaliser to preserve Liverpool's long two\\-year unbeaten run at Anfield. Even though Liverpool went out on aggregate to Forest, Fairclough's goal helped create an English record of eighty five unbeaten matches in succession at home.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2018}}", "Fairclough spent another five years at Anfield, although in what was a golden era for the club, he was rarely in the first team. He was a prolific scorer in the reserves, but the phenomenal partnership of Dalglish and [Ian Rush](/wiki/Ian_Rush \"Ian Rush\") rendered him surplus to first team requirements. In the [1982–83 season](/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_in_English_football \"1982–83 in English football\") he scored three times in eight league appearances but failed to play enough games to merit a title medal. He had also failed to make the squad for the League Cup victories of the previous two seasons, and in the [1981–82 season](/wiki/1981%E2%80%9382_in_English_football \"1981–82 in English football\"), when the Reds won another league title as well as the League Cup, he did not play a single first team game.", "The *Supersub* tag belied the number of first team starts Fairclough made at Liverpool; of his 153 appearances, only 61 were from the bench. He scored 55 goals (34 of them in the league), averaging a goal every 2\\.8 games.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lfchistory.net/Players/Player/Profile/298\\|title\\=Liverpool career stats for David Fairclough\\|website\\=lfchistory.net\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-27}}", "Fairclough left Liverpool on 4 July 1983 after a loan spell at [NASL](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%281968%E2%80%931984%29 \"North American Soccer League (1968–1984)\") side [Toronto Blizzard](/wiki/Toronto_Blizzard_%28NASL%29 \"Toronto Blizzard (NASL)\"). He then moved to the Swiss side [FC Lucerne](/wiki/FC_Lucerne \"FC Lucerne\") before returning to England for spells with [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. \"Manchester City F.C.\"), Norwich, [Oldham Athletic](/wiki/Oldham_Athletic_A.F.C. \"Oldham Athletic A.F.C.\") and [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_A.F.C. \"Rochdale A.F.C.\"). He moved overseas once more to Belgium club [Beveren](/wiki/K.S.K._Beveren \"K.S.K. Beveren\") for three seasons before returning home for stints with [Tranmere Rovers](/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. \"Tranmere Rovers F.C.\") and [Wigan Athletic](/wiki/Wigan_Athletic_F.C. \"Wigan Athletic F.C.\"). He ended his playing days at non\\-league [Knowsley](/wiki/Knowsley_F.C. \"Knowsley F.C.\").{{cite news \n\\|url\\=https://www.lfchistory.net/Articles/Article/478/2\n\\|title\\=David Fairclough – Don't call him a super \\*\\*\\*\n\\|publisher\\=lfchistory.net\n\\|access\\-date\\=12 June 2019}}", "" ]
Professional wrestling career ----------------------------- ### Early career (1983–1986\) {{Main\|the Road Warriors}} Hegstrand started his career as part of the Traveling All\-Stars. He was billed as "Crusher Von Haig" and wrestled in Vancouver. Soon growing weary of the road and becoming homesick. Hegstrand traveled back home with Rood. Later in 1983, fate struck again when Laurinaitis's partner for the night found himself in legal trouble. Needing a quick replacement, Ole Anderson gave Hegstrand a call, and he accepted the booking to team with Laurinaitis. Neither man knew at the time that they would make wrestling history that day.{{cite news \|author\=Matthew Hester(Senior Writer) \|title\= C Vs. C: The Road Warriors Were the Greatest Tag Team in Pro Wrestling!\|publisher\=Bleacher Report \|year\=2010 }} When [Paul Ellering](/wiki/Paul_Ellering "Paul Ellering") was looking to put together a stable of heels in [Georgia Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Georgia_Championship_Wrestling "Georgia Championship Wrestling") called The Legion of Doom it was decided to pair Laurinaitis with Hegstrand and change their names to "Animal" and "Hawk" respectively; thus, the [Road Warriors](/wiki/Road_Warriors "Road Warriors") were born. To look more intimidating the two shaved their heads into Mohawks and started wearing studded dog collars, leather chaps, and face paint. The look and name was taken from *[Mad Max 2: the Road Warrior](/wiki/Mad_Max_2 "Mad Max 2")*, helping to paint the two as no\-mercy monsters. Their [interview](/wiki/Promo_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Promo (professional wrestling)") style was vicious, yet charismatic and a bit humorous. Hawk was known for often beginning his promos with his trademark yell of "Wellllllllllllll!..." and ending with his [catch phrase](/wiki/Catchphrase "Catchphrase") of "Oooooooooh, what a ruuuuuuuuuuuush!"{{cite book \|first1\=Greg\|last1\=Oliver\|first2\=Steve\|last2\=Johnson \|title\= The Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame: The Tag Teams \|publisher\=ECW Press \|year\=2005 \|isbn\=978\-1\-55022\-683\-6}} The team was an instant hit, revolutionizing the tag\-team scene with their power moves, no mercy attitudes, and innovative face paint that would spawn many future imitators in wrestling.{{cite video\|people\=Various Comments\|title\=Road Warriors: The Life and Death of Wrestling's Most Dominant Tag\-Team\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0476485/\|medium\=DVD\|publisher\=WWE Home Video\|location\=USA\|date\=June 14, 2005}} In Georgia, they won the [NWA National Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_National_Tag_Team_Championship "NWA National Tag Team Championship") four times{{cite book\|author\=Royal Duncan \& Gary Will\|title\=Wrestling Title Histories\|publisher\=Archeus Communications\|year\=2006\|edition\=4th\|isbn\=978\-0\-9698161\-5\-7}} before moving on to bigger promotions such as the [American Wrestling Association](/wiki/American_Wrestling_Association "American Wrestling Association") in the US and [All Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/All_Japan_Pro_Wrestling "All Japan Pro Wrestling") in Japan, winning tag\-team titles wherever they went. ### National Wrestling Alliance / World Championship Wrestling (1986–1990\) [thumb\|Hawk (right) kicking [Bobby Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton "Bobby Eaton") (left), circa 1987\.](/wiki/File:Road_Warrior_Hawk_Kicking_Bobby_Eaton.png "Road Warrior Hawk Kicking Bobby Eaton.png") Their hard hitting style, no nonsense attitude, and winning ways made the Road Warriors fan favorites wherever they went; even when they were booked as heels, the fans refused to boo them. They were so in demand that they started to split their time between the AWA and the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance "National Wrestling Alliance") until finally leaving the AWA for big money contracts with the NWA and a huge push for the monster duo. The move paid off instantly as they won the inaugural [Jim Crockett, Sr. Memorial Cup Tag Team Tournament](/wiki/Jim_Crockett%2C_Sr._Memorial_Cup_Tag_Team_Tournament "Jim Crockett, Sr. Memorial Cup Tag Team Tournament"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/cup.html\#1st\|title\=NWA Crockett Cup Results (1986\)\|access\-date\=April 17, 2007\|author\=prowrestlinghistory.com}} and feuded with the top stars of the NWA such as [The Four Horsemen](/wiki/Four_Horsemen_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Four Horsemen (professional wrestling)"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\#87\|title\=NWA Great American Bash Results (1987 \#1\)\|access\-date\=April 17, 2007\|author\=prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\#87b\|title\=NWA Great American Bash Results (1987 \#2\)\|access\-date\=April 17, 2007\|author\=prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\#87c \| title \= NWA Great American Bash Results (1987 \#3\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/starrcad.html\#87 \| title \= NWA Starrcade Results (1987\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} and [The Russian Team](/wiki/The_Russian_Team "The Russian Team") (which included the Road Warriors’ old training buddy Barry Darsow, then wrestling as Krusher Khrushchev).{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\#86 \| title \= NWA Great American Bash Results (1986\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/nwaawa.html\#1285 \| title \= NWA/AWA Star Wars Results (December 1985\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/nwaawa.html\#0286 \| title \= NWA/AWA Star Wars Results (1986\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} During their initial run in the Mid\-Atlantic region of the NWA, they helped popularize the [WarGames match](/wiki/WarGames_match "WarGames match"), the [Scaffold match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Scaffold_match "Professional wrestling match types#Scaffold match"),{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/starrcad.html\#86 \| title \= NWA Starrcade Results (1986\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} and their trademark [Chicago Street Fight](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Hardcore-based_variations "Professional wrestling match types#Hardcore-based variations").{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/w\-war.html\#90 \| title \= NWA Wrestle War Results (1990\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} In 1988, the Road Warriors engaged in a violent feud with the [Powers of Pain](/wiki/Powers_of_Pain "Powers of Pain") ([The Barbarian](/wiki/The_Barbarian_%28wrestler%29 "The Barbarian (wrestler)") and [The Warlord](/wiki/The_Warlord_%28wrestler%29 "The Warlord (wrestler)")), the first team that could truly match the Road Warriors in power (and who were one of the most well known Road Warrior clones). The Powers of Pain even went so far as to injure Animal's eye ([kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe "Kayfabe")) during a weightlifting competition. When Animal returned, he initially wore a hockey goalie mask to protect his eye. The [angle](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Angle "Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Angle") abruptly ended when the Powers of Pain left the NWA after finding out they were booked against the Road Warriors in a series of Scaffold Matches and they did not want to get hurt by falling off the scaffold. Near the end of 1988, the Road Warriors captured the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship "NWA World Tag Team Championship") from [The Midnight Express](/wiki/The_Midnight_Express_%28professional_wrestling%29 "The Midnight Express (professional wrestling)") whom they mauled in short order to win the titles in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"). Despite being heels at the time and using brutal tactics against [Stan Lane](/wiki/Stan_Lane "Stan Lane") and ["Beautiful" Bobby Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton "Bobby Eaton"), once again they were cheered by the crowd. After being the "Uncrowned champions" for a long time, the Road Warriors’ run with the tag\-team titles was short\-lived. Crooked referee [Teddy Long](/wiki/Theodore_Long "Theodore Long") used a fast count to cheat the Road Warriors out of their titles. In their last year with the NWA, the Warriors feuded mainly with [The Varsity Club](/wiki/The_Varsity_Club "The Varsity Club"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/miscppv.html\#chi \| title \= NWA Chi\-Town Rumble Results \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash.html\#VI \| title \= NWA Clash of the Champions Results (VI) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/w\-war.html\#89 \| title \= NWA Wrestle War Results (1989\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} [The Samoan Swat Team](/wiki/The_Headshrinkers "The Headshrinkers"),{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash.html\#VIII \| title \= NWA Clash of the Champions Results (VIII) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\#89 \| title \= NWA Great American Bash Results (1989\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} and [The Skyscrapers](/wiki/The_Skyscrapers "The Skyscrapers"){{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/havoc.html\#89 \| title \= NWA Halloween Havoc Results (1989\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash.html\#X \| title \= NWA Clash of the Champions Results (X) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} before leaving the NWA in the summer of 1990\. ### World Wrestling Federation (1990–1992\) The Road Warriors immediately signed with the [World Wrestling Federation](/wiki/WWE "WWE"){{cite web\| url \= http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/90\.htm \| title \= WWF Show Results 1990 \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007 \| author \= Graham Cawthon}} and were pushed into a feud with [Demolition](/wiki/Demolition_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Demolition (professional wrestling)") (which once again included their old training partner Barry Darsow).{{cite book\| author\=Brian Shields\| title\=Main event – WWE in the raging 80s\| publisher\=Pocket Books\| year\=2006\| edition\=4th\| isbn\=978\-1\-4165\-3257\-6\| url\=https://archive.org/details/mainevent00bria}} Due to his health, [Ax](/wiki/Bill_Eadie "Bill Eadie") was replaced by a new member of Demolition, [Crush](/wiki/Brian_Adams_%28wrestler%29 "Brian Adams (wrestler)"). (Popular rumor at the time cited a heart condition on Bill Eadie's part, but this has been discredited in recent years. An allergic reaction to shellfish while in Japan after [WrestleMania VI](/wiki/WrestleMania_VI "WrestleMania VI") was the real cause of Eadie's temporary health problem. He confirmed this in a shoot interview in 2007\.){{cite web \|url\=https://www.rspwfaq.net/2013/08/rf\-video\-shoot\-interview\-with\-demolition.html?m\=1 \|title\=RF Video Shoot Interview with Demolition \|last\=Bayless \|first\=Brian \|date\=August 8, 2013 \|website\=RSPWFAQ.net \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=November 5, 2022 \|quote\=}} However, fans did not react as strongly to this new Demolition team as they had to the original configuration, and the feud was considered a disappointment. During the early part of the feud, Legion of Doom often teamed with [WWF World Heavyweight Champion](/wiki/WWE_Championship "WWE Championship") [The Ultimate Warrior](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Warrior "The Ultimate Warrior") in six\-man tag matches against all three members of Demolition. Just over a year after signing with the WWF, the Legion of Doom won the [WWF World Tag Team Titles](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%2C_1971%E2%80%932010%29 "World Tag Team Championship (WWE, 1971–2010)") from [The Nasty Boys](/wiki/The_Nasty_Boys "The Nasty Boys") at [SummerSlam 1991](/wiki/SummerSlam_1991 "SummerSlam 1991") and held them for about six months. When they lost the titles in February 1992 they were briefly taken off television, only to return with long\-time manager Paul Ellering by their side, as well as a wooden dummy called "Rocco". Both members of the Legion of Doom thought the [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Gimmick (professional wrestling)") was stupid, as did most of the fans and it led to Hawk quitting the WWF,{{cite book\|author\=\[\[R.D. Reynolds]] and Randy Baer\|title\=Wrestlecrap – the very worst of pro wrestling\|publisher\=ECW Press\|year\=2003\|isbn\=978\-1\-55022\-584\-6\|url\=https://archive.org/details/wrestlecrapveryw00rdre}} leaving Animal on his own for the first time in nine years. When Animal suffered a severe back injury a short while later, everyone thought it was the end of the legendary team. ### Japan, ECW and Independents (1992–1995\) Hawk competed as a singles wrestler in Europe, Australia, and Japan and although he won nearly every singles match he competed in, he was usually seen (by North American and Japanese fans at least) as a tag team wrestler. Thus, he always fought either mid\-card opponents or made teams with better\-known singles stars. When he joined [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling"), he was immediately paired with [Kensuke Sasaki](/wiki/Kensuke_Sasaki "Kensuke Sasaki"), then simply known as a good mid\-carder, as the Hell Raisers (Sasaki adopting the face paint and gimmick Power Warrior). The two dominated NJPW's tag team ranks for a while through their two wins of the [IWGP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Tag_Team_Championship "IWGP Tag Team Championship"), but no North American promoter thought about bringing them as a team, due to Sasaki's affiliation with NJPW. As a singles wrestler, Hawk found success in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), winning the CWA World Heavyweight Championship. Hawk also competed in NWA Eastern Championship Wrestling, the progenitor of [Extreme Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Extreme_Championship_Wrestling "Extreme Championship Wrestling"), in 1993\.{{cite book\|title\=Hardcore History\|last\=Williams\|first\=Scott\|page\=19\|publisher\=Sports Publishing LLC\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-1\-59670\-021\-5}} Hawk left ECW in 1994\. Hawk competed in the [independent circuit](/wiki/Independent_circuit "Independent circuit") for [Pro Wrestling America](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_America "Pro Wrestling America"), [Mid Eastern Wrestling Federation](/wiki/Mid_Eastern_Wrestling_Federation "Mid Eastern Wrestling Federation"), [Smokey Mountain Wrestling](/wiki/Smokey_Mountain_Wrestling "Smokey Mountain Wrestling") and Midwest Territorial Wrestling. ### World Championship Wrestling (1993, 1995–1996\) In August 1993 Hawk made sporadic appearances in [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling "World Championship Wrestling") as a mystery partner of [Dustin Rhodes](/wiki/Dustin_Rhodes "Dustin Rhodes"){{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\.html\#XXIV \| title \= WCW Clash of the Champions Results (XXIV) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007 \| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080421024241/http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\.html\#XXIV \| archive\-date \= April 21, 2008 \| df \= mdy\-all }} and later as a replacement partner when [Davey Boy Smith](/wiki/Davey_Boy_Smith "Davey Boy Smith") left the promotion{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/starrcad.html\#93 \| title \= WCW Starrcade Results (1993\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} but nothing permanent ever came of it, and Hawk left after Starrcade in December 1993\. In May 1995, he reappeared in WCW. In July 1995, he helped [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 "Sting (wrestler)") in a feud against [Meng](/wiki/Tonga_Fifita "Tonga Fifita") and [Kurasawa](/wiki/Manabu_Nakanishi "Manabu Nakanishi"),{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\.html\#XXXI \| title \= WCW Clash of the Champions Results (XXXI) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007 \| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com \| url\-status \= dead \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080421024241/http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\.html\#XXXI \| archive\-date \= April 21, 2008 \| df \= mdy\-all }} but a proposed singles feud with Kurasawa fell through due to an arm injury (in [kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe "Kayfabe") Kurasawa broke Hawk's arm using a cross armbreaker, to let Hawk rest). Hawk returned in January 1996, but this time, he also brought Animal back with him as his back had finally recovered enough for him to return to active competition. During that time, Sting and [Lex Luger](/wiki/Lex_Luger "Lex Luger") had won the [WCW World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WCW_World_Tag_Team_Championship "WCW World Tag Team Championship") and the Warriors challenged them, to no success.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/s\-brawl.html\#VI \| title \= WCW SuperBrawl Results (VI) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/uncensor.html\#96 \| title \= WCW Uncensored Results (1996\) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} The rise of the [New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28professional_wrestling%29 "New World Order (professional wrestling)") precluded further challenges, and they headed back to the WWF. ### Return to WWF (1997–1999\) After leaving WCW they returned to the WWF{{cite web\| url \= http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/97\.htm \| title \= WWF Show Results 1997 \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007 \| author \= Graham Cawthon}} where the Legion of Doom took part in the feud between ["Stone Cold" Steve Austin](/wiki/Stone_Cold_Steve_Austin "Stone Cold Steve Austin") and [the Hart Foundation](/wiki/The_Hart_Foundation%23The_%28New%29_Hart_Foundation "The Hart Foundation#The (New) Hart Foundation"), siding with Austin.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wwf/miscppvs1990s.html\#16 \| title \= WWF In Your House Results (Canadian Stampede) \| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= prowrestlinghistory.com}} The Legion of Doom also became 2 time tag\-team champions on October 7, 1997, when they defeated [The Godwinns](/wiki/The_Godwinns "The Godwinns"). In November 1997 the Legion of Doom faced the newly formed [New Age Outlaws](/wiki/New_Age_Outlaws "New Age Outlaws") ([Road Dogg](/wiki/Brian_Gerard_James "Brian Gerard James") and [Billy Gunn](/wiki/Monty_Sopp "Monty Sopp")) and shockingly lost the titles to the upstart team. On an episode of *[Monday Night Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw "WWE Raw")*, L.O.D. challenged [D\-Generation X](/wiki/D-Generation_X "D-Generation X") (DX) in a Tag Match. During the match, The New Age Outlaws attacked L.O.D. and shaved off one of Hawk's mohawks, and threw Animal through the announcers table. After several unsuccessful challenges the L.O.D. were repackaged as "Legion of Doom 2000" with manager [Sunny](/wiki/Tammy_Lynn_Sytch "Tammy Lynn Sytch"), although she did not stay with the team for long. During [the Attitude Era](/wiki/The_Attitude_Era "The Attitude Era"), in which the WWF moved towards a more "adult" product, the Legion of Doom was placed into a storyline incorporating Hegstrand's real\-life drug addiction and [alcoholism](/wiki/Alcoholism "Alcoholism"), against the wishes of both Hegstrand and Laurinaitis. The storyline found the Legion of Doom crumbling as Hawk repeatedly showed up to matches apparently drunk or under the influence of drugs, and began demonstrating [suicidal tendencies](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation"). In order to stabilize the team, a third member, [Puke](/wiki/Darren_Drozdov "Darren Drozdov"), was introduced later known as Droz. This led to the conclusion of the storyline, in which a suicidal Hawk climbed to the top of the TitanTron, the giant television monitor erected during episodes of WWF's *Raw Is War* to show match highlights to fans in attendance. Puke, supposedly attempting to rescue Hawk, climbed after him, only to apparently throw Hawk over the side (with a special effect being used to make it appear as though fans could see Hegstrand's body plunging a fatal distance behind the screen); Puke then revealed that he had been enabling Hawk's drug addiction in order to kill him and take his place in the Legion of Doom. Being forced to act out Hegstrand's personal demons onscreen eventually proved too much for both Hegstrand and Laurinaitis, and both men quit the company shortly after the "Puke killed Hawk" incident. ### Late career (1999–2003\) While the Road Warriors never officially broke up, Animal started making an increasing number of solo appearances after they left the WWF as Hegstrand struggled with drug and alcohol addiction and generally did not appear at many wrestling shows during this time. In 2000, during a tour in Australia, Hegstrand was diagnosed with [cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy "Cardiomyopathy"), a heart condition that stopped him from wrestling for a short while. He was able to overcome its effects and returned to a regular working schedule later on. Laurinaitis and Hegstrand became [born\-again Christians](/wiki/Born_again_Christianity "Born again Christianity") in 2001 and appeared at a number of Christian wrestling events run by [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase "Ted DiBiase") and [Nikita Koloff](/wiki/Nikita_Koloff "Nikita Koloff") hoping to reignite their tag\-team career. On June 22, 2002, International Wrestling Superstars, Road Warriors Animal \& Hawk defeated the Headshrinkers for the World Tag\-Team Championship. That victory also led to Team USA winning the International Tournament held in Atlantic City, New Jersey. They also appeared in [Total Nonstop Action Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling "Total Nonstop Action Wrestling") (TNA) in late 2002 and early 2003 as part of a group that opposed [Vince Russo](/wiki/Vince_Russo "Vince Russo")’s faction [Sports Entertainment Xtreme](/wiki/Sports_Entertainment_Xtreme "Sports Entertainment Xtreme") but only wrestled one actual match for the company.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.tnawrestling.com/info/quickresults/weeklyppv/2003\.html\| title \= TNA Weekly PPV Results 2003\| access\-date \= April 17, 2007\| author \= tnawrestling.com\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070127124150/http://www.tnawrestling.com/info/quickresults/weeklyppv/2003\.html\| archive\-date \= January 27, 2007\| df \= mdy\-all}} Animal and Hawk made a surprise appearance on *[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw "WWE Raw")* on May 12, 2003, when they took on [Kane](/wiki/Kane_%28wrestler%29 "Kane (wrestler)") and [Rob Van Dam](/wiki/Rob_Van_Dam "Rob Van Dam") for the World Tag Team Championship.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/03\.htm \| title \= WWE Show Results 2003\| access\-date \= April 17, 2007 \| author \= Graham Cawthon \| quote \= (May 12, 2003\) WWE Raw Tag Team Champions Rob Van Dam \& Kane defeated the Legion of Doom when RVD pinned Road Warrior Hawk following the chokeslam / Five Star Frog Splash combo (LOD's surprise return after more than a 4\-year absence)}} Although Hawk and Animal came up short in their attempt to become three\-time champions, it was clear that Hawk had defeated the demons that had once kept him from competing, and the Road Warriors had hopes of returning to WWE. Later in 2003, Hawk made an appearance with the All World Wrestling League, a take\-off of the 'original' Big Time Wrestling that was owned by [The Original Sheik](/wiki/Ed_Farhat "Ed Farhat") who died earlier that year; it was run by the sons of The Sheik, Eddie and Tom Farhat. They decided to book Hawk for an event in Holt, Michigan; that event was the second to last time Hawk wrestled.{{Citation needed\|reason\=Hawk's recorded second last match was in Jackson, Michigan on September 7, 2003\. This could be the same event. Jackson and Holt, Michigan are a 40 minute drive apart from each other. Which is beg to differ. This event has no date.\|date\=May 2022}} Two weeks before he died, he wrestled his final match with Animal in Oshawa, Ontario, defeating [Greg "The Hammer" Valentine](/wiki/Greg_Valentine "Greg Valentine") and [Buff Bagwell](/wiki/Buff_Bagwell "Buff Bagwell").{{cite web \|url\=https://slamwrestling.net/index.php/2003/11/03/animal\-in\-spotlight\-at\-hawk\-tribute\-show/ \|title\=Animal in spotlight at Hawk tribute show \|last\=Oliver \|first\=Greg \|author\-link\=Greg Oliver \|date\=November 3, 2003 \|website\=\[\[SLAM! Wrestling\|SlamWrestling.net]] \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=November 5, 2022 \|quote\=}}
[ "Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------", "### Early career (1983–1986\\)", "{{Main\\|the Road Warriors}}\nHegstrand started his career as part of the Traveling All\\-Stars. He was billed as \"Crusher Von Haig\" and wrestled in Vancouver. Soon growing weary of the road and becoming homesick. Hegstrand traveled back home with Rood. Later in 1983, fate struck again when Laurinaitis's partner for the night found himself in legal trouble. Needing a quick replacement, Ole Anderson gave Hegstrand a call, and he accepted the booking to team with Laurinaitis. Neither man knew at the time that they would make wrestling history that day.{{cite news \\|author\\=Matthew Hester(Senior Writer) \\|title\\= C Vs. C: The Road Warriors Were the Greatest Tag Team in Pro Wrestling!\\|publisher\\=Bleacher Report \\|year\\=2010 }} When [Paul Ellering](/wiki/Paul_Ellering \"Paul Ellering\") was looking to put together a stable of heels in [Georgia Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Georgia_Championship_Wrestling \"Georgia Championship Wrestling\") called The Legion of Doom it was decided to pair Laurinaitis with Hegstrand and change their names to \"Animal\" and \"Hawk\" respectively; thus, the [Road Warriors](/wiki/Road_Warriors \"Road Warriors\") were born. To look more intimidating the two shaved their heads into Mohawks and started wearing studded dog collars, leather chaps, and face paint. The look and name was taken from *[Mad Max 2: the Road Warrior](/wiki/Mad_Max_2 \"Mad Max 2\")*, helping to paint the two as no\\-mercy monsters. Their [interview](/wiki/Promo_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Promo (professional wrestling)\") style was vicious, yet charismatic and a bit humorous. Hawk was known for often beginning his promos with his trademark yell of \"Wellllllllllllll!...\" and ending with his [catch phrase](/wiki/Catchphrase \"Catchphrase\") of \"Oooooooooh, what a ruuuuuuuuuuuush!\"{{cite book \\|first1\\=Greg\\|last1\\=Oliver\\|first2\\=Steve\\|last2\\=Johnson \\|title\\= The Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame: The Tag Teams \\|publisher\\=ECW Press \\|year\\=2005 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55022\\-683\\-6}} The team was an instant hit, revolutionizing the tag\\-team scene with their power moves, no mercy attitudes, and innovative face paint that would spawn many future imitators in wrestling.{{cite video\\|people\\=Various Comments\\|title\\=Road Warriors: The Life and Death of Wrestling's Most Dominant Tag\\-Team\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0476485/\\|medium\\=DVD\\|publisher\\=WWE Home Video\\|location\\=USA\\|date\\=June 14, 2005}} In Georgia, they won the [NWA National Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_National_Tag_Team_Championship \"NWA National Tag Team Championship\") four times{{cite book\\|author\\=Royal Duncan \\& Gary Will\\|title\\=Wrestling Title Histories\\|publisher\\=Archeus Communications\\|year\\=2006\\|edition\\=4th\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9698161\\-5\\-7}} before moving on to bigger promotions such as the [American Wrestling Association](/wiki/American_Wrestling_Association \"American Wrestling Association\") in the US and [All Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/All_Japan_Pro_Wrestling \"All Japan Pro Wrestling\") in Japan, winning tag\\-team titles wherever they went.", "### National Wrestling Alliance / World Championship Wrestling (1986–1990\\)", "[thumb\\|Hawk (right) kicking [Bobby Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton \"Bobby Eaton\") (left), circa 1987\\.](/wiki/File:Road_Warrior_Hawk_Kicking_Bobby_Eaton.png \"Road Warrior Hawk Kicking Bobby Eaton.png\")\nTheir hard hitting style, no nonsense attitude, and winning ways made the Road Warriors fan favorites wherever they went; even when they were booked as heels, the fans refused to boo them. They were so in demand that they started to split their time between the AWA and the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance \"National Wrestling Alliance\") until finally leaving the AWA for big money contracts with the NWA and a huge push for the monster duo. The move paid off instantly as they won the inaugural [Jim Crockett, Sr. Memorial Cup Tag Team Tournament](/wiki/Jim_Crockett%2C_Sr._Memorial_Cup_Tag_Team_Tournament \"Jim Crockett, Sr. Memorial Cup Tag Team Tournament\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/cup.html\\#1st\\|title\\=NWA Crockett Cup Results (1986\\)\\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2007\\|author\\=prowrestlinghistory.com}} and feuded with the top stars of the NWA such as [The Four Horsemen](/wiki/Four_Horsemen_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Four Horsemen (professional wrestling)\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\\#87\\|title\\=NWA Great American Bash Results (1987 \\#1\\)\\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2007\\|author\\=prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\\#87b\\|title\\=NWA Great American Bash Results (1987 \\#2\\)\\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2007\\|author\\=prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\\#87c \\| title \\= NWA Great American Bash Results (1987 \\#3\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/starrcad.html\\#87 \\| title \\= NWA Starrcade Results (1987\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} and [The Russian Team](/wiki/The_Russian_Team \"The Russian Team\") (which included the Road Warriors’ old training buddy Barry Darsow, then wrestling as Krusher Khrushchev).{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\\#86 \\| title \\= NWA Great American Bash Results (1986\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/nwaawa.html\\#1285 \\| title \\= NWA/AWA Star Wars Results (December 1985\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/nwaawa.html\\#0286 \\| title \\= NWA/AWA Star Wars Results (1986\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} During their initial run in the Mid\\-Atlantic region of the NWA, they helped popularize the [WarGames match](/wiki/WarGames_match \"WarGames match\"), the [Scaffold match](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Scaffold_match \"Professional wrestling match types#Scaffold match\"),{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/starrcad.html\\#86 \\| title \\= NWA Starrcade Results (1986\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} and their trademark [Chicago Street Fight](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Hardcore-based_variations \"Professional wrestling match types#Hardcore-based variations\").{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/w\\-war.html\\#90 \\| title \\= NWA Wrestle War Results (1990\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}", "In 1988, the Road Warriors engaged in a violent feud with the [Powers of Pain](/wiki/Powers_of_Pain \"Powers of Pain\") ([The Barbarian](/wiki/The_Barbarian_%28wrestler%29 \"The Barbarian (wrestler)\") and [The Warlord](/wiki/The_Warlord_%28wrestler%29 \"The Warlord (wrestler)\")), the first team that could truly match the Road Warriors in power (and who were one of the most well known Road Warrior clones). The Powers of Pain even went so far as to injure Animal's eye ([kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe \"Kayfabe\")) during a weightlifting competition. When Animal returned, he initially wore a hockey goalie mask to protect his eye. The [angle](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Angle \"Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Angle\") abruptly ended when the Powers of Pain left the NWA after finding out they were booked against the Road Warriors in a series of Scaffold Matches and they did not want to get hurt by falling off the scaffold. Near the end of 1988, the Road Warriors captured the [NWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"NWA World Tag Team Championship\") from [The Midnight Express](/wiki/The_Midnight_Express_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"The Midnight Express (professional wrestling)\") whom they mauled in short order to win the titles in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"). Despite being heels at the time and using brutal tactics against [Stan Lane](/wiki/Stan_Lane \"Stan Lane\") and [\"Beautiful\" Bobby Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton \"Bobby Eaton\"), once again they were cheered by the crowd. After being the \"Uncrowned champions\" for a long time, the Road Warriors’ run with the tag\\-team titles was short\\-lived. Crooked referee [Teddy Long](/wiki/Theodore_Long \"Theodore Long\") used a fast count to cheat the Road Warriors out of their titles. In their last year with the NWA, the Warriors feuded mainly with [The Varsity Club](/wiki/The_Varsity_Club \"The Varsity Club\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/miscppv.html\\#chi \\| title \\= NWA Chi\\-Town Rumble Results \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash.html\\#VI \\| title \\= NWA Clash of the Champions Results (VI) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/w\\-war.html\\#89 \\| title \\= NWA Wrestle War Results (1989\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} [The Samoan Swat Team](/wiki/The_Headshrinkers \"The Headshrinkers\"),{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash.html\\#VIII \\| title \\= NWA Clash of the Champions Results (VIII) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/gabash.html\\#89 \\| title \\= NWA Great American Bash Results (1989\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} and [The Skyscrapers](/wiki/The_Skyscrapers \"The Skyscrapers\"){{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/havoc.html\\#89 \\| title \\= NWA Halloween Havoc Results (1989\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash.html\\#X \\| title \\= NWA Clash of the Champions Results (X) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} before leaving the NWA in the summer of 1990\\.", "### World Wrestling Federation (1990–1992\\)", "The Road Warriors immediately signed with the [World Wrestling Federation](/wiki/WWE \"WWE\"){{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/90\\.htm \\| title \\= WWF Show Results 1990 \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007 \\| author \\= Graham Cawthon}} and were pushed into a feud with [Demolition](/wiki/Demolition_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Demolition (professional wrestling)\") (which once again included their old training partner Barry Darsow).{{cite book\\| author\\=Brian Shields\\| title\\=Main event – WWE in the raging 80s\\| publisher\\=Pocket Books\\| year\\=2006\\| edition\\=4th\\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4165\\-3257\\-6\\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/mainevent00bria}} Due to his health, [Ax](/wiki/Bill_Eadie \"Bill Eadie\") was replaced by a new member of Demolition, [Crush](/wiki/Brian_Adams_%28wrestler%29 \"Brian Adams (wrestler)\"). (Popular rumor at the time cited a heart condition on Bill Eadie's part, but this has been discredited in recent years. An allergic reaction to shellfish while in Japan after [WrestleMania VI](/wiki/WrestleMania_VI \"WrestleMania VI\") was the real cause of Eadie's temporary health problem. He confirmed this in a shoot interview in 2007\\.){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rspwfaq.net/2013/08/rf\\-video\\-shoot\\-interview\\-with\\-demolition.html?m\\=1 \\|title\\=RF Video Shoot Interview with Demolition \\|last\\=Bayless \\|first\\=Brian \\|date\\=August 8, 2013 \\|website\\=RSPWFAQ.net \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=November 5, 2022 \\|quote\\=}} However, fans did not react as strongly to this new Demolition team as they had to the original configuration, and the feud was considered a disappointment. During the early part of the feud, Legion of Doom often teamed with [WWF World Heavyweight Champion](/wiki/WWE_Championship \"WWE Championship\") [The Ultimate Warrior](/wiki/The_Ultimate_Warrior \"The Ultimate Warrior\") in six\\-man tag matches against all three members of Demolition. Just over a year after signing with the WWF, the Legion of Doom won the [WWF World Tag Team Titles](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%2C_1971%E2%80%932010%29 \"World Tag Team Championship (WWE, 1971–2010)\") from [The Nasty Boys](/wiki/The_Nasty_Boys \"The Nasty Boys\") at [SummerSlam 1991](/wiki/SummerSlam_1991 \"SummerSlam 1991\") and held them for about six months. When they lost the titles in February 1992 they were briefly taken off television, only to return with long\\-time manager Paul Ellering by their side, as well as a wooden dummy called \"Rocco\". Both members of the Legion of Doom thought the [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Gimmick (professional wrestling)\") was stupid, as did most of the fans and it led to Hawk quitting the WWF,{{cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[R.D. Reynolds]] and Randy Baer\\|title\\=Wrestlecrap – the very worst of pro wrestling\\|publisher\\=ECW Press\\|year\\=2003\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55022\\-584\\-6\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/wrestlecrapveryw00rdre}} leaving Animal on his own for the first time in nine years. When Animal suffered a severe back injury a short while later, everyone thought it was the end of the legendary team.", "### Japan, ECW and Independents (1992–1995\\)", "Hawk competed as a singles wrestler in Europe, Australia, and Japan and although he won nearly every singles match he competed in, he was usually seen (by North American and Japanese fans at least) as a tag team wrestler. Thus, he always fought either mid\\-card opponents or made teams with better\\-known singles stars. When he joined [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\"), he was immediately paired with [Kensuke Sasaki](/wiki/Kensuke_Sasaki \"Kensuke Sasaki\"), then simply known as a good mid\\-carder, as the Hell Raisers (Sasaki adopting the face paint and gimmick Power Warrior). The two dominated NJPW's tag team ranks for a while through their two wins of the [IWGP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Tag_Team_Championship \"IWGP Tag Team Championship\"), but no North American promoter thought about bringing them as a team, due to Sasaki's affiliation with NJPW. As a singles wrestler, Hawk found success in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), winning the CWA World Heavyweight Championship. Hawk also competed in NWA Eastern Championship Wrestling, the progenitor of [Extreme Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Extreme_Championship_Wrestling \"Extreme Championship Wrestling\"), in 1993\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Hardcore History\\|last\\=Williams\\|first\\=Scott\\|page\\=19\\|publisher\\=Sports Publishing LLC\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59670\\-021\\-5}} Hawk left ECW in 1994\\. Hawk competed in the [independent circuit](/wiki/Independent_circuit \"Independent circuit\") for [Pro Wrestling America](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_America \"Pro Wrestling America\"), [Mid Eastern Wrestling Federation](/wiki/Mid_Eastern_Wrestling_Federation \"Mid Eastern Wrestling Federation\"), [Smokey Mountain Wrestling](/wiki/Smokey_Mountain_Wrestling \"Smokey Mountain Wrestling\") and Midwest Territorial Wrestling.", "### World Championship Wrestling (1993, 1995–1996\\)", "In August 1993 Hawk made sporadic appearances in [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling \"World Championship Wrestling\") as a mystery partner of [Dustin Rhodes](/wiki/Dustin_Rhodes \"Dustin Rhodes\"){{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\\.html\\#XXIV \\| title \\= WCW Clash of the Champions Results (XXIV) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007 \\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080421024241/http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\\.html\\#XXIV \\| archive\\-date \\= April 21, 2008 \\| df \\= mdy\\-all }} and later as a replacement partner when [Davey Boy Smith](/wiki/Davey_Boy_Smith \"Davey Boy Smith\") left the promotion{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/starrcad.html\\#93 \\| title \\= WCW Starrcade Results (1993\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} but nothing permanent ever came of it, and Hawk left after Starrcade in December 1993\\. In May 1995, he reappeared in WCW. In July 1995, he helped [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28wrestler%29 \"Sting (wrestler)\") in a feud against [Meng](/wiki/Tonga_Fifita \"Tonga Fifita\") and [Kurasawa](/wiki/Manabu_Nakanishi \"Manabu Nakanishi\"),{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\\.html\\#XXXI \\| title \\= WCW Clash of the Champions Results (XXXI) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007 \\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com \\| url\\-status \\= dead \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080421024241/http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/clash2\\.html\\#XXXI \\| archive\\-date \\= April 21, 2008 \\| df \\= mdy\\-all }} but a proposed singles feud with Kurasawa fell through due to an arm injury (in [kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe \"Kayfabe\") Kurasawa broke Hawk's arm using a cross armbreaker, to let Hawk rest). Hawk returned in January 1996, but this time, he also brought Animal back with him as his back had finally recovered enough for him to return to active competition. During that time, Sting and [Lex Luger](/wiki/Lex_Luger \"Lex Luger\") had won the [WCW World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WCW_World_Tag_Team_Championship \"WCW World Tag Team Championship\") and the Warriors challenged them, to no success.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/s\\-brawl.html\\#VI \\| title \\= WCW SuperBrawl Results (VI) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}}{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wcw/uncensor.html\\#96 \\| title \\= WCW Uncensored Results (1996\\) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} The rise of the [New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"New World Order (professional wrestling)\") precluded further challenges, and they headed back to the WWF.", "### Return to WWF (1997–1999\\)", "After leaving WCW they returned to the WWF{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/97\\.htm \\| title \\= WWF Show Results 1997 \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007 \\| author \\= Graham Cawthon}} where the Legion of Doom took part in the feud between [\"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin](/wiki/Stone_Cold_Steve_Austin \"Stone Cold Steve Austin\") and [the Hart Foundation](/wiki/The_Hart_Foundation%23The_%28New%29_Hart_Foundation \"The Hart Foundation#The (New) Hart Foundation\"), siding with Austin.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wwf/miscppvs1990s.html\\#16 \\| title \\= WWF In Your House Results (Canadian Stampede) \\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= prowrestlinghistory.com}} The Legion of Doom also became 2 time tag\\-team champions on October 7, 1997, when they defeated [The Godwinns](/wiki/The_Godwinns \"The Godwinns\"). In November 1997 the Legion of Doom faced the newly formed [New Age Outlaws](/wiki/New_Age_Outlaws \"New Age Outlaws\") ([Road Dogg](/wiki/Brian_Gerard_James \"Brian Gerard James\") and [Billy Gunn](/wiki/Monty_Sopp \"Monty Sopp\")) and shockingly lost the titles to the upstart team. On an episode of *[Monday Night Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw \"WWE Raw\")*, L.O.D. challenged [D\\-Generation X](/wiki/D-Generation_X \"D-Generation X\") (DX) in a Tag Match. During the match, The New Age Outlaws attacked L.O.D. and shaved off one of Hawk's mohawks, and threw Animal through the announcers table. After several unsuccessful challenges the L.O.D. were repackaged as \"Legion of Doom 2000\" with manager [Sunny](/wiki/Tammy_Lynn_Sytch \"Tammy Lynn Sytch\"), although she did not stay with the team for long.", "During [the Attitude Era](/wiki/The_Attitude_Era \"The Attitude Era\"), in which the WWF moved towards a more \"adult\" product, the Legion of Doom was placed into a storyline incorporating Hegstrand's real\\-life drug addiction and [alcoholism](/wiki/Alcoholism \"Alcoholism\"), against the wishes of both Hegstrand and Laurinaitis. The storyline found the Legion of Doom crumbling as Hawk repeatedly showed up to matches apparently drunk or under the influence of drugs, and began demonstrating [suicidal tendencies](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\"). In order to stabilize the team, a third member, [Puke](/wiki/Darren_Drozdov \"Darren Drozdov\"), was introduced later known as Droz. This led to the conclusion of the storyline, in which a suicidal Hawk climbed to the top of the TitanTron, the giant television monitor erected during episodes of WWF's *Raw Is War* to show match highlights to fans in attendance. Puke, supposedly attempting to rescue Hawk, climbed after him, only to apparently throw Hawk over the side (with a special effect being used to make it appear as though fans could see Hegstrand's body plunging a fatal distance behind the screen); Puke then revealed that he had been enabling Hawk's drug addiction in order to kill him and take his place in the Legion of Doom. Being forced to act out Hegstrand's personal demons onscreen eventually proved too much for both Hegstrand and Laurinaitis, and both men quit the company shortly after the \"Puke killed Hawk\" incident.", "### Late career (1999–2003\\)", "While the Road Warriors never officially broke up, Animal started making an increasing number of solo appearances after they left the WWF as Hegstrand struggled with drug and alcohol addiction and generally did not appear at many wrestling shows during this time. In 2000, during a tour in Australia, Hegstrand was diagnosed with [cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy \"Cardiomyopathy\"), a heart condition that stopped him from wrestling for a short while. He was able to overcome its effects and returned to a regular working schedule later on. Laurinaitis and Hegstrand became [born\\-again Christians](/wiki/Born_again_Christianity \"Born again Christianity\") in 2001 and appeared at a number of Christian wrestling events run by [Ted DiBiase](/wiki/Ted_DiBiase \"Ted DiBiase\") and [Nikita Koloff](/wiki/Nikita_Koloff \"Nikita Koloff\") hoping to reignite their tag\\-team career. On June 22, 2002, International Wrestling Superstars, Road Warriors Animal \\& Hawk defeated the Headshrinkers for the World Tag\\-Team Championship. That victory also led to Team USA winning the International Tournament held in Atlantic City, New Jersey.", "They also appeared in [Total Nonstop Action Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling \"Total Nonstop Action Wrestling\") (TNA) in late 2002 and early 2003 as part of a group that opposed [Vince Russo](/wiki/Vince_Russo \"Vince Russo\")’s faction [Sports Entertainment Xtreme](/wiki/Sports_Entertainment_Xtreme \"Sports Entertainment Xtreme\") but only wrestled one actual match for the company.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.tnawrestling.com/info/quickresults/weeklyppv/2003\\.html\\| title \\= TNA Weekly PPV Results 2003\\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007\\| author \\= tnawrestling.com\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070127124150/http://www.tnawrestling.com/info/quickresults/weeklyppv/2003\\.html\\| archive\\-date \\= January 27, 2007\\| df \\= mdy\\-all}} Animal and Hawk made a surprise appearance on *[Raw](/wiki/WWE_Raw \"WWE Raw\")* on May 12, 2003, when they took on [Kane](/wiki/Kane_%28wrestler%29 \"Kane (wrestler)\") and [Rob Van Dam](/wiki/Rob_Van_Dam \"Rob Van Dam\") for the World Tag Team Championship.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/03\\.htm \\| title \\= WWE Show Results 2003\\| access\\-date \\= April 17, 2007 \\| author \\= Graham Cawthon \\| quote \\= (May 12, 2003\\) WWE Raw Tag Team Champions Rob Van Dam \\& Kane defeated the Legion of Doom when RVD pinned Road Warrior Hawk following the chokeslam / Five Star Frog Splash combo (LOD's surprise return after more than a 4\\-year absence)}} Although Hawk and Animal came up short in their attempt to become three\\-time champions, it was clear that Hawk had defeated the demons that had once kept him from competing, and the Road Warriors had hopes of returning to WWE. Later in 2003, Hawk made an appearance with the All World Wrestling League, a take\\-off of the 'original' Big Time Wrestling that was owned by [The Original Sheik](/wiki/Ed_Farhat \"Ed Farhat\") who died earlier that year; it was run by the sons of The Sheik, Eddie and Tom Farhat. They decided to book Hawk for an event in Holt, Michigan; that event was the second to last time Hawk wrestled.{{Citation needed\\|reason\\=Hawk's recorded second last match was in Jackson, Michigan on September 7, 2003\\. This could be the same event. Jackson and Holt, Michigan are a 40 minute drive apart from each other. Which is beg to differ. This event has no date.\\|date\\=May 2022}} Two weeks before he died, he wrestled his final match with Animal in Oshawa, Ontario, defeating [Greg \"The Hammer\" Valentine](/wiki/Greg_Valentine \"Greg Valentine\") and [Buff Bagwell](/wiki/Buff_Bagwell \"Buff Bagwell\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://slamwrestling.net/index.php/2003/11/03/animal\\-in\\-spotlight\\-at\\-hawk\\-tribute\\-show/ \\|title\\=Animal in spotlight at Hawk tribute show \\|last\\=Oliver \\|first\\=Greg \\|author\\-link\\=Greg Oliver \\|date\\=November 3, 2003 \\|website\\=\\[\\[SLAM! Wrestling\\|SlamWrestling.net]] \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=November 5, 2022 \\|quote\\=}}", "" ]
Description ----------- ### In Chinatown #### {{Anchor\|Little Hong Kong (小香港 ''siu2 hoeng1 gong2'') / Little Guangdong (小廣東 ''siu2 gwong2 dung1'') / Cantonese Town (廣東埠 gwong2 dung1 fau6\)}} As Chinatown's "Main Street" [thumb\|250px\|right\|Looking north at Mott and [Pell Streets](/wiki/Pell_Street "Pell Street") at night](/wiki/File:Mott_Street_Chinatown_Manhattan_at_night.JPG "Mott Street Chinatown Manhattan at night.JPG") [thumb\|right\|250px\|Mott Street at [Chatham Square](/wiki/Chatham_Square%2C_Manhattan "Chatham Square, Manhattan"); a [Citibank](/wiki/Citibank "Citibank") is in the foreground](/wiki/File:Citibank_Chinatown.jpg "Citibank Chinatown.jpg") Today this stretch of Mott Street is lined with souvenir shops, tea houses and restaurants catering largely to tourists. In 2003, the 32 Mott Street General Store closed due to the effects of the [September 11, 2001, attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") on the Chinatown economy. The proximity of the attack along with street closures in lower Manhattan (especially the ongoing closure of Park Row under [1 Police Plaza](/wiki/1_Police_Plaza "1 Police Plaza")) had cut off much business to Chinatown. 32 Mott had been the longest continuously operating store in Chinatown, established in 1891\. Mott Street north of [Canal Street](/wiki/Canal_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Canal Street (Manhattan)") was historically part of [Little Italy](/wiki/Little_Italy%2C_Manhattan "Little Italy, Manhattan"). Today it is predominantly Chinese. This section of Mott Street between roughly Canal and [Broome Streets](/wiki/Broome_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Broome Street (Manhattan)") has a number of Chinese\-owned fish and vegetable markets, as well as some remaining Italian businesses. The commercial establishments here cater more to the day\-to\-day needs of Chinatown residents than tourists. There are also shops that sell baby jackets, bamboo hats, and miniature [Buddhas](/wiki/Buddha "Buddha"). ### Little Hong Kong/Guangdong This portion of Chinatown along with the rest of the western portion of Chinatown still continues to be the main center of the Cantonese community since the beginning of Chinatown and the main Chinese business commercial district for the whole Chinatown neighborhood or known as the unofficial center of Chinatown. The western portion of Chinatown is also what was the original size and historic part of Manhattan's Chinatown or known as the Old Chinatown of Manhattan until the eastern part of Chinatown just east of the [Bowery](/wiki/Bowery "Bowery") became more fully developed due to the influx of [Fuzhou](/wiki/Fuzhou "Fuzhou") immigrants during the 1980s\-90s primarily on the East Broadway and Eldridge Street portion, which became the new Chinatown.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PzynALMFtEEC\&q\=Fuzhou\+immigrants\+in\+flushing\+Chinatown\&pg\=PA79 \|title\=Surviving the City: the Chinese ... – Xinyang Wang – Google Books \|isbn\=9780742508910 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2011\|last1\=Wang \|first1\=Xinyang \|year\=2001 }} The Bowery, which once served as the borderline of Chinatown is now{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=c7zknWPpNuIC\&q\=Little\+Fuzhou\+began\+on\+East\+Broadway\&pg\=PA38\|title\=The Snakehead\|isbn\=9780385521307\|last1\=Keefe\|first1\=Patrick Radden\|year\=2009}} the divider between the Cantonese Chinatown to the west and Fuzhou Chinatown to the east.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7gxBEkvPIxUC\&q\=Chinatown\+East\+Broadway\+1980s\&pg\=PA112 \|title\=Smuggled Chinese: clandestine ... – Ko\-lin Chin – Google Books \|isbn\=9781566397339 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2011\|last1\=Chin \|first1\=Ko\-lin \|year\=1999 }} It continues to be a business district catering to not only the Cantonese customers of the Lower East Side, but also to Cantonese people that reside in more affluent places that are also important customers to Chinatown's businesses. The western portion of Chinatown is also a **Little Hong Kong**, which was a name that was used at one point to describe Manhattan's Chinatown when the Hong Kong immigrants were pouring into the Chinatown neighborhood and even though not all the Cantonese immigrants are from [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), this portion of Chinatown has strong Cantonese characteristics, especially with [Standard Cantonese](/wiki/Standard_Cantonese "Standard Cantonese") language, which is spoken in Hong Kong and [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou"), China being used widely. {{anchor\|Supermarkets}}A new branch of [New York Mart](/wiki/New_York_Mart "New York Mart") opened up in August 2011 on Mott Street, although in the late 2010s, it was renamed to IFresh Supermarket.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ourchinatown.org/2011/08/01/new\-supermarket\-opens\-on\-mott\-street\-in\-chinatown/\|title\=New Supermarket Opens on Mott Street in Chinatown\|work\=ourchinatown.org\|date\=March 26, 2021}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ifreshmarket.com/en/stores/mott\-store/\|title\=New York Mart Mott St., Inc. – iFresh}} Just a block away from New York Mart is a [Hong Kong Supermarket](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Supermarket "Hong Kong Supermarket") located on the corner of [Elizabeth](/wiki/Elizabeth_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Elizabeth Street (Manhattan)") and [Hester](/wiki/Hester_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Hester Street (Manhattan)") Streets. These two supermarkets are among the largest Cantonese supermarkets in Chinatown.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=w\-6fjsplSRAC\&q\=Hong\+Kong\+Supermarket\+Elizabeth\+Street\&pg\=PT204\|title\=Travel New York City \- Illustrated Guide and Maps\|year\=2006\|isbn\=9781605010281}} The historic core of the Cantonese Chinatown was bounded by Pell, Mott, Doyer, and Bayard Streets below Canal Street. The latter separated Little Italy to the north and Chinatown to the south from the 1800s until the 1950s. After 1965, newer Cantonese\-speaking immigrants expanded the Cantonese Chinatown north to Broome and Kenmare Streets.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=INgBAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA38\|title \= New York Magazine\|date \= February 14, 1983}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=flKyCwAAQBAJ\&dq\=nyc\+chinatown\+expanding\+beyond\+canal\+street\&pg\=PA225\|isbn \= 9783839431115\|title \= Urban Transformations in the U.S.A.: Spaces, Communities, Representations\|date \= January 31, 2016\|publisher \= transcript Verlag}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ZcBxKK0cljcC\&dq\=nyc\+chinatown\+expanding\+beyond\+canal\+street\&pg\=PA98\|isbn\=9781439904176\|title\=Chinatown: The Socioeconomic Potential of an Urban Enclave\|year\=2010\|publisher\=Temple University Press}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uY9njnuRejcC\&q\=nyc\+chinatown\+history\|isbn\=9780738555171\|title\=Manhattan's Chinatown\|year\=2008\|publisher\=Arcadia}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nps.gov/places/new\-york\-chinatown\-and\-little\-italy\-historic\-district.htm\|title\=Chinatown and Little Italy Historic District New York, New York (U.S. National Park Service)}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=iwzTVUMl6i4C\&pg\=PA276\|title\=Teenage Hipster in the Modern World: From the Birth of Punk to the Land of Bush : Thirty Years of Millennial Journalism\|isbn\=9780802170088\|last1\=Jacobson\|first1\=Mark\|year\=2005}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/crownoffeathers00isaa\|isbn \= 9780374516246\|title \= Crown of feathers and other stories\|year \= 1981\|publisher \= Farrar, Straus and Giroux}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=usCZdjje1zMC\&q\=NYC\+Chinatown\+started\+as\+ten\+blocks\&pg\=PA142\|title\=Ethnicity, Social Mobility, and Public Policy: Comparing the USA and UK\|isbn\=9781139443654\|last1\=Loury\|first1\=Glenn C.\|last2\=Modood\|first2\=Tariq\|last3\=Teles\|first3\=Steven M.\|date\=May 12, 2005}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ZcBxKK0cljcC\&q\=NYC\+Chinatown\+started\+as\+ten\+blocks\&pg\=PA6\|title \= Chinatown: The Socioeconomic Potential of an Urban Enclave\|isbn \= 9781439904176\|last1 \= Zhou\|first1 \= Min\|year \= 2010}} #### Culture [thumb\|262x262px\|1930 Interior of Kwong Chong at 44 Mott Street](/wiki/File:1930_Interior_of_Kwong_Chong_at_44_Mott_Street%2C_New_York%2C_NY_anagoria_IMG_6480a.JPG "1930 Interior of Kwong Chong at 44 Mott Street, New York, NY anagoria IMG 6480a.JPG") **Little Guangdong** or **Cantonese Town** would be the more appropriate term since Cantonese immigrants do come from different parts of [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong "Guangdong") province of China. Most of the Chinatown Chinese\-businesses still continue to be Cantonese\-owned combining with still significant numbers of Cantonese residents of the Lower East Side and Cantonese from other areas contributing to the Chinatown businesses has allowed Cantonese to continue to be Chinatown's lingua franca even though Mandarin as Chinatown's other lingua franca is increasing. Despite the large Fuzhou population to the eastern section of Chinatown, though, Cantonese is still predominant in Mott Street with the rest of the western portion of Chinatown. The long time established Cantonese community stretches onto Pell, Doyer, Bayard, Elizabeth, Mulberry, and Canal Streets and on Bowery in Manhattan's Chinatown.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=SMGOgKLHbz8C\&q\=Mott\+Street\+is\+Chinatown\+unofficial\+main\+street\&pg\=PA99 \|title\=Let's Go USA – Let's Go, Inc. – Google Books \|isbn\=9780312374457 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2011\|last1\=Eggart \|first1\=Elise \|date\=November 27, 2007 }}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mZ0z8ZSwQ\-sC\&q\=Mott\+Street\+is\+the\+center\+of\+Cantonese\+culture\&pg\=PA81 \|title\=The Rough Guide to New York – Andrew Rosenberg, Martin Dunford – Google Books \|isbn\=9781848365902 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2011\|last1\=Rosenberg \|first1\=Andrew \|last2\=Dunford \|first2\=Martin \|date\=January 2011 }}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7a2\_J2Z8s\-YC\&q\=Urban\+ethnic\+place\+East\+Broadway\&pg\=PA226 \|title\=The power of urban ethnic places ... – Jan Lin – Google Books \|isbn\=9780203843017 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2011\|last1\=Lin \|first1\=Jan \|date\=September 30, 2010 }} Due to the migration of Cantonese immigrants into [Bensonhurst](/wiki/Bensonhurst%2C_Brooklyn "Bensonhurst, Brooklyn") and [Sheepshead Bay](/wiki/Sheepshead_Bay%2C_Brooklyn "Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn")/[Homecrest](/wiki/Homecrest%2C_Brooklyn "Homecrest, Brooklyn") sections of [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn"), newer Cantonese enclaves have started to emerge in those areas; with several of them within Bensonhurst on 18th Avenue, Bay Parkway and 86th Street and one portion in Sheepshead/Homecrest on [Avenue U](/wiki/Avenue_U "Avenue U") now they are becoming known as **Brooklyn's Little Hong Kong/Guangdong**, but as of the 2010s, they are still mixed in with other ethnic enclaves and still developing. Although the Cantonese population is more widespread and mixed in Bensonhurst and Sheepshead Bay/Homecrest with other ethnic groups, however it has in recent years surpassed the Cantonese population in Manhattan's Chinatown and with Bensonhurst having the highest concentration of Cantonese speaking Chinese immigrants in Brooklyn now, this neighborhood is slowly taking over as NYC's largest primary center of Cantonese culture in addition there is a declining Chinese population including Chinese businesses are declining in Manhattan's Chinatown due to the gentrification. As a result, Brooklyn's Bensonhurst and Sheepshead Bay are now increasingly becoming the new main attractions for newly arrived Cantonese immigrants into New York City.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/16/nyregion/influx\-of\-chinese\-immigrants\-is\-reshaping\-large\-parts\-of\-brooklyn.html\|title\=With an Influx of Newcomers, Little Chinatowns Dot a Changing Brooklyn\|first\=Liz\|last\=Robbins\|date\=April 15, 2015\|access\-date\=March 19, 2019\|website\=\[\[The New York Times]]}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nydailynews.com/changing\-chinatowns\-move\-manhattan\-sunset\-park\-home\-chinese\-nyc\-article\-1\.948028\|title\=The changing Chinatowns: Move over Manhattan, Sunset Park now home to most Chinese in NYC\|first\=Daniel\|last\=Beekman\|website\=Nydailynews.com\|access\-date\=March 19, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www1\.nyc.gov/assets/planning/download/pdf/data\-maps/nyc\-population/census2010/m\_asnsubnum\_ct.pdf\|title\=Chinese Population by Census Tract : New York City, 2010\|website\=1\.nyc.gov\|access\-date\=March 19, 2019}}{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.nytimes.com/projects/census/2010/map.html\|title\=Mapping America: Every City, Every Block\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=December 13, 2010}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014\-06/30/content\_17627657\.htm\|title\=Bensonhurst becomes Brooklyn's second Chinatown\|Americas\|chinadaily.com.cn\|website\=usa.chinadaily.com.cn}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://eportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edu/genyc/2018/05/10/a\-tale\-of\-two\-chinatowns/\|title\=A Tale of Two Chinatowns – Gentrification in NYC \| Rosenberg 2018}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://eportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edu/vellon18/gentrification/kaylenluu/the\-gentrification\-of\-chinatown/\|title\=The Gentrification of Chinatown \| NYCROPOLIS}} #### Current status as a Chinese business shopping district [thumb\|Mott Street in 2023](/wiki/File:Mott_Street%2C_Chinatown%2C_New_York-L1002097.jpg "Mott Street, Chinatown, New York-L1002097.jpg") However, despite the gentrification going on, Manhattan's Chinatown is still a very busy Chinese business district with many non\-Asian tourists and visitors attracted to come to Manhattan's Chinatown to explore Chinese culture and food and do shopping as well including many mainland Chinese tourists also visit the neighborhood. There are also still many Chinese consumers from other parts of the tri state that travel to this neighborhood for their shopping and business needs and as a result, Chinese businesses in Manhattan's Chinatown are still making very great profits, which will lead to the likelihood that it will remain as a Chinese business district for a long time to come even though the Chinese residency population is continuing to decline in the area. However, Mott Street and along with the western Cantonese portion of Manhattan's Chinatown is the main concentration of the busy Chinese business district with a large traffic of Chinese and non\-Chinese consumers, which is leading to the high likelihood that the Cantonese portion of Manhattan's Chinatown will be the only or last section to remain as the main significant, if not predominately Chinese shopping business district for visitors and tourists in the future. ### In NoLIta Also in this area is [Old St. Patrick's Cathedral](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Old_Cathedral%2C_New_York "St. Patrick's Old Cathedral, New York"), the first Catholic cathedral built in New York (consecrated 1815\). The high walls surrounding the church along Mott Street attest to the tension between Protestants and Catholics in New York during the 19th century. The [Church of the Transfiguration](/wiki/Church_of_the_Transfiguration_%28New_York_City%29 "Church of the Transfiguration (New York City)") was also built here, making it the oldest Roman Catholic church in Manhattan. Mott Street runs through [Little Australia](/wiki/Little_Australia%2C_Manhattan "Little Australia, Manhattan") in NoLIta. Mott Street terminates at [Bleecker Street](/wiki/Bleecker_Street "Bleecker Street") in Manhattan's [NoHo](/wiki/NoHo%2C_Manhattan "NoHo, Manhattan") (North of [Houston Street](/wiki/Houston_Street "Houston Street")) neighborhood.
[ "Description\n-----------", "### In Chinatown", "#### {{Anchor\\|Little Hong Kong (小香港 ''siu2 hoeng1 gong2'') / Little Guangdong (小廣東 ''siu2 gwong2 dung1'') / Cantonese Town (廣東埠 gwong2 dung1 fau6\\)}} As Chinatown's \"Main Street\"", "[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|Looking north at Mott and [Pell Streets](/wiki/Pell_Street \"Pell Street\") at night](/wiki/File:Mott_Street_Chinatown_Manhattan_at_night.JPG \"Mott Street Chinatown Manhattan at night.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Mott Street at [Chatham Square](/wiki/Chatham_Square%2C_Manhattan \"Chatham Square, Manhattan\"); a [Citibank](/wiki/Citibank \"Citibank\") is in the foreground](/wiki/File:Citibank_Chinatown.jpg \"Citibank Chinatown.jpg\")", "Today this stretch of Mott Street is lined with souvenir shops, tea houses and restaurants catering largely to tourists. In 2003, the 32 Mott Street General Store closed due to the effects of the [September 11, 2001, attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") on the Chinatown economy. The proximity of the attack along with street closures in lower Manhattan (especially the ongoing closure of Park Row under [1 Police Plaza](/wiki/1_Police_Plaza \"1 Police Plaza\")) had cut off much business to Chinatown. 32 Mott had been the longest continuously operating store in Chinatown, established in 1891\\.", "Mott Street north of [Canal Street](/wiki/Canal_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Canal Street (Manhattan)\") was historically part of [Little Italy](/wiki/Little_Italy%2C_Manhattan \"Little Italy, Manhattan\"). Today it is predominantly Chinese. This section of Mott Street between roughly Canal and [Broome Streets](/wiki/Broome_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Broome Street (Manhattan)\") has a number of Chinese\\-owned fish and vegetable markets, as well as some remaining Italian businesses. The commercial establishments here cater more to the day\\-to\\-day needs of Chinatown residents than tourists. There are also shops that sell baby jackets, bamboo hats, and miniature [Buddhas](/wiki/Buddha \"Buddha\").", "### Little Hong Kong/Guangdong", "This portion of Chinatown along with the rest of the western portion of Chinatown still continues to be the main center of the Cantonese community since the beginning of Chinatown and the main Chinese business commercial district for the whole Chinatown neighborhood or known as the unofficial center of Chinatown. The western portion of Chinatown is also what was the original size and historic part of Manhattan's Chinatown or known as the Old Chinatown of Manhattan until the eastern part of Chinatown just east of the [Bowery](/wiki/Bowery \"Bowery\") became more fully developed due to the influx of [Fuzhou](/wiki/Fuzhou \"Fuzhou\") immigrants during the 1980s\\-90s primarily on the East Broadway and Eldridge Street portion, which became the new Chinatown.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PzynALMFtEEC\\&q\\=Fuzhou\\+immigrants\\+in\\+flushing\\+Chinatown\\&pg\\=PA79 \\|title\\=Surviving the City: the Chinese ... – Xinyang Wang – Google Books \\|isbn\\=9780742508910 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2011\\|last1\\=Wang \\|first1\\=Xinyang \\|year\\=2001 }} The Bowery, which once served as the borderline of Chinatown is now{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=c7zknWPpNuIC\\&q\\=Little\\+Fuzhou\\+began\\+on\\+East\\+Broadway\\&pg\\=PA38\\|title\\=The Snakehead\\|isbn\\=9780385521307\\|last1\\=Keefe\\|first1\\=Patrick Radden\\|year\\=2009}} the divider between the Cantonese Chinatown to the west and Fuzhou Chinatown to the east.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7gxBEkvPIxUC\\&q\\=Chinatown\\+East\\+Broadway\\+1980s\\&pg\\=PA112 \\|title\\=Smuggled Chinese: clandestine ... – Ko\\-lin Chin – Google Books \\|isbn\\=9781566397339 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2011\\|last1\\=Chin \\|first1\\=Ko\\-lin \\|year\\=1999 }}", "It continues to be a business district catering to not only the Cantonese customers of the Lower East Side, but also to Cantonese people that reside in more affluent places that are also important customers to Chinatown's businesses. The western portion of Chinatown is also a **Little Hong Kong**, which was a name that was used at one point to describe Manhattan's Chinatown when the Hong Kong immigrants were pouring into the Chinatown neighborhood and even though not all the Cantonese immigrants are from [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), this portion of Chinatown has strong Cantonese characteristics, especially with [Standard Cantonese](/wiki/Standard_Cantonese \"Standard Cantonese\") language, which is spoken in Hong Kong and [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\"), China being used widely.", "{{anchor\\|Supermarkets}}A new branch of [New York Mart](/wiki/New_York_Mart \"New York Mart\") opened up in August 2011 on Mott Street, although in the late 2010s, it was renamed to IFresh Supermarket.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ourchinatown.org/2011/08/01/new\\-supermarket\\-opens\\-on\\-mott\\-street\\-in\\-chinatown/\\|title\\=New Supermarket Opens on Mott Street in Chinatown\\|work\\=ourchinatown.org\\|date\\=March 26, 2021}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ifreshmarket.com/en/stores/mott\\-store/\\|title\\=New York Mart Mott St., Inc. – iFresh}} Just a block away from New York Mart is a [Hong Kong Supermarket](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Supermarket \"Hong Kong Supermarket\") located on the corner of [Elizabeth](/wiki/Elizabeth_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Elizabeth Street (Manhattan)\") and [Hester](/wiki/Hester_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Hester Street (Manhattan)\") Streets. These two supermarkets are among the largest Cantonese supermarkets in Chinatown.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=w\\-6fjsplSRAC\\&q\\=Hong\\+Kong\\+Supermarket\\+Elizabeth\\+Street\\&pg\\=PT204\\|title\\=Travel New York City \\- Illustrated Guide and Maps\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=9781605010281}}", "The historic core of the Cantonese Chinatown was bounded by Pell, Mott, Doyer, and Bayard Streets below Canal Street. The latter separated Little Italy to the north and Chinatown to the south from the 1800s until the 1950s. After 1965, newer Cantonese\\-speaking immigrants expanded the Cantonese Chinatown north to Broome and Kenmare Streets.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=INgBAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA38\\|title \\= New York Magazine\\|date \\= February 14, 1983}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=flKyCwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=nyc\\+chinatown\\+expanding\\+beyond\\+canal\\+street\\&pg\\=PA225\\|isbn \\= 9783839431115\\|title \\= Urban Transformations in the U.S.A.: Spaces, Communities, Representations\\|date \\= January 31, 2016\\|publisher \\= transcript Verlag}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ZcBxKK0cljcC\\&dq\\=nyc\\+chinatown\\+expanding\\+beyond\\+canal\\+street\\&pg\\=PA98\\|isbn\\=9781439904176\\|title\\=Chinatown: The Socioeconomic Potential of an Urban Enclave\\|year\\=2010\\|publisher\\=Temple University Press}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uY9njnuRejcC\\&q\\=nyc\\+chinatown\\+history\\|isbn\\=9780738555171\\|title\\=Manhattan's Chinatown\\|year\\=2008\\|publisher\\=Arcadia}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nps.gov/places/new\\-york\\-chinatown\\-and\\-little\\-italy\\-historic\\-district.htm\\|title\\=Chinatown and Little Italy Historic District New York, New York (U.S. National Park Service)}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iwzTVUMl6i4C\\&pg\\=PA276\\|title\\=Teenage Hipster in the Modern World: From the Birth of Punk to the Land of Bush : Thirty Years of Millennial Journalism\\|isbn\\=9780802170088\\|last1\\=Jacobson\\|first1\\=Mark\\|year\\=2005}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/crownoffeathers00isaa\\|isbn \\= 9780374516246\\|title \\= Crown of feathers and other stories\\|year \\= 1981\\|publisher \\= Farrar, Straus and Giroux}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=usCZdjje1zMC\\&q\\=NYC\\+Chinatown\\+started\\+as\\+ten\\+blocks\\&pg\\=PA142\\|title\\=Ethnicity, Social Mobility, and Public Policy: Comparing the USA and UK\\|isbn\\=9781139443654\\|last1\\=Loury\\|first1\\=Glenn C.\\|last2\\=Modood\\|first2\\=Tariq\\|last3\\=Teles\\|first3\\=Steven M.\\|date\\=May 12, 2005}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ZcBxKK0cljcC\\&q\\=NYC\\+Chinatown\\+started\\+as\\+ten\\+blocks\\&pg\\=PA6\\|title \\= Chinatown: The Socioeconomic Potential of an Urban Enclave\\|isbn \\= 9781439904176\\|last1 \\= Zhou\\|first1 \\= Min\\|year \\= 2010}}", "#### Culture", "[thumb\\|262x262px\\|1930 Interior of Kwong Chong at 44 Mott Street](/wiki/File:1930_Interior_of_Kwong_Chong_at_44_Mott_Street%2C_New_York%2C_NY_anagoria_IMG_6480a.JPG \"1930 Interior of Kwong Chong at 44 Mott Street, New York, NY anagoria IMG 6480a.JPG\")\n**Little Guangdong** or **Cantonese Town** would be the more appropriate term since Cantonese immigrants do come from different parts of [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong \"Guangdong\") province of China. Most of the Chinatown Chinese\\-businesses still continue to be Cantonese\\-owned combining with still significant numbers of Cantonese residents of the Lower East Side and Cantonese from other areas contributing to the Chinatown businesses has allowed Cantonese to continue to be Chinatown's lingua franca even though Mandarin as Chinatown's other lingua franca is increasing. Despite the large Fuzhou population to the eastern section of Chinatown, though, Cantonese is still predominant in Mott Street with the rest of the western portion of Chinatown. The long time established Cantonese community stretches onto Pell, Doyer, Bayard, Elizabeth, Mulberry, and Canal Streets and on Bowery in Manhattan's Chinatown.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SMGOgKLHbz8C\\&q\\=Mott\\+Street\\+is\\+Chinatown\\+unofficial\\+main\\+street\\&pg\\=PA99 \\|title\\=Let's Go USA – Let's Go, Inc. – Google Books \\|isbn\\=9780312374457 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2011\\|last1\\=Eggart \\|first1\\=Elise \\|date\\=November 27, 2007 }}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mZ0z8ZSwQ\\-sC\\&q\\=Mott\\+Street\\+is\\+the\\+center\\+of\\+Cantonese\\+culture\\&pg\\=PA81 \\|title\\=The Rough Guide to New York – Andrew Rosenberg, Martin Dunford – Google Books \\|isbn\\=9781848365902 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2011\\|last1\\=Rosenberg \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|last2\\=Dunford \\|first2\\=Martin \\|date\\=January 2011 }}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7a2\\_J2Z8s\\-YC\\&q\\=Urban\\+ethnic\\+place\\+East\\+Broadway\\&pg\\=PA226 \\|title\\=The power of urban ethnic places ... – Jan Lin – Google Books \\|isbn\\=9780203843017 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2011\\|last1\\=Lin \\|first1\\=Jan \\|date\\=September 30, 2010 }}", "Due to the migration of Cantonese immigrants into [Bensonhurst](/wiki/Bensonhurst%2C_Brooklyn \"Bensonhurst, Brooklyn\") and [Sheepshead Bay](/wiki/Sheepshead_Bay%2C_Brooklyn \"Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn\")/[Homecrest](/wiki/Homecrest%2C_Brooklyn \"Homecrest, Brooklyn\") sections of [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\"), newer Cantonese enclaves have started to emerge in those areas; with several of them within Bensonhurst on 18th Avenue, Bay Parkway and 86th Street and one portion in Sheepshead/Homecrest on [Avenue U](/wiki/Avenue_U \"Avenue U\") now they are becoming known as **Brooklyn's Little Hong Kong/Guangdong**, but as of the 2010s, they are still mixed in with other ethnic enclaves and still developing. Although the Cantonese population is more widespread and mixed in Bensonhurst and Sheepshead Bay/Homecrest with other ethnic groups, however it has in recent years surpassed the Cantonese population in Manhattan's Chinatown and with Bensonhurst having the highest concentration of Cantonese speaking Chinese immigrants in Brooklyn now, this neighborhood is slowly taking over as NYC's largest primary center of Cantonese culture in addition there is a declining Chinese population including Chinese businesses are declining in Manhattan's Chinatown due to the gentrification. As a result, Brooklyn's Bensonhurst and Sheepshead Bay are now increasingly becoming the new main attractions for newly arrived Cantonese immigrants into New York City.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/16/nyregion/influx\\-of\\-chinese\\-immigrants\\-is\\-reshaping\\-large\\-parts\\-of\\-brooklyn.html\\|title\\=With an Influx of Newcomers, Little Chinatowns Dot a Changing Brooklyn\\|first\\=Liz\\|last\\=Robbins\\|date\\=April 15, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=March 19, 2019\\|website\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nydailynews.com/changing\\-chinatowns\\-move\\-manhattan\\-sunset\\-park\\-home\\-chinese\\-nyc\\-article\\-1\\.948028\\|title\\=The changing Chinatowns: Move over Manhattan, Sunset Park now home to most Chinese in NYC\\|first\\=Daniel\\|last\\=Beekman\\|website\\=Nydailynews.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 19, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www1\\.nyc.gov/assets/planning/download/pdf/data\\-maps/nyc\\-population/census2010/m\\_asnsubnum\\_ct.pdf\\|title\\=Chinese Population by Census Tract : New York City, 2010\\|website\\=1\\.nyc.gov\\|access\\-date\\=March 19, 2019}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.nytimes.com/projects/census/2010/map.html\\|title\\=Mapping America: Every City, Every Block\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=December 13, 2010}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014\\-06/30/content\\_17627657\\.htm\\|title\\=Bensonhurst becomes Brooklyn's second Chinatown\\|Americas\\|chinadaily.com.cn\\|website\\=usa.chinadaily.com.cn}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://eportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edu/genyc/2018/05/10/a\\-tale\\-of\\-two\\-chinatowns/\\|title\\=A Tale of Two Chinatowns – Gentrification in NYC \\| Rosenberg 2018}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://eportfolios.macaulay.cuny.edu/vellon18/gentrification/kaylenluu/the\\-gentrification\\-of\\-chinatown/\\|title\\=The Gentrification of Chinatown \\| NYCROPOLIS}}", "#### Current status as a Chinese business shopping district", "[thumb\\|Mott Street in 2023](/wiki/File:Mott_Street%2C_Chinatown%2C_New_York-L1002097.jpg \"Mott Street, Chinatown, New York-L1002097.jpg\")\nHowever, despite the gentrification going on, Manhattan's Chinatown is still a very busy Chinese business district with many non\\-Asian tourists and visitors attracted to come to Manhattan's Chinatown to explore Chinese culture and food and do shopping as well including many mainland Chinese tourists also visit the neighborhood. There are also still many Chinese consumers from other parts of the tri state that travel to this neighborhood for their shopping and business needs and as a result, Chinese businesses in Manhattan's Chinatown are still making very great profits, which will lead to the likelihood that it will remain as a Chinese business district for a long time to come even though the Chinese residency population is continuing to decline in the area. However, Mott Street and along with the western Cantonese portion of Manhattan's Chinatown is the main concentration of the busy Chinese business district with a large traffic of Chinese and non\\-Chinese consumers, which is leading to the high likelihood that the Cantonese portion of Manhattan's Chinatown will be the only or last section to remain as the main significant, if not predominately Chinese shopping business district for visitors and tourists in the future.", "### In NoLIta", "Also in this area is [Old St. Patrick's Cathedral](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Old_Cathedral%2C_New_York \"St. Patrick's Old Cathedral, New York\"), the first Catholic cathedral built in New York (consecrated 1815\\). The high walls surrounding the church along Mott Street attest to the tension between Protestants and Catholics in New York during the 19th century. The [Church of the Transfiguration](/wiki/Church_of_the_Transfiguration_%28New_York_City%29 \"Church of the Transfiguration (New York City)\") was also built here, making it the oldest Roman Catholic church in Manhattan. Mott Street runs through [Little Australia](/wiki/Little_Australia%2C_Manhattan \"Little Australia, Manhattan\") in NoLIta.", "Mott Street terminates at [Bleecker Street](/wiki/Bleecker_Street \"Bleecker Street\") in Manhattan's [NoHo](/wiki/NoHo%2C_Manhattan \"NoHo, Manhattan\") (North of [Houston Street](/wiki/Houston_Street \"Houston Street\")) neighborhood.", "" ]
Structures ---------- ### Chinese Community Centre [thumb\|250px\|right\|The Chinese Community Centre](/wiki/File:Chinatown-manhattan-2004.jpg "Chinatown-manhattan-2004.jpg") {{main\|Chinese Community Centre}} The Chinese Community Centre spans 60\-64 Mott Street. 62 Mott Street is home to the [Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association "Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association") (CCBA), the oldest Chinese community service organization of Chinatown established in 1883\. In the early history of this organization, it performed a quasi\-governmental role for the Chinatown community and financially supported many Chinese residents who had goals to become a business owner as well as providing them training. Today the organization provides services ranging from social services, training in personal and commercial conflict issues and mediation, preserving Chinese Culture as well as helping Chinese Americans to integrate well with mainstream groups, being involved with Chinese\-American interests, engages in charity events, sponsorships to educational related activities, and advocate for small businesses.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ccbanyc.org/eccba.html\|title\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\|work\=ccbanyc.org}} Additional services that are provided to the community are low cost rate Adult English Classes, Naturalization Service, and free tax services.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ccbanyc.org/eindex.html\|title\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\|work\=ccbanyc.org}} The New York Chinese School is at 64 Mott Street. Located inside the CCBA building, it is the largest Chinese school in North America and was established in 1909 during the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") of China as an [overseas Chinese](/wiki/Overseas_Chinese "Overseas Chinese") school. It is Chinatown's center of academic learning on Chinese culture, and history. Cantonese and Mandarin classes are also offered at this school, however the Mandarin programs have challenged the long time traditional dominance of Cantonese programs within the school.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ccbanyc.org/eservices.html\|title\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\|work\=ccbanyc.org}} This educational institution is affiliated with the CCBA due to its location.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.gonycs.org/english/history.htm \|title\=New York Chinese School Website \|publisher\=Gonycs.org \|access\-date\=October 18, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114080428/http://gonycs.org/english/history.htm \|archive\-date\=November 14, 2011 }}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=VpTuJeqbGR4C\&q\=New\+York\+Chinese\+School\&pg\=PA78 \|title\=American Chinatown: a people's ... – Bonnie Tsui – Google Books \|isbn\=9781416557234 \|access\-date\=October 18, 2011\|last1\=Tsui \|first1\=Bonnie \|date\=August 11, 2009 }} ### Historical businesses [thumb\|right\|250px\|Street sign of Mott Street, showing alternative Chinese name, at the intersection with Canal Street](/wiki/file:Street_sign_of_Mott_St.jpg "Street sign of Mott St.jpg") [thumb\|right\|250px\|From Canal Street, looking south at Mott Street](/wiki/file:Part_of_Mott_St.JPG "Part of Mott St.JPG") By 1903, there were four Chinese restaurants established such as Port Arthur, Tuxedo, Imperial, and Chinese Quick Lunch on Mott Street. Other earliest Chinese restaurants existed such as Chatham on [Doyers Street](/wiki/Doyers_Street "Doyers Street") and Savoy \& Oriental Restaurant on Pell Street. These restaurants were often in competition with each other in the Chinatown community. #### Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant In 1897, the Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant opened as a high class Chinese American Restaurant. The outside design of the restaurant's entrance was a colossal Chinese\-Style awning, which was crowned with a large wooden carved Chinese dragon. At the entrance, there was a multi\-colored stained glass sign with the word *restaurant* on it. There were postcard pictures of this entrance and they were often distributed to customers of this restaurant for free. The restaurant was located on a balcony with carved teakwood panels that seemed to leap out from the rest of the building with the purpose of getting people's attention to it strolling through the streets. There were often many American customers in this restaurant. The inside restaurant designs were mosaic\-designed tile floors and press tin ceilings with a chandelier and a large dragon design. The dining room displayed potted plants surrounding a water fountain, which contained wooden birds supported by a wooden dragon stand to make the restaurant appealing and also for [Feng Shui](/wiki/Feng_Shui "Feng Shui") and tabletops were made of inlaid marble. There were teakwood windscreens behind the fountain with the hand\-carved design of double layered wood molding that was used as a room divider with curtains set up on them. The restaurant also had a private dining room and displayed American advertisements such as one example on record, Horton's ice cream including English and Chinese menus as a way to remind customers this restaurant is not located in China and located in America. On record, an omelet stuffed with chicken, lobster, and ham cost $2\.00 on their menu. At the time, there was an elevated train rail conveniently next to the location.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uY9njnuRejcC\&q\=Tuxedo\+Mott\+Street\&pg\=PA59\|title\=Manhattan's Chinatown\|isbn\=9780738555171\|last1\=Ostrow\|first1\=Daniel\|last2\=Ostrow\|first2\=David\|year\=2008}} #### Port Arthur Restaurant {{external media\|float\=right\|width\=250px \|image1\= \[https://voicesofny.org/wp\-content/uploads/2014/09/port\-arthur\-above\-soy\-kee.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] Color version of Port Arthur Restaurant \|image2\= \[http://luirig.altervista.org/naturaitaliana/viewpics.php?title\=New\+Years,\+Chinatown,\+Port\+Arthur\+Chinese\+Restaurant,\+New\+York Port Arthur Restaurant] – Black and white version of Port Arthur Restaurant \|image3\= \[http://www.postcardroundup.com/wp\-content/uploads/2010/12/port\-arthur\-restarant\-576x369\.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] – Interior view of Port Arthur Restaurant }} The Port Arthur Restaurant was also established in 1897 and operated for more than 85 years. Chu Gam Fai was the original owner who started the business. The restaurant was named after Port Arthur (now Lushun) a city on the northeastern China coast where in 1904 \- 1905 the [Siege of Port Arthur](/wiki/Siege_of_Port_Arthur "Siege of Port Arthur") marked the first victory of Asian power over European power. The restaurant was located on the second and third floors of 7–9 Mott Street. The entrance to the restaurant was marked by an ornate pagoda\-style awning and the building's Chinese pagoda\-style balcony would eventually become a trademark for the restaurant. Eventually, an escalator was established in the restaurant to make it easier for customers to access the second and third floors, where diners were seated. The Port Arthur was the first Chinese restaurant in New York City's Chinatown to obtain a liquor license. The restaurant was known for its delicious Chinese style dishes and delicacies as well as for its authentic Chinese style wall decor, inlaid pearl mahogany tables, teakwood chairs, ornate carved wooden panels, windscreens, lanterns, and chandeliers. The third floor dining rooms were reserved for private parties and banquets, where many local Chinese residents held wedding parties and family ceremonial dinners. The East Hall upper dining room had a baby grand piano for entertainment, and by 1910, it was redesigned to accommodate long banquet tables. The West Hall upper dining room had no walls or screens to divide the space and each table was set up with only four seats, to accommodate smaller groups. There was also a special upper floor room for a bride's traditional change into different red dresses for various stages of the wedding reception. The second floor dining area was for smaller groups of customers or after\-hours slummers, American tourists in search for exotic adventures. The restaurant also served a special luncheon on the lower dining floor every day from 11am\-3pm except for holidays and Sundays. The restaurant was very conveniently located near an elevated train at [Chatham Square](/wiki/Chatham_Square "Chatham Square") and a subway station at [Worth Street](/wiki/Worth_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Worth Street (Manhattan)").{{cite web \|url\=http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\-entertainment/museums\-sights/62749/postcard\-of\-port\-arthur\-restaurant\-and\-soy\-kee\-co\-1930 \|title\=Postcard of Port Arthur Restaurant and Soy Kee \& Co., 1930 \- Time Out New York Kids \|access\-date\=January 28, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120715163927/http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\-entertainment/museums\-sights/62749/postcard\-of\-port\-arthur\-restaurant\-and\-soy\-kee\-co\-1930 \|archive\-date\=July 15, 2012 }} #### Soy Kee \& Company Below the Port Arthur Restaurant, there was a store named Soy Kee and Company serving as an importer and exporter of Chinese goods selling curios, chinaware, lamps, imported Chinese silks, embroideries, ivory carvings, imported Chinese teas, candies, dried fruits, coffees, canned foods, kimono, pajamas, and other types of accessories. Soy Kee and Company was originally located on 36 Pell Street, then moved to Mott Street in 1897 and then eventually moved outside of the Chinatown neighborhood.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uY9njnuRejcC\&q\=port\+arthur\+restaurant\+mott\+street\&pg\=PA11\|title\=Manhattan's Chinatown\|isbn\=9780738555171\|last1\=Ostrow\|first1\=Daniel\|last2\=Ostrow\|first2\=David\|year\=2008}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=N7yjunQcc\-oC\&q\=Port\+Arthur\+Restaurant\+Mott\+Street\&pg\=PA141\|title\=Gastropolis\|isbn\=9780231510066\|last1\=Hauck\-Lawson\|first1\=Annie\|last2\=Deutsch\|first2\=Jonathan\|date\=December 2008}} #### Mott Street General Store {{external media\|float\=right\|width\=250px \|image1\= \[http://thevillager.com/villager\_79/painandhopeasnewchinatown.html Mott Street General Store] – Front Pictures of Mott Street General Store \|image2\= \[http://www.savorysojourns.com/photos/mott\-st\_1930\.jpg Mott Street General Store] – Insider view of Mott Street General Store }} In 1891, a Chinese man named Lok Lee opened up the Mott Street General store. This was the gathering place for the earliest Chinese immigrants to socialize and maintain their kin roots with family and friends. It was very especially important because Chinatown was primarily a bachelor's society. Due to discrimination within the immigration laws during those old days, Chinese men were not allowed to bring their families into America. This is the oldest Chinese store that remained in the neighborhood for more than 100 years. The store name is Quong Yuen Shing \& Co, located in \#32 Mott Street. The architecture designs rarely changed with some of the original wooden cabinetry remaining, carved arch above the counter, formal paintings of Chinese women hanging on walls and the original clock from when the shop first opened still continued to tick. The apothecary shelves that display traditional styles of Chinese rice bowls, tea sets, and jade dragons still remained as well. A carved woodwork that twist around the counter is where herbal remedies were once sold. The store sign that once took up the storefront's two box bays are held at the [Museum of Chinese in America](/wiki/Museum_of_Chinese_in_America "Museum of Chinese in America").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=N7yjunQcc\-oC\&q\=mott\+street\+general\+store\&pg\=PA135\|title\=Gastropolis\|isbn\=9780231510066\|last1\=Hauck\-Lawson\|first1\=Annie\|last2\=Deutsch\|first2\=Jonathan\|date\=December 2008}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/newyork/hidden/chinatown/chinatown\-mid.html\|title\=Untitled Document\|work\=pbs.org}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=iI9iwMQ4MhwC\&q\=mott\+street\+general\+store\&pg\=PA50\|title\=Access New York City 13e\|isbn\=9780061350375\|last1\=Wurman\|first1\=Richard Saul\|date\=August 19, 2008}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gHSCYyN\_dYkC\&q\=mott\+street\+general\+store\&pg\=PA54\|title\=New York City\|isbn\=9781892145086\|last1\=Kahn\|first1\=Robert\|year\=2002}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zopQ1LeZfG4C\&q\=Mott\+Street\+General\+Store\&pg\=PA53\|title\=100 New Yorkers\|isbn\=9781892145314\|last1\=Holmes\|first1\=Julia\|date\=November 30, 2004}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.savorysojourns.com/chinatown.htm\|title\=Savory Sojourns Chinatown II Day Tour\|work\=savorysojourns.com}} In 2003, it closed due to the effects of the September 11 attacks on the Chinatown economy. {{Cite web\|title\=New York City Chinatown \> Storefronts \> Mott Street \> 32 Mott St. New York, NY.\|url\=http://www.nychinatown.org/storefronts/mott/32mott.html\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-21\|website\=www.nychinatown.org}} In 2004, the historic business reopened under the name, Good Fortune Gifts. {{Cite web\|last\=amNY\|date\=2004\-11\-04\|title\=Historic Chinatown store reopens under new management {{!}} amNewYork\|url\=https://www.amny.com/news/historic\-chinatown\-store\-reopens\-under\-new\-management/\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-21\|website\=www.amny.com\|language\=en\-US}}
[ "Structures\n----------", "### Chinese Community Centre", "[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|The Chinese Community Centre](/wiki/File:Chinatown-manhattan-2004.jpg \"Chinatown-manhattan-2004.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Chinese Community Centre}}\nThe Chinese Community Centre spans 60\\-64 Mott Street. 62 Mott Street is home to the [Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association](/wiki/Chinese_Consolidated_Benevolent_Association \"Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\") (CCBA), the oldest Chinese community service organization of Chinatown established in 1883\\. In the early history of this organization, it performed a quasi\\-governmental role for the Chinatown community and financially supported many Chinese residents who had goals to become a business owner as well as providing them training. Today the organization provides services ranging from social services, training in personal and commercial conflict issues and mediation, preserving Chinese Culture as well as helping Chinese Americans to integrate well with mainstream groups, being involved with Chinese\\-American interests, engages in charity events, sponsorships to educational related activities, and advocate for small businesses.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ccbanyc.org/eccba.html\\|title\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\\|work\\=ccbanyc.org}} Additional services that are provided to the community are low cost rate Adult English Classes, Naturalization Service, and free tax services.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ccbanyc.org/eindex.html\\|title\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\\|work\\=ccbanyc.org}}", "The New York Chinese School is at 64 Mott Street. Located inside the CCBA building, it is the largest Chinese school in North America and was established in 1909 during the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") of China as an [overseas Chinese](/wiki/Overseas_Chinese \"Overseas Chinese\") school. It is Chinatown's center of academic learning on Chinese culture, and history. Cantonese and Mandarin classes are also offered at this school, however the Mandarin programs have challenged the long time traditional dominance of Cantonese programs within the school.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ccbanyc.org/eservices.html\\|title\\=Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association\\|work\\=ccbanyc.org}} This educational institution is affiliated with the CCBA due to its location.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gonycs.org/english/history.htm \\|title\\=New York Chinese School Website \\|publisher\\=Gonycs.org \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114080428/http://gonycs.org/english/history.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=November 14, 2011 }}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=VpTuJeqbGR4C\\&q\\=New\\+York\\+Chinese\\+School\\&pg\\=PA78 \\|title\\=American Chinatown: a people's ... – Bonnie Tsui – Google Books \\|isbn\\=9781416557234 \\|access\\-date\\=October 18, 2011\\|last1\\=Tsui \\|first1\\=Bonnie \\|date\\=August 11, 2009 }}", "### Historical businesses", "[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Street sign of Mott Street, showing alternative Chinese name, at the intersection with Canal Street](/wiki/file:Street_sign_of_Mott_St.jpg \"Street sign of Mott St.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|From Canal Street, looking south at Mott Street](/wiki/file:Part_of_Mott_St.JPG \"Part of Mott St.JPG\")", "By 1903, there were four Chinese restaurants established such as Port Arthur, Tuxedo, Imperial, and Chinese Quick Lunch on Mott Street. Other earliest Chinese restaurants existed such as Chatham on [Doyers Street](/wiki/Doyers_Street \"Doyers Street\") and Savoy \\& Oriental Restaurant on Pell Street. These restaurants were often in competition with each other in the Chinatown community.", "#### Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant", "In 1897, the Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant opened as a high class Chinese American Restaurant. The outside design of the restaurant's entrance was a colossal Chinese\\-Style awning, which was crowned with a large wooden carved Chinese dragon. At the entrance, there was a multi\\-colored stained glass sign with the word *restaurant* on it.", "There were postcard pictures of this entrance and they were often distributed to customers of this restaurant for free. The restaurant was located on a balcony with carved teakwood panels that seemed to leap out from the rest of the building with the purpose of getting people's attention to it strolling through the streets. There were often many American customers in this restaurant.", "The inside restaurant designs were mosaic\\-designed tile floors and press tin ceilings with a chandelier and a large dragon design. The dining room displayed potted plants surrounding a water fountain, which contained wooden birds supported by a wooden dragon stand to make the restaurant appealing and also for [Feng Shui](/wiki/Feng_Shui \"Feng Shui\") and tabletops were made of inlaid marble. There were teakwood windscreens behind the fountain with the hand\\-carved design of double layered wood molding that was used as a room divider with curtains set up on them.", "The restaurant also had a private dining room and displayed American advertisements such as one example on record, Horton's ice cream including English and Chinese menus as a way to remind customers this restaurant is not located in China and located in America. On record, an omelet stuffed with chicken, lobster, and ham cost $2\\.00 on their menu. At the time, there was an elevated train rail conveniently next to the location.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uY9njnuRejcC\\&q\\=Tuxedo\\+Mott\\+Street\\&pg\\=PA59\\|title\\=Manhattan's Chinatown\\|isbn\\=9780738555171\\|last1\\=Ostrow\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|last2\\=Ostrow\\|first2\\=David\\|year\\=2008}}", "#### Port Arthur Restaurant", "{{external media\\|float\\=right\\|width\\=250px\n\\|image1\\= \\[https://voicesofny.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2014/09/port\\-arthur\\-above\\-soy\\-kee.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] Color version of Port Arthur Restaurant\n\\|image2\\= \\[http://luirig.altervista.org/naturaitaliana/viewpics.php?title\\=New\\+Years,\\+Chinatown,\\+Port\\+Arthur\\+Chinese\\+Restaurant,\\+New\\+York Port Arthur Restaurant] – Black and white version of Port Arthur Restaurant\n\\|image3\\= \\[http://www.postcardroundup.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2010/12/port\\-arthur\\-restarant\\-576x369\\.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] – Interior view of Port Arthur Restaurant\n}}", "The Port Arthur Restaurant was also established in 1897 and operated for more than 85 years. Chu Gam Fai was the original owner who started the business. The restaurant was named after Port Arthur (now Lushun) a city on the northeastern China coast where in 1904 \\- 1905 the [Siege of Port Arthur](/wiki/Siege_of_Port_Arthur \"Siege of Port Arthur\") marked the first victory of Asian power over European power. The restaurant was located on the second and third floors of 7–9 Mott Street. The entrance to the restaurant was marked by an ornate pagoda\\-style awning and the building's Chinese pagoda\\-style balcony would eventually become a trademark for the restaurant. Eventually, an escalator was established in the restaurant to make it easier for customers to access the second and third floors, where diners were seated.", "The Port Arthur was the first Chinese restaurant in New York City's Chinatown to obtain a liquor license. The restaurant was known for its delicious Chinese style dishes and delicacies as well as for its authentic Chinese style wall decor, inlaid pearl mahogany tables, teakwood chairs, ornate carved wooden panels, windscreens, lanterns, and chandeliers.", "The third floor dining rooms were reserved for private parties and banquets, where many local Chinese residents held wedding parties and family ceremonial dinners. The East Hall upper dining room had a baby grand piano for entertainment, and by 1910, it was redesigned to accommodate long banquet tables. The West Hall upper dining room had no walls or screens to divide the space and each table was set up with only four seats, to accommodate smaller groups. There was also a special upper floor room for a bride's traditional change into different red dresses for various stages of the wedding reception.", "The second floor dining area was for smaller groups of customers or after\\-hours slummers, American tourists in search for exotic adventures. The restaurant also served a special luncheon on the lower dining floor every day from 11am\\-3pm except for holidays and Sundays.", "The restaurant was very conveniently located near an elevated train at [Chatham Square](/wiki/Chatham_Square \"Chatham Square\") and a subway station at [Worth Street](/wiki/Worth_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Worth Street (Manhattan)\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\\-entertainment/museums\\-sights/62749/postcard\\-of\\-port\\-arthur\\-restaurant\\-and\\-soy\\-kee\\-co\\-1930 \\|title\\=Postcard of Port Arthur Restaurant and Soy Kee \\& Co., 1930 \\- Time Out New York Kids \\|access\\-date\\=January 28, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120715163927/http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\\-entertainment/museums\\-sights/62749/postcard\\-of\\-port\\-arthur\\-restaurant\\-and\\-soy\\-kee\\-co\\-1930 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2012 }}", "#### Soy Kee \\& Company", "Below the Port Arthur Restaurant, there was a store named Soy Kee and Company serving as an importer and exporter of Chinese goods selling curios, chinaware, lamps, imported Chinese silks, embroideries, ivory carvings, imported Chinese teas, candies, dried fruits, coffees, canned foods, kimono, pajamas, and other types of accessories. Soy Kee and Company was originally located on 36 Pell Street, then moved to Mott Street in 1897 and then eventually moved outside of the Chinatown neighborhood.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uY9njnuRejcC\\&q\\=port\\+arthur\\+restaurant\\+mott\\+street\\&pg\\=PA11\\|title\\=Manhattan's Chinatown\\|isbn\\=9780738555171\\|last1\\=Ostrow\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|last2\\=Ostrow\\|first2\\=David\\|year\\=2008}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N7yjunQcc\\-oC\\&q\\=Port\\+Arthur\\+Restaurant\\+Mott\\+Street\\&pg\\=PA141\\|title\\=Gastropolis\\|isbn\\=9780231510066\\|last1\\=Hauck\\-Lawson\\|first1\\=Annie\\|last2\\=Deutsch\\|first2\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=December 2008}}", "#### Mott Street General Store", "{{external media\\|float\\=right\\|width\\=250px\n\\|image1\\= \\[http://thevillager.com/villager\\_79/painandhopeasnewchinatown.html Mott Street General Store] – Front Pictures of Mott Street General Store\n\\|image2\\= \\[http://www.savorysojourns.com/photos/mott\\-st\\_1930\\.jpg Mott Street General Store] – Insider view of Mott Street General Store\n}}\nIn 1891, a Chinese man named Lok Lee opened up the Mott Street General store. This was the gathering place for the earliest Chinese immigrants to socialize and maintain their kin roots with family and friends. It was very especially important because Chinatown was primarily a bachelor's society. Due to discrimination within the immigration laws during those old days, Chinese men were not allowed to bring their families into America.", "This is the oldest Chinese store that remained in the neighborhood for more than 100 years. The store name is Quong Yuen Shing \\& Co, located in \\#32 Mott Street. The architecture designs rarely changed with some of the original wooden cabinetry remaining, carved arch above the counter, formal paintings of Chinese women hanging on walls and the original clock from when the shop first opened still continued to tick. The apothecary shelves that display traditional styles of Chinese rice bowls, tea sets, and jade dragons still remained as well. A carved woodwork that twist around the counter is where herbal remedies were once sold. The store sign that once took up the storefront's two box bays are held at the [Museum of Chinese in America](/wiki/Museum_of_Chinese_in_America \"Museum of Chinese in America\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N7yjunQcc\\-oC\\&q\\=mott\\+street\\+general\\+store\\&pg\\=PA135\\|title\\=Gastropolis\\|isbn\\=9780231510066\\|last1\\=Hauck\\-Lawson\\|first1\\=Annie\\|last2\\=Deutsch\\|first2\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=December 2008}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/newyork/hidden/chinatown/chinatown\\-mid.html\\|title\\=Untitled Document\\|work\\=pbs.org}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iI9iwMQ4MhwC\\&q\\=mott\\+street\\+general\\+store\\&pg\\=PA50\\|title\\=Access New York City 13e\\|isbn\\=9780061350375\\|last1\\=Wurman\\|first1\\=Richard Saul\\|date\\=August 19, 2008}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gHSCYyN\\_dYkC\\&q\\=mott\\+street\\+general\\+store\\&pg\\=PA54\\|title\\=New York City\\|isbn\\=9781892145086\\|last1\\=Kahn\\|first1\\=Robert\\|year\\=2002}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zopQ1LeZfG4C\\&q\\=Mott\\+Street\\+General\\+Store\\&pg\\=PA53\\|title\\=100 New Yorkers\\|isbn\\=9781892145314\\|last1\\=Holmes\\|first1\\=Julia\\|date\\=November 30, 2004}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.savorysojourns.com/chinatown.htm\\|title\\=Savory Sojourns Chinatown II Day Tour\\|work\\=savorysojourns.com}} In 2003, it closed due to the effects of the September 11 attacks on the Chinatown economy. {{Cite web\\|title\\=New York City Chinatown \\> Storefronts \\> Mott Street \\> 32 Mott St. New York, NY.\\|url\\=http://www.nychinatown.org/storefronts/mott/32mott.html\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-21\\|website\\=www.nychinatown.org}} In 2004, the historic business reopened under the name, Good Fortune Gifts. {{Cite web\\|last\\=amNY\\|date\\=2004\\-11\\-04\\|title\\=Historic Chinatown store reopens under new management {{!}} amNewYork\\|url\\=https://www.amny.com/news/historic\\-chinatown\\-store\\-reopens\\-under\\-new\\-management/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-21\\|website\\=www.amny.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
### Historical businesses [thumb\|right\|250px\|Street sign of Mott Street, showing alternative Chinese name, at the intersection with Canal Street](/wiki/file:Street_sign_of_Mott_St.jpg "Street sign of Mott St.jpg") [thumb\|right\|250px\|From Canal Street, looking south at Mott Street](/wiki/file:Part_of_Mott_St.JPG "Part of Mott St.JPG") By 1903, there were four Chinese restaurants established such as Port Arthur, Tuxedo, Imperial, and Chinese Quick Lunch on Mott Street. Other earliest Chinese restaurants existed such as Chatham on [Doyers Street](/wiki/Doyers_Street "Doyers Street") and Savoy \& Oriental Restaurant on Pell Street. These restaurants were often in competition with each other in the Chinatown community. #### Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant In 1897, the Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant opened as a high class Chinese American Restaurant. The outside design of the restaurant's entrance was a colossal Chinese\-Style awning, which was crowned with a large wooden carved Chinese dragon. At the entrance, there was a multi\-colored stained glass sign with the word *restaurant* on it. There were postcard pictures of this entrance and they were often distributed to customers of this restaurant for free. The restaurant was located on a balcony with carved teakwood panels that seemed to leap out from the rest of the building with the purpose of getting people's attention to it strolling through the streets. There were often many American customers in this restaurant. The inside restaurant designs were mosaic\-designed tile floors and press tin ceilings with a chandelier and a large dragon design. The dining room displayed potted plants surrounding a water fountain, which contained wooden birds supported by a wooden dragon stand to make the restaurant appealing and also for [Feng Shui](/wiki/Feng_Shui "Feng Shui") and tabletops were made of inlaid marble. There were teakwood windscreens behind the fountain with the hand\-carved design of double layered wood molding that was used as a room divider with curtains set up on them. The restaurant also had a private dining room and displayed American advertisements such as one example on record, Horton's ice cream including English and Chinese menus as a way to remind customers this restaurant is not located in China and located in America. On record, an omelet stuffed with chicken, lobster, and ham cost $2\.00 on their menu. At the time, there was an elevated train rail conveniently next to the location.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uY9njnuRejcC\&q\=Tuxedo\+Mott\+Street\&pg\=PA59\|title\=Manhattan's Chinatown\|isbn\=9780738555171\|last1\=Ostrow\|first1\=Daniel\|last2\=Ostrow\|first2\=David\|year\=2008}} #### Port Arthur Restaurant {{external media\|float\=right\|width\=250px \|image1\= \[https://voicesofny.org/wp\-content/uploads/2014/09/port\-arthur\-above\-soy\-kee.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] Color version of Port Arthur Restaurant \|image2\= \[http://luirig.altervista.org/naturaitaliana/viewpics.php?title\=New\+Years,\+Chinatown,\+Port\+Arthur\+Chinese\+Restaurant,\+New\+York Port Arthur Restaurant] – Black and white version of Port Arthur Restaurant \|image3\= \[http://www.postcardroundup.com/wp\-content/uploads/2010/12/port\-arthur\-restarant\-576x369\.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] – Interior view of Port Arthur Restaurant }} The Port Arthur Restaurant was also established in 1897 and operated for more than 85 years. Chu Gam Fai was the original owner who started the business. The restaurant was named after Port Arthur (now Lushun) a city on the northeastern China coast where in 1904 \- 1905 the [Siege of Port Arthur](/wiki/Siege_of_Port_Arthur "Siege of Port Arthur") marked the first victory of Asian power over European power. The restaurant was located on the second and third floors of 7–9 Mott Street. The entrance to the restaurant was marked by an ornate pagoda\-style awning and the building's Chinese pagoda\-style balcony would eventually become a trademark for the restaurant. Eventually, an escalator was established in the restaurant to make it easier for customers to access the second and third floors, where diners were seated. The Port Arthur was the first Chinese restaurant in New York City's Chinatown to obtain a liquor license. The restaurant was known for its delicious Chinese style dishes and delicacies as well as for its authentic Chinese style wall decor, inlaid pearl mahogany tables, teakwood chairs, ornate carved wooden panels, windscreens, lanterns, and chandeliers. The third floor dining rooms were reserved for private parties and banquets, where many local Chinese residents held wedding parties and family ceremonial dinners. The East Hall upper dining room had a baby grand piano for entertainment, and by 1910, it was redesigned to accommodate long banquet tables. The West Hall upper dining room had no walls or screens to divide the space and each table was set up with only four seats, to accommodate smaller groups. There was also a special upper floor room for a bride's traditional change into different red dresses for various stages of the wedding reception. The second floor dining area was for smaller groups of customers or after\-hours slummers, American tourists in search for exotic adventures. The restaurant also served a special luncheon on the lower dining floor every day from 11am\-3pm except for holidays and Sundays. The restaurant was very conveniently located near an elevated train at [Chatham Square](/wiki/Chatham_Square "Chatham Square") and a subway station at [Worth Street](/wiki/Worth_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Worth Street (Manhattan)").{{cite web \|url\=http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\-entertainment/museums\-sights/62749/postcard\-of\-port\-arthur\-restaurant\-and\-soy\-kee\-co\-1930 \|title\=Postcard of Port Arthur Restaurant and Soy Kee \& Co., 1930 \- Time Out New York Kids \|access\-date\=January 28, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120715163927/http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\-entertainment/museums\-sights/62749/postcard\-of\-port\-arthur\-restaurant\-and\-soy\-kee\-co\-1930 \|archive\-date\=July 15, 2012 }} #### Soy Kee \& Company Below the Port Arthur Restaurant, there was a store named Soy Kee and Company serving as an importer and exporter of Chinese goods selling curios, chinaware, lamps, imported Chinese silks, embroideries, ivory carvings, imported Chinese teas, candies, dried fruits, coffees, canned foods, kimono, pajamas, and other types of accessories. Soy Kee and Company was originally located on 36 Pell Street, then moved to Mott Street in 1897 and then eventually moved outside of the Chinatown neighborhood.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uY9njnuRejcC\&q\=port\+arthur\+restaurant\+mott\+street\&pg\=PA11\|title\=Manhattan's Chinatown\|isbn\=9780738555171\|last1\=Ostrow\|first1\=Daniel\|last2\=Ostrow\|first2\=David\|year\=2008}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=N7yjunQcc\-oC\&q\=Port\+Arthur\+Restaurant\+Mott\+Street\&pg\=PA141\|title\=Gastropolis\|isbn\=9780231510066\|last1\=Hauck\-Lawson\|first1\=Annie\|last2\=Deutsch\|first2\=Jonathan\|date\=December 2008}} #### Mott Street General Store {{external media\|float\=right\|width\=250px \|image1\= \[http://thevillager.com/villager\_79/painandhopeasnewchinatown.html Mott Street General Store] – Front Pictures of Mott Street General Store \|image2\= \[http://www.savorysojourns.com/photos/mott\-st\_1930\.jpg Mott Street General Store] – Insider view of Mott Street General Store }} In 1891, a Chinese man named Lok Lee opened up the Mott Street General store. This was the gathering place for the earliest Chinese immigrants to socialize and maintain their kin roots with family and friends. It was very especially important because Chinatown was primarily a bachelor's society. Due to discrimination within the immigration laws during those old days, Chinese men were not allowed to bring their families into America. This is the oldest Chinese store that remained in the neighborhood for more than 100 years. The store name is Quong Yuen Shing \& Co, located in \#32 Mott Street. The architecture designs rarely changed with some of the original wooden cabinetry remaining, carved arch above the counter, formal paintings of Chinese women hanging on walls and the original clock from when the shop first opened still continued to tick. The apothecary shelves that display traditional styles of Chinese rice bowls, tea sets, and jade dragons still remained as well. A carved woodwork that twist around the counter is where herbal remedies were once sold. The store sign that once took up the storefront's two box bays are held at the [Museum of Chinese in America](/wiki/Museum_of_Chinese_in_America "Museum of Chinese in America").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=N7yjunQcc\-oC\&q\=mott\+street\+general\+store\&pg\=PA135\|title\=Gastropolis\|isbn\=9780231510066\|last1\=Hauck\-Lawson\|first1\=Annie\|last2\=Deutsch\|first2\=Jonathan\|date\=December 2008}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/newyork/hidden/chinatown/chinatown\-mid.html\|title\=Untitled Document\|work\=pbs.org}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=iI9iwMQ4MhwC\&q\=mott\+street\+general\+store\&pg\=PA50\|title\=Access New York City 13e\|isbn\=9780061350375\|last1\=Wurman\|first1\=Richard Saul\|date\=August 19, 2008}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gHSCYyN\_dYkC\&q\=mott\+street\+general\+store\&pg\=PA54\|title\=New York City\|isbn\=9781892145086\|last1\=Kahn\|first1\=Robert\|year\=2002}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zopQ1LeZfG4C\&q\=Mott\+Street\+General\+Store\&pg\=PA53\|title\=100 New Yorkers\|isbn\=9781892145314\|last1\=Holmes\|first1\=Julia\|date\=November 30, 2004}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.savorysojourns.com/chinatown.htm\|title\=Savory Sojourns Chinatown II Day Tour\|work\=savorysojourns.com}} In 2003, it closed due to the effects of the September 11 attacks on the Chinatown economy. {{Cite web\|title\=New York City Chinatown \> Storefronts \> Mott Street \> 32 Mott St. New York, NY.\|url\=http://www.nychinatown.org/storefronts/mott/32mott.html\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-21\|website\=www.nychinatown.org}} In 2004, the historic business reopened under the name, Good Fortune Gifts. {{Cite web\|last\=amNY\|date\=2004\-11\-04\|title\=Historic Chinatown store reopens under new management {{!}} amNewYork\|url\=https://www.amny.com/news/historic\-chinatown\-store\-reopens\-under\-new\-management/\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-21\|website\=www.amny.com\|language\=en\-US}}
[ "### Historical businesses", "[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Street sign of Mott Street, showing alternative Chinese name, at the intersection with Canal Street](/wiki/file:Street_sign_of_Mott_St.jpg \"Street sign of Mott St.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|From Canal Street, looking south at Mott Street](/wiki/file:Part_of_Mott_St.JPG \"Part of Mott St.JPG\")", "By 1903, there were four Chinese restaurants established such as Port Arthur, Tuxedo, Imperial, and Chinese Quick Lunch on Mott Street. Other earliest Chinese restaurants existed such as Chatham on [Doyers Street](/wiki/Doyers_Street \"Doyers Street\") and Savoy \\& Oriental Restaurant on Pell Street. These restaurants were often in competition with each other in the Chinatown community.", "#### Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant", "In 1897, the Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant opened as a high class Chinese American Restaurant. The outside design of the restaurant's entrance was a colossal Chinese\\-Style awning, which was crowned with a large wooden carved Chinese dragon. At the entrance, there was a multi\\-colored stained glass sign with the word *restaurant* on it.", "There were postcard pictures of this entrance and they were often distributed to customers of this restaurant for free. The restaurant was located on a balcony with carved teakwood panels that seemed to leap out from the rest of the building with the purpose of getting people's attention to it strolling through the streets. There were often many American customers in this restaurant.", "The inside restaurant designs were mosaic\\-designed tile floors and press tin ceilings with a chandelier and a large dragon design. The dining room displayed potted plants surrounding a water fountain, which contained wooden birds supported by a wooden dragon stand to make the restaurant appealing and also for [Feng Shui](/wiki/Feng_Shui \"Feng Shui\") and tabletops were made of inlaid marble. There were teakwood windscreens behind the fountain with the hand\\-carved design of double layered wood molding that was used as a room divider with curtains set up on them.", "The restaurant also had a private dining room and displayed American advertisements such as one example on record, Horton's ice cream including English and Chinese menus as a way to remind customers this restaurant is not located in China and located in America. On record, an omelet stuffed with chicken, lobster, and ham cost $2\\.00 on their menu. At the time, there was an elevated train rail conveniently next to the location.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uY9njnuRejcC\\&q\\=Tuxedo\\+Mott\\+Street\\&pg\\=PA59\\|title\\=Manhattan's Chinatown\\|isbn\\=9780738555171\\|last1\\=Ostrow\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|last2\\=Ostrow\\|first2\\=David\\|year\\=2008}}", "#### Port Arthur Restaurant", "{{external media\\|float\\=right\\|width\\=250px\n\\|image1\\= \\[https://voicesofny.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2014/09/port\\-arthur\\-above\\-soy\\-kee.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] Color version of Port Arthur Restaurant\n\\|image2\\= \\[http://luirig.altervista.org/naturaitaliana/viewpics.php?title\\=New\\+Years,\\+Chinatown,\\+Port\\+Arthur\\+Chinese\\+Restaurant,\\+New\\+York Port Arthur Restaurant] – Black and white version of Port Arthur Restaurant\n\\|image3\\= \\[http://www.postcardroundup.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2010/12/port\\-arthur\\-restarant\\-576x369\\.jpg Port Arthur Restaurant] – Interior view of Port Arthur Restaurant\n}}", "The Port Arthur Restaurant was also established in 1897 and operated for more than 85 years. Chu Gam Fai was the original owner who started the business. The restaurant was named after Port Arthur (now Lushun) a city on the northeastern China coast where in 1904 \\- 1905 the [Siege of Port Arthur](/wiki/Siege_of_Port_Arthur \"Siege of Port Arthur\") marked the first victory of Asian power over European power. The restaurant was located on the second and third floors of 7–9 Mott Street. The entrance to the restaurant was marked by an ornate pagoda\\-style awning and the building's Chinese pagoda\\-style balcony would eventually become a trademark for the restaurant. Eventually, an escalator was established in the restaurant to make it easier for customers to access the second and third floors, where diners were seated.", "The Port Arthur was the first Chinese restaurant in New York City's Chinatown to obtain a liquor license. The restaurant was known for its delicious Chinese style dishes and delicacies as well as for its authentic Chinese style wall decor, inlaid pearl mahogany tables, teakwood chairs, ornate carved wooden panels, windscreens, lanterns, and chandeliers.", "The third floor dining rooms were reserved for private parties and banquets, where many local Chinese residents held wedding parties and family ceremonial dinners. The East Hall upper dining room had a baby grand piano for entertainment, and by 1910, it was redesigned to accommodate long banquet tables. The West Hall upper dining room had no walls or screens to divide the space and each table was set up with only four seats, to accommodate smaller groups. There was also a special upper floor room for a bride's traditional change into different red dresses for various stages of the wedding reception.", "The second floor dining area was for smaller groups of customers or after\\-hours slummers, American tourists in search for exotic adventures. The restaurant also served a special luncheon on the lower dining floor every day from 11am\\-3pm except for holidays and Sundays.", "The restaurant was very conveniently located near an elevated train at [Chatham Square](/wiki/Chatham_Square \"Chatham Square\") and a subway station at [Worth Street](/wiki/Worth_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Worth Street (Manhattan)\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\\-entertainment/museums\\-sights/62749/postcard\\-of\\-port\\-arthur\\-restaurant\\-and\\-soy\\-kee\\-co\\-1930 \\|title\\=Postcard of Port Arthur Restaurant and Soy Kee \\& Co., 1930 \\- Time Out New York Kids \\|access\\-date\\=January 28, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120715163927/http://timeoutnewyorkkids.com/arts\\-entertainment/museums\\-sights/62749/postcard\\-of\\-port\\-arthur\\-restaurant\\-and\\-soy\\-kee\\-co\\-1930 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2012 }}", "#### Soy Kee \\& Company", "Below the Port Arthur Restaurant, there was a store named Soy Kee and Company serving as an importer and exporter of Chinese goods selling curios, chinaware, lamps, imported Chinese silks, embroideries, ivory carvings, imported Chinese teas, candies, dried fruits, coffees, canned foods, kimono, pajamas, and other types of accessories. Soy Kee and Company was originally located on 36 Pell Street, then moved to Mott Street in 1897 and then eventually moved outside of the Chinatown neighborhood.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uY9njnuRejcC\\&q\\=port\\+arthur\\+restaurant\\+mott\\+street\\&pg\\=PA11\\|title\\=Manhattan's Chinatown\\|isbn\\=9780738555171\\|last1\\=Ostrow\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|last2\\=Ostrow\\|first2\\=David\\|year\\=2008}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N7yjunQcc\\-oC\\&q\\=Port\\+Arthur\\+Restaurant\\+Mott\\+Street\\&pg\\=PA141\\|title\\=Gastropolis\\|isbn\\=9780231510066\\|last1\\=Hauck\\-Lawson\\|first1\\=Annie\\|last2\\=Deutsch\\|first2\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=December 2008}}", "#### Mott Street General Store", "{{external media\\|float\\=right\\|width\\=250px\n\\|image1\\= \\[http://thevillager.com/villager\\_79/painandhopeasnewchinatown.html Mott Street General Store] – Front Pictures of Mott Street General Store\n\\|image2\\= \\[http://www.savorysojourns.com/photos/mott\\-st\\_1930\\.jpg Mott Street General Store] – Insider view of Mott Street General Store\n}}\nIn 1891, a Chinese man named Lok Lee opened up the Mott Street General store. This was the gathering place for the earliest Chinese immigrants to socialize and maintain their kin roots with family and friends. It was very especially important because Chinatown was primarily a bachelor's society. Due to discrimination within the immigration laws during those old days, Chinese men were not allowed to bring their families into America.", "This is the oldest Chinese store that remained in the neighborhood for more than 100 years. The store name is Quong Yuen Shing \\& Co, located in \\#32 Mott Street. The architecture designs rarely changed with some of the original wooden cabinetry remaining, carved arch above the counter, formal paintings of Chinese women hanging on walls and the original clock from when the shop first opened still continued to tick. The apothecary shelves that display traditional styles of Chinese rice bowls, tea sets, and jade dragons still remained as well. A carved woodwork that twist around the counter is where herbal remedies were once sold. The store sign that once took up the storefront's two box bays are held at the [Museum of Chinese in America](/wiki/Museum_of_Chinese_in_America \"Museum of Chinese in America\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N7yjunQcc\\-oC\\&q\\=mott\\+street\\+general\\+store\\&pg\\=PA135\\|title\\=Gastropolis\\|isbn\\=9780231510066\\|last1\\=Hauck\\-Lawson\\|first1\\=Annie\\|last2\\=Deutsch\\|first2\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=December 2008}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/newyork/hidden/chinatown/chinatown\\-mid.html\\|title\\=Untitled Document\\|work\\=pbs.org}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iI9iwMQ4MhwC\\&q\\=mott\\+street\\+general\\+store\\&pg\\=PA50\\|title\\=Access New York City 13e\\|isbn\\=9780061350375\\|last1\\=Wurman\\|first1\\=Richard Saul\\|date\\=August 19, 2008}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gHSCYyN\\_dYkC\\&q\\=mott\\+street\\+general\\+store\\&pg\\=PA54\\|title\\=New York City\\|isbn\\=9781892145086\\|last1\\=Kahn\\|first1\\=Robert\\|year\\=2002}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zopQ1LeZfG4C\\&q\\=Mott\\+Street\\+General\\+Store\\&pg\\=PA53\\|title\\=100 New Yorkers\\|isbn\\=9781892145314\\|last1\\=Holmes\\|first1\\=Julia\\|date\\=November 30, 2004}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.savorysojourns.com/chinatown.htm\\|title\\=Savory Sojourns Chinatown II Day Tour\\|work\\=savorysojourns.com}} In 2003, it closed due to the effects of the September 11 attacks on the Chinatown economy. {{Cite web\\|title\\=New York City Chinatown \\> Storefronts \\> Mott Street \\> 32 Mott St. New York, NY.\\|url\\=http://www.nychinatown.org/storefronts/mott/32mott.html\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-21\\|website\\=www.nychinatown.org}} In 2004, the historic business reopened under the name, Good Fortune Gifts. {{Cite web\\|last\\=amNY\\|date\\=2004\\-11\\-04\\|title\\=Historic Chinatown store reopens under new management {{!}} amNewYork\\|url\\=https://www.amny.com/news/historic\\-chinatown\\-store\\-reopens\\-under\\-new\\-management/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-21\\|website\\=www.amny.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
History ------- {{Further\|Akal Sena\|Khalsa Fauj\|Jatha}} In order to withstand the persecution of [Shah Jahan](/wiki/Shah_Jahan "Shah Jahan") and other [Mughal emperors](/wiki/Mughal_emperors "Mughal emperors"), several of the later [Sikh Gurus](/wiki/Sikh_Gurus "Sikh Gurus") established [military](/wiki/Akal_Sena "Akal Sena") [forces](/wiki/Khalsa_Fauj "Khalsa Fauj") and fought the [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") and [Simla Hills' Kings](/wiki/Hill_States_of_India "Hill States of India"){{cite book \|last\=Gandhi \|first\=Surjit Singh \|title\=History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606–1708 C.E \|date\=1 February 2008 \|publisher\=Atlantic Publishing \|isbn\=978\-81\-269\-0858\-5 \|page\=814 \|chapter\=13 Khalsa Battles Against Islamic Imperialism and Hindu Conservatism}} in the [early](/wiki/Battles_involving_the_Sikh_Empire%23Early_Afghan-Sikh_Battles "Battles involving the Sikh Empire#Early Afghan-Sikh Battles") and [middle](/wiki/Sikh_Empire "Sikh Empire") Mughal\-Sikh Wars and the [Hill States–Sikh wars](/wiki/Hill_States%E2%80%93Sikh_wars "Hill States–Sikh wars"). [Banda Singh Bahadur](/wiki/Banda_Singh_Bahadur "Banda Singh Bahadur") continued Sikh resistance to the [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") until his defeat at the [Battle of Gurdas Nangal](/wiki/Battle_of_Gurdas_Nangal "Battle of Gurdas Nangal"). For several years Sikhs found refuge in the forests and the [Himalayan foothills](/wiki/Sivalik_Hills "Sivalik Hills") until they organized themselves into guerilla bands known as *[jathas](/wiki/Jatha "Jatha")*. The basis of the [Dal Khalsa](/wiki/Dal_Khalsa_%28Sikh_Army%29 "Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)") army was established in 1733–1735 based upon the numerous pre\-existing *[Jatha](/wiki/Jatha "Jatha")* militia groups and had two main formations: the Taruna Dal (Youth Brigade) and the Budha Dal (Elder Brigade). On the annual Diwali meeting of the [Sarbat Khalsa](/wiki/Sarbat_Khalsa "Sarbat Khalsa") in Amritsar in 1748, a *[Gurmata](/wiki/Gurmata "Gurmata")* was passed where the Jathas were reorganized into a new grouping called *misls*, with 11 Misls forming out of the various pre\-existing Jathas and a unified army known as the *[Dal Khalsa Ji](/wiki/Dal_Khalsa_%28Sikh_Army%29 "Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)")*.{{Cite book \|last\=Singh \|first\=Harbans \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism \|publisher\=Punjabi University, Patiala \|volume\=2: E\-L \|pages\=362–3}} Ultimate command over the Misls was bestowed to [Jassa Singh Ahluwalia](/wiki/Jassa_Singh_Ahluwalia "Jassa Singh Ahluwalia"). The misls formed a commonwealth that was described by Swiss adventurer [Antoine Polier](/wiki/Antoine_Polier "Antoine Polier") as a natural "aristocratic republic".{{cite book\|last\=Singh\|first\=Khushwant\|title\=A History of the Sikhs: 1469–1838\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=MD9uAAAAMAAJ\|access\-date\=1 April 2011\|edition\=2nd\|date\=11 October 2004\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-567308\-1\|page\=165}} Although the misls were unequal in strength, and each misl attempted to expand its territory and access to resources at the expense of others, they acted in unison in relation to other states.{{harvnb\|Kakshi\|Pathak\|Bakshi\|Pathak\|2007\|page\=73}} The misls held [biannual](/wiki/wikt:Biannual "Biannual") meetings of their legislature, the [Sarbat Khalsa](/wiki/Sarbat_Khalsa "Sarbat Khalsa") in [Amritsar](/wiki/Amritsar "Amritsar").
[ "History\n-------", "{{Further\\|Akal Sena\\|Khalsa Fauj\\|Jatha}}", "In order to withstand the persecution of [Shah Jahan](/wiki/Shah_Jahan \"Shah Jahan\") and other [Mughal emperors](/wiki/Mughal_emperors \"Mughal emperors\"), several of the later [Sikh Gurus](/wiki/Sikh_Gurus \"Sikh Gurus\") established [military](/wiki/Akal_Sena \"Akal Sena\") [forces](/wiki/Khalsa_Fauj \"Khalsa Fauj\") and fought the [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\") and [Simla Hills' Kings](/wiki/Hill_States_of_India \"Hill States of India\"){{cite book \\|last\\=Gandhi \\|first\\=Surjit Singh \\|title\\=History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606–1708 C.E \\|date\\=1 February 2008 \\|publisher\\=Atlantic Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-269\\-0858\\-5 \\|page\\=814 \\|chapter\\=13 Khalsa Battles Against Islamic Imperialism and Hindu Conservatism}} in the [early](/wiki/Battles_involving_the_Sikh_Empire%23Early_Afghan-Sikh_Battles \"Battles involving the Sikh Empire#Early Afghan-Sikh Battles\") and [middle](/wiki/Sikh_Empire \"Sikh Empire\") Mughal\\-Sikh Wars and the [Hill States–Sikh wars](/wiki/Hill_States%E2%80%93Sikh_wars \"Hill States–Sikh wars\"). [Banda Singh Bahadur](/wiki/Banda_Singh_Bahadur \"Banda Singh Bahadur\") continued Sikh resistance to the [Mughal Empire](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\") until his defeat at the [Battle of Gurdas Nangal](/wiki/Battle_of_Gurdas_Nangal \"Battle of Gurdas Nangal\").", "For several years Sikhs found refuge in the forests and the [Himalayan foothills](/wiki/Sivalik_Hills \"Sivalik Hills\") until they organized themselves into guerilla bands known as *[jathas](/wiki/Jatha \"Jatha\")*.", "The basis of the [Dal Khalsa](/wiki/Dal_Khalsa_%28Sikh_Army%29 \"Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)\") army was established in 1733–1735 based upon the numerous pre\\-existing *[Jatha](/wiki/Jatha \"Jatha\")* militia groups and had two main formations: the Taruna Dal (Youth Brigade) and the Budha Dal (Elder Brigade).", "On the annual Diwali meeting of the [Sarbat Khalsa](/wiki/Sarbat_Khalsa \"Sarbat Khalsa\") in Amritsar in 1748, a *[Gurmata](/wiki/Gurmata \"Gurmata\")* was passed where the Jathas were reorganized into a new grouping called *misls*, with 11 Misls forming out of the various pre\\-existing Jathas and a unified army known as the *[Dal Khalsa Ji](/wiki/Dal_Khalsa_%28Sikh_Army%29 \"Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)\")*.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Singh \\|first\\=Harbans \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism \\|publisher\\=Punjabi University, Patiala \\|volume\\=2: E\\-L \\|pages\\=362–3}} Ultimate command over the Misls was bestowed to [Jassa Singh Ahluwalia](/wiki/Jassa_Singh_Ahluwalia \"Jassa Singh Ahluwalia\").", "The misls formed a commonwealth that was described by Swiss adventurer [Antoine Polier](/wiki/Antoine_Polier \"Antoine Polier\") as a natural \"aristocratic republic\".{{cite book\\|last\\=Singh\\|first\\=Khushwant\\|title\\=A History of the Sikhs: 1469–1838\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MD9uAAAAMAAJ\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2011\\|edition\\=2nd\\|date\\=11 October 2004\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-567308\\-1\\|page\\=165}} Although the misls were unequal in strength, and each misl attempted to expand its territory and access to resources at the expense of others, they acted in unison in relation to other states.{{harvnb\\|Kakshi\\|Pathak\\|Bakshi\\|Pathak\\|2007\\|page\\=73}} The misls held [biannual](/wiki/wikt:Biannual \"Biannual\") meetings of their legislature, the [Sarbat Khalsa](/wiki/Sarbat_Khalsa \"Sarbat Khalsa\") in [Amritsar](/wiki/Amritsar \"Amritsar\").", "" ]
Demographics ------------ As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 329 people, 153 households, and 104 families residing in the township. The population density was {{convert\|4\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 528 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|7\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the township was 96\.96% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.61% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.43% from two or more races. There were 153 households, out of which 15\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 2\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\.4% were non\-families. 25\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.15 and the average family size was 2\.56\. In the township the population was spread out, with 13\.4% under the age of 18, 4\.9% from 18 to 24, 19\.1% from 25 to 44, 38\.6% from 45 to 64, and 24\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 51 years. For every 100 females, there were 113\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 112\.7 males. The median income for a household in the township was $33,571, and the median income for a family was $43,250\. Males had a median income of $43,750 versus $30,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the township was $24,472\. About 1\.7% of families and 7\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 8\.2% of those under age 18 and 10\.6% of those age 65 or over. Fire Coverage is provided by the Masonville Township Fire Department due to a paid contract between Masonville and Bay De Noc townships. EMS coverage is provided by Masonville EMS.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 329 people, 153 households, and 104 families residing in the township. The population density was {{convert\\|4\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 528 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|7\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the township was 96\\.96% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.61% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.43% from two or more races.", "There were 153 households, out of which 15\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 2\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\\.4% were non\\-families. 25\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.15 and the average family size was 2\\.56\\.", "In the township the population was spread out, with 13\\.4% under the age of 18, 4\\.9% from 18 to 24, 19\\.1% from 25 to 44, 38\\.6% from 45 to 64, and 24\\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 51 years. For every 100 females, there were 113\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 112\\.7 males.", "The median income for a household in the township was $33,571, and the median income for a family was $43,250\\. Males had a median income of $43,750 versus $30,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the township was $24,472\\. About 1\\.7% of families and 7\\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 8\\.2% of those under age 18 and 10\\.6% of those age 65 or over.", "Fire Coverage is provided by the Masonville Township Fire Department due to a paid contract between Masonville and Bay De Noc townships. EMS coverage is provided by Masonville EMS.", "" ]
History ------- ### 2013 The first ever Go Dad Run 5K for men and boys aged 16\+ took place in [Llangefni](/wiki/Llangefni "Llangefni"), [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey "Anglesey") on Father’s Day, 16 June 2013\. The event started and finished at the Ysgol Gyfun school in the town and was organised by [Menter Môn](/wiki/Menter_M%C3%B4n "Menter Môn"), the local enterprise agency. [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson "Colin Jackson"), [Mark Foster](/wiki/Mark_Foster_%28swimmer%29 "Mark Foster (swimmer)"), [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch "Jamie Baulch") and [Siân Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd "Siân Lloyd") were all there to lend support as more than 150 men and boys pulled on their yellow Y fronts and took part in the run around the town. ### 2014 In 2014 Go Dad Run welcomed a new headline sponsor as the Sanlam Go Dad Run expanded and staged three small events on Father’s Day weekend (14\-15 June) in Crystal Palace Park in London, Bute Park in Cardiff and Cannon Hill Park in Birmingham. Boys aged 14\+ joined their dads and the men on the courses. [Mark Foster](/wiki/Mark_Foster_%28swimmer%29 "Mark Foster (swimmer)") and [Siân Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd "Siân Lloyd") handed out the medals to the runners as they crossed the finish line in London. [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson "Colin Jackson"), [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch "Jamie Baulch"), [Christian Malcolm](/wiki/Christian_Malcolm "Christian Malcolm") and [Suzanne Packer](/wiki/Suzanne_Packer "Suzanne Packer") were their ambassadors in Cardiff and Colin also attended the Birmingham event{{Cite web\|last\=Live\|first\=Birmingham\|date\=2014\-06\-16\|title\=Watch Colin Jackson's Go Dad Run in Cannon Hill Park\|url\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats\-on/family\-kids\-news/watch\-colin\-jacksons\-go\-dad\-7273649\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-19\|website\=BirminghamLive\|language\=en}} where [Derek Redmond](/wiki/Derek_Redmond "Derek Redmond") joined him to fire the starting gun. ### 2015 In 2015 Go Dad Run expanded to six events, changed the runner Y fronts from yellow to blue and reduced the age limit to 11\+. Their main launch event was attended by [Elizabeth Emanuel](/wiki/Elizabeth_Emanuel "Elizabeth Emanuel"), [Fernando Montano](/wiki/Fernando_Montano "Fernando Montano"), and [David Seaman](/wiki/David_Seaman "David Seaman") alongside their ambassadors. [Mark Foster](/wiki/Mark_Foster_%28swimmer%29 "Mark Foster (swimmer)") set the runners on their way in Southwark Park, London and Greville Smyth Park, Bristol and [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson "Colin Jackson") went to Llangefni to greet the men and boys before they ran around the town.{{Cite web\|last\=Roberts\|first\=Linda\|date\=2015\-06\-08\|title\=Colin Jackson delighted with the Sanlam Go Dad run in Llangefni\|url\=https://walesexpress.com/colin\-jackson\-delighted\-sanlan\-dad\-run\-llangefni/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-19\|website\=Wales Express Live Community News\|language\=en\-GB}} At Worcester Racecourse he was joined by two other world champions, [Derek Redmond](/wiki/Derek_Redmond "Derek Redmond") and [Donovan Bailey](/wiki/Donovan_Bailey "Donovan Bailey"), and Colin's actress sister [Suzanne Packer](/wiki/Suzanne_Packer "Suzanne Packer") was on hand in Victoria Park Warrington to start the event and present the medals. Their biggest run took place in Bute Park Cardiff where ambassadors [Siân Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd "Siân Lloyd") and [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch "Jamie Baulch") were joined by Welsh rugby legends [Martyn Williams](/wiki/Martyn_Williams "Martyn Williams") and [Tom Shanklin](/wiki/Tom_Shanklin "Tom Shanklin"). ### 2016 Six events were staged in June 2016 in [London](/wiki/London "London"), [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol"), [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland%2C_Tyne_and_Wear "Sunderland, Tyne and Wear"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England "Worcester, England") and the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man").{{Cite web\|last\=Mears\|first\=Tyler\|date\=2016\-06\-19\|title\=Hundreds of men put on their Y\-fronts for Go Dad Run\|url\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats\-on/whats\-on\-news/fathers\-day\-remember\-hundreds\-men\-11493626\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-19\|website\=WalesOnline\|language\=en}} A number of rule changes were introduced and there were 10K events at all locations, the 5K runs were opened to men and boys of any age and all aged 10\+ were to be chip timed.{{Cite web\|title\=Registration opens for this year's Go Dad Run charity event\|url\=https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/14181121\.registration\-opens\-for\-this\-years\-go\-dad\-run\-charity\-event/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-19\|website\=Worcester News\|language\=en}} The 2016 events were launched at the Grange, St Paul's Hotel in London when a number of prostate cancer survivors spoke, including Errol McKellar and Alfred Samuels, [Sian Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd "Siân Lloyd") introduced the special Olympic Q\&A with [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson "Colin Jackson"), [Daley Thompson](/wiki/Daley_Thompson "Daley Thompson"), [Leon Taylor](/wiki/Leon_Taylor "Leon Taylor") and [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch "Jamie Baulch").{{Cite web\|title\=Runners say '˜Y not?' to new event for Wearside\|url\=https://www.sunderlandecho.com/news/runners\-say\-y\-not\-new\-event\-wearside\-367548\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-19\|website\=www.sunderlandecho.com\|language\=en}} ### 2017 In 2017 Go Dad Run changed its format and the runs will be staged in a different cities each month between April and October. The series will begin in Sunderland on 2 April and then move to London, Brighton \& Hove, Worcester, Cardiff, Norwich and Bristol. The Lead Charity is [Prostate Cancer UK](/wiki/Prostate_Cancer_UK "Prostate Cancer UK") and the three new National Charity Partners are [Bowel Cancer UK](/wiki/Bowel_Cancer_UK "Bowel Cancer UK"), [Orchid](/wiki/Orchid_%28charity%29 "Orchid (charity)") and [Campaign Against Living Miserably](/wiki/Campaign_Against_Living_Miserably "Campaign Against Living Miserably") (CALM). Each run also has a local care based or hospice charity partner.
[ "History\n-------", "### 2013", "The first ever Go Dad Run 5K for men and boys aged 16\\+ took place in [Llangefni](/wiki/Llangefni \"Llangefni\"), [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey \"Anglesey\") on Father’s Day, 16 June 2013\\. The event started and finished at the Ysgol Gyfun school in the town and was organised by [Menter Môn](/wiki/Menter_M%C3%B4n \"Menter Môn\"), the local enterprise agency. [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson \"Colin Jackson\"), [Mark Foster](/wiki/Mark_Foster_%28swimmer%29 \"Mark Foster (swimmer)\"), [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch \"Jamie Baulch\") and [Siân Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd \"Siân Lloyd\") were all there to lend support as more than 150 men and boys pulled on their yellow Y fronts and took part in the run around the town.", "### 2014", "In 2014 Go Dad Run welcomed a new headline sponsor as the Sanlam Go Dad Run expanded and staged three small events on Father’s Day weekend (14\\-15 June) in Crystal Palace Park in London, Bute Park in Cardiff and Cannon Hill Park in Birmingham. Boys aged 14\\+ joined their dads and the men on the courses.", "[Mark Foster](/wiki/Mark_Foster_%28swimmer%29 \"Mark Foster (swimmer)\") and [Siân Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd \"Siân Lloyd\") handed out the medals to the runners as they crossed the finish line in London. [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson \"Colin Jackson\"), [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch \"Jamie Baulch\"), [Christian Malcolm](/wiki/Christian_Malcolm \"Christian Malcolm\") and [Suzanne Packer](/wiki/Suzanne_Packer \"Suzanne Packer\") were their ambassadors in Cardiff and Colin also attended the Birmingham event{{Cite web\\|last\\=Live\\|first\\=Birmingham\\|date\\=2014\\-06\\-16\\|title\\=Watch Colin Jackson's Go Dad Run in Cannon Hill Park\\|url\\=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats\\-on/family\\-kids\\-news/watch\\-colin\\-jacksons\\-go\\-dad\\-7273649\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-19\\|website\\=BirminghamLive\\|language\\=en}} where [Derek Redmond](/wiki/Derek_Redmond \"Derek Redmond\") joined him to fire the starting gun.", "### 2015", "In 2015 Go Dad Run expanded to six events, changed the runner Y fronts from yellow to blue and reduced the age limit to 11\\+. Their main launch event was attended by [Elizabeth Emanuel](/wiki/Elizabeth_Emanuel \"Elizabeth Emanuel\"), [Fernando Montano](/wiki/Fernando_Montano \"Fernando Montano\"), and [David Seaman](/wiki/David_Seaman \"David Seaman\") alongside their ambassadors.", "[Mark Foster](/wiki/Mark_Foster_%28swimmer%29 \"Mark Foster (swimmer)\") set the runners on their way in Southwark Park, London and Greville Smyth Park, Bristol and [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson \"Colin Jackson\") went to Llangefni to greet the men and boys before they ran around the town.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Roberts\\|first\\=Linda\\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-08\\|title\\=Colin Jackson delighted with the Sanlam Go Dad run in Llangefni\\|url\\=https://walesexpress.com/colin\\-jackson\\-delighted\\-sanlan\\-dad\\-run\\-llangefni/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-19\\|website\\=Wales Express Live Community News\\|language\\=en\\-GB}} At Worcester Racecourse he was joined by two other world champions, [Derek Redmond](/wiki/Derek_Redmond \"Derek Redmond\") and [Donovan Bailey](/wiki/Donovan_Bailey \"Donovan Bailey\"), and Colin's actress sister [Suzanne Packer](/wiki/Suzanne_Packer \"Suzanne Packer\") was on hand in Victoria Park Warrington to start the event and present the medals.", "Their biggest run took place in Bute Park Cardiff where ambassadors [Siân Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd \"Siân Lloyd\") and [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch \"Jamie Baulch\") were joined by Welsh rugby legends [Martyn Williams](/wiki/Martyn_Williams \"Martyn Williams\") and [Tom Shanklin](/wiki/Tom_Shanklin \"Tom Shanklin\").", "### 2016", "Six events were staged in June 2016 in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\"), [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland%2C_Tyne_and_Wear \"Sunderland, Tyne and Wear\"), [Worcester](/wiki/Worcester%2C_England \"Worcester, England\") and the [Isle of Man](/wiki/Isle_of_Man \"Isle of Man\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Mears\\|first\\=Tyler\\|date\\=2016\\-06\\-19\\|title\\=Hundreds of men put on their Y\\-fronts for Go Dad Run\\|url\\=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats\\-on/whats\\-on\\-news/fathers\\-day\\-remember\\-hundreds\\-men\\-11493626\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-19\\|website\\=WalesOnline\\|language\\=en}}", "A number of rule changes were introduced and there were 10K events at all locations, the 5K runs were opened to men and boys of any age and all aged 10\\+ were to be chip timed.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Registration opens for this year's Go Dad Run charity event\\|url\\=https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/14181121\\.registration\\-opens\\-for\\-this\\-years\\-go\\-dad\\-run\\-charity\\-event/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-19\\|website\\=Worcester News\\|language\\=en}}", "The 2016 events were launched at the Grange, St Paul's Hotel in London when a number of prostate cancer survivors spoke, including Errol McKellar and Alfred Samuels, [Sian Lloyd](/wiki/Si%C3%A2n_Lloyd \"Siân Lloyd\") introduced the special Olympic Q\\&A with [Colin Jackson](/wiki/Colin_Jackson \"Colin Jackson\"), [Daley Thompson](/wiki/Daley_Thompson \"Daley Thompson\"), [Leon Taylor](/wiki/Leon_Taylor \"Leon Taylor\") and [Jamie Baulch](/wiki/Jamie_Baulch \"Jamie Baulch\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Runners say '˜Y not?' to new event for Wearside\\|url\\=https://www.sunderlandecho.com/news/runners\\-say\\-y\\-not\\-new\\-event\\-wearside\\-367548\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-19\\|website\\=www.sunderlandecho.com\\|language\\=en}}", "### 2017", "In 2017 Go Dad Run changed its format and the runs will be staged in a different cities each month between April and October. The series will begin in Sunderland on 2 April and then move to London, Brighton \\& Hove, Worcester, Cardiff, Norwich and Bristol. The Lead Charity is [Prostate Cancer UK](/wiki/Prostate_Cancer_UK \"Prostate Cancer UK\") and the three new National Charity Partners are [Bowel Cancer UK](/wiki/Bowel_Cancer_UK \"Bowel Cancer UK\"), [Orchid](/wiki/Orchid_%28charity%29 \"Orchid (charity)\") and [Campaign Against Living Miserably](/wiki/Campaign_Against_Living_Miserably \"Campaign Against Living Miserably\") (CALM). Each run also has a local care based or hospice charity partner.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \| 1960 \= 314 \| 1970 \= 279 \| 1980 \= 286 \| 1990 \= 339 \| 2000 \= 360 \| 2010 \= 311 \| 2020 \= 258 \| footnote \= U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2020 census | \+**Blackwell racial composition**{{Cite web \|title\=Explore Census Data \|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US4808488\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2 \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-19 \|website\=data.census.gov}} (*NH \= Non\-Hispanic*){{efn\|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.{{cite web \|title\=About the Hispanic Population and its Origin \|url\=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic\-origin/about.html \|website\=www.census.gov \|access\-date\=18 May 2022}}}} | Race | Number | Percentage | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites") (NH) | 218 | 84\.5% | | [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans") (NH) | 1 | 0\.39% | | [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native") (NH) | 3 | 1\.16% | | [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans "Pacific Islander Americans") (NH) | 1 | 0\.39% | | [Mixed/multiracial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans") (NH) | 11 | 4\.26% | | [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") | 24 | 9\.3% | | **Total** | **258** | | As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), 258 people, 92 households, and 55 families resided in the city. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, 360 people, 153 households, and 106 families resided in the city. The population density was {{convert\|602\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The 180 housing units averaged {{convert\|301\.2\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census") of the city was 90\.56% White, 0\.28% African American, 0\.28% Native American, 7\.78% from other races, and 1\.11% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 11\.11% of the population. Of 153 households, 32\.7% had children under 18 living with them, 53\.6% were married couples living together, 11\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\.1% were not families. About 28\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\.35, and the average family size was 2\.83\. In the city, the population was distributed as 26\.9% under 18, 6\.4% from 18 to 24, 25\.3% from 25 to 44, 18\.6% from 45 to 64, and 22\.8% who were 65 or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 91\.5 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 89\.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $29,659, and for a family was $33,250\. Males had a median income of $30,000 versus $19,861 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $14,686\. About 6\.7% of families and 11\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 20\.4% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\| 1960 \\= 314\n\\| 1970 \\= 279\n\\| 1980 \\= 286\n\\| 1990 \\= 339\n\\| 2000 \\= 360\n\\| 2010 \\= 311\n\\| 2020 \\= 258\n\\| footnote \\= U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2020 census", "", "| \\+**Blackwell racial composition**{{Cite web \\|title\\=Explore Census Data \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US4808488\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-19 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} (*NH \\= Non\\-Hispanic*){{efn\\|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.{{cite web \\|title\\=About the Hispanic Population and its Origin \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic\\-origin/about.html \\|website\\=www.census.gov \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2022}}}} | Race | Number | Percentage |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites \"Non-Hispanic or Latino whites\") (NH) | 218 | 84\\.5% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans \"Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans\") (NH) | 1 | 0\\.39% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\") (NH) | 3 | 1\\.16% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans \"Pacific Islander Americans\") (NH) | 1 | 0\\.39% |\n| [Mixed/multiracial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\") (NH) | 11 | 4\\.26% |\n| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") | 24 | 9\\.3% |\n| **Total** | **258** | |", "As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), 258 people, 92 households, and 55 families resided in the city.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, 360 people, 153 households, and 106 families resided in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|602\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The 180 housing units averaged {{convert\\|301\\.2\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census\") of the city was 90\\.56% White, 0\\.28% African American, 0\\.28% Native American, 7\\.78% from other races, and 1\\.11% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 11\\.11% of the population.", "Of 153 households, 32\\.7% had children under 18 living with them, 53\\.6% were married couples living together, 11\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\\.1% were not families. About 28\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2\\.35, and the average family size was 2\\.83\\.", "In the city, the population was distributed as 26\\.9% under 18, 6\\.4% from 18 to 24, 25\\.3% from 25 to 44, 18\\.6% from 45 to 64, and 22\\.8% who were 65 or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 91\\.5 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 89\\.2 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $29,659, and for a family was $33,250\\. Males had a median income of $30,000 versus $19,861 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $14,686\\. About 6\\.7% of families and 11\\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 20\\.4% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Aftermath --------- {{see also\|Royal Commission of Inquiry into Certain Activities of the RCMP}} Pierre Laporte was eventually found killed by his captors, while James Cross was freed after 59 days as a result of negotiations with the kidnappers who requested exile to Cuba rather than facing trial in Quebec. The cell members responsible for Laporte's death were arrested and charged with kidnapping and first\-degree murder after they returned. The response by the federal and provincial governments to the incident still sparks controversy. This is the only time that the *War Measures Act* had been put in place during peacetime in Canada.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists\_spies/terrorists/flq/11\.html \|title\=Quebec terrorists FLQ kidnapped 2 \& began the Oct crisis \|access\-date\=April 13, 2008 \|quote\=Public opinion polls showed that nearly nine in 10 citizens – both Anglo and French\-speaking – supported Trudeau's hard\-line tactics against the FLQ. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131032330/http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists\_spies/terrorists/flq/11\.html \|archive\-date\=January 31, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead}} A few critics (most notably Tommy Douglas and some members of the [New Democratic Party](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_%28Canada%29 "New Democratic Party (Canada)")){{cite news \|url\=http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/top\_ten/nominee/douglas\-tommy\-know.html \|title\=Top Ten Greatest Canadians – Tommy Douglas \|access\-date\=April 13, 2008 \|quote\=The decision to vote against the motion (which passed with a majority vote) was not viewed favourably; the approval rating for the NDP dropped to seven percent in public opinion polls. Still, Douglas maintained that Trudeau was going too far: "The government, I submit, is using a sledgehammer to crack a peanut." \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080425041156/http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/top\_ten/nominee/douglas\-tommy\-know.html \|archive\-date \= April 25, 2008}} believed that Trudeau was excessive in advising the use of the *War Measures Act* to suspend [civil liberties](/wiki/Civil_liberties "Civil liberties") and that the precedent set by this incident was dangerous. Federal Progressive Conservative leader [Robert Stanfield](/wiki/Robert_Stanfield "Robert Stanfield") initially supported Trudeau's actions but later regretted doing so.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.irpp.org/po/archive/feb04/McQueen.pdf \|title\=Remembering Robert Stanfield: A Good\-Humoured and Gallant Man \|access\-date\=April 13, 2008 \|quote\=That particular backing \[of the ''War Measures Act''] was Stanfield's only regret in a long political life. He later admitted that he wished he had joined his lone dissenting colleague, David MacDonald, who voted against the ''Public Order Temporary Measures Act'' when it came before the House that November. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414090627/http://www.irpp.org/po/archive/feb04/McQueen.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 14, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead}} In 1972, [Michael Forrestall](/wiki/Michael_Forrestall "Michael Forrestall"), the defence critic in the Conservative shadow cabinet, warned when Trudeau stated he would use the *War Measures Act* again, "the deliberate use of the military to enforce the will of one group of Canadians over the will of another group of Canadians is detrimental to the credibility of the armed forces."{{rp\|257}} The size of the FLQ organization and the number of sympathizers in the public was not known. However, in its Manifesto the FLQ stated: "In the coming year (Quebec Premier Robert) Bourassa will have to face reality; 100,000 revolutionary workers, armed and organized."{{cite book\|author\=Rioux, Marcel\|title\=Quebec in Question\|url\=http://www.lorimer.ca/en/Book/1760/Quebec\-in\-Question.html\|year\=1971\|publisher\=Lorimer\|isbn\=978\-0\-88862\-191\-7\|pages\=210}} Given this declaration, seven years of bombings, and communiques throughout that time that strove to present an image of a powerful organization spread secretly throughout all sectors of society, the authorities took significant action. The events of October 1970 marked a significant loss of support for the violent wing of the Quebec sovereigntist movement. This came after it had gained support over nearly ten years{{Cite book\|last\=Fournier\|first\=Louis\|title\=F.L.Q. : the anatomy of an underground movement\|publisher\=NC Press\|year\=1984\|isbn\=9780919601918\|location\=Toronto\|oclc\=11406935}}{{rp\|256}} and increased support for political means of attaining independence, including support for the sovereigntist Parti Québécois, which went on to take power at the provincial level in 1976\. In 1987, after the defeat of the [Meech Lake Accord](/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord "Meech Lake Accord"), which sought to amend the [Constitution of Canada](/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada "Constitution of Canada") to resolve the passage by a previous government of the *[Constitution Act 1982](/wiki/Constitution_Act_1982 "Constitution Act 1982")* without Quebec's ratification, a pro\-independence political party, the [Bloc Québécois](/wiki/Bloc_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois "Bloc Québécois"), was also created at the federal level. The deployment of the military as an aid to civil power was very unpopular with the senior leadership of the Canadian Forces.{{rp\|257}} In the 1950s the primary purpose of the Canadian Army was to fight against the Red Army in Central Europe if World War Three broke out.{{rp\|238}} During the Pearson years and even more so under Trudeau there was a tendency on the part of the government to cut military spending and to shift the role of the Canadian Forces to acting more as an internal security force.{{rp\|256}} In 1968–69, Trudeau had seriously considered pulling out of NATO and stayed only to avoid damaging relations with the United States and Western Europe. On April 3, 1969, Trudeau announced that Canada would stay in NATO after all, but he drastically cut military spending and pulled out half of the 10,000 Canadian soldiers and airmen stationed in West Germany.{{rp\|255}} In the same speech Trudeau stated that safeguarding Canada against external and internal threats would be the number\-one mission of the Canadian Forces, guarding North America in co\-operation with the United States would be the number\-two mission, and NATO commitments would be the number\-three mission.{{rp\|255}} In early 1970 the government introduced a white paper *Defence in the Seventies*, which stated the "Priority One" of the Canadian Forces would be upholding internal security rather than preparing for World War III, which of course meant a sharp cut in military spending since the future enemy was now envisioned to be the FLQ rather than the Red Army.{{rp\|256}} The October Crisis, much to the dismay of the generals, was used by Trudeau as an argument for transforming the Canadian Forces into a force whose "Priority One" was internal security.{{rp\|257}} Many officers knew very well that the "Priority One" of internal security was "a greater threat than any other potential role."{{rp\|255}} By the end of the 1970s, the Canadian Forces had been transformed by Trudeau into an internal security force that was not capable of fighting a major conventional war.{{rp\|259–260}} By 1982 all the convicted participants had been paroled and all of those sent to Cuba had returned to Canada, some completing short sentences in Canada. In 1988, the *War Measures Act* was replaced by the *[Emergencies Act](/wiki/Emergencies_Act "Emergencies Act")* and the *[Emergency Preparedness Act](/wiki/Emergency_Preparedness_Act "Emergency Preparedness Act")* (which in turn was replaced by the *[Emergency Management Act](/wiki/Emergency_Management_Act "Emergency Management Act")* in 2007\). In October 2020, 50 years following the October Crisis, [Yves\-François Blanchet](/wiki/Yves-Fran%C3%A7ois_Blanchet "Yves-François Blanchet"), the party and parliamentary leader of the sovereigntist Bloc Québécois, introduced a motion in the House of Commons demanding an official apology from the federal government, now led by Prime Minister [Justin Trudeau](/wiki/Justin_Trudeau "Justin Trudeau"), son of Pierre Trudeau, for invoking the *War Measures Act*.{{cite web \|title\=Bloc seeks official apology for October Crisis detentions \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1813403715519}}
[ "Aftermath\n---------", "{{see also\\|Royal Commission of Inquiry into Certain Activities of the RCMP}}\nPierre Laporte was eventually found killed by his captors, while James Cross was freed after 59 days as a result of negotiations with the kidnappers who requested exile to Cuba rather than facing trial in Quebec. The cell members responsible for Laporte's death were arrested and charged with kidnapping and first\\-degree murder after they returned.", "The response by the federal and provincial governments to the incident still sparks controversy. This is the only time that the *War Measures Act* had been put in place during peacetime in Canada.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists\\_spies/terrorists/flq/11\\.html \\|title\\=Quebec terrorists FLQ kidnapped 2 \\& began the Oct crisis \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2008 \\|quote\\=Public opinion polls showed that nearly nine in 10 citizens – both Anglo and French\\-speaking – supported Trudeau's hard\\-line tactics against the FLQ. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131032330/http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists\\_spies/terrorists/flq/11\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=January 31, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} A few critics (most notably Tommy Douglas and some members of the [New Democratic Party](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_%28Canada%29 \"New Democratic Party (Canada)\")){{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/top\\_ten/nominee/douglas\\-tommy\\-know.html \\|title\\=Top Ten Greatest Canadians – Tommy Douglas \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2008 \\|quote\\=The decision to vote against the motion (which passed with a majority vote) was not viewed favourably; the approval rating for the NDP dropped to seven percent in public opinion polls. Still, Douglas maintained that Trudeau was going too far: \"The government, I submit, is using a sledgehammer to crack a peanut.\" \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080425041156/http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/top\\_ten/nominee/douglas\\-tommy\\-know.html \\|archive\\-date \\= April 25, 2008}} believed that Trudeau was excessive in advising the use of the *War Measures Act* to suspend [civil liberties](/wiki/Civil_liberties \"Civil liberties\") and that the precedent set by this incident was dangerous. Federal Progressive Conservative leader [Robert Stanfield](/wiki/Robert_Stanfield \"Robert Stanfield\") initially supported Trudeau's actions but later regretted doing so.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.irpp.org/po/archive/feb04/McQueen.pdf \\|title\\=Remembering Robert Stanfield: A Good\\-Humoured and Gallant Man \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2008 \\|quote\\=That particular backing \\[of the ''War Measures Act''] was Stanfield's only regret in a long political life. He later admitted that he wished he had joined his lone dissenting colleague, David MacDonald, who voted against the ''Public Order Temporary Measures Act'' when it came before the House that November. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414090627/http://www.irpp.org/po/archive/feb04/McQueen.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 14, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "In 1972, [Michael Forrestall](/wiki/Michael_Forrestall \"Michael Forrestall\"), the defence critic in the Conservative shadow cabinet, warned when Trudeau stated he would use the *War Measures Act* again, \"the deliberate use of the military to enforce the will of one group of Canadians over the will of another group of Canadians is detrimental to the credibility of the armed forces.\"{{rp\\|257}} The size of the FLQ organization and the number of sympathizers in the public was not known. However, in its Manifesto the FLQ stated: \"In the coming year (Quebec Premier Robert) Bourassa will have to face reality; 100,000 revolutionary workers, armed and organized.\"{{cite book\\|author\\=Rioux, Marcel\\|title\\=Quebec in Question\\|url\\=http://www.lorimer.ca/en/Book/1760/Quebec\\-in\\-Question.html\\|year\\=1971\\|publisher\\=Lorimer\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-88862\\-191\\-7\\|pages\\=210}} Given this declaration, seven years of bombings, and communiques throughout that time that strove to present an image of a powerful organization spread secretly throughout all sectors of society, the authorities took significant action.", "The events of October 1970 marked a significant loss of support for the violent wing of the Quebec sovereigntist movement. This came after it had gained support over nearly ten years{{Cite book\\|last\\=Fournier\\|first\\=Louis\\|title\\=F.L.Q. : the anatomy of an underground movement\\|publisher\\=NC Press\\|year\\=1984\\|isbn\\=9780919601918\\|location\\=Toronto\\|oclc\\=11406935}}{{rp\\|256}} and increased support for political means of attaining independence, including support for the sovereigntist Parti Québécois, which went on to take power at the provincial level in 1976\\. In 1987, after the defeat of the [Meech Lake Accord](/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord \"Meech Lake Accord\"), which sought to amend the [Constitution of Canada](/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada \"Constitution of Canada\") to resolve the passage by a previous government of the *[Constitution Act 1982](/wiki/Constitution_Act_1982 \"Constitution Act 1982\")* without Quebec's ratification, a pro\\-independence political party, the [Bloc Québécois](/wiki/Bloc_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois \"Bloc Québécois\"), was also created at the federal level.", "The deployment of the military as an aid to civil power was very unpopular with the senior leadership of the Canadian Forces.{{rp\\|257}} In the 1950s the primary purpose of the Canadian Army was to fight against the Red Army in Central Europe if World War Three broke out.{{rp\\|238}} During the Pearson years and even more so under Trudeau there was a tendency on the part of the government to cut military spending and to shift the role of the Canadian Forces to acting more as an internal security force.{{rp\\|256}} In 1968–69, Trudeau had seriously considered pulling out of NATO and stayed only to avoid damaging relations with the United States and Western Europe.", "On April 3, 1969, Trudeau announced that Canada would stay in NATO after all, but he drastically cut military spending and pulled out half of the 10,000 Canadian soldiers and airmen stationed in West Germany.{{rp\\|255}} In the same speech Trudeau stated that safeguarding Canada against external and internal threats would be the number\\-one mission of the Canadian Forces, guarding North America in co\\-operation with the United States would be the number\\-two mission, and NATO commitments would be the number\\-three mission.{{rp\\|255}} In early 1970 the government introduced a white paper *Defence in the Seventies*, which stated the \"Priority One\" of the Canadian Forces would be upholding internal security rather than preparing for World War III, which of course meant a sharp cut in military spending since the future enemy was now envisioned to be the FLQ rather than the Red Army.{{rp\\|256}}", "The October Crisis, much to the dismay of the generals, was used by Trudeau as an argument for transforming the Canadian Forces into a force whose \"Priority One\" was internal security.{{rp\\|257}} Many officers knew very well that the \"Priority One\" of internal security was \"a greater threat than any other potential role.\"{{rp\\|255}} By the end of the 1970s, the Canadian Forces had been transformed by Trudeau into an internal security force that was not capable of fighting a major conventional war.{{rp\\|259–260}}", "By 1982 all the convicted participants had been paroled and all of those sent to Cuba had returned to Canada, some completing short sentences in Canada.", "In 1988, the *War Measures Act* was replaced by the *[Emergencies Act](/wiki/Emergencies_Act \"Emergencies Act\")* and the *[Emergency Preparedness Act](/wiki/Emergency_Preparedness_Act \"Emergency Preparedness Act\")* (which in turn was replaced by the *[Emergency Management Act](/wiki/Emergency_Management_Act \"Emergency Management Act\")* in 2007\\).", "In October 2020, 50 years following the October Crisis, [Yves\\-François Blanchet](/wiki/Yves-Fran%C3%A7ois_Blanchet \"Yves-François Blanchet\"), the party and parliamentary leader of the sovereigntist Bloc Québécois, introduced a motion in the House of Commons demanding an official apology from the federal government, now led by Prime Minister [Justin Trudeau](/wiki/Justin_Trudeau \"Justin Trudeau\"), son of Pierre Trudeau, for invoking the *War Measures Act*.{{cite web \\|title\\=Bloc seeks official apology for October Crisis detentions \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1813403715519}}", "" ]
Playing career -------------- ### High school {{stack\|}} Perry attended [Deep Creek High School](/wiki/Deep_Creek_High_School "Deep Creek High School") in Chesapeake, Virginia, where he played football, basketball and tennis. He played on both sides of the ball for the football team, and threw for 23 touchdowns and 2,790 yards as quarterback, adding another 14 touchdowns and 1,167 yards rushing.{{cite web \|title\=Hampton Roads African American Hall of Fame to induct 13, including Mourning \|url\=https://www.dailypress.com/2011/08/02/hampton\-roads\-african\-american\-hall\-of\-fame\-to\-induct\-13\-including\-mourning/ \|website\=Daily Press \|access\-date\=20 August 2023 \|date\=3 August 2011}} Perry played under Coach [Jim Garrett](/wiki/Jim_Garrett "Jim Garrett"). He was named an All\-Star in the [Southeastern District](/wiki/Southeastern_District_%28VHSL%29 "Southeastern District (VHSL)") and made second team All State. In 2007, Perry was recognized by the Deep Creek High School Alumni Association as one of the top Distinguished Notable Alumni. ### College Perry played as a free safety under [Joe Paterno](/wiki/Joe_Paterno "Joe Paterno") at [Penn State](/wiki/Penn_State "Penn State"). He was named a first\-team [All\-American](/wiki/College_Football_All-America_Team "College Football All-America Team") as a senior in 1991 by the [Football Writers Association of America](/wiki/Football_Writers_Association_of_America "Football Writers Association of America"). Perry is tied for the second\-most career interceptions at the school, with 15\. His 299 interception return yards and three interceptions for touchdowns are school records. Perry had six interceptions in his senior year and returned two for touchdowns.{{cite news \|title\=Nittany Lions Well\-Represented on Super Bowl XL Squads \|url\=http://www.gopsusports.com/pressreleases/pressrelease.cfm?anncid\=9388 \|work\=gopsusports.com \|date\=January 24, 2006 \|access\-date\=January 30, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318162646/http://www.gopsusports.com/pressreleases/pressrelease.cfm?anncid\=9388 \|archive\-date\=March 18, 2006 }} Perry appeared on the cover of the November 26, 1990 issue of *[Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated "Sports Illustrated")* following Penn State's defeat of top\-ranked [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football "Notre Dame Fighting Irish football").{{cite news \|title\=One Wacky Season \|url\=https://vault.si.com/vault/1990/11/26/711118 \|work\=Sport Illustrated \|date\=26 November 1990}} Perry intercepted a pass late in the game that set up the game\-winning field goal.{{cite news \|last1\=Markus \|first1\=Don \|title\=Penn State upsets No. 1 Notre Dame Sacca passes Lions to 24\-21 triumph \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\-xpm\-1990\-11\-18\-1990322172\-story.html \|access\-date\=20 August 2023 \|work\=Baltimore Sun \|date\=18 November 1990}} ### Professional An eighth\-round draft pick (203rd overall) of the [1992 NFL draft](/wiki/1992_NFL_draft "1992 NFL draft"), Perry was picked by Pittsburgh Steelers head coach [Bill Cowher](/wiki/Bill_Cowher "Bill Cowher").{{Cite web \|title\=1992 NFL Draft Listing \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/years/1992/draft.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-07 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} Perry played seven seasons (1992–98\) with the team. Largely unheralded, the 5'11", 200 lb (91 kg) free safety started from his first game as a rookie. That year, he picked off six passes, and became the first rookie since 1955 to lead the team in interceptions. Perry was named the winner of the 1992 [Charles Edward Greene](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Greene "Charles Edward Greene"), aka the "Joe Greene" Great Performance Award, given to the most outstanding Steelers rookie. Perry is the only free safety to receive this award since it was established in 1984\. Perry started in each of the first 110 games of his career, including the postseason, all with the Steelers. Perry was a member of the 1995 [AFC Champion](/wiki/AFC_Championship "AFC Championship") Steelers that nearly upset the heavily favored [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys "Dallas Cowboys") in [Super Bowl XXX](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXX "Super Bowl XXX").{{cite news \|last1\=Ducibella \|first1\=Jim \|title\=SUPER BOWL: REALIZED \|url\=https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA\-news/VA\-Pilot/issues/1996/vp960127/01270130\.htm \|access\-date\=20 August 2023 \|work\=The Virginian\-Pilot \|publisher\=scholar.lib.vt.edu \|date\=27 January 1996}} Pittsburgh won five division titles, an AFC title, and appeared in three AFC championship games during Perry's time on the team. Perry played 64 games paired with [Pro Bowler](/wiki/Pro_Bowl "Pro Bowl") [Rod Woodson](/wiki/Rod_Woodson "Rod Woodson") in the secondary from 1992 to 1996\. They combined for 48 interceptions over this period. Perry's 32 career interceptions from 1992 to 1998 are tied for seventh in Pittsburgh history.{{cite web \|title\=Pittsburgh Steelers Career Defensive Leaders Ranked by Interceptions \|url\=https://www.footballdb.com/teams/nfl/pittsburgh\-steelers/leaders/career\-defense\-interceptions \|website\=The Football Database \|access\-date\=20 August 2023}} Perry signed with the San Diego Chargers in 1999,{{cite web \|title\=STEELERS' PERRY JUMPS TO CHARGERS \|url\=https://buffalonews.com/news/steelers\-perry\-jumps\-to\-chargers/article\_4ac3b16a\-1499\-5f3b\-b40d\-b8df3720b2b8\.html \|website\=Buffalo News \|access\-date\=20 August 2023 \|language\=en \|date\=13 March 1999}} but sat out the season with a neck injury. He played his final season in 2000 with the New Orleans Saints, starting all 16 regular season games and recording three interceptions. Perry retired having played in 139 of 141 possible games. He missed only two games in 1997 due to a groin injury. He started 13 postseason games, including Super Bowl XXX. He had a career total of 35 interceptions, one interception returned for a touchdown, four forced fumbles, eight fumbles recovered, and two and a half sacks.{{cite web \|title\=Darren Perry Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Draft, College \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/players/P/PerrDa20\.htm \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=20 August 2023 \|language\=en}} In 1997, the Pittsburgh Chapter of Pro Football Writers of America selected Perry as the recipient of "The Chief" Award, given annually to the Steeler who best exemplifies the spirit of cooperation with the media.{{cite web \|title\=Steelers The Chief Award \|url\=https://www.steelers.com/history/chief\-award/\#:\~:text\='The%20Chief'%20Award%2C%20which,the%20media%20that%20he%20embodied. \|website\=www.steelers.com \|access\-date\=20 August 2023}}
[ "Playing career\n--------------", "### High school", "{{stack\\|}}\nPerry attended [Deep Creek High School](/wiki/Deep_Creek_High_School \"Deep Creek High School\") in Chesapeake, Virginia, where he played football, basketball and tennis. He played on both sides of the ball for the football team, and threw for 23 touchdowns and 2,790 yards as quarterback, adding another 14 touchdowns and 1,167 yards rushing.{{cite web \\|title\\=Hampton Roads African American Hall of Fame to induct 13, including Mourning \\|url\\=https://www.dailypress.com/2011/08/02/hampton\\-roads\\-african\\-american\\-hall\\-of\\-fame\\-to\\-induct\\-13\\-including\\-mourning/ \\|website\\=Daily Press \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2023 \\|date\\=3 August 2011}} Perry played under Coach [Jim Garrett](/wiki/Jim_Garrett \"Jim Garrett\"). He was named an All\\-Star in the [Southeastern District](/wiki/Southeastern_District_%28VHSL%29 \"Southeastern District (VHSL)\") and made second team All State.", "In 2007, Perry was recognized by the Deep Creek High School Alumni Association as one of the top Distinguished Notable Alumni.", "### College", "Perry played as a free safety under [Joe Paterno](/wiki/Joe_Paterno \"Joe Paterno\") at [Penn State](/wiki/Penn_State \"Penn State\"). He was named a first\\-team [All\\-American](/wiki/College_Football_All-America_Team \"College Football All-America Team\") as a senior in 1991 by the [Football Writers Association of America](/wiki/Football_Writers_Association_of_America \"Football Writers Association of America\"). Perry is tied for the second\\-most career interceptions at the school, with 15\\. His 299 interception return yards and three interceptions for touchdowns are school records. Perry had six interceptions in his senior year and returned two for touchdowns.{{cite news \\|title\\=Nittany Lions Well\\-Represented on Super Bowl XL Squads \\|url\\=http://www.gopsusports.com/pressreleases/pressrelease.cfm?anncid\\=9388 \\|work\\=gopsusports.com \\|date\\=January 24, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=January 30, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318162646/http://www.gopsusports.com/pressreleases/pressrelease.cfm?anncid\\=9388 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 18, 2006 }}", "Perry appeared on the cover of the November 26, 1990 issue of *[Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated \"Sports Illustrated\")* following Penn State's defeat of top\\-ranked [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football \"Notre Dame Fighting Irish football\").{{cite news \\|title\\=One Wacky Season \\|url\\=https://vault.si.com/vault/1990/11/26/711118 \\|work\\=Sport Illustrated \\|date\\=26 November 1990}} Perry intercepted a pass late in the game that set up the game\\-winning field goal.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Markus \\|first1\\=Don \\|title\\=Penn State upsets No. 1 Notre Dame Sacca passes Lions to 24\\-21 triumph \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\\-xpm\\-1990\\-11\\-18\\-1990322172\\-story.html \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2023 \\|work\\=Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=18 November 1990}}", "### Professional", "An eighth\\-round draft pick (203rd overall) of the [1992 NFL draft](/wiki/1992_NFL_draft \"1992 NFL draft\"), Perry was picked by Pittsburgh Steelers head coach [Bill Cowher](/wiki/Bill_Cowher \"Bill Cowher\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=1992 NFL Draft Listing \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/years/1992/draft.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-07 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} Perry played seven seasons (1992–98\\) with the team. Largely unheralded, the 5'11\", 200 lb (91 kg) free safety started from his first game as a rookie. That year, he picked off six passes, and became the first rookie since 1955 to lead the team in interceptions. Perry was named the winner of the 1992 [Charles Edward Greene](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Greene \"Charles Edward Greene\"), aka the \"Joe Greene\" Great Performance Award, given to the most outstanding Steelers rookie. Perry is the only free safety to receive this award since it was established in 1984\\.", "Perry started in each of the first 110 games of his career, including the postseason, all with the Steelers.", "Perry was a member of the 1995 [AFC Champion](/wiki/AFC_Championship \"AFC Championship\") Steelers that nearly upset the heavily favored [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys \"Dallas Cowboys\") in [Super Bowl XXX](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXX \"Super Bowl XXX\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Ducibella \\|first1\\=Jim \\|title\\=SUPER BOWL: REALIZED \\|url\\=https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA\\-news/VA\\-Pilot/issues/1996/vp960127/01270130\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2023 \\|work\\=The Virginian\\-Pilot \\|publisher\\=scholar.lib.vt.edu \\|date\\=27 January 1996}} Pittsburgh won five division titles, an AFC title, and appeared in three AFC championship games during Perry's time on the team.", "Perry played 64 games paired with [Pro Bowler](/wiki/Pro_Bowl \"Pro Bowl\") [Rod Woodson](/wiki/Rod_Woodson \"Rod Woodson\") in the secondary from 1992 to 1996\\. They combined for 48 interceptions over this period. Perry's 32 career interceptions from 1992 to 1998 are tied for seventh in Pittsburgh history.{{cite web \\|title\\=Pittsburgh Steelers Career Defensive Leaders Ranked by Interceptions \\|url\\=https://www.footballdb.com/teams/nfl/pittsburgh\\-steelers/leaders/career\\-defense\\-interceptions \\|website\\=The Football Database \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2023}}", "Perry signed with the San Diego Chargers in 1999,{{cite web \\|title\\=STEELERS' PERRY JUMPS TO CHARGERS \\|url\\=https://buffalonews.com/news/steelers\\-perry\\-jumps\\-to\\-chargers/article\\_4ac3b16a\\-1499\\-5f3b\\-b40d\\-b8df3720b2b8\\.html \\|website\\=Buffalo News \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=13 March 1999}} but sat out the season with a neck injury. He played his final season in 2000 with the New Orleans Saints, starting all 16 regular season games and recording three interceptions.", "Perry retired having played in 139 of 141 possible games. He missed only two games in 1997 due to a groin injury. He started 13 postseason games, including Super Bowl XXX. He had a career total of 35 interceptions, one interception returned for a touchdown, four forced fumbles, eight fumbles recovered, and two and a half sacks.{{cite web \\|title\\=Darren Perry Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Draft, College \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/players/P/PerrDa20\\.htm \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2023 \\|language\\=en}}", "In 1997, the Pittsburgh Chapter of Pro Football Writers of America selected Perry as the recipient of \"The Chief\" Award, given annually to the Steeler who best exemplifies the spirit of cooperation with the media.{{cite web \\|title\\=Steelers The Chief Award \\|url\\=https://www.steelers.com/history/chief\\-award/\\#:\\~:text\\='The%20Chief'%20Award%2C%20which,the%20media%20that%20he%20embodied. \\|website\\=www.steelers.com \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2023}}", "" ]
Career ------ He worked as researcher for the [Ukrainian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Ukrainian_Academy_of_Sciences "Ukrainian Academy of Sciences") Institute of Cybernetics around 1980's. In the last stage of his career, Dr. Kussul worked in [UNAM](/wiki/UNAM "UNAM"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") from 1998 until he died (2023\){{r\|icat}}. He was "C level researcher" according to [UNAM](/wiki/UNAM "UNAM") researchers category, PRIDE level "D" and member of the Mexican National Research System (SNI) level II. He coordinated the research group called "Microtechnology and Neural Networks" until 2007, he was head of the "Laboratory of Micromechanics and Mecatronics" at the same institute{{r\|icat}}. The Dr. Kussul authored 16 patents in Mexico, ex Soviet Union, Russia, Ukraine and USA. In Mexico, he registered 6 patents (four with UNAM and three together with the [CINVESTAV](/wiki/CINVESTAV "CINVESTAV")), has 1 patent in USA and two patents in Spain, and 5 copyrights{{r\|icat}}. He authored more than 300 publications, including 105 international journal articles, 6 articles in Mexican journals, 19 chapters of books, six books (two with editorial Springer), 90 international congresses and participated in 59 Mexican congresses{{r\|icat}}. Dr. Kussul participated as responsible in 19 Mexican and international projects, accumulated 19 technical reports in the UNAM, 2 reports with ICYTDF, 2 reports with SUEMA. Dr. Kussul was also CONACYT projects evaluator{{r\|icat}}. Dr. Kussul was Member of IEEE from 2003 and Senior Member from February 2019{{r\|icat\|x}}. Dr. Kussul was a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences from 2008\. The Dr. Kussul was Member of Mexican Academy of Technology from 2000\. In 2016 he was awarded the Prize of [UNAM](/wiki/UNAM "UNAM") in area of Technological Innovation and Industrial Design{{r\|icat}}.
[ "Career\n------", "He worked as researcher for the [Ukrainian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Ukrainian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Ukrainian Academy of Sciences\") Institute of Cybernetics around 1980's.", "In the last stage of his career, Dr. Kussul worked in [UNAM](/wiki/UNAM \"UNAM\"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") from 1998 until he died (2023\\){{r\\|icat}}.", "He was \"C level researcher\" according to [UNAM](/wiki/UNAM \"UNAM\") researchers category, PRIDE level \"D\" and member of the Mexican National Research System (SNI) level II. He coordinated the research group called \"Microtechnology and Neural Networks\" until 2007, he was head of the \"Laboratory of Micromechanics and Mecatronics\" at the same institute{{r\\|icat}}.", "The Dr. Kussul authored 16 patents in Mexico, ex Soviet Union, Russia, Ukraine and USA. In Mexico, he registered 6 patents (four with UNAM and three together with the [CINVESTAV](/wiki/CINVESTAV \"CINVESTAV\")), has 1 patent in USA and two patents in Spain, and 5 copyrights{{r\\|icat}}.", "He authored more than 300 publications, including 105 international journal articles, 6 articles in Mexican journals, 19 chapters of books, six books (two with editorial Springer), 90 international congresses and participated in 59 Mexican congresses{{r\\|icat}}.", "Dr. Kussul participated as responsible in 19 Mexican and international projects, accumulated 19 technical reports in the UNAM, 2 reports with ICYTDF, 2 reports with SUEMA. Dr. Kussul was also CONACYT projects evaluator{{r\\|icat}}.", "Dr. Kussul was Member of IEEE from 2003 and Senior Member from February 2019{{r\\|icat\\|x}}.\nDr. Kussul was a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences from 2008\\. The Dr. Kussul was Member of Mexican Academy of Technology from 2000\\.\nIn 2016 he was awarded the Prize of [UNAM](/wiki/UNAM \"UNAM\") in area of Technological Innovation and Industrial Design{{r\\|icat}}.", "" ]
History ------- ### Origins After Prince [Lazar Hrebeljanović](/wiki/Lazar_of_Serbia "Lazar of Serbia") was killed in the [Battle of Kosovo](/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo "Battle of Kosovo") on June 28, 1389, his young son [Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Stefan Lazarević") succeeded him. Stefan's mother Princess [Milica](/wiki/Princess_Milica_of_Serbia "Princess Milica of Serbia") ruled as his regent until he reached adulthood. A wise and diplomatic woman, she managed to allay the Ottoman threat by marrying her daughter Olivera to Sultan [Bayezid I](/wiki/Bayezid_I "Bayezid I"). After the Battle of Kosovo, in 1390 or 1391, Serbia became a vassal Ottoman state, and Stefan Lazarević was obligated to support the Ottoman empire in battle. He did so in the 1395 [Battle of Rovine](/wiki/Battle_of_Rovine "Battle of Rovine") against the [Wallachian](/wiki/Wallachia "Wallachia") prince [Mircea I](/wiki/Mircea_I_of_Wallachia "Mircea I of Wallachia") and the 1396 [Battle of Nicopolis](/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis "Battle of Nicopolis") against the Hungarian king [Sigismund](/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor"). Sultan Bayezid awarded Stefan with the majority of [Vuk Branković](/wiki/Vuk_Brankovi%C4%87 "Vuk Branković")'s lands, as Branković sided with the Hungarian king at Nicopolis. When [Timur](/wiki/Timur "Timur")'s army entered the Ottoman realm, Stefan Lazarević participated in the 1402 [Battle of Ankara](/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara "Battle of Ankara"), in which the Ottomans were defeated and their leader Bayezid was captured. Returning to Serbia, Stefan visited [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople") where the [Byzantine emperor](/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor "Byzantine Emperor") [Manuel II Palaiologos](/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos "Manuel II Palaiologos") granted him the title of [despot](/wiki/Despot_%28court_title%29 "Despot (court title)"). In previous years, this title would mean that the despot would rule some vassal state; however, as the Byzantine Empire was too weak to assert such a rule, Stefan Lazarević adopted the title as monarchical. ### Stefan Lazarević {{History of Serbia}} #### Consolidation [left\|thumb\|200px\|Despot's Gate in Belgrade, built by [Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Stefan Lazarević")](/wiki/File:Dizdar%27s_Tower.jpg "Dizdar's Tower.jpg") While in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), Stefan argued with his brother [Vuk Lazarević](/wiki/Vuk_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Vuk Lazarević"). As they were returning to Serbia from Constantinople, Stefan's armies attacked Vuk at Tripolje near the [Gračanica monastery](/wiki/Gra%C4%8Danica_monastery "Gračanica monastery"). Stefan's army was victorious and Vuk allied himself with the new Ottoman sultan [Suleyman (I) Çelebi](/wiki/Suleyman_%C3%87elebi "Suleyman Çelebi"). In 1404, concerned about unrest in the Ottoman Empire ([Ottoman Interregnum](/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum "Ottoman Interregnum")) Stefan allied with Hungarian king Sigismund, who awarded him with [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"), the [Mačva](/wiki/Ma%C4%8Dva "Mačva") region, and the fort of [Golubac](/wiki/Golubac "Golubac");{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=89}} Stefan made Belgrade his capital city. He made peace with his brother Vuk, who remained an Ottoman vassal. In 1405 he married Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of [Francesco II Gattilusio](/wiki/Francesco_II_Gattilusio "Francesco II Gattilusio"), ruler of the island of [Lesbos](/wiki/Lesbos "Lesbos"), and his mother Milica died. In 1408 the two brothers again argued, and Vuk, accompanied by Ottoman forces, attacked Belgrade in early 1409\. Besieged Stefan agreed to give the southern part of Serbia to Vuk, and to accept Ottoman vassalage. However, Suleyman's brother [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi "Musa Çelebi") soon rebelled against Suleyman, and Stefan sided with Musa in the 1410 battle of [Kosmidion](/wiki/Kosmidion "Kosmidion"). Musa's army was defeated and Suleyman sent Vuk to claim Stefan's territories; Vuk was captured and executed by a Musa vassal. Through [Emperor Manuel II](/wiki/Emperor_Manuel_II "Emperor Manuel II"), Stefan confirmed his despotic rights and returned to Belgrade and annexed Vuk's lands. In 1411 King Sigismund of Hungary rewarded Stefan's loyalty with a gift of [Srebrenica](/wiki/Srebrenica "Srebrenica") and its surroundings .{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=91}} [left\|thumb\|200px\|The Serbian Despotate at the time of Stefan Lazarević (1422\) and possession limit of Venice in Adriatic coast](/wiki/File:1422_Zeta_in_the_Serbian_Despotate_after_death_Balsa_III.svg "1422 Zeta in the Serbian Despotate after death Balsa III.svg") Musa's forces attacked Serbia in early 1412 but were defeated in Kosovo. Stefan then invited Sultan [Mehmed Çelebi](/wiki/Mehmed_I "Mehmed I") to attack Musa together. Together with Hungarian troops, they defeated Musa on 5 July 1413 at the [Battle of Çamurlu](/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%87amurlu "Battle of Çamurlu"), near the [Vitosha](/wiki/Vitosha "Vitosha") mountain (modern [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria")) and Musa was killed on the battlefield. Stefan gained the town of [Koprijan](/wiki/Koprijan "Koprijan") near [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 "Niš") and the Serbian\-Bulgarian area of [Znepolje](/wiki/Znepolje "Znepolje").{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=507–508}} For the next twelve years, Stefan remained in good relations with Mehmed, which made the recovery of medieval Serbia possible. [right\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate, 1421–1427](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1423.png "Serbian Despotate 1423.png") On 28 April 1421, Stefan's nephew and ruler of [Zeta](/wiki/Zeta_%28crown_land%29 "Zeta (crown land)"), [Balša III](/wiki/Bal%C5%A1a_III "Balša III") died without an heir, leaving his lands to his uncle.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=92}} With this and territorial gains from the Kingdom of Hungary, Serbia restored most of its traditional territories. In 1425, the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia, burning and pillaging across the Southern Morava valley. At the same time, the King of Bosnia attempted to conquer Srebrenica back from the Serbs, but failed. Stefan fought back the invasion and initiated negotiations with the Sultan, after which the Ottoman troops left Serbia.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=522}} However, this attack was an ominous sign of things to come. #### Artistic development The rule of the poet, thinker, and artist Stefan Lazarević, was a period of renewed artistic development in Serbia. Stefan wrote one of the major medieval Serbian literary works, *Slovo ljubve* ('The word of love'), and he amassed one of the largest libraries in the Balkans at that period.{{Cn\|date\=October 2022}} #### Economic stability Apart from political stability as a result of Stefan's ability to keep a distance from both the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, the Serbian economy was also helped by the very rich silver mines, Srebrenica and [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo "Novo Brdo"), some of the wealthiest in Europe at that time. Belgrade became one of the largest cities in Europe, numbering over 100,000 people. The rule and deeds of despot Stefan Lazarević were described by his contemporary, the learned writer [Constantine of Kostenets](/wiki/Constantine_of_Kostenets "Constantine of Kostenets"), who wrote the "*[Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Life_of_Despot_Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević")*" ({{circa}} 1430\).{{Sfn\|Radošević\|1986\|pp\=445–451}} ### Đurađ Branković #### First reign [right\|thumb\|320px\|[Smederevo Fortress](/wiki/Smederevo_Fortress "Smederevo Fortress"), capital of the Serbian Despotate](/wiki/File:Smederevo_fortress_%28Smederevska_tvr%C4%91ava%29_-_pano.JPG "Smederevo fortress (Smederevska tvrđava) - pano.JPG") As Despot Stefan had no children of his own, he bequeathed the despotate to his nephew, Đurađ Branković, who succeeded him upon his death on July 19, 1427\. Đurađ was confirmed as despot by the Byzantine emperor [John VIII Palaeologus](/wiki/John_VIII_Palaeologus "John VIII Palaeologus") in 1429\.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=103}} As an immediate result of Stefan's death, Serbia had to return Belgrade to the Kingdom of Hungary, leaving Serbia without a capital city. With the wealthy southern cities dangerously close to the Ottoman border, Đurađ constructed a new capital city, the magnificent fortress of [Smederevo](/wiki/Smederevo "Smederevo") on the Danube, close to the Hungarian border. Constructed 1428–30, Smederevo was a source of many future misinterpretations of history, especially concerning Đurađ's wife [Jerina](/wiki/Irene_Kantakouzene "Irene Kantakouzene"). With Jerina's Greek nationality and the influence her brothers had with the new despot, people began to dislike her, and attributed to her many vicious and evil characteristics, including building Smederevo for capricious reasons. In folk poetry she's been dubbed *[Prokleta Jerina](/wiki/Prokleta_Jerina "Prokleta Jerina")* (the Damned Jerina). Immediately after becoming the ruler of Serbia, in the summer of 1427, Đurađ was faced with the challenge of an Ottoman invasion. The Ottomans occupied [Kruševac](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1evac "Kruševac") and [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 "Niš"), the [Dubočica](/wiki/Dubo%C4%8Dica "Dubočica") region including [Leskovac](/wiki/Leskovac "Leskovac"), and most of the [Toplica](/wiki/Toplica_District "Toplica District") region. They withdrew after unsuccessfully besieging Novo Brdo for several months.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=103}} [right\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate in 1433–1439](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1433.png "Serbian Despotate 1433.png") King [Tvrtko II of Bosnia](/wiki/Tvrtko_II_of_Bosnia "Tvrtko II of Bosnia") came into conflict with the Bosnian noble family of Zlatonosovići in November 1430, over alleged cooperation between Vukašin Zlatonosović and the Serbian Despotate. This conflict ended with the death of Vukašin and the complete annihilation of the Zlatonosović family, but directly led into another conflict with Serbia itself. In the spring of 1433, Despot Đurađ annexed parts of [Usora](/wiki/Usora_%28region%29 "Usora (region)"), together with the trade outpost Zvonik ([Zvornik](/wiki/Zvornik "Zvornik")) and fortress [Teočak](/wiki/Teo%C4%8Dak "Teočak").{{Sfn\|Mrgić\-Radojčić\|2004\|p\=60}} Đurađ married his daughter Katarina to [Ulrich II of Celje](/wiki/Ulrich_II_of_Celje "Ulrich II of Celje") in 1433, a close cousin of the Hungarian Queen, in an effort to secure better relations with Serbia's northern neighbor. He was forced to give his other daughter [Mara](/wiki/Mara_Brankovi%C4%87 "Mara Branković") to Sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II "Murad II"). The marriage was arranged in 1433, but Đurađ delayed it until 1435 when the Ottomans threatened him with invasion. After the marriage took place, Sultan Murad swore to continue the peace between the Ottoman Empire and Serbia. {{Cn\|date\=October 2022\|reason\=The three statements within this paragraph require citation}} However, this oath would be broken two years later. The Ottoman Empire invaded and started pillaging inside Serbia's borders in 1437\. Đurađ negotiated an unfavorable peace with the Sultan by giving him the town of [Braničevo](/wiki/Brani%C4%8Devo_%28region%29 "Braničevo (region)"). In 1438 the Sultan attacked again. This time, the despot had to let them seize [Ždrelo](/wiki/%C5%BDdrelo "Ždrelo") and [Višesav](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1esav "Višesav"): the peace that followed was not longer than the previous one.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=103, 115}} #### Temporary Ottoman occupation In 1439 the Ottoman army, headed by the sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II "Murad II") himself, again attacked and sacked Serbia. Despot Đurađ fled to Hungary in May 1439, leaving his son [Grgur Branković](/wiki/Grgur_Brankovi%C4%87 "Grgur Branković") and Jerina's brother [Thomas Kantakouzenos](/wiki/Thomas_Kantakouzenos "Thomas Kantakouzenos") to defend Smederevo.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=103–104}} After three months of siege, Smederevo fell on August 18, 1439, while [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo "Novo Brdo") [resisted conquest for two entire years](/wiki/Siege_of_Novo_Brdo_%281440%E2%80%9341%29 "Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–41)"), falling on June 27, 1441\. At that point the only free part of the Despotate that remained was Zeta. The latter, however, was soon attacked by the Venetians and by Voivode [Stefan Vukčić Kosača](/wiki/Stefan_Vuk%C4%8Di%C4%87_Kosa%C4%8Da "Stefan Vukčić Kosača"). The last of Đurađ's cities in the region were conquered in March 1442\. The first Ottoman governor of Serbia was [Ishak\-Beg](/wiki/Ishak-Beg "Ishak-Beg"), who in 1443 was replaced by [Isa\-Beg Isaković](/wiki/Isa-Beg_Isakovi%C4%87 "Isa-Beg Isaković"). #### Đurađ Branković restored [left\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate, 1451–1454](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1451.png "Serbian Despotate 1451.png") In Hungary, Đurađ Branković managed to talk Hungarian leaders into expelling the Ottomans, so a broad Christian coalition of Hungarians (under [John Hunyadi](/wiki/John_Hunyadi "John Hunyadi")), Serbs (under Despot Đurađ) and Romanians (under [Vlad II Dracul](/wiki/Vlad_II_Dracul "Vlad II Dracul")) advanced into Serbia and Bulgaria in September 1443\. The large Christian army that crossed the Danube in early autumn of 1443 was made up of around 25,000 soldiers from Hungary and Poland, over 8,000 Serbian cavalry and foot soldiers, and 700 Bosnian horsemen.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=104}} Serbia was fully restored by the [Peace of Szeged](/wiki/Peace_of_Szeged "Peace of Szeged") on August 15, 1444\. Its borders were the same as before 1437, with the exception of the southern part of Zeta, which remained under Venice, and fort Golubac, which was returned to Serbia even though it was lost much earlier, in 1427\. King [Tomaš of Bosnia](/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_of_Bosnia "Stephen Thomas of Bosnia") started another war with Despot Đurađ in 1446 and managed to take Srebrenica. However, in September 1448, the Bosnians were defeated by a Serbian army led by Thomas Kantakouzenos, who reconquered Srebrenica and also took [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad "Višegrad").{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=106}} The difficulty Despot Đurađ had in maintaining balance between two strong powers can be illustrated by the fact that in 1447–48 despot Đurađ provided funds to the Byzantines to repair the [city walls](/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople "Walls of Constantinople") of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), but being officially an Ottoman vassal, he had to send a thousand soldiers to help Sultan [Mehmed II](/wiki/Mehmed_II "Mehmed II") [conquer Constantinople](/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople "Fall of Constantinople") in May 1453\.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=106–107}} The new Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, who would later be called the Conqueror, returned the regions of Toplica and Dubočica to Serbia in 1451 as a token of good will.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=530}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=103}} On that occasion, Mehmed II and Đurađ negotiated the prolonging of their peace treaty. Without formally declaring an end to the peace treaty, Sultan Mehmed II invaded Serbia in mid\-July 1454\. Much of central Serbia fell, but the capital was well\-prepared and the Ottomans, upon hearing that Hunyadi would cross the Danube to reinforce the Serbs, soon lifted their siege of Smederevo. The Sultan retreated back to [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia") with loot and slaves, leaving most of his army at Kruševac. A smaller Serbian army under Voivode [Nikola Skobaljić](/wiki/Nikola_Skobalji%C4%87 "Nikola Skobaljić"), which was in Dubočica, cut off from the north, [defeated an Ottoman army near Leskovac on September 24](/wiki/Battle_of_Leskovac "Battle of Leskovac"), while the main army under Đurađ Branković, together with Hungarian force led by Hunyadi, [crushed the Ottomans at Kruševac](/wiki/Battle_of_Kru%C5%A1evac "Battle of Kruševac"), capturing their commander, Firuz\-bey.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=568–569}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=106–107}} [thumb\|200px\|[Vršac Castle](/wiki/Vr%C5%A1ac_Castle "Vršac Castle") was founded by Branković](/wiki/File:Vr%C5%A1a%C4%8Dka_kula_posle_obnove2.jpg "Vršačka kula posle obnove2.jpg") But these successes only bought little time. Nikola Skobaljić's resistance, which due to his army's low numbers came to be respected by the Turks themselves, was crushed by another Ottoman force on November 16 and he was executed. In the early spring of 1455, the Sultan continued his invasion of Serbia. This time, the Ottomans focused on taking southern Serbia first. Novo Brdo was besieged with heavy cannons and fell on June 1, 1455, after forty days of resistance.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=569}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=107}} The rest of southern Serbia was occupied soon after that. At the same time, Despot Đurađ was trying to convince the Hungarians to launch another crusade, but returned empty\-handed to Smederevo. In early 1456, he accepted a peace treaty with the Sultan, and southern Serbia remained in Ottoman hands. A few months after the peace treaty, the Ottoman Empire attacked again. Both Smederevo and Belgrade, which were the primary target of the Turks, successfully resisted, but the countryside was devastated even further. Despot Đurađ Branković died on December 24, 1456\.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=569–570}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=107}} ### Lazar Branković Despot [Lazar Branković](/wiki/Lazar_Brankovi%C4%87 "Lazar Branković"), the only one of Đurađ's sons not to be blinded by the Ottomans, succeeded his father. Sensing that Serbia is too weak to defeat a future Ottoman incursion on the battlefield, he managed to make a deal with sultan Mehmed II on January 15, 1457\. According to this deal, he was granted back most of his father's lands and a promise that Serbia will not be disturbed by the Ottomans until Lazar's death. Lazar in turn had to pay a [tribute](/wiki/Tributary_state "Tributary state"), which was reduced because he no longer had the rich mines of Novo Brdo. Temporarily relieved of the southern threat, Lazar turned to the north and Hungarian internal battles, which he joined on the side of [King Ladislaus](/wiki/Ladislaus_the_Posthumous "Ladislaus the Posthumous"), managing to capture the town of [Kovin](/wiki/Kovin "Kovin") and several other towns on the left bank of the [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube") in 1457\.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=571–572}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=107}} Immediately after death of their mother Jerina on May 3, 1457, the younger generation of the Branković family broke out in a conflict of succession. Seeking rights for his bastard son [Vuk](/wiki/Vuk_Grgurevi%C4%87 "Vuk Grgurević"), blind [Grgur Branković](/wiki/Grgur_Brankovi%C4%87 "Grgur Branković") fled to the Ottoman Empire, together with Mara and Thomas Kantakouzenos. Lazar's brother, blind [Stefan Branković](/wiki/Stefan_Brankovi%C4%87 "Stefan Branković"), took his side and stayed with him. Despot Lazar suddenly died on January 20, 1458\.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=572}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=107}} ### Regency and Stefan Branković [right\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate, 1455–1459](/wiki/File:Serbian_despotate_1455_1459.png "Serbian despotate 1455 1459.png") As despot Lazar Branković had no sons, a three\-member regency was formed after his death. It included Lazar's brother, the blind Stefan Branković, Lazar's widow [Helena Palaiologina](/wiki/Helena_Palaiologina_of_Morea "Helena Palaiologina of Morea") and Grand Duke [Mihailo Anđelović](/wiki/Mihailo_An%C4%91elovi%C4%87 "Mihailo Anđelović").{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=572–573}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=107}} Mihailo Anđelović, whose brother was the Ottoman Grand Vizier Mahmud\-pasha Anđelović, began to plot with the Ottomans behind the backs of Stefan and Helena. In March, he brought a small detachment of Ottoman soldiers into Smederevo to reinforce his own bid for the Despotate. But the soldiers unexpectedly raised the Ottoman flag on the ramparts and started shouting the Sultan's name. The enraged citizens of Smederevo rose up against Anđelović on March 31, taking him prisoner and capturing or killing most of the Ottoman detachment.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=573}} Stefan Branković, who was proclaimed the new Despot, together with Helena Palaiologina, took control of Smederevo and the Despotate. During the chaos that surrounded Lazar's death and the split in the provisional regency, King [Stjepan Tomaš](/wiki/Stjepan_Toma%C5%A1 "Stjepan Tomaš") of Bosnia attacked the Despotate's holdings west of the Drina river and conquered most of them, leaving only Teočak in the Despotate's hands. Mihail Silagyi likewise seized most of Lazar's towns north of the Danube. Immediately after Mihailo Anđelović's failed coup, the Ottomans began another invasion of Serbia. Although they would not make any significant territorial gains until 1459, this was the beginning of the end for the Serbian Despotate. Stefan Branković ruled until 8 April 1459, when he was overthrown by a plot between Helena Palaiologina and King Tomaš, whose son briefly ruled as the new Despot.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=574–575}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=107–108}} ### Stjepan Tomašević and fall of the Despotate [Stjepan Tomašević](/wiki/Stephen_Toma%C5%A1evi%C4%87_of_Bosnia "Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia") lost two countries to the Ottomans: Serbia in 1459 and Bosnia in 1463\. His appointment as new despot was highly unpopular but pushed hard by his father, King Stjepan Tomaš of Bosnia. By this time Serbia was reduced to only a strip of land along the Danube. Sultan [Mehmed II](/wiki/Mehmed_II "Mehmed II") decided to conquer Serbia completely and arrived at Smederevo; the new ruler did not even try to defend the city. After negotiations, Bosnians were allowed to leave the city and Serbia was officially conquered by Turks on June 20, 1459\.{{Cn\|date\=October 2022}} ### Despotate in exile [thumbnail\|Possessions of the Serbian despots in Syrmia, Bačka and Banat (15th–16th centuries)](/wiki/File:Despotski_posedi.png "Despotski posedi.png") In 1404 Hungarian King [Sigismund](/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor") lend parts of Syrmia, Banat and Bačka to Serbian Despot [Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Stefan Lazarević") for governing, later succeeded by [Đurađ Branković](/wiki/%C4%90ura%C4%91_Brankovi%C4%87 "Đurađ Branković"). After the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") conquered Serbian Despotate in 1459, the Hungarian rulers renewed the legacy of Despots to the [House of Branković](/wiki/House_of_Brankovi%C4%87 "House of Branković") in exile, later to the noble family of [Berislavići Grabarski](/wiki/Berislavi%C4%87i_Grabarski "Berislavići Grabarski"), who continued to govern most of Syrmia until the Ottoman conquest but territory has been in theory still under administration of the medieval [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_in_the_Middle_Ages "Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages"). The residence of the despots was [Kupinik](/wiki/Kupinovo "Kupinovo") (modern Kupinovo). The Despots from the Branković dynasty were: [Vuk Grgurević\-Branković](/wiki/Vuk_Grgurevi%C4%87 "Vuk Grgurević") (1471–1485\), [Đorđe Branković](/wiki/%C4%90or%C4%91e_Brankovi%C4%87 "Đorđe Branković") (1486–1496\) and [Jovan Branković](/wiki/Jovan_Brankovi%C4%87 "Jovan Branković") (1496–1502\).{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=101, 116, 139}}{{Sfn\|Krstić\|2017\|pp\=151–153}}{{Better source needed\|reason\=The current source is insufficiently reliable (\[\[WP:NOTRS]]).\|date\=October 2022}} Last titular despots were: [Ivaniš Berislavić](/wiki/Ivani%C5%A1_Berislavi%C4%87 "Ivaniš Berislavić") (1504–1514\), [Stjepan Berislavić](/wiki/Stjepan_Berislavi%C4%87 "Stjepan Berislavić") (1520–1535\), [Radič Božić](/wiki/Radi%C4%8D_Bo%C5%BEi%C4%87 "Radič Božić") (1527–1528, Zapolya faction's pretender), and [Pavle Bakić](/wiki/Pavle_Baki%C4%87 "Pavle Bakić") (1537\).{{Cn\|date\=October 2022}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Origins", "After Prince [Lazar Hrebeljanović](/wiki/Lazar_of_Serbia \"Lazar of Serbia\") was killed in the [Battle of Kosovo](/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo \"Battle of Kosovo\") on June 28, 1389, his young son [Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Stefan Lazarević\") succeeded him. Stefan's mother Princess [Milica](/wiki/Princess_Milica_of_Serbia \"Princess Milica of Serbia\") ruled as his regent until he reached adulthood. A wise and diplomatic woman, she managed to allay the Ottoman threat by marrying her daughter Olivera to Sultan [Bayezid I](/wiki/Bayezid_I \"Bayezid I\").", "After the Battle of Kosovo, in 1390 or 1391, Serbia became a vassal Ottoman state, and Stefan Lazarević was obligated to support the Ottoman empire in battle. He did so in the 1395 [Battle of Rovine](/wiki/Battle_of_Rovine \"Battle of Rovine\") against the [Wallachian](/wiki/Wallachia \"Wallachia\") prince [Mircea I](/wiki/Mircea_I_of_Wallachia \"Mircea I of Wallachia\") and the 1396 [Battle of Nicopolis](/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis \"Battle of Nicopolis\") against the Hungarian king [Sigismund](/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor\"). Sultan Bayezid awarded Stefan with the majority of [Vuk Branković](/wiki/Vuk_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Vuk Branković\")'s lands, as Branković sided with the Hungarian king at Nicopolis.", "When [Timur](/wiki/Timur \"Timur\")'s army entered the Ottoman realm, Stefan Lazarević participated in the 1402 [Battle of Ankara](/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara \"Battle of Ankara\"), in which the Ottomans were defeated and their leader Bayezid was captured. Returning to Serbia, Stefan visited [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\") where the [Byzantine emperor](/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor \"Byzantine Emperor\") [Manuel II Palaiologos](/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos \"Manuel II Palaiologos\") granted him the title of [despot](/wiki/Despot_%28court_title%29 \"Despot (court title)\"). In previous years, this title would mean that the despot would rule some vassal state; however, as the Byzantine Empire was too weak to assert such a rule, Stefan Lazarević adopted the title as monarchical.", "### Stefan Lazarević", "{{History of Serbia}}", "#### Consolidation", "[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Despot's Gate in Belgrade, built by [Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Stefan Lazarević\")](/wiki/File:Dizdar%27s_Tower.jpg \"Dizdar's Tower.jpg\")", "While in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), Stefan argued with his brother [Vuk Lazarević](/wiki/Vuk_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Vuk Lazarević\"). As they were returning to Serbia from Constantinople, Stefan's armies attacked Vuk at Tripolje near the [Gračanica monastery](/wiki/Gra%C4%8Danica_monastery \"Gračanica monastery\"). Stefan's army was victorious and Vuk allied himself with the new Ottoman sultan [Suleyman (I) Çelebi](/wiki/Suleyman_%C3%87elebi \"Suleyman Çelebi\").", "In 1404, concerned about unrest in the Ottoman Empire ([Ottoman Interregnum](/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum \"Ottoman Interregnum\")) Stefan allied with Hungarian king Sigismund, who awarded him with [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"), the [Mačva](/wiki/Ma%C4%8Dva \"Mačva\") region, and the fort of [Golubac](/wiki/Golubac \"Golubac\");{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=89}} Stefan made Belgrade his capital city. He made peace with his brother Vuk, who remained an Ottoman vassal.", "In 1405 he married Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of [Francesco II Gattilusio](/wiki/Francesco_II_Gattilusio \"Francesco II Gattilusio\"), ruler of the island of [Lesbos](/wiki/Lesbos \"Lesbos\"), and his mother Milica died.", "In 1408 the two brothers again argued, and Vuk, accompanied by Ottoman forces, attacked Belgrade in early 1409\\. Besieged Stefan agreed to give the southern part of Serbia to Vuk, and to accept Ottoman vassalage. However, Suleyman's brother [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi \"Musa Çelebi\") soon rebelled against Suleyman, and Stefan sided with Musa in the 1410 battle of [Kosmidion](/wiki/Kosmidion \"Kosmidion\"). Musa's army was defeated and Suleyman sent Vuk to claim Stefan's territories; Vuk was captured and executed by a Musa vassal. Through [Emperor Manuel II](/wiki/Emperor_Manuel_II \"Emperor Manuel II\"), Stefan confirmed his despotic rights and returned to Belgrade and annexed Vuk's lands.", "In 1411 King Sigismund of Hungary rewarded Stefan's loyalty with a gift of [Srebrenica](/wiki/Srebrenica \"Srebrenica\") and its surroundings .{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=91}}", "[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|The Serbian Despotate at the time of Stefan Lazarević (1422\\) and possession limit of Venice in Adriatic coast](/wiki/File:1422_Zeta_in_the_Serbian_Despotate_after_death_Balsa_III.svg \"1422 Zeta in the Serbian Despotate after death Balsa III.svg\")", "Musa's forces attacked Serbia in early 1412 but were defeated in Kosovo. Stefan then invited Sultan [Mehmed Çelebi](/wiki/Mehmed_I \"Mehmed I\") to attack Musa together. Together with Hungarian troops, they defeated Musa on 5 July 1413 at the [Battle of Çamurlu](/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%87amurlu \"Battle of Çamurlu\"), near the [Vitosha](/wiki/Vitosha \"Vitosha\") mountain (modern [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\")) and Musa was killed on the battlefield. Stefan gained the town of [Koprijan](/wiki/Koprijan \"Koprijan\") near [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 \"Niš\") and the Serbian\\-Bulgarian area of [Znepolje](/wiki/Znepolje \"Znepolje\").{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=507–508}} For the next twelve years, Stefan remained in good relations with Mehmed, which made the recovery of medieval Serbia possible.", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate, 1421–1427](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1423.png \"Serbian Despotate 1423.png\")", "On 28 April 1421, Stefan's nephew and ruler of [Zeta](/wiki/Zeta_%28crown_land%29 \"Zeta (crown land)\"), [Balša III](/wiki/Bal%C5%A1a_III \"Balša III\") died without an heir, leaving his lands to his uncle.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=92}} With this and territorial gains from the Kingdom of Hungary, Serbia restored most of its traditional territories.", "In 1425, the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia, burning and pillaging across the Southern Morava valley. At the same time, the King of Bosnia attempted to conquer Srebrenica back from the Serbs, but failed. Stefan fought back the invasion and initiated negotiations with the Sultan, after which the Ottoman troops left Serbia.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=522}} However, this attack was an ominous sign of things to come.", "#### Artistic development", "The rule of the poet, thinker, and artist Stefan Lazarević, was a period of renewed artistic development in Serbia. Stefan wrote one of the major medieval Serbian literary works, *Slovo ljubve* ('The word of love'), and he amassed one of the largest libraries in the Balkans at that period.{{Cn\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "#### Economic stability", "Apart from political stability as a result of Stefan's ability to keep a distance from both the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, the Serbian economy was also helped by the very rich silver mines, Srebrenica and [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo \"Novo Brdo\"), some of the wealthiest in Europe at that time. Belgrade became one of the largest cities in Europe, numbering over 100,000 people. The rule and deeds of despot Stefan Lazarević were described by his contemporary, the learned writer [Constantine of Kostenets](/wiki/Constantine_of_Kostenets \"Constantine of Kostenets\"), who wrote the \"*[Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Life_of_Despot_Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević\")*\" ({{circa}} 1430\\).{{Sfn\\|Radošević\\|1986\\|pp\\=445–451}}", "### Đurađ Branković", "#### First reign", "[right\\|thumb\\|320px\\|[Smederevo Fortress](/wiki/Smederevo_Fortress \"Smederevo Fortress\"), capital of the Serbian Despotate](/wiki/File:Smederevo_fortress_%28Smederevska_tvr%C4%91ava%29_-_pano.JPG \"Smederevo fortress (Smederevska tvrđava) - pano.JPG\")\nAs Despot Stefan had no children of his own, he bequeathed the despotate to his nephew, Đurađ Branković, who succeeded him upon his death on July 19, 1427\\. Đurađ was confirmed as despot by the Byzantine emperor [John VIII Palaeologus](/wiki/John_VIII_Palaeologus \"John VIII Palaeologus\") in 1429\\.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=103}}", "As an immediate result of Stefan's death, Serbia had to return Belgrade to the Kingdom of Hungary, leaving Serbia without a capital city. With the wealthy southern cities dangerously close to the Ottoman border, Đurađ constructed a new capital city, the magnificent fortress of [Smederevo](/wiki/Smederevo \"Smederevo\") on the Danube, close to the Hungarian border. Constructed 1428–30, Smederevo was a source of many future misinterpretations of history, especially concerning Đurađ's wife [Jerina](/wiki/Irene_Kantakouzene \"Irene Kantakouzene\"). With Jerina's Greek nationality and the influence her brothers had with the new despot, people began to dislike her, and attributed to her many vicious and evil characteristics, including building Smederevo for capricious reasons. In folk poetry she's been dubbed *[Prokleta Jerina](/wiki/Prokleta_Jerina \"Prokleta Jerina\")* (the Damned Jerina).", "Immediately after becoming the ruler of Serbia, in the summer of 1427, Đurađ was faced with the challenge of an Ottoman invasion. The Ottomans occupied [Kruševac](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1evac \"Kruševac\") and [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 \"Niš\"), the [Dubočica](/wiki/Dubo%C4%8Dica \"Dubočica\") region including [Leskovac](/wiki/Leskovac \"Leskovac\"), and most of the [Toplica](/wiki/Toplica_District \"Toplica District\") region. They withdrew after unsuccessfully besieging Novo Brdo for several months.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=103}}", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate in 1433–1439](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1433.png \"Serbian Despotate 1433.png\")", "King [Tvrtko II of Bosnia](/wiki/Tvrtko_II_of_Bosnia \"Tvrtko II of Bosnia\") came into conflict with the Bosnian noble family of Zlatonosovići in November 1430, over alleged cooperation between Vukašin Zlatonosović and the Serbian Despotate. This conflict ended with the death of Vukašin and the complete annihilation of the Zlatonosović family, but directly led into another conflict with Serbia itself. In the spring of 1433, Despot Đurađ annexed parts of [Usora](/wiki/Usora_%28region%29 \"Usora (region)\"), together with the trade outpost Zvonik ([Zvornik](/wiki/Zvornik \"Zvornik\")) and fortress [Teočak](/wiki/Teo%C4%8Dak \"Teočak\").{{Sfn\\|Mrgić\\-Radojčić\\|2004\\|p\\=60}}", "Đurađ married his daughter Katarina to [Ulrich II of Celje](/wiki/Ulrich_II_of_Celje \"Ulrich II of Celje\") in 1433, a close cousin of the Hungarian Queen, in an effort to secure better relations with Serbia's northern neighbor. He was forced to give his other daughter [Mara](/wiki/Mara_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Mara Branković\") to Sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II \"Murad II\"). The marriage was arranged in 1433, but Đurađ delayed it until 1435 when the Ottomans threatened him with invasion. After the marriage took place, Sultan Murad swore to continue the peace between the Ottoman Empire and Serbia. {{Cn\\|date\\=October 2022\\|reason\\=The three statements within this paragraph require citation}}", "However, this oath would be broken two years later. The Ottoman Empire invaded and started pillaging inside Serbia's borders in 1437\\. Đurađ negotiated an unfavorable peace with the Sultan by giving him the town of [Braničevo](/wiki/Brani%C4%8Devo_%28region%29 \"Braničevo (region)\"). In 1438 the Sultan attacked again. This time, the despot had to let them seize [Ždrelo](/wiki/%C5%BDdrelo \"Ždrelo\") and [Višesav](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1esav \"Višesav\"): the peace that followed was not longer than the previous one.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=103, 115}}", "#### Temporary Ottoman occupation", "In 1439 the Ottoman army, headed by the sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II \"Murad II\") himself, again attacked and sacked Serbia. Despot Đurađ fled to Hungary in May 1439, leaving his son [Grgur Branković](/wiki/Grgur_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Grgur Branković\") and Jerina's brother [Thomas Kantakouzenos](/wiki/Thomas_Kantakouzenos \"Thomas Kantakouzenos\") to defend Smederevo.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=103–104}} After three months of siege, Smederevo fell on August 18, 1439, while [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo \"Novo Brdo\") [resisted conquest for two entire years](/wiki/Siege_of_Novo_Brdo_%281440%E2%80%9341%29 \"Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–41)\"), falling on June 27, 1441\\. At that point the only free part of the Despotate that remained was Zeta. The latter, however, was soon attacked by the Venetians and by Voivode [Stefan Vukčić Kosača](/wiki/Stefan_Vuk%C4%8Di%C4%87_Kosa%C4%8Da \"Stefan Vukčić Kosača\"). The last of Đurađ's cities in the region were conquered in March 1442\\.", "The first Ottoman governor of Serbia was [Ishak\\-Beg](/wiki/Ishak-Beg \"Ishak-Beg\"), who in 1443 was replaced by [Isa\\-Beg Isaković](/wiki/Isa-Beg_Isakovi%C4%87 \"Isa-Beg Isaković\").", "#### Đurađ Branković restored", "[left\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate, 1451–1454](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1451.png \"Serbian Despotate 1451.png\")", "In Hungary, Đurađ Branković managed to talk Hungarian leaders into expelling the Ottomans, so a broad Christian coalition of Hungarians (under [John Hunyadi](/wiki/John_Hunyadi \"John Hunyadi\")), Serbs (under Despot Đurađ) and Romanians (under [Vlad II Dracul](/wiki/Vlad_II_Dracul \"Vlad II Dracul\")) advanced into Serbia and Bulgaria in September 1443\\. The large Christian army that crossed the Danube in early autumn of 1443 was made up of around 25,000 soldiers from Hungary and Poland, over 8,000 Serbian cavalry and foot soldiers, and 700 Bosnian horsemen.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=104}} Serbia was fully restored by the [Peace of Szeged](/wiki/Peace_of_Szeged \"Peace of Szeged\") on August 15, 1444\\. Its borders were the same as before 1437, with the exception of the southern part of Zeta, which remained under Venice, and fort Golubac, which was returned to Serbia even though it was lost much earlier, in 1427\\.", "King [Tomaš of Bosnia](/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_of_Bosnia \"Stephen Thomas of Bosnia\") started another war with Despot Đurađ in 1446 and managed to take Srebrenica. However, in September 1448, the Bosnians were defeated by a Serbian army led by Thomas Kantakouzenos, who reconquered Srebrenica and also took [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad \"Višegrad\").{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=106}}", "The difficulty Despot Đurađ had in maintaining balance between two strong powers can be illustrated by the fact that in 1447–48 despot Đurađ provided funds to the Byzantines to repair the [city walls](/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople \"Walls of Constantinople\") of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), but being officially an Ottoman vassal, he had to send a thousand soldiers to help Sultan [Mehmed II](/wiki/Mehmed_II \"Mehmed II\") [conquer Constantinople](/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople \"Fall of Constantinople\") in May 1453\\.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=106–107}}", "The new Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, who would later be called the Conqueror, returned the regions of Toplica and Dubočica to Serbia in 1451 as a token of good will.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=530}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=103}} On that occasion, Mehmed II and Đurađ negotiated the prolonging of their peace treaty.", "Without formally declaring an end to the peace treaty, Sultan Mehmed II invaded Serbia in mid\\-July 1454\\. Much of central Serbia fell, but the capital was well\\-prepared and the Ottomans, upon hearing that Hunyadi would cross the Danube to reinforce the Serbs, soon lifted their siege of Smederevo. The Sultan retreated back to [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\") with loot and slaves, leaving most of his army at Kruševac. A smaller Serbian army under Voivode [Nikola Skobaljić](/wiki/Nikola_Skobalji%C4%87 \"Nikola Skobaljić\"), which was in Dubočica, cut off from the north, [defeated an Ottoman army near Leskovac on September 24](/wiki/Battle_of_Leskovac \"Battle of Leskovac\"), while the main army under Đurađ Branković, together with Hungarian force led by Hunyadi, [crushed the Ottomans at Kruševac](/wiki/Battle_of_Kru%C5%A1evac \"Battle of Kruševac\"), capturing their commander, Firuz\\-bey.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=568–569}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=106–107}}", "[thumb\\|200px\\|[Vršac Castle](/wiki/Vr%C5%A1ac_Castle \"Vršac Castle\") was founded by Branković](/wiki/File:Vr%C5%A1a%C4%8Dka_kula_posle_obnove2.jpg \"Vršačka kula posle obnove2.jpg\")", "But these successes only bought little time. Nikola Skobaljić's resistance, which due to his army's low numbers came to be respected by the Turks themselves, was crushed by another Ottoman force on November 16 and he was executed. In the early spring of 1455, the Sultan continued his invasion of Serbia. This time, the Ottomans focused on taking southern Serbia first. Novo Brdo was besieged with heavy cannons and fell on June 1, 1455, after forty days of resistance.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=569}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=107}} The rest of southern Serbia was occupied soon after that. At the same time, Despot Đurađ was trying to convince the Hungarians to launch another crusade, but returned empty\\-handed to Smederevo. In early 1456, he accepted a peace treaty with the Sultan, and southern Serbia remained in Ottoman hands.", "A few months after the peace treaty, the Ottoman Empire attacked again. Both Smederevo and Belgrade, which were the primary target of the Turks, successfully resisted, but the countryside was devastated even further. Despot Đurađ Branković died on December 24, 1456\\.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=569–570}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=107}}", "### Lazar Branković", "Despot [Lazar Branković](/wiki/Lazar_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Lazar Branković\"), the only one of Đurađ's sons not to be blinded by the Ottomans, succeeded his father. Sensing that Serbia is too weak to defeat a future Ottoman incursion on the battlefield, he managed to make a deal with sultan Mehmed II on January 15, 1457\\. According to this deal, he was granted back most of his father's lands and a promise that Serbia will not be disturbed by the Ottomans until Lazar's death. Lazar in turn had to pay a [tribute](/wiki/Tributary_state \"Tributary state\"), which was reduced because he no longer had the rich mines of Novo Brdo. Temporarily relieved of the southern threat, Lazar turned to the north and Hungarian internal battles, which he joined on the side of [King Ladislaus](/wiki/Ladislaus_the_Posthumous \"Ladislaus the Posthumous\"), managing to capture the town of [Kovin](/wiki/Kovin \"Kovin\") and several other towns on the left bank of the [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\") in 1457\\.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=571–572}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=107}}", "Immediately after death of their mother Jerina on May 3, 1457, the younger generation of the Branković family broke out in a conflict of succession. Seeking rights for his bastard son [Vuk](/wiki/Vuk_Grgurevi%C4%87 \"Vuk Grgurević\"), blind [Grgur Branković](/wiki/Grgur_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Grgur Branković\") fled to the Ottoman Empire, together with Mara and Thomas Kantakouzenos. Lazar's brother, blind [Stefan Branković](/wiki/Stefan_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Stefan Branković\"), took his side and stayed with him. Despot Lazar suddenly died on January 20, 1458\\.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=572}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=107}}", "### Regency and Stefan Branković", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate, 1455–1459](/wiki/File:Serbian_despotate_1455_1459.png \"Serbian despotate 1455 1459.png\")\nAs despot Lazar Branković had no sons, a three\\-member regency was formed after his death. It included Lazar's brother, the blind Stefan Branković, Lazar's widow [Helena Palaiologina](/wiki/Helena_Palaiologina_of_Morea \"Helena Palaiologina of Morea\") and Grand Duke [Mihailo Anđelović](/wiki/Mihailo_An%C4%91elovi%C4%87 \"Mihailo Anđelović\").{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=572–573}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=107}} Mihailo Anđelović, whose brother was the Ottoman Grand Vizier Mahmud\\-pasha Anđelović, began to plot with the Ottomans behind the backs of Stefan and Helena. In March, he brought a small detachment of Ottoman soldiers into Smederevo to reinforce his own bid for the Despotate. But the soldiers unexpectedly raised the Ottoman flag on the ramparts and started shouting the Sultan's name. The enraged citizens of Smederevo rose up against Anđelović on March 31, taking him prisoner and capturing or killing most of the Ottoman detachment.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=573}} Stefan Branković, who was proclaimed the new Despot, together with Helena Palaiologina, took control of Smederevo and the Despotate.", "During the chaos that surrounded Lazar's death and the split in the provisional regency, King [Stjepan Tomaš](/wiki/Stjepan_Toma%C5%A1 \"Stjepan Tomaš\") of Bosnia attacked the Despotate's holdings west of the Drina river and conquered most of them, leaving only Teočak in the Despotate's hands. Mihail Silagyi likewise seized most of Lazar's towns north of the Danube. Immediately after Mihailo Anđelović's failed coup, the Ottomans began another invasion of Serbia. Although they would not make any significant territorial gains until 1459, this was the beginning of the end for the Serbian Despotate. Stefan Branković ruled until 8 April 1459, when he was overthrown by a plot between Helena Palaiologina and King Tomaš, whose son briefly ruled as the new Despot.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=574–575}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=107–108}}", "### Stjepan Tomašević and fall of the Despotate", "[Stjepan Tomašević](/wiki/Stephen_Toma%C5%A1evi%C4%87_of_Bosnia \"Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia\") lost two countries to the Ottomans: Serbia in 1459 and Bosnia in 1463\\. His appointment as new despot was highly unpopular but pushed hard by his father, King Stjepan Tomaš of Bosnia. By this time Serbia was reduced to only a strip of land along the Danube. Sultan [Mehmed II](/wiki/Mehmed_II \"Mehmed II\") decided to conquer Serbia completely and arrived at Smederevo; the new ruler did not even try to defend the city. After negotiations, Bosnians were allowed to leave the city and Serbia was officially conquered by Turks on June 20, 1459\\.{{Cn\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "### Despotate in exile", "[thumbnail\\|Possessions of the Serbian despots in Syrmia, Bačka and Banat (15th–16th centuries)](/wiki/File:Despotski_posedi.png \"Despotski posedi.png\")\nIn 1404 Hungarian King [Sigismund](/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor\") lend parts of Syrmia, Banat and Bačka to Serbian Despot [Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Stefan Lazarević\") for governing, later succeeded by [Đurađ Branković](/wiki/%C4%90ura%C4%91_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Đurađ Branković\"). After the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") conquered Serbian Despotate in 1459, the Hungarian rulers renewed the legacy of Despots to the [House of Branković](/wiki/House_of_Brankovi%C4%87 \"House of Branković\") in exile, later to the noble family of [Berislavići Grabarski](/wiki/Berislavi%C4%87i_Grabarski \"Berislavići Grabarski\"), who continued to govern most of Syrmia until the Ottoman conquest but territory has been in theory still under administration of the medieval [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_in_the_Middle_Ages \"Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages\"). The residence of the despots was [Kupinik](/wiki/Kupinovo \"Kupinovo\") (modern Kupinovo). The Despots from the Branković dynasty were: [Vuk Grgurević\\-Branković](/wiki/Vuk_Grgurevi%C4%87 \"Vuk Grgurević\") (1471–1485\\), [Đorđe Branković](/wiki/%C4%90or%C4%91e_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Đorđe Branković\") (1486–1496\\) and [Jovan Branković](/wiki/Jovan_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Jovan Branković\") (1496–1502\\).{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=101, 116, 139}}{{Sfn\\|Krstić\\|2017\\|pp\\=151–153}}{{Better source needed\\|reason\\=The current source is insufficiently reliable (\\[\\[WP:NOTRS]]).\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "Last titular despots were: [Ivaniš Berislavić](/wiki/Ivani%C5%A1_Berislavi%C4%87 \"Ivaniš Berislavić\") (1504–1514\\), [Stjepan Berislavić](/wiki/Stjepan_Berislavi%C4%87 \"Stjepan Berislavić\") (1520–1535\\), [Radič Božić](/wiki/Radi%C4%8D_Bo%C5%BEi%C4%87 \"Radič Božić\") (1527–1528, Zapolya faction's pretender), and [Pavle Bakić](/wiki/Pavle_Baki%C4%87 \"Pavle Bakić\") (1537\\).{{Cn\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "" ]
### Stefan Lazarević {{History of Serbia}} #### Consolidation [left\|thumb\|200px\|Despot's Gate in Belgrade, built by [Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Stefan Lazarević")](/wiki/File:Dizdar%27s_Tower.jpg "Dizdar's Tower.jpg") While in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), Stefan argued with his brother [Vuk Lazarević](/wiki/Vuk_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Vuk Lazarević"). As they were returning to Serbia from Constantinople, Stefan's armies attacked Vuk at Tripolje near the [Gračanica monastery](/wiki/Gra%C4%8Danica_monastery "Gračanica monastery"). Stefan's army was victorious and Vuk allied himself with the new Ottoman sultan [Suleyman (I) Çelebi](/wiki/Suleyman_%C3%87elebi "Suleyman Çelebi"). In 1404, concerned about unrest in the Ottoman Empire ([Ottoman Interregnum](/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum "Ottoman Interregnum")) Stefan allied with Hungarian king Sigismund, who awarded him with [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"), the [Mačva](/wiki/Ma%C4%8Dva "Mačva") region, and the fort of [Golubac](/wiki/Golubac "Golubac");{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=89}} Stefan made Belgrade his capital city. He made peace with his brother Vuk, who remained an Ottoman vassal. In 1405 he married Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of [Francesco II Gattilusio](/wiki/Francesco_II_Gattilusio "Francesco II Gattilusio"), ruler of the island of [Lesbos](/wiki/Lesbos "Lesbos"), and his mother Milica died. In 1408 the two brothers again argued, and Vuk, accompanied by Ottoman forces, attacked Belgrade in early 1409\. Besieged Stefan agreed to give the southern part of Serbia to Vuk, and to accept Ottoman vassalage. However, Suleyman's brother [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi "Musa Çelebi") soon rebelled against Suleyman, and Stefan sided with Musa in the 1410 battle of [Kosmidion](/wiki/Kosmidion "Kosmidion"). Musa's army was defeated and Suleyman sent Vuk to claim Stefan's territories; Vuk was captured and executed by a Musa vassal. Through [Emperor Manuel II](/wiki/Emperor_Manuel_II "Emperor Manuel II"), Stefan confirmed his despotic rights and returned to Belgrade and annexed Vuk's lands. In 1411 King Sigismund of Hungary rewarded Stefan's loyalty with a gift of [Srebrenica](/wiki/Srebrenica "Srebrenica") and its surroundings .{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=91}} [left\|thumb\|200px\|The Serbian Despotate at the time of Stefan Lazarević (1422\) and possession limit of Venice in Adriatic coast](/wiki/File:1422_Zeta_in_the_Serbian_Despotate_after_death_Balsa_III.svg "1422 Zeta in the Serbian Despotate after death Balsa III.svg") Musa's forces attacked Serbia in early 1412 but were defeated in Kosovo. Stefan then invited Sultan [Mehmed Çelebi](/wiki/Mehmed_I "Mehmed I") to attack Musa together. Together with Hungarian troops, they defeated Musa on 5 July 1413 at the [Battle of Çamurlu](/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%87amurlu "Battle of Çamurlu"), near the [Vitosha](/wiki/Vitosha "Vitosha") mountain (modern [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria")) and Musa was killed on the battlefield. Stefan gained the town of [Koprijan](/wiki/Koprijan "Koprijan") near [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 "Niš") and the Serbian\-Bulgarian area of [Znepolje](/wiki/Znepolje "Znepolje").{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=507–508}} For the next twelve years, Stefan remained in good relations with Mehmed, which made the recovery of medieval Serbia possible. [right\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate, 1421–1427](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1423.png "Serbian Despotate 1423.png") On 28 April 1421, Stefan's nephew and ruler of [Zeta](/wiki/Zeta_%28crown_land%29 "Zeta (crown land)"), [Balša III](/wiki/Bal%C5%A1a_III "Balša III") died without an heir, leaving his lands to his uncle.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=92}} With this and territorial gains from the Kingdom of Hungary, Serbia restored most of its traditional territories. In 1425, the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia, burning and pillaging across the Southern Morava valley. At the same time, the King of Bosnia attempted to conquer Srebrenica back from the Serbs, but failed. Stefan fought back the invasion and initiated negotiations with the Sultan, after which the Ottoman troops left Serbia.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=522}} However, this attack was an ominous sign of things to come. #### Artistic development The rule of the poet, thinker, and artist Stefan Lazarević, was a period of renewed artistic development in Serbia. Stefan wrote one of the major medieval Serbian literary works, *Slovo ljubve* ('The word of love'), and he amassed one of the largest libraries in the Balkans at that period.{{Cn\|date\=October 2022}} #### Economic stability Apart from political stability as a result of Stefan's ability to keep a distance from both the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, the Serbian economy was also helped by the very rich silver mines, Srebrenica and [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo "Novo Brdo"), some of the wealthiest in Europe at that time. Belgrade became one of the largest cities in Europe, numbering over 100,000 people. The rule and deeds of despot Stefan Lazarević were described by his contemporary, the learned writer [Constantine of Kostenets](/wiki/Constantine_of_Kostenets "Constantine of Kostenets"), who wrote the "*[Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Life_of_Despot_Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević")*" ({{circa}} 1430\).{{Sfn\|Radošević\|1986\|pp\=445–451}}
[ "### Stefan Lazarević", "{{History of Serbia}}", "#### Consolidation", "[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Despot's Gate in Belgrade, built by [Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Stefan Lazarević\")](/wiki/File:Dizdar%27s_Tower.jpg \"Dizdar's Tower.jpg\")", "While in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), Stefan argued with his brother [Vuk Lazarević](/wiki/Vuk_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Vuk Lazarević\"). As they were returning to Serbia from Constantinople, Stefan's armies attacked Vuk at Tripolje near the [Gračanica monastery](/wiki/Gra%C4%8Danica_monastery \"Gračanica monastery\"). Stefan's army was victorious and Vuk allied himself with the new Ottoman sultan [Suleyman (I) Çelebi](/wiki/Suleyman_%C3%87elebi \"Suleyman Çelebi\").", "In 1404, concerned about unrest in the Ottoman Empire ([Ottoman Interregnum](/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum \"Ottoman Interregnum\")) Stefan allied with Hungarian king Sigismund, who awarded him with [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"), the [Mačva](/wiki/Ma%C4%8Dva \"Mačva\") region, and the fort of [Golubac](/wiki/Golubac \"Golubac\");{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=89}} Stefan made Belgrade his capital city. He made peace with his brother Vuk, who remained an Ottoman vassal.", "In 1405 he married Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of [Francesco II Gattilusio](/wiki/Francesco_II_Gattilusio \"Francesco II Gattilusio\"), ruler of the island of [Lesbos](/wiki/Lesbos \"Lesbos\"), and his mother Milica died.", "In 1408 the two brothers again argued, and Vuk, accompanied by Ottoman forces, attacked Belgrade in early 1409\\. Besieged Stefan agreed to give the southern part of Serbia to Vuk, and to accept Ottoman vassalage. However, Suleyman's brother [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi \"Musa Çelebi\") soon rebelled against Suleyman, and Stefan sided with Musa in the 1410 battle of [Kosmidion](/wiki/Kosmidion \"Kosmidion\"). Musa's army was defeated and Suleyman sent Vuk to claim Stefan's territories; Vuk was captured and executed by a Musa vassal. Through [Emperor Manuel II](/wiki/Emperor_Manuel_II \"Emperor Manuel II\"), Stefan confirmed his despotic rights and returned to Belgrade and annexed Vuk's lands.", "In 1411 King Sigismund of Hungary rewarded Stefan's loyalty with a gift of [Srebrenica](/wiki/Srebrenica \"Srebrenica\") and its surroundings .{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=91}}", "[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|The Serbian Despotate at the time of Stefan Lazarević (1422\\) and possession limit of Venice in Adriatic coast](/wiki/File:1422_Zeta_in_the_Serbian_Despotate_after_death_Balsa_III.svg \"1422 Zeta in the Serbian Despotate after death Balsa III.svg\")", "Musa's forces attacked Serbia in early 1412 but were defeated in Kosovo. Stefan then invited Sultan [Mehmed Çelebi](/wiki/Mehmed_I \"Mehmed I\") to attack Musa together. Together with Hungarian troops, they defeated Musa on 5 July 1413 at the [Battle of Çamurlu](/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%87amurlu \"Battle of Çamurlu\"), near the [Vitosha](/wiki/Vitosha \"Vitosha\") mountain (modern [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\")) and Musa was killed on the battlefield. Stefan gained the town of [Koprijan](/wiki/Koprijan \"Koprijan\") near [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 \"Niš\") and the Serbian\\-Bulgarian area of [Znepolje](/wiki/Znepolje \"Znepolje\").{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=507–508}} For the next twelve years, Stefan remained in good relations with Mehmed, which made the recovery of medieval Serbia possible.", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate, 1421–1427](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1423.png \"Serbian Despotate 1423.png\")", "On 28 April 1421, Stefan's nephew and ruler of [Zeta](/wiki/Zeta_%28crown_land%29 \"Zeta (crown land)\"), [Balša III](/wiki/Bal%C5%A1a_III \"Balša III\") died without an heir, leaving his lands to his uncle.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=92}} With this and territorial gains from the Kingdom of Hungary, Serbia restored most of its traditional territories.", "In 1425, the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia, burning and pillaging across the Southern Morava valley. At the same time, the King of Bosnia attempted to conquer Srebrenica back from the Serbs, but failed. Stefan fought back the invasion and initiated negotiations with the Sultan, after which the Ottoman troops left Serbia.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=522}} However, this attack was an ominous sign of things to come.", "#### Artistic development", "The rule of the poet, thinker, and artist Stefan Lazarević, was a period of renewed artistic development in Serbia. Stefan wrote one of the major medieval Serbian literary works, *Slovo ljubve* ('The word of love'), and he amassed one of the largest libraries in the Balkans at that period.{{Cn\\|date\\=October 2022}}", "#### Economic stability", "Apart from political stability as a result of Stefan's ability to keep a distance from both the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, the Serbian economy was also helped by the very rich silver mines, Srebrenica and [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo \"Novo Brdo\"), some of the wealthiest in Europe at that time. Belgrade became one of the largest cities in Europe, numbering over 100,000 people. The rule and deeds of despot Stefan Lazarević were described by his contemporary, the learned writer [Constantine of Kostenets](/wiki/Constantine_of_Kostenets \"Constantine of Kostenets\"), who wrote the \"*[Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Life_of_Despot_Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević\")*\" ({{circa}} 1430\\).{{Sfn\\|Radošević\\|1986\\|pp\\=445–451}}", "" ]
#### Consolidation [left\|thumb\|200px\|Despot's Gate in Belgrade, built by [Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Stefan Lazarević")](/wiki/File:Dizdar%27s_Tower.jpg "Dizdar's Tower.jpg") While in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), Stefan argued with his brother [Vuk Lazarević](/wiki/Vuk_Lazarevi%C4%87 "Vuk Lazarević"). As they were returning to Serbia from Constantinople, Stefan's armies attacked Vuk at Tripolje near the [Gračanica monastery](/wiki/Gra%C4%8Danica_monastery "Gračanica monastery"). Stefan's army was victorious and Vuk allied himself with the new Ottoman sultan [Suleyman (I) Çelebi](/wiki/Suleyman_%C3%87elebi "Suleyman Çelebi"). In 1404, concerned about unrest in the Ottoman Empire ([Ottoman Interregnum](/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum "Ottoman Interregnum")) Stefan allied with Hungarian king Sigismund, who awarded him with [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"), the [Mačva](/wiki/Ma%C4%8Dva "Mačva") region, and the fort of [Golubac](/wiki/Golubac "Golubac");{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=89}} Stefan made Belgrade his capital city. He made peace with his brother Vuk, who remained an Ottoman vassal. In 1405 he married Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of [Francesco II Gattilusio](/wiki/Francesco_II_Gattilusio "Francesco II Gattilusio"), ruler of the island of [Lesbos](/wiki/Lesbos "Lesbos"), and his mother Milica died. In 1408 the two brothers again argued, and Vuk, accompanied by Ottoman forces, attacked Belgrade in early 1409\. Besieged Stefan agreed to give the southern part of Serbia to Vuk, and to accept Ottoman vassalage. However, Suleyman's brother [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi "Musa Çelebi") soon rebelled against Suleyman, and Stefan sided with Musa in the 1410 battle of [Kosmidion](/wiki/Kosmidion "Kosmidion"). Musa's army was defeated and Suleyman sent Vuk to claim Stefan's territories; Vuk was captured and executed by a Musa vassal. Through [Emperor Manuel II](/wiki/Emperor_Manuel_II "Emperor Manuel II"), Stefan confirmed his despotic rights and returned to Belgrade and annexed Vuk's lands. In 1411 King Sigismund of Hungary rewarded Stefan's loyalty with a gift of [Srebrenica](/wiki/Srebrenica "Srebrenica") and its surroundings .{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=91}} [left\|thumb\|200px\|The Serbian Despotate at the time of Stefan Lazarević (1422\) and possession limit of Venice in Adriatic coast](/wiki/File:1422_Zeta_in_the_Serbian_Despotate_after_death_Balsa_III.svg "1422 Zeta in the Serbian Despotate after death Balsa III.svg") Musa's forces attacked Serbia in early 1412 but were defeated in Kosovo. Stefan then invited Sultan [Mehmed Çelebi](/wiki/Mehmed_I "Mehmed I") to attack Musa together. Together with Hungarian troops, they defeated Musa on 5 July 1413 at the [Battle of Çamurlu](/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%87amurlu "Battle of Çamurlu"), near the [Vitosha](/wiki/Vitosha "Vitosha") mountain (modern [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria")) and Musa was killed on the battlefield. Stefan gained the town of [Koprijan](/wiki/Koprijan "Koprijan") near [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 "Niš") and the Serbian\-Bulgarian area of [Znepolje](/wiki/Znepolje "Znepolje").{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=507–508}} For the next twelve years, Stefan remained in good relations with Mehmed, which made the recovery of medieval Serbia possible. [right\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate, 1421–1427](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1423.png "Serbian Despotate 1423.png") On 28 April 1421, Stefan's nephew and ruler of [Zeta](/wiki/Zeta_%28crown_land%29 "Zeta (crown land)"), [Balša III](/wiki/Bal%C5%A1a_III "Balša III") died without an heir, leaving his lands to his uncle.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=92}} With this and territorial gains from the Kingdom of Hungary, Serbia restored most of its traditional territories. In 1425, the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia, burning and pillaging across the Southern Morava valley. At the same time, the King of Bosnia attempted to conquer Srebrenica back from the Serbs, but failed. Stefan fought back the invasion and initiated negotiations with the Sultan, after which the Ottoman troops left Serbia.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=522}} However, this attack was an ominous sign of things to come.
[ "#### Consolidation", "[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Despot's Gate in Belgrade, built by [Despot Stefan Lazarević](/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Stefan Lazarević\")](/wiki/File:Dizdar%27s_Tower.jpg \"Dizdar's Tower.jpg\")", "While in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), Stefan argued with his brother [Vuk Lazarević](/wiki/Vuk_Lazarevi%C4%87 \"Vuk Lazarević\"). As they were returning to Serbia from Constantinople, Stefan's armies attacked Vuk at Tripolje near the [Gračanica monastery](/wiki/Gra%C4%8Danica_monastery \"Gračanica monastery\"). Stefan's army was victorious and Vuk allied himself with the new Ottoman sultan [Suleyman (I) Çelebi](/wiki/Suleyman_%C3%87elebi \"Suleyman Çelebi\").", "In 1404, concerned about unrest in the Ottoman Empire ([Ottoman Interregnum](/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum \"Ottoman Interregnum\")) Stefan allied with Hungarian king Sigismund, who awarded him with [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"), the [Mačva](/wiki/Ma%C4%8Dva \"Mačva\") region, and the fort of [Golubac](/wiki/Golubac \"Golubac\");{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=89}} Stefan made Belgrade his capital city. He made peace with his brother Vuk, who remained an Ottoman vassal.", "In 1405 he married Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of [Francesco II Gattilusio](/wiki/Francesco_II_Gattilusio \"Francesco II Gattilusio\"), ruler of the island of [Lesbos](/wiki/Lesbos \"Lesbos\"), and his mother Milica died.", "In 1408 the two brothers again argued, and Vuk, accompanied by Ottoman forces, attacked Belgrade in early 1409\\. Besieged Stefan agreed to give the southern part of Serbia to Vuk, and to accept Ottoman vassalage. However, Suleyman's brother [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi \"Musa Çelebi\") soon rebelled against Suleyman, and Stefan sided with Musa in the 1410 battle of [Kosmidion](/wiki/Kosmidion \"Kosmidion\"). Musa's army was defeated and Suleyman sent Vuk to claim Stefan's territories; Vuk was captured and executed by a Musa vassal. Through [Emperor Manuel II](/wiki/Emperor_Manuel_II \"Emperor Manuel II\"), Stefan confirmed his despotic rights and returned to Belgrade and annexed Vuk's lands.", "In 1411 King Sigismund of Hungary rewarded Stefan's loyalty with a gift of [Srebrenica](/wiki/Srebrenica \"Srebrenica\") and its surroundings .{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=91}}", "[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|The Serbian Despotate at the time of Stefan Lazarević (1422\\) and possession limit of Venice in Adriatic coast](/wiki/File:1422_Zeta_in_the_Serbian_Despotate_after_death_Balsa_III.svg \"1422 Zeta in the Serbian Despotate after death Balsa III.svg\")", "Musa's forces attacked Serbia in early 1412 but were defeated in Kosovo. Stefan then invited Sultan [Mehmed Çelebi](/wiki/Mehmed_I \"Mehmed I\") to attack Musa together. Together with Hungarian troops, they defeated Musa on 5 July 1413 at the [Battle of Çamurlu](/wiki/Battle_of_%C3%87amurlu \"Battle of Çamurlu\"), near the [Vitosha](/wiki/Vitosha \"Vitosha\") mountain (modern [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\")) and Musa was killed on the battlefield. Stefan gained the town of [Koprijan](/wiki/Koprijan \"Koprijan\") near [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 \"Niš\") and the Serbian\\-Bulgarian area of [Znepolje](/wiki/Znepolje \"Znepolje\").{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=507–508}} For the next twelve years, Stefan remained in good relations with Mehmed, which made the recovery of medieval Serbia possible.", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate, 1421–1427](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1423.png \"Serbian Despotate 1423.png\")", "On 28 April 1421, Stefan's nephew and ruler of [Zeta](/wiki/Zeta_%28crown_land%29 \"Zeta (crown land)\"), [Balša III](/wiki/Bal%C5%A1a_III \"Balša III\") died without an heir, leaving his lands to his uncle.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=92}} With this and territorial gains from the Kingdom of Hungary, Serbia restored most of its traditional territories.", "In 1425, the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia, burning and pillaging across the Southern Morava valley. At the same time, the King of Bosnia attempted to conquer Srebrenica back from the Serbs, but failed. Stefan fought back the invasion and initiated negotiations with the Sultan, after which the Ottoman troops left Serbia.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=522}} However, this attack was an ominous sign of things to come.", "" ]
### Đurađ Branković #### First reign [right\|thumb\|320px\|[Smederevo Fortress](/wiki/Smederevo_Fortress "Smederevo Fortress"), capital of the Serbian Despotate](/wiki/File:Smederevo_fortress_%28Smederevska_tvr%C4%91ava%29_-_pano.JPG "Smederevo fortress (Smederevska tvrđava) - pano.JPG") As Despot Stefan had no children of his own, he bequeathed the despotate to his nephew, Đurađ Branković, who succeeded him upon his death on July 19, 1427\. Đurađ was confirmed as despot by the Byzantine emperor [John VIII Palaeologus](/wiki/John_VIII_Palaeologus "John VIII Palaeologus") in 1429\.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=103}} As an immediate result of Stefan's death, Serbia had to return Belgrade to the Kingdom of Hungary, leaving Serbia without a capital city. With the wealthy southern cities dangerously close to the Ottoman border, Đurađ constructed a new capital city, the magnificent fortress of [Smederevo](/wiki/Smederevo "Smederevo") on the Danube, close to the Hungarian border. Constructed 1428–30, Smederevo was a source of many future misinterpretations of history, especially concerning Đurađ's wife [Jerina](/wiki/Irene_Kantakouzene "Irene Kantakouzene"). With Jerina's Greek nationality and the influence her brothers had with the new despot, people began to dislike her, and attributed to her many vicious and evil characteristics, including building Smederevo for capricious reasons. In folk poetry she's been dubbed *[Prokleta Jerina](/wiki/Prokleta_Jerina "Prokleta Jerina")* (the Damned Jerina). Immediately after becoming the ruler of Serbia, in the summer of 1427, Đurađ was faced with the challenge of an Ottoman invasion. The Ottomans occupied [Kruševac](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1evac "Kruševac") and [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 "Niš"), the [Dubočica](/wiki/Dubo%C4%8Dica "Dubočica") region including [Leskovac](/wiki/Leskovac "Leskovac"), and most of the [Toplica](/wiki/Toplica_District "Toplica District") region. They withdrew after unsuccessfully besieging Novo Brdo for several months.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=103}} [right\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate in 1433–1439](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1433.png "Serbian Despotate 1433.png") King [Tvrtko II of Bosnia](/wiki/Tvrtko_II_of_Bosnia "Tvrtko II of Bosnia") came into conflict with the Bosnian noble family of Zlatonosovići in November 1430, over alleged cooperation between Vukašin Zlatonosović and the Serbian Despotate. This conflict ended with the death of Vukašin and the complete annihilation of the Zlatonosović family, but directly led into another conflict with Serbia itself. In the spring of 1433, Despot Đurađ annexed parts of [Usora](/wiki/Usora_%28region%29 "Usora (region)"), together with the trade outpost Zvonik ([Zvornik](/wiki/Zvornik "Zvornik")) and fortress [Teočak](/wiki/Teo%C4%8Dak "Teočak").{{Sfn\|Mrgić\-Radojčić\|2004\|p\=60}} Đurađ married his daughter Katarina to [Ulrich II of Celje](/wiki/Ulrich_II_of_Celje "Ulrich II of Celje") in 1433, a close cousin of the Hungarian Queen, in an effort to secure better relations with Serbia's northern neighbor. He was forced to give his other daughter [Mara](/wiki/Mara_Brankovi%C4%87 "Mara Branković") to Sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II "Murad II"). The marriage was arranged in 1433, but Đurađ delayed it until 1435 when the Ottomans threatened him with invasion. After the marriage took place, Sultan Murad swore to continue the peace between the Ottoman Empire and Serbia. {{Cn\|date\=October 2022\|reason\=The three statements within this paragraph require citation}} However, this oath would be broken two years later. The Ottoman Empire invaded and started pillaging inside Serbia's borders in 1437\. Đurađ negotiated an unfavorable peace with the Sultan by giving him the town of [Braničevo](/wiki/Brani%C4%8Devo_%28region%29 "Braničevo (region)"). In 1438 the Sultan attacked again. This time, the despot had to let them seize [Ždrelo](/wiki/%C5%BDdrelo "Ždrelo") and [Višesav](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1esav "Višesav"): the peace that followed was not longer than the previous one.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=103, 115}} #### Temporary Ottoman occupation In 1439 the Ottoman army, headed by the sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II "Murad II") himself, again attacked and sacked Serbia. Despot Đurađ fled to Hungary in May 1439, leaving his son [Grgur Branković](/wiki/Grgur_Brankovi%C4%87 "Grgur Branković") and Jerina's brother [Thomas Kantakouzenos](/wiki/Thomas_Kantakouzenos "Thomas Kantakouzenos") to defend Smederevo.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=103–104}} After three months of siege, Smederevo fell on August 18, 1439, while [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo "Novo Brdo") [resisted conquest for two entire years](/wiki/Siege_of_Novo_Brdo_%281440%E2%80%9341%29 "Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–41)"), falling on June 27, 1441\. At that point the only free part of the Despotate that remained was Zeta. The latter, however, was soon attacked by the Venetians and by Voivode [Stefan Vukčić Kosača](/wiki/Stefan_Vuk%C4%8Di%C4%87_Kosa%C4%8Da "Stefan Vukčić Kosača"). The last of Đurađ's cities in the region were conquered in March 1442\. The first Ottoman governor of Serbia was [Ishak\-Beg](/wiki/Ishak-Beg "Ishak-Beg"), who in 1443 was replaced by [Isa\-Beg Isaković](/wiki/Isa-Beg_Isakovi%C4%87 "Isa-Beg Isaković"). #### Đurađ Branković restored [left\|thumb\|250px\|The Serbian Despotate, 1451–1454](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1451.png "Serbian Despotate 1451.png") In Hungary, Đurađ Branković managed to talk Hungarian leaders into expelling the Ottomans, so a broad Christian coalition of Hungarians (under [John Hunyadi](/wiki/John_Hunyadi "John Hunyadi")), Serbs (under Despot Đurađ) and Romanians (under [Vlad II Dracul](/wiki/Vlad_II_Dracul "Vlad II Dracul")) advanced into Serbia and Bulgaria in September 1443\. The large Christian army that crossed the Danube in early autumn of 1443 was made up of around 25,000 soldiers from Hungary and Poland, over 8,000 Serbian cavalry and foot soldiers, and 700 Bosnian horsemen.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=104}} Serbia was fully restored by the [Peace of Szeged](/wiki/Peace_of_Szeged "Peace of Szeged") on August 15, 1444\. Its borders were the same as before 1437, with the exception of the southern part of Zeta, which remained under Venice, and fort Golubac, which was returned to Serbia even though it was lost much earlier, in 1427\. King [Tomaš of Bosnia](/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_of_Bosnia "Stephen Thomas of Bosnia") started another war with Despot Đurađ in 1446 and managed to take Srebrenica. However, in September 1448, the Bosnians were defeated by a Serbian army led by Thomas Kantakouzenos, who reconquered Srebrenica and also took [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad "Višegrad").{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=106}} The difficulty Despot Đurađ had in maintaining balance between two strong powers can be illustrated by the fact that in 1447–48 despot Đurađ provided funds to the Byzantines to repair the [city walls](/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople "Walls of Constantinople") of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), but being officially an Ottoman vassal, he had to send a thousand soldiers to help Sultan [Mehmed II](/wiki/Mehmed_II "Mehmed II") [conquer Constantinople](/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople "Fall of Constantinople") in May 1453\.{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=106–107}} The new Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, who would later be called the Conqueror, returned the regions of Toplica and Dubočica to Serbia in 1451 as a token of good will.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=530}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=103}} On that occasion, Mehmed II and Đurađ negotiated the prolonging of their peace treaty. Without formally declaring an end to the peace treaty, Sultan Mehmed II invaded Serbia in mid\-July 1454\. Much of central Serbia fell, but the capital was well\-prepared and the Ottomans, upon hearing that Hunyadi would cross the Danube to reinforce the Serbs, soon lifted their siege of Smederevo. The Sultan retreated back to [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia") with loot and slaves, leaving most of his army at Kruševac. A smaller Serbian army under Voivode [Nikola Skobaljić](/wiki/Nikola_Skobalji%C4%87 "Nikola Skobaljić"), which was in Dubočica, cut off from the north, [defeated an Ottoman army near Leskovac on September 24](/wiki/Battle_of_Leskovac "Battle of Leskovac"), while the main army under Đurađ Branković, together with Hungarian force led by Hunyadi, [crushed the Ottomans at Kruševac](/wiki/Battle_of_Kru%C5%A1evac "Battle of Kruševac"), capturing their commander, Firuz\-bey.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=568–569}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|pp\=106–107}} [thumb\|200px\|[Vršac Castle](/wiki/Vr%C5%A1ac_Castle "Vršac Castle") was founded by Branković](/wiki/File:Vr%C5%A1a%C4%8Dka_kula_posle_obnove2.jpg "Vršačka kula posle obnove2.jpg") But these successes only bought little time. Nikola Skobaljić's resistance, which due to his army's low numbers came to be respected by the Turks themselves, was crushed by another Ottoman force on November 16 and he was executed. In the early spring of 1455, the Sultan continued his invasion of Serbia. This time, the Ottomans focused on taking southern Serbia first. Novo Brdo was besieged with heavy cannons and fell on June 1, 1455, after forty days of resistance.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=569}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=107}} The rest of southern Serbia was occupied soon after that. At the same time, Despot Đurađ was trying to convince the Hungarians to launch another crusade, but returned empty\-handed to Smederevo. In early 1456, he accepted a peace treaty with the Sultan, and southern Serbia remained in Ottoman hands. A few months after the peace treaty, the Ottoman Empire attacked again. Both Smederevo and Belgrade, which were the primary target of the Turks, successfully resisted, but the countryside was devastated even further. Despot Đurađ Branković died on December 24, 1456\.{{Sfn\|Fine\|1994\|pp\=569–570}}{{Sfn\|Ćirković\|2004\|p\=107}}
[ "### Đurađ Branković", "#### First reign", "[right\\|thumb\\|320px\\|[Smederevo Fortress](/wiki/Smederevo_Fortress \"Smederevo Fortress\"), capital of the Serbian Despotate](/wiki/File:Smederevo_fortress_%28Smederevska_tvr%C4%91ava%29_-_pano.JPG \"Smederevo fortress (Smederevska tvrđava) - pano.JPG\")\nAs Despot Stefan had no children of his own, he bequeathed the despotate to his nephew, Đurađ Branković, who succeeded him upon his death on July 19, 1427\\. Đurađ was confirmed as despot by the Byzantine emperor [John VIII Palaeologus](/wiki/John_VIII_Palaeologus \"John VIII Palaeologus\") in 1429\\.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=103}}", "As an immediate result of Stefan's death, Serbia had to return Belgrade to the Kingdom of Hungary, leaving Serbia without a capital city. With the wealthy southern cities dangerously close to the Ottoman border, Đurađ constructed a new capital city, the magnificent fortress of [Smederevo](/wiki/Smederevo \"Smederevo\") on the Danube, close to the Hungarian border. Constructed 1428–30, Smederevo was a source of many future misinterpretations of history, especially concerning Đurađ's wife [Jerina](/wiki/Irene_Kantakouzene \"Irene Kantakouzene\"). With Jerina's Greek nationality and the influence her brothers had with the new despot, people began to dislike her, and attributed to her many vicious and evil characteristics, including building Smederevo for capricious reasons. In folk poetry she's been dubbed *[Prokleta Jerina](/wiki/Prokleta_Jerina \"Prokleta Jerina\")* (the Damned Jerina).", "Immediately after becoming the ruler of Serbia, in the summer of 1427, Đurađ was faced with the challenge of an Ottoman invasion. The Ottomans occupied [Kruševac](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1evac \"Kruševac\") and [Niš](/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 \"Niš\"), the [Dubočica](/wiki/Dubo%C4%8Dica \"Dubočica\") region including [Leskovac](/wiki/Leskovac \"Leskovac\"), and most of the [Toplica](/wiki/Toplica_District \"Toplica District\") region. They withdrew after unsuccessfully besieging Novo Brdo for several months.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=103}}", "[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate in 1433–1439](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1433.png \"Serbian Despotate 1433.png\")", "King [Tvrtko II of Bosnia](/wiki/Tvrtko_II_of_Bosnia \"Tvrtko II of Bosnia\") came into conflict with the Bosnian noble family of Zlatonosovići in November 1430, over alleged cooperation between Vukašin Zlatonosović and the Serbian Despotate. This conflict ended with the death of Vukašin and the complete annihilation of the Zlatonosović family, but directly led into another conflict with Serbia itself. In the spring of 1433, Despot Đurađ annexed parts of [Usora](/wiki/Usora_%28region%29 \"Usora (region)\"), together with the trade outpost Zvonik ([Zvornik](/wiki/Zvornik \"Zvornik\")) and fortress [Teočak](/wiki/Teo%C4%8Dak \"Teočak\").{{Sfn\\|Mrgić\\-Radojčić\\|2004\\|p\\=60}}", "Đurađ married his daughter Katarina to [Ulrich II of Celje](/wiki/Ulrich_II_of_Celje \"Ulrich II of Celje\") in 1433, a close cousin of the Hungarian Queen, in an effort to secure better relations with Serbia's northern neighbor. He was forced to give his other daughter [Mara](/wiki/Mara_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Mara Branković\") to Sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II \"Murad II\"). The marriage was arranged in 1433, but Đurađ delayed it until 1435 when the Ottomans threatened him with invasion. After the marriage took place, Sultan Murad swore to continue the peace between the Ottoman Empire and Serbia. {{Cn\\|date\\=October 2022\\|reason\\=The three statements within this paragraph require citation}}", "However, this oath would be broken two years later. The Ottoman Empire invaded and started pillaging inside Serbia's borders in 1437\\. Đurađ negotiated an unfavorable peace with the Sultan by giving him the town of [Braničevo](/wiki/Brani%C4%8Devo_%28region%29 \"Braničevo (region)\"). In 1438 the Sultan attacked again. This time, the despot had to let them seize [Ždrelo](/wiki/%C5%BDdrelo \"Ždrelo\") and [Višesav](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1esav \"Višesav\"): the peace that followed was not longer than the previous one.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=103, 115}}", "#### Temporary Ottoman occupation", "In 1439 the Ottoman army, headed by the sultan [Murad II](/wiki/Murad_II \"Murad II\") himself, again attacked and sacked Serbia. Despot Đurađ fled to Hungary in May 1439, leaving his son [Grgur Branković](/wiki/Grgur_Brankovi%C4%87 \"Grgur Branković\") and Jerina's brother [Thomas Kantakouzenos](/wiki/Thomas_Kantakouzenos \"Thomas Kantakouzenos\") to defend Smederevo.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=103–104}} After three months of siege, Smederevo fell on August 18, 1439, while [Novo Brdo](/wiki/Novo_Brdo \"Novo Brdo\") [resisted conquest for two entire years](/wiki/Siege_of_Novo_Brdo_%281440%E2%80%9341%29 \"Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–41)\"), falling on June 27, 1441\\. At that point the only free part of the Despotate that remained was Zeta. The latter, however, was soon attacked by the Venetians and by Voivode [Stefan Vukčić Kosača](/wiki/Stefan_Vuk%C4%8Di%C4%87_Kosa%C4%8Da \"Stefan Vukčić Kosača\"). The last of Đurađ's cities in the region were conquered in March 1442\\.", "The first Ottoman governor of Serbia was [Ishak\\-Beg](/wiki/Ishak-Beg \"Ishak-Beg\"), who in 1443 was replaced by [Isa\\-Beg Isaković](/wiki/Isa-Beg_Isakovi%C4%87 \"Isa-Beg Isaković\").", "#### Đurađ Branković restored", "[left\\|thumb\\|250px\\|The Serbian Despotate, 1451–1454](/wiki/File:Serbian_Despotate_1451.png \"Serbian Despotate 1451.png\")", "In Hungary, Đurađ Branković managed to talk Hungarian leaders into expelling the Ottomans, so a broad Christian coalition of Hungarians (under [John Hunyadi](/wiki/John_Hunyadi \"John Hunyadi\")), Serbs (under Despot Đurađ) and Romanians (under [Vlad II Dracul](/wiki/Vlad_II_Dracul \"Vlad II Dracul\")) advanced into Serbia and Bulgaria in September 1443\\. The large Christian army that crossed the Danube in early autumn of 1443 was made up of around 25,000 soldiers from Hungary and Poland, over 8,000 Serbian cavalry and foot soldiers, and 700 Bosnian horsemen.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=104}} Serbia was fully restored by the [Peace of Szeged](/wiki/Peace_of_Szeged \"Peace of Szeged\") on August 15, 1444\\. Its borders were the same as before 1437, with the exception of the southern part of Zeta, which remained under Venice, and fort Golubac, which was returned to Serbia even though it was lost much earlier, in 1427\\.", "King [Tomaš of Bosnia](/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_of_Bosnia \"Stephen Thomas of Bosnia\") started another war with Despot Đurađ in 1446 and managed to take Srebrenica. However, in September 1448, the Bosnians were defeated by a Serbian army led by Thomas Kantakouzenos, who reconquered Srebrenica and also took [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad \"Višegrad\").{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=106}}", "The difficulty Despot Đurađ had in maintaining balance between two strong powers can be illustrated by the fact that in 1447–48 despot Đurađ provided funds to the Byzantines to repair the [city walls](/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople \"Walls of Constantinople\") of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), but being officially an Ottoman vassal, he had to send a thousand soldiers to help Sultan [Mehmed II](/wiki/Mehmed_II \"Mehmed II\") [conquer Constantinople](/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople \"Fall of Constantinople\") in May 1453\\.{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=106–107}}", "The new Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, who would later be called the Conqueror, returned the regions of Toplica and Dubočica to Serbia in 1451 as a token of good will.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=530}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=103}} On that occasion, Mehmed II and Đurađ negotiated the prolonging of their peace treaty.", "Without formally declaring an end to the peace treaty, Sultan Mehmed II invaded Serbia in mid\\-July 1454\\. Much of central Serbia fell, but the capital was well\\-prepared and the Ottomans, upon hearing that Hunyadi would cross the Danube to reinforce the Serbs, soon lifted their siege of Smederevo. The Sultan retreated back to [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\") with loot and slaves, leaving most of his army at Kruševac. A smaller Serbian army under Voivode [Nikola Skobaljić](/wiki/Nikola_Skobalji%C4%87 \"Nikola Skobaljić\"), which was in Dubočica, cut off from the north, [defeated an Ottoman army near Leskovac on September 24](/wiki/Battle_of_Leskovac \"Battle of Leskovac\"), while the main army under Đurađ Branković, together with Hungarian force led by Hunyadi, [crushed the Ottomans at Kruševac](/wiki/Battle_of_Kru%C5%A1evac \"Battle of Kruševac\"), capturing their commander, Firuz\\-bey.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=568–569}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|pp\\=106–107}}", "[thumb\\|200px\\|[Vršac Castle](/wiki/Vr%C5%A1ac_Castle \"Vršac Castle\") was founded by Branković](/wiki/File:Vr%C5%A1a%C4%8Dka_kula_posle_obnove2.jpg \"Vršačka kula posle obnove2.jpg\")", "But these successes only bought little time. Nikola Skobaljić's resistance, which due to his army's low numbers came to be respected by the Turks themselves, was crushed by another Ottoman force on November 16 and he was executed. In the early spring of 1455, the Sultan continued his invasion of Serbia. This time, the Ottomans focused on taking southern Serbia first. Novo Brdo was besieged with heavy cannons and fell on June 1, 1455, after forty days of resistance.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=569}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=107}} The rest of southern Serbia was occupied soon after that. At the same time, Despot Đurađ was trying to convince the Hungarians to launch another crusade, but returned empty\\-handed to Smederevo. In early 1456, he accepted a peace treaty with the Sultan, and southern Serbia remained in Ottoman hands.", "A few months after the peace treaty, the Ottoman Empire attacked again. Both Smederevo and Belgrade, which were the primary target of the Turks, successfully resisted, but the countryside was devastated even further. Despot Đurađ Branković died on December 24, 1456\\.{{Sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|pp\\=569–570}}{{Sfn\\|Ćirković\\|2004\\|p\\=107}}", "" ]
Broadcast history ----------------- On his first appearance on *Saturday Night Live*, a sketch called "How to Pay for Your Sins" on a 1978 episode hosted by [Richard Dreyfuss](/wiki/Richard_Dreyfuss "Richard Dreyfuss"), he was on crutches from an injury suffered during a dress rehearsal sketch about hockey players. Most of his appearances on *SNL* have been on *[Weekend Update](/wiki/Weekend_Update "Weekend Update")*, including one where he reported that "The take at the shrines in Italy has gone down", which he suggested correcting by creating "Shrinemobiles" and thus taking the shrines to where the people were, and another where he is sent to [London](/wiki/London "London") to try to wake up [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney "Paul McCartney") at 4:30 in the morning (11:30 in New York) by throwing coins, obnoxiously singing [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") and [Wings](/wiki/Paul_McCartney_and_Wings "Paul McCartney and Wings") songs, and finally, throwing a rock at the window—he says it works every time. ### *Saturday Night Live* Sarducci appeared in four [cold opens](/wiki/Cold_open "Cold open") in the [1979–1980 season](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live_%28season_5%29 "Saturday Night Live (season 5)") (on episodes hosted by [Steve Martin](/wiki/Steve_Martin "Steve Martin"), [Teri Garr](/wiki/Teri_Garr "Teri Garr"), [Elliott Gould](/wiki/Elliott_Gould "Elliott Gould"), and [Rodney Dangerfield](/wiki/Rodney_Dangerfield "Rodney Dangerfield")), two commercial parodies ("MX\-5 Tampons" on the 1981–1982 Christmas episode hosted by [Bill Murray](/wiki/Bill_Murray "Bill Murray") and "Bocce Ball My Way" on the last episode of the 1985–1986 season hosted by [Anjelica Huston](/wiki/Anjelica_Huston "Anjelica Huston") and [Billy Martin](/wiki/Billy_Martin "Billy Martin")), and two monologues on the 1985–86 season (the first hosted by [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 "Madonna (entertainer)") in a pretaped sketch showing Madonna's wedding to Sean Penn (played by [Robert Downey, Jr.](/wiki/Robert_Downey%2C_Jr. "Robert Downey, Jr.")) and the second on the Christmas episode of the 1985–86 season hosted by Garr as Sarducci's alter ego, Pope Maurice). Sarducci also hosted two *SNL* episodes during the 1983–1984 season (when [Dick Ebersol](/wiki/Dick_Ebersol "Dick Ebersol") was executive producer) and cameoed during two 1990s episodes, most notably on a *Weekend Update* segment where he reports on [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II")'s missing wallet. Father Guido Sarducci has 31 appearances on *SNL*, the most of any of the recurring characters. ### Vatican visit In 1981 Novello made newspaper headlines when he visited [Vatican City](/wiki/Vatican_City "Vatican City") wearing the Father Guido Sarducci costume to do a photo shoot for *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")* magazine. After taking pictures in an area where photography was prohibited, he and his photographer, Paul Solomon, were arrested by the [Papal Swiss Guards](/wiki/Papal_Swiss_Guard "Papal Swiss Guard") and Novello was charged with "impersonating a priest". Although the guards attempted to confiscate the film from the shoot, Solomon managed to hand them the wrong film. The charges were later dropped. In the early 1980s, Novello was featured in advertisements promoting candidates for the priesthood. He listed one advantage of being a priest as getting first pick at the annual parish garage sale. ### Other media appearances During the 1980s and 1990s Sarducci appeared on other television shows, including *[Fridays](/wiki/Fridays_%28TV_series%29 "Fridays (TV series)")*, *[Late Night with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Night_with_David_Letterman "Late Night with David Letterman")*, *[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_Starring_Johnny_Carson "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson")*, *[Married... with Children](/wiki/Married..._with_Children "Married... with Children")*, *[Unhappily Ever After](/wiki/Unhappily_Ever_After "Unhappily Ever After")*, *[Blossom](/wiki/Blossom_%28TV_series%29 "Blossom (TV series)")*, *[It's Garry Shandling's Show](/wiki/It%27s_Garry_Shandling%27s_Show "It's Garry Shandling's Show")*, the *[Tales of the City](/wiki/Tales_of_the_City "Tales of the City")* miniseries, and *[Square Pegs](/wiki/Square_Pegs "Square Pegs")*. In 1980, Sarducci appeared in *[Gilda Live](/wiki/Gilda_Live "Gilda Live")*, a film and an album recording based on [Gilda Radner](/wiki/Gilda_Radner "Gilda Radner")'s successful one\-woman show that had been playing on Broadway. In 1983, he appeared in a music video for the Rodney Dangerfield song "Rappin' Rodney", where he gave Rodney his last rites on death row, and helped himself to Rodney's french fries from his last meal. In 1984, he appeared in a [music video](/wiki/Music_video "Music video") for the [Jefferson Starship](/wiki/Jefferson_Starship "Jefferson Starship") song "No Way Out". In 1995, he appeared as a priest trying to perform an exorcism in the movie *[Casper](/wiki/Casper_%28film%29 "Casper (film)")*. The same movie featured a cameo by his fellow *SNL* alumnus [Dan Aykroyd](/wiki/Dan_Aykroyd "Dan Aykroyd") as the [Ghostbuster](/wiki/Ghostbusters "Ghostbusters") Ray Stantz. ### Albums He appeared on the 2002 album *A Classic Rock Christmas* performing the song "Santa's Lament" featuring [Joe Walsh](/wiki/Joe_Walsh "Joe Walsh") and [Joe Vitale](/wiki/Joe_Vitale_%28musician%29 "Joe Vitale (musician)"). The character also appeared on the [Handsome Boy Modeling School](/wiki/Handsome_Boy_Modeling_School "Handsome Boy Modeling School") albums *[So... How's Your Girl?](/wiki/So..._How%27s_Your_Girl%3F "So... How's Your Girl?")* and *[White People](/wiki/White_People_%28album%29 "White People (album)")*, telling biographical stories of the life of a professional male model in the latter. Novello also released two [comedy](/wiki/Comedy "Comedy") albums as Sarducci: *[Breakfast in Heaven](/wiki/Breakfast_in_Heaven "Breakfast in Heaven")* and *Live at St. Douglas Convent.* ### Additional appearances He also appeared on the [MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC "MSNBC") show *[Countdown with Keith Olbermann](/wiki/Countdown_with_Keith_Olbermann "Countdown with Keith Olbermann")* on March 19, 2005, discussing *[The Da Vinci Code](/wiki/The_Da_Vinci_Code "The Da Vinci Code")* and his DaVinci Code Decoder Ring. In the 2001 [Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney_Animation_Studios "Walt Disney Animation Studios") animated film *[Atlantis: The Lost Empire](/wiki/Atlantis:The_Lost_Empire "The Lost Empire")*, Novello uses the voice and speech style of Father Sarducci to portray the character of demolitions expert Vinny Santorini. Sarducci was present at the First Annual "Geno Roast" at the Aqua Turf in [Southington, Connecticut](/wiki/Southington%2C_Connecticut "Southington, Connecticut"). He gave the prayer of invocation and roasted the [UConn Huskies women's basketball](/wiki/UConn_Huskies_women%27s_basketball "UConn Huskies women's basketball") coach [Geno Auriemma](/wiki/Geno_Auriemma "Geno Auriemma"). He also made a guest appearance on the April 30, 2005, broadcast of NPR and Chicago Public Radio's *[Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!](/wiki/Wait_Wait..._Don%27t_Tell_Me%21 "Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!")* news quiz show, commenting on the ascension of [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI "Pope Benedict XVI"). He appeared on *[The Colbert Report](/wiki/The_Colbert_Report "The Colbert Report")* on June 23, 2010, claiming to have conducted an interview with [Glenn Beck](/wiki/Glenn_Beck "Glenn Beck") while visiting the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City "Vatican City").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cc.com/video\-clips/3dk57p/the\-colbert\-report\-prophet\-glenn\-beck\-\-\-father\-guido\-sarducci%3C!\-\-\|title\=Prophet Glenn Beck — Father Guido Sarducci — The Colbert Report (Video Clip) — Comedy Central\|website\=Comedy Central\|date\=24 June 2010 \|access\-date\=22 July 2018}}{{dead link\|date\=July 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} ### Benediction He delivered the [benediction](/wiki/Benediction "Benediction") at the Stewart/Colbert [Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear](/wiki/Rally_to_Restore_Sanity_and/or_Fear "Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear") from the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010\. He was wearing his classic white clerical collar, a long red\-trimmed black coat with cape, zebra vest/jacket and black beret.[Father Guido Sarducci Gives Benediction at Rally to Restore Sanity](http://www.longislandpress.com/2010/10/30/father-guido-sarducci-father-guido-sarducci-gives-benediction-at-rally-to-restore-sanity/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101102144320/http://www.longislandpress.com/2010/10/30/father\-guido\-sarducci\-father\-guido\-sarducci\-gives\-benediction\-at\-rally\-to\-restore\-sanity/ \|date\=2010\-11\-02}}; *Long Island Press*; October 30, 2010
[ "Broadcast history\n-----------------", "On his first appearance on *Saturday Night Live*, a sketch called \"How to Pay for Your Sins\" on a 1978 episode hosted by [Richard Dreyfuss](/wiki/Richard_Dreyfuss \"Richard Dreyfuss\"), he was on crutches from an injury suffered during a dress rehearsal sketch about hockey players. Most of his appearances on *SNL* have been on *[Weekend Update](/wiki/Weekend_Update \"Weekend Update\")*, including one where he reported that \"The take at the shrines in Italy has gone down\", which he suggested correcting by creating \"Shrinemobiles\" and thus taking the shrines to where the people were, and another where he is sent to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") to try to wake up [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney \"Paul McCartney\") at 4:30 in the morning (11:30 in New York) by throwing coins, obnoxiously singing [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\") and [Wings](/wiki/Paul_McCartney_and_Wings \"Paul McCartney and Wings\") songs, and finally, throwing a rock at the window—he says it works every time.", "### *Saturday Night Live*", "Sarducci appeared in four [cold opens](/wiki/Cold_open \"Cold open\") in the [1979–1980 season](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live_%28season_5%29 \"Saturday Night Live (season 5)\") (on episodes hosted by [Steve Martin](/wiki/Steve_Martin \"Steve Martin\"), [Teri Garr](/wiki/Teri_Garr \"Teri Garr\"), [Elliott Gould](/wiki/Elliott_Gould \"Elliott Gould\"), and [Rodney Dangerfield](/wiki/Rodney_Dangerfield \"Rodney Dangerfield\")), two commercial parodies (\"MX\\-5 Tampons\" on the 1981–1982 Christmas episode hosted by [Bill Murray](/wiki/Bill_Murray \"Bill Murray\") and \"Bocce Ball My Way\" on the last episode of the 1985–1986 season hosted by [Anjelica Huston](/wiki/Anjelica_Huston \"Anjelica Huston\") and [Billy Martin](/wiki/Billy_Martin \"Billy Martin\")), and two monologues on the 1985–86 season (the first hosted by [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 \"Madonna (entertainer)\") in a pretaped sketch showing Madonna's wedding to Sean Penn (played by [Robert Downey, Jr.](/wiki/Robert_Downey%2C_Jr. \"Robert Downey, Jr.\")) and the second on the Christmas episode of the 1985–86 season hosted by Garr as Sarducci's alter ego, Pope Maurice).", "Sarducci also hosted two *SNL* episodes during the 1983–1984 season (when [Dick Ebersol](/wiki/Dick_Ebersol \"Dick Ebersol\") was executive producer) and cameoed during two 1990s episodes, most notably on a *Weekend Update* segment where he reports on [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\")'s missing wallet. Father Guido Sarducci has 31 appearances on *SNL*, the most of any of the recurring characters.", "### Vatican visit", "In 1981 Novello made newspaper headlines when he visited [Vatican City](/wiki/Vatican_City \"Vatican City\") wearing the Father Guido Sarducci costume to do a photo shoot for *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")* magazine. After taking pictures in an area where photography was prohibited, he and his photographer, Paul Solomon, were arrested by the [Papal Swiss Guards](/wiki/Papal_Swiss_Guard \"Papal Swiss Guard\") and Novello was charged with \"impersonating a priest\". Although the guards attempted to confiscate the film from the shoot, Solomon managed to hand them the wrong film. The charges were later dropped. In the early 1980s, Novello was featured in advertisements promoting candidates for the priesthood. He listed one advantage of being a priest as getting first pick at the annual parish garage sale.", "### Other media appearances", "During the 1980s and 1990s Sarducci appeared on other television shows, including *[Fridays](/wiki/Fridays_%28TV_series%29 \"Fridays (TV series)\")*, *[Late Night with David Letterman](/wiki/Late_Night_with_David_Letterman \"Late Night with David Letterman\")*, *[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_Starring_Johnny_Carson \"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson\")*, *[Married... with Children](/wiki/Married..._with_Children \"Married... with Children\")*, *[Unhappily Ever After](/wiki/Unhappily_Ever_After \"Unhappily Ever After\")*, *[Blossom](/wiki/Blossom_%28TV_series%29 \"Blossom (TV series)\")*, *[It's Garry Shandling's Show](/wiki/It%27s_Garry_Shandling%27s_Show \"It's Garry Shandling's Show\")*, the *[Tales of the City](/wiki/Tales_of_the_City \"Tales of the City\")* miniseries, and *[Square Pegs](/wiki/Square_Pegs \"Square Pegs\")*. In 1980, Sarducci appeared in *[Gilda Live](/wiki/Gilda_Live \"Gilda Live\")*, a film and an album recording based on [Gilda Radner](/wiki/Gilda_Radner \"Gilda Radner\")'s successful one\\-woman show that had been playing on Broadway. In 1983, he appeared in a music video for the Rodney Dangerfield song \"Rappin' Rodney\", where he gave Rodney his last rites on death row, and helped himself to Rodney's french fries from his last meal. In 1984, he appeared in a [music video](/wiki/Music_video \"Music video\") for the [Jefferson Starship](/wiki/Jefferson_Starship \"Jefferson Starship\") song \"No Way Out\". In 1995, he appeared as a priest trying to perform an exorcism in the movie *[Casper](/wiki/Casper_%28film%29 \"Casper (film)\")*. The same movie featured a cameo by his fellow *SNL* alumnus [Dan Aykroyd](/wiki/Dan_Aykroyd \"Dan Aykroyd\") as the [Ghostbuster](/wiki/Ghostbusters \"Ghostbusters\") Ray Stantz.", "### Albums", "He appeared on the 2002 album *A Classic Rock Christmas* performing the song \"Santa's Lament\" featuring [Joe Walsh](/wiki/Joe_Walsh \"Joe Walsh\") and [Joe Vitale](/wiki/Joe_Vitale_%28musician%29 \"Joe Vitale (musician)\").", "The character also appeared on the [Handsome Boy Modeling School](/wiki/Handsome_Boy_Modeling_School \"Handsome Boy Modeling School\") albums *[So... How's Your Girl?](/wiki/So..._How%27s_Your_Girl%3F \"So... How's Your Girl?\")* and *[White People](/wiki/White_People_%28album%29 \"White People (album)\")*, telling biographical stories of the life of a professional male model in the latter. Novello also released two [comedy](/wiki/Comedy \"Comedy\") albums as Sarducci: *[Breakfast in Heaven](/wiki/Breakfast_in_Heaven \"Breakfast in Heaven\")* and *Live at St. Douglas Convent.*", "### Additional appearances", "He also appeared on the [MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC \"MSNBC\") show *[Countdown with Keith Olbermann](/wiki/Countdown_with_Keith_Olbermann \"Countdown with Keith Olbermann\")* on March 19, 2005, discussing *[The Da Vinci Code](/wiki/The_Da_Vinci_Code \"The Da Vinci Code\")* and his DaVinci Code Decoder Ring.", "In the 2001 [Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney_Animation_Studios \"Walt Disney Animation Studios\") animated film *[Atlantis: The Lost Empire](/wiki/Atlantis:The_Lost_Empire \"The Lost Empire\")*, Novello uses the voice and speech style of Father Sarducci to portray the character of demolitions expert Vinny Santorini.", "Sarducci was present at the First Annual \"Geno Roast\" at the Aqua Turf in [Southington, Connecticut](/wiki/Southington%2C_Connecticut \"Southington, Connecticut\"). He gave the prayer of invocation and roasted the [UConn Huskies women's basketball](/wiki/UConn_Huskies_women%27s_basketball \"UConn Huskies women's basketball\") coach [Geno Auriemma](/wiki/Geno_Auriemma \"Geno Auriemma\"). He also made a guest appearance on the April 30, 2005, broadcast of NPR and Chicago Public Radio's *[Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!](/wiki/Wait_Wait..._Don%27t_Tell_Me%21 \"Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!\")* news quiz show, commenting on the ascension of [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI \"Pope Benedict XVI\").", "He appeared on *[The Colbert Report](/wiki/The_Colbert_Report \"The Colbert Report\")* on June 23, 2010, claiming to have conducted an interview with [Glenn Beck](/wiki/Glenn_Beck \"Glenn Beck\") while visiting the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City \"Vatican City\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cc.com/video\\-clips/3dk57p/the\\-colbert\\-report\\-prophet\\-glenn\\-beck\\-\\-\\-father\\-guido\\-sarducci%3C!\\-\\-\\|title\\=Prophet Glenn Beck — Father Guido Sarducci — The Colbert Report (Video Clip) — Comedy Central\\|website\\=Comedy Central\\|date\\=24 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2018}}{{dead link\\|date\\=July 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "### Benediction", "He delivered the [benediction](/wiki/Benediction \"Benediction\") at the Stewart/Colbert [Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear](/wiki/Rally_to_Restore_Sanity_and/or_Fear \"Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear\") from the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010\\. He was wearing his classic white clerical collar, a long red\\-trimmed black coat with cape, zebra vest/jacket and black beret.[Father Guido Sarducci Gives Benediction at Rally to Restore Sanity](http://www.longislandpress.com/2010/10/30/father-guido-sarducci-father-guido-sarducci-gives-benediction-at-rally-to-restore-sanity/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101102144320/http://www.longislandpress.com/2010/10/30/father\\-guido\\-sarducci\\-father\\-guido\\-sarducci\\-gives\\-benediction\\-at\\-rally\\-to\\-restore\\-sanity/ \\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-02}}; *Long Island Press*; October 30, 2010", "" ]
Plot summary ------------ The novel opens at the alternate close of the [Second Punic War](/wiki/Second_Punic_War "Second Punic War"). [Hannibal](/wiki/Hannibal "Hannibal") offers terms to the Romans: abandon their city and move north of the [Alps](/wiki/Alps "Alps"), or be destroyed. The Romans, under the dictator [Quintus Fabius Maximus](/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus "Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus"), accept the offer and withdraw into [Germania](/wiki/Germania "Germania"), vowing to return. The Carthaginians declare victory and go home. One chapter and several generations later, the Romans have long since reestablished the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic"). These Romans, largely out of need, have adopted a practice of [Cultural Romanization](/wiki/Romanization_%28cultural%29 "Romanization (cultural)") more pronounced than the historical Romans did: large numbers of Germans have been adopted into the Roman society, forming a large proportion of both the legions and the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate "Roman Senate"). A series of auspicious omens prompt the Senate to send a delegation south into [Latium](/wiki/Latium "Latium"). The expedition's leaders are subtly but immediately at cross purposes: the commander, Marcus Scipio, a scion of the ancient patrician [Cornelii Scipiones](/wiki/Scipio_%28cognomen%29 "Scipio (cognomen)") family, is wholly motivated by a desire to reestablish the Republic in the [Mediterranean Basin](/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin "Mediterranean Basin"). His deputy, Titus Norbanus, one of the newer, Germanic Romans, seeks personal [glory](/wiki/Glory_%28honor%29 "Glory (honor)"), at least in part to ensure that the Germans (particularly his own family) remain as powerful within the expanded Republic as they do under the current scheme. It quickly becomes clear to the Romans that generations of constant warfare in Germania have strengthened them, whereas the Carthaginians have grown soft in the absence of real opposition. The Republic quickly begins playing the Carthaginians off against the [Egyptians](/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty "Ptolemaic dynasty"), the only other serious power in the Mediterranean, reclaiming Latium in the process. At the close of the novel, the Egyptian army, led by Scipio and armed with fearsome weapons from the School of [Archimedes](/wiki/Archimedes "Archimedes") from the [Library of Alexandria](/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria "Library of Alexandria"), outlasts the Carthaginian force, which hurriedly retreats upon hearing the news of the Roman reconquest of Italy. The four Roman legions led by Norbanus, technically Carthaginian [auxiliaries](/wiki/Auxiliaries "Auxiliaries"), decide to ignore Scipio's offer to join him in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"), and chart their own path to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome").
[ "Plot summary\n------------", "The novel opens at the alternate close of the [Second Punic War](/wiki/Second_Punic_War \"Second Punic War\"). [Hannibal](/wiki/Hannibal \"Hannibal\") offers terms to the Romans: abandon their city and move north of the [Alps](/wiki/Alps \"Alps\"), or be destroyed. The Romans, under the dictator [Quintus Fabius Maximus](/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus \"Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus\"), accept the offer and withdraw into [Germania](/wiki/Germania \"Germania\"), vowing to return. The Carthaginians declare victory and go home.", "One chapter and several generations later, the Romans have long since reestablished the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\"). These Romans, largely out of need, have adopted a practice of [Cultural Romanization](/wiki/Romanization_%28cultural%29 \"Romanization (cultural)\") more pronounced than the historical Romans did: large numbers of Germans have been adopted into the Roman society, forming a large proportion of both the legions and the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate \"Roman Senate\").", "A series of auspicious omens prompt the Senate to send a delegation south into [Latium](/wiki/Latium \"Latium\"). The expedition's leaders are subtly but immediately at cross purposes: the commander, Marcus Scipio, a scion of the ancient patrician [Cornelii Scipiones](/wiki/Scipio_%28cognomen%29 \"Scipio (cognomen)\") family, is wholly motivated by a desire to reestablish the Republic in the [Mediterranean Basin](/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin \"Mediterranean Basin\"). His deputy, Titus Norbanus, one of the newer, Germanic Romans, seeks personal [glory](/wiki/Glory_%28honor%29 \"Glory (honor)\"), at least in part to ensure that the Germans (particularly his own family) remain as powerful within the expanded Republic as they do under the current scheme.", "It quickly becomes clear to the Romans that generations of constant warfare in Germania have strengthened them, whereas the Carthaginians have grown soft in the absence of real opposition. The Republic quickly begins playing the Carthaginians off against the [Egyptians](/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty \"Ptolemaic dynasty\"), the only other serious power in the Mediterranean, reclaiming Latium in the process.", "At the close of the novel, the Egyptian army, led by Scipio and armed with fearsome weapons from the School of [Archimedes](/wiki/Archimedes \"Archimedes\") from the [Library of Alexandria](/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria \"Library of Alexandria\"), outlasts the Carthaginian force, which hurriedly retreats upon hearing the news of the Roman reconquest of Italy. The four Roman legions led by Norbanus, technically Carthaginian [auxiliaries](/wiki/Auxiliaries \"Auxiliaries\"), decide to ignore Scipio's offer to join him in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"), and chart their own path to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\").", "" ]
Philanthropy ------------ Throughout his life Davis maintained links back to Jersey. He was a Patron of the St Helier Yacht Club and served as the Commodore of the Royal Channel Islands Yacht Club between 1937 and 1939\. He also gave numerous gifts to the Island. During the First World War Davis remained in South Africa but his younger son, Howard Leopold Davis, served with the Highland Light Infantry. Howard was wounded at the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme "Battle of the Somme") in 1916 and died of his wounds on 12 August 1916\. He is buried at Etaples Cemetery, France. Howard's death prompted Davis into philanthropy. ### Howard Davis Farm In 1927 Davis bought a property known as Parkfield near Trinity Church in Jersey. In November 1927 the [States of Jersey](/wiki/States_of_Jersey "States of Jersey") accepted this property consisting of a house, farm buildings and some 40 vergées of land. A Deed of Covenant stated that the bequest was made on the understanding that it be renamed the Howard Davis Farm and that it should be used as an experimental center for the development and study of agriculture and for the instruction in this science of young Jersey people and other interested parties. In 2006 the States of Jersey consulted with the descendants of Thomas Davis and considered a partial abrogation of the covenant to regularise the uses of the site and to bring the covenant up to date. Today the farm houses the Jersey Agricultural Department's Headquarters and the Jersey Milk Marketing Board. ### Howard College, Durban Davis founded and endowed the Durban campus of the [University of Natal](/wiki/University_of_Natal "University of Natal"). In 1926 he donated £140,000 for the building and the Town Council of Durban donated {{convert\|50\|acre\|ha}} of land in the Stella Bush. Howard College was officially opened in 1931 by Earl Clarendon, Governor General of the Union of South Africa. The college began by holding classes in Commerce and Engineering. Howard College remains a campus of the [University of KwaZulu\-Natal](/wiki/University_of_KwaZulu-Natal "University of KwaZulu-Natal"). ### Howard Davis Challenge Cup In 1935 Davis presented the Howard Davis Challenge Cup which is now in the [collection of the National Maritime Museum, UK.](http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=PLT0260) Prior to World War One Howard Davis had been a cadet of the training ship Worcester. The cup was for a competition between the Cadets serving on the Training Ships Worcester, Conway and General Botha. The race was to be in cutters of twelve oars with the winners to retain the Cup. The first and only race was held in London in 1935 and was won by Worcester with the General Botha coming second. ### Howard Hall [thumb\|Howard Hall](/wiki/Image:Victoria_College_Jersey_Howard_Hall.jpg "Victoria College Jersey Howard Hall.jpg") Davis had set up the Howard Leopold Davis scholarship trust in Jersey. One of this educational trust's provisions was that it should benefit boys who, like he, had attended an elementary school. The majority of boys benefiting from this trust went to [Victoria College, Jersey](/wiki/Victoria_College%2C_Jersey "Victoria College, Jersey") and a number went up to Cambridge or Oxford. In 1934 Davis decided he wanted his old friend from his St Luke's elementary school days, [John St Helier Lander](/wiki/John_St_Helier_Lander "John St Helier Lander"), the portrait painter, to paint a portrait of King George V, to commemorate the endowment of the scholarship. When the commission was complete the artist and Davis visited the college to discuss where the portrait might be hung. When Davis discovered there was no room remaining in the college's great hall he decided to build another hall for the school. On 18 October 1934 Davis and his wife laid the foundation stone to Howard Hall, now known as Howard Davis Theatre. It was built of granite from Ouaisné and matched the gothic style of the older Victoria College buildings. Inside there was seating for 238, almost exactly the number of boys at school when the building was opened. The panelling and woodwork were of teak, and the clock an exact replica of that at the Greenwich Observatory. On 23 July 1935 the Prince of Wales came to Jersey to open the Hall and unveil the portrait of King George V. Davis requested four additional copies of the portrait from John St Helier Lander. These were given to the Howard College in Durban, Canada House, Australia House (now listed as hung in the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia) and New Zealand House (now in the [collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa](http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/objectdetails.aspx?oid=40441)). The artist, [John St Helier Lander](/wiki/John_St_Helier_Lander "John St Helier Lander"), took pride in the fact that all five of these portraits of the King had been "unveiled by Royal Princes, an honour no portrait painter has ever had before". ### Howard Davis Park Originally named Plaisance, this estate included a huge mansion surrounded by {{convert\|10\|acre\|ha}} of grounds and was the home of Sir [Bertram Falle](/wiki/Bertram_Falle "Bertram Falle"). It was put on the market in 1937 for the sum of £25,000\. At the time Davis was seeking a suitable site to erect a statue of King George V. He purchased the site and employed Mr. J. A. Colledge, a famous landscape gardener, to lay out the grounds in the form of a park. Early in 1938 the landscaping of the park began. By August 1939 the work was so well advanced it was decided to prepare everything for an early public opening of the Park. The Park was officially handed over as a gift to the people of Jersey in September 1939\. A statue of King George V by [William Reid Dick](/wiki/William_Reid_Dick "William Reid Dick") was erected within the main entrance and the flagstaff was made from the spinnaker boom of Davis's racing yacht *Westward*. A Hall of Remembrance was also established in the grounds. Within weeks of being handed over, the Second World War was declared and German forces subsequently occupied the island. Despite this, the statue of King George V and the park itself came through the five long years of Occupation virtually unscathed. During the war years the area was used for the cultivation of vegetables for the needy of the island. Many of the trees within the Park were felled so as to provide firewood for cooking and heating. The Howard Davis Hall, as it is known today, was the original billiards room of the Plaisance property. Hanging in the hall are paintings of Howard Leopald Davis, Thomas Davis, his wife, and his sister as well as a painting of the famous yacht Westward in full sail. ### Charity work Davis also purchased a [Royal National Lifeboat Institution](/wiki/Royal_National_Lifeboat_Institution "Royal National Lifeboat Institution") lifeboat for the cost of £3,623\. It was named the *Howard D* as was the first motorised lifeboat to be stationed at St Helier, Jersey. She arrived at the St Helier station in August 1936\. Davis continued with acts of philanthropy throughout his life. During the Second World War Davis established a fund of £100,000 to help dependents of South Africans serving in the forces. ### *General Botha Memorial Training Ship* In 1920 Davis purchased {{HMS\|Thames\|1885\|6}}, an obsolete ex\-Royal Navy sailing cruiser of 4,050 tons that had been used as a [submarine depot ship](/wiki/Submarine_depot_ship "Submarine depot ship") and repair workshop on the [River Medway](/wiki/River_Medway "River Medway"). Davis donated it in memory of his son to the Union of South Africa Defence Force for use as a [training ship](/wiki/Training_ship "Training ship") for cadets. The ship was renamed *General Botha Memorial Training Ship* and was christened by Mrs Issie Smuts, wife of the Prime Minister, on 1 April 1922\. It was the first training ship in the Southern hemisphere. Davis stipulated that the ship be used for the full\-time training of boys of British South Africa. His aim was to give the boys the opportunity to receive character building and nautical training of the highest standard so they might serve in ships sailing under flags of Great Britain and the British Empire.{{cite news\| title\=Thomas Benjamin Frederick DAVIS\| url\=http://www.generalbotha.co.za/GBhistoryA1\.html\| work\=generalbotha\| access\-date\=25 September 2008\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112030614/http://www.generalbotha.co.za/GBhistoryA1\.html\| archive\-date\=12 November 2007\| df\=dmy\-all}}
[ "Philanthropy\n------------", "Throughout his life Davis maintained links back to Jersey. He was a Patron of the St Helier Yacht Club and served as the Commodore of the Royal Channel Islands Yacht Club between 1937 and 1939\\. He also gave numerous gifts to the Island.", "During the First World War Davis remained in South Africa but his younger son, Howard Leopold Davis, served with the Highland Light Infantry. Howard was wounded at the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme \"Battle of the Somme\") in 1916 and died of his wounds on 12 August 1916\\. He is buried at Etaples Cemetery, France. Howard's death prompted Davis into philanthropy.", "### Howard Davis Farm", "In 1927 Davis bought a property known as Parkfield near Trinity Church in Jersey. In November 1927 the [States of Jersey](/wiki/States_of_Jersey \"States of Jersey\") accepted this property consisting of a house, farm buildings and some 40 vergées of land. A Deed of Covenant stated that the bequest was made on the understanding that it be renamed the Howard Davis Farm and that it should be used as an experimental center for the development and study of agriculture and for the instruction in this science of young Jersey people and other interested parties.", "In 2006 the States of Jersey consulted with the descendants of Thomas Davis and considered a partial abrogation of the covenant to regularise the uses of the site and to bring the covenant up to date. Today the farm houses the Jersey Agricultural Department's Headquarters and the Jersey Milk Marketing Board.", "### Howard College, Durban", "Davis founded and endowed the Durban campus of the [University of Natal](/wiki/University_of_Natal \"University of Natal\"). In 1926 he donated £140,000 for the building and the Town Council of Durban donated {{convert\\|50\\|acre\\|ha}} of land in the Stella Bush. Howard College was officially opened in 1931 by Earl Clarendon, Governor General of the Union of South Africa. The college began by holding classes in Commerce and Engineering. Howard College remains a campus of the [University of KwaZulu\\-Natal](/wiki/University_of_KwaZulu-Natal \"University of KwaZulu-Natal\").", "### Howard Davis Challenge Cup", "In 1935 Davis presented the Howard Davis Challenge Cup which is now in the [collection of the National Maritime Museum, UK.](http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=PLT0260) Prior to World War One Howard Davis had been a cadet of the training ship Worcester. The cup was for a competition between the Cadets serving on the Training Ships Worcester, Conway and General Botha. The race was to be in cutters of twelve oars with the winners to retain the Cup. The first and only race was held in London in 1935 and was won by Worcester with the General Botha coming second.", "### Howard Hall", "[thumb\\|Howard Hall](/wiki/Image:Victoria_College_Jersey_Howard_Hall.jpg \"Victoria College Jersey Howard Hall.jpg\")\nDavis had set up the Howard Leopold Davis scholarship trust in Jersey. One of this educational trust's provisions was that it should benefit boys who, like he, had attended an elementary school. The majority of boys benefiting from this trust went to [Victoria College, Jersey](/wiki/Victoria_College%2C_Jersey \"Victoria College, Jersey\") and a number went up to Cambridge or Oxford. In 1934 Davis decided he wanted his old friend from his St Luke's elementary school days, [John St Helier Lander](/wiki/John_St_Helier_Lander \"John St Helier Lander\"), the portrait painter, to paint a portrait of King George V, to commemorate the endowment of the scholarship. When the commission was complete the artist and Davis visited the college to discuss where the portrait might be hung. When Davis discovered there was no room remaining in the college's great hall he decided to build another hall for the school. On 18 October 1934 Davis and his wife laid the foundation stone to Howard Hall, now known as Howard Davis Theatre. It was built of granite from Ouaisné and matched the gothic style of the older Victoria College buildings. Inside there was seating for 238, almost exactly the number of boys at school when the building was opened. The panelling and woodwork were of teak, and the clock an exact replica of that at the Greenwich Observatory. On 23 July 1935 the Prince of Wales came to Jersey to open the Hall and unveil the portrait of King George V.", "Davis requested four additional copies of the portrait from John St Helier Lander. These were given to the Howard College in Durban, Canada House, Australia House (now listed as hung in the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia) and New Zealand House (now in the [collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa](http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/objectdetails.aspx?oid=40441)). The artist, [John St Helier Lander](/wiki/John_St_Helier_Lander \"John St Helier Lander\"), took pride in the fact that all five of these portraits of the King had been \"unveiled by Royal Princes, an honour no portrait painter has ever had before\".", "### Howard Davis Park", "Originally named Plaisance, this estate included a huge mansion surrounded by {{convert\\|10\\|acre\\|ha}} of grounds and was the home of Sir [Bertram Falle](/wiki/Bertram_Falle \"Bertram Falle\"). It was put on the market in 1937 for the sum of £25,000\\. At the time Davis was seeking a suitable site to erect a statue of King George V. He purchased the site and employed Mr. J. A. Colledge, a famous landscape gardener, to lay out the grounds in the form of a park. Early in 1938 the landscaping of the park began. By August 1939 the work was so well advanced it was decided to prepare everything for an early public opening of the Park. The Park was officially handed over as a gift to the people of Jersey in September 1939\\. A statue of King George V by [William Reid Dick](/wiki/William_Reid_Dick \"William Reid Dick\") was erected within the main entrance and the flagstaff was made from the spinnaker boom of Davis's racing yacht *Westward*. A Hall of Remembrance was also established in the grounds.", "Within weeks of being handed over, the Second World War was declared and German forces subsequently occupied the island. Despite this, the statue of King George V and the park itself came through the five long years of Occupation virtually unscathed. During the war years the area was used for the cultivation of vegetables for the needy of the island. Many of the trees within the Park were felled so as to provide firewood for cooking and heating.", "The Howard Davis Hall, as it is known today, was the original billiards room of the Plaisance property. Hanging in the hall are paintings of Howard Leopald Davis, Thomas Davis, his wife, and his sister as well as a painting of the famous yacht Westward in full sail.", "### Charity work", "Davis also purchased a [Royal National Lifeboat Institution](/wiki/Royal_National_Lifeboat_Institution \"Royal National Lifeboat Institution\") lifeboat for the cost of £3,623\\. It was named the *Howard D* as was the first motorised lifeboat to be stationed at St Helier, Jersey. She arrived at the St Helier station in August 1936\\.", "Davis continued with acts of philanthropy throughout his life. During the Second World War Davis established a fund of £100,000 to help dependents of South Africans serving in the forces.", "### *General Botha Memorial Training Ship*", "In 1920 Davis purchased {{HMS\\|Thames\\|1885\\|6}}, an obsolete ex\\-Royal Navy sailing cruiser of 4,050 tons that had been used as a [submarine depot ship](/wiki/Submarine_depot_ship \"Submarine depot ship\") and repair workshop on the [River Medway](/wiki/River_Medway \"River Medway\"). Davis donated it in memory of his son to the Union of South Africa Defence Force for use as a [training ship](/wiki/Training_ship \"Training ship\") for cadets. The ship was renamed *General Botha Memorial Training Ship* and was christened by Mrs Issie Smuts, wife of the Prime Minister, on 1 April 1922\\. It was the first training ship in the Southern hemisphere. Davis stipulated that the ship be used for the full\\-time training of boys of British South Africa. His aim was to give the boys the opportunity to receive character building and nautical training of the highest standard so they might serve in ships sailing under flags of Great Britain and the British Empire.{{cite news\\| title\\=Thomas Benjamin Frederick DAVIS\\| url\\=http://www.generalbotha.co.za/GBhistoryA1\\.html\\| work\\=generalbotha\\| access\\-date\\=25 September 2008\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112030614/http://www.generalbotha.co.za/GBhistoryA1\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\=12 November 2007\\| df\\=dmy\\-all}}", "" ]
History ------- {{See also\|History of Staffordshire\|History of Worcestershire}} [thumb\|[Firedoor](/wiki/Firedoor "Firedoor") of a boiler made by the Cradley Boiler Co, of Cradley Heath, displayed in the [Black Country Living Museum](/wiki/Black_Country_Living_Museum "Black Country Living Museum").](/wiki/File:Cradley_Boiler_Co_boiler_inspection_hole_cover.jpg "Cradley Boiler Co boiler inspection hole cover.jpg") Cradley Heath was originally an area of [heathland](/wiki/Heath "Heath") between Cradley, [Netherton](/wiki/Netherton%2C_West_Midlands "Netherton, West Midlands"), and [Old Hill](/wiki/Old_Hill "Old Hill"), in the Staffordshire parish of [Rowley Regis](/wiki/Rowley_Regis "Rowley Regis"). The residents of Cradley had grazing rights, subject to an annual payment to the [Lord of the Manor](/wiki/Lord_of_the_Manor "Lord of the Manor"). As on other commons in the [Black Country](/wiki/Black_Country "Black Country"), cottages were built encroaching on the heath. These were occupied by [nailmakers](/wiki/Nail_%28engineering%29 "Nail (engineering)"), amongst other industries. One landmark in the growth of Cradley Heath as a distinct community was the creation of [Cradley Heath Baptist Church](/wiki/Cradley_Heath_Baptist_Church "Cradley Heath Baptist Church"), in December 1833\. This was the first Christian Church meeting in Cradley Heath,Rev. Idris Williams, A History of the Four Ways Baptist Church, Cradley Heath, Staffs. Centenary Souvenir, 1933\. and has the distinction of having the first Afro\-Caribbean minister in Britain, Rev. [George Cosens](/wiki/George_Cosens "George Cosens"), in 1837\.Idris Williams, *op. cit.*, p. 35\. ### Mining Cradley Heath and the surrounding area lie on the [South Staffordshire coalfield](/wiki/South_Staffordshire_coalfield "South Staffordshire coalfield"). Ordnance Survey maps surveyed in 1882 show the town to be surrounded by collieries.{{Cite web \|date\=1887 \|title\=Worcestershire IV.NE \- Ordnance Survey Six\-inch England and Wales \|url\=https://maps.nls.uk/view/101585833 \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-17 \|website\=maps.nls.uk \|publisher\=Ordnance Survey}}{{Cite web \|date\=1885 \|title\=Worcestershire IV.SE \- Ordnance Survey Six\-inch England and Wales \|url\=https://maps.nls.uk/view/101585839 \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-17 \|website\=maps.nls.uk \|publisher\=Ordnance Survey}} Deaths from mining accidents were not unknown. In December 1839, four men were crushed when a coal mine roof collapsed underground; between two and three thousand mourners attended the funeral procession.{{Cite news \|date\=18 December 1839 \|title\=Fatal coal pit accidents \|page\=4 \|work\=The Cheltenham Examiner and Gloucestershire Guardian \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002212/18391218/046/0004 \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=18 February 2023 \|via\=\[\[British Newspaper Archive]]}} In October 1844, ten men including the 'butty'{{efn\|'Butty' is an informal term for the mine manager or contractor, who operated the mine on behalf of the owners.{{Cite web \|date\=2014 \|title\=butty \|work\=Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition \|url\=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/butty \|access\-date\=19 February 2023 \|via\=\[\[thefreedictionary]]}}}} plus a boy aged 12 died in a coal mine explosion. Two horses working underground were also killed. Several ironstone miners working below the coal seam managed to escape, but a further three working horses could not be rescued.{{Cite news \|date\=23 October 1844 \|title\=Frightful explosion at a coal\-pit \|page\=3 \|work\=The Worcestershire Chronicle \|volume\=VII \|number\=356 \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000350/18441023/036/0003 \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=18 February 2023 \|via\=\[\[British Newspaper Archive]]}} At the inquest it was reported that the mine had been inspected hours earlier, tested for sulphur gas and declared safe. Verdicts of accidental death were given.{{Cite news \|date\=30 October 1844 \|title\=The coal mine explosion at Rowley Regis — Eleven lives lost \|page\=4 \|work\=The Wolverhampton Chronicle and General Advertiser for the Midland Counties \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0001308/18441030/016/0003 \|url\-access\=subscription \|access\-date\=18 February 2023 \|via\=\[\[British Newspaper Archive]]}} ### Industry From the introduction of machine\-based nail\-making around 1830, Cradley Heath developed two prolific industries – chainmaking and nailmaking – which would remain strong for decades afterwards. Among the metallurgical companies that were active in the area was the [British Iron Company](/wiki/British_Iron_Company "British Iron Company") and its successor, the New British Iron Company, who operated a vast iron and steel works at Corngreaves from 1825 to 1894\. The works expanded to include rivet and boiler shops and chain works;{{Cite book \|last\=Chitham \|first\=Edward \|title\=Rowley Regis: A History \|publisher\=Phillimore \|year\=2006 \|isbn\=1860774180 \|pages\=59}} continuing under other owners until 1912\. It was only during the 1980s [recession](/wiki/Recession "Recession") that the iron\-working industries based in Cradley Heath began to decline. Chain\-making developed both as a cottage industry where outworkers produced smaller size chains in forges at the rear of their homes — women accounted for two\-thirds of these workers — and in factories where both smaller and larger size chains were made.{{cite book \|last1\=Moss \|first1\=Ron \|title\=Chain and Anchor making in the Black Country \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Sutton \|location\=Stroud \|isbn\=0750942215 \|pages\=15–17}} Much of the factory output of larger chain was for ship anchors.{{r\|Moss\|p\=34}} In 1903, Samuel Woodhouse \& Sons at the Eagle Works on Corngreaves Road became the first British manufacturer of electrically welded chain.{{r\|Moss\|p\=109}} Over the summer of 1910, around one thousand local women led and organised by [Mary Macarthur](/wiki/Mary_Macarthur "Mary Macarthur") of the [National Federation of Women Workers](/wiki/National_Federation_of_Women_Workers "National Federation of Women Workers"), and supported by the [Chain Makers' and Strikers' Association](/wiki/Chain_Makers%27_and_Strikers%27_Association "Chain Makers' and Strikers' Association") were involved in a ten\-week\-long Chainmakers' Strike. The women successfully campaigned for the implementation of the minimum rate of pay set by the Chain Trade Board — effectively doubling their wages.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.working\-class\-women\-writing.co.uk/the\-cradley\-heath\-women\-chainmakers\-strike\-1910\.html\|title\=The Cradley Heath Women Chainmakers' Strike (1910\)\|website\=Writing Class\|access\-date\=18 December 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=http://wolvestuc.org.uk/index.php/wbdtuc/32\-women\-chainmakers\-festival?start\=4\|title\=TUC Women Chainmakers' Festival of Cradley Heath\|website\=wolvestuc.org.uk\|access\-date\=18 December 2018\|archive\-date\=19 December 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219000849/http://wolvestuc.org.uk/index.php/wbdtuc/32\-women\-chainmakers\-festival?start\=4\|url\-status\=dead}} The dispute ended on the 22 October 1910 when the last of the employers agreed to pay the minimum wage.{{Cite web\|url\=https://warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/explorefurther/images/cradleyheath/\|title\="Rouse, Ye Women": The Cradley Heath Chain Makers' Strike, 1910\|website\=warwick.ac.uk\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-28}} By 1934 there were 68 chain\-works and chain\-shops in Cradley Heath; almost a third of the total for Great Britain. Numbers declined after the Second World War but some outworking continued into the 1950s.{{r\|Moss\|p\=40}} The papers of the Cradley Heath Chainmakers' Trade Union are housed at the [University of Birmingham](/wiki/University_of_Birmingham "University of Birmingham") Special Collections. The [Workers' Institute](/wiki/Cradley_Heath_Workers%27_Institute "Cradley Heath Workers' Institute"), which stood in Lower High Street for almost 100 years, was rebuilt at the [Black Country Living Museum](/wiki/Black_Country_Living_Museum "Black Country Living Museum") in 2006, after being dismantled to make way for a bypass.{{cite news\|title\=The 'Stute' to be rebuilt\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blackcountry/content/articles/2006/01/19/cradley\_heath\_workers\_institute\_feature.shtml\|access\-date\=23 October 2012\|newspaper\=BBC News\|date\=19 January 2006}} ### Media Cradley Heath for a short while had a newspaper published in the town. *The Cradley Heath and Stourbridge Observer* was launched on 26 March 1864\. The seven\-column, four\-page broadsheet was published by Thomas Homer of Five\-Ways, Cradley Heath each Saturday. On Saturday, June 4, 1864 the masthead was changed to *The Observer; Stourbridge, Cradley Heath, Halesowen and District Chronicle*. The newspaper covered not only local news but national and international affairs too. A publisher based in High Street, Stourbridge had taken over by October 1864\. The newspaper's title was changed to *The* *Stourbridge Observer \- Cradley Heath, Halesowen and District Chronicle* on 6 October, 1866 and published under that name until 30 June 1888\.{{cite book \|url\=https://archive.org/details/catalogueprinte00musegoog/page/n174/mode/2up \|title\=British Museum. Catalogue of Printed Books. Supplement: Newspapers published in Great Britain and Ireland, 1801\-1900 \|date\=1905 \|location\=London \|page\=318 \|access\-date\=19 February 2023 \|via\=\[\[Internet Archive]]}} The Royal Electric Theatre stood on Bank Street from 1913; it closed in 1988 and was demolished in 2006 to make way for a Tesco supermarket.{{cite news \|last1\=Workman \|first1\=John \|title\=The life and times of the Royal \|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/black\-country\-bugle/20190130/page/11 \|access\-date\=3 February 2023 \|publisher\=The Black Country Bugle \|issue\=1379 \|date\=30 January 2019 \|page\=11 \|via\=\[\[PressReader]] \|url\-access\=subscription \|language\=en}} The Majestic Cinema on Cradley Road opened in 1933 and was designed by Dudley architects, Webb and Gray in [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") style. The cinema closed 30 years later and like many others was converted into a bingo hall, which in turn closed in 2000\. The Majestic had room for 1,500 people, stained glass windows with heraldic patterns at balcony level and a [Christie organ](/wiki/William_Hill_%26_Son_%26_Norman_%26_Beard_Ltd. "William Hill & Son & Norman & Beard Ltd."). The appearance of the building has become rather shabby; the shop units are empty and it faces an uncertain future.{{cite news \|last1\=Workman \|first1\=John \|title\=A building that captured the imagination during the Great Depression \|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/black\-country\-bugle/20180725/page/22 \|access\-date\=3 February 2023 \|publisher\=The Black Country Bugle \|issue\=1352 \|date\=25 July 2018 \|page\=22 \|via\=\[\[PressReader]] \|url\-access\=subscription \|language\=en}}
[ "History\n-------", "{{See also\\|History of Staffordshire\\|History of Worcestershire}}\n[thumb\\|[Firedoor](/wiki/Firedoor \"Firedoor\") of a boiler made by the Cradley Boiler Co, of Cradley Heath, displayed in the [Black Country Living Museum](/wiki/Black_Country_Living_Museum \"Black Country Living Museum\").](/wiki/File:Cradley_Boiler_Co_boiler_inspection_hole_cover.jpg \"Cradley Boiler Co boiler inspection hole cover.jpg\")", "Cradley Heath was originally an area of [heathland](/wiki/Heath \"Heath\") between Cradley, [Netherton](/wiki/Netherton%2C_West_Midlands \"Netherton, West Midlands\"), and [Old Hill](/wiki/Old_Hill \"Old Hill\"), in the Staffordshire parish of [Rowley Regis](/wiki/Rowley_Regis \"Rowley Regis\"). The residents of Cradley had grazing rights, subject to an annual payment to the [Lord of the Manor](/wiki/Lord_of_the_Manor \"Lord of the Manor\"). As on other commons in the [Black Country](/wiki/Black_Country \"Black Country\"), cottages were built encroaching on the heath. These were occupied by [nailmakers](/wiki/Nail_%28engineering%29 \"Nail (engineering)\"), amongst other industries.", "One landmark in the growth of Cradley Heath as a distinct community was the creation of [Cradley Heath Baptist Church](/wiki/Cradley_Heath_Baptist_Church \"Cradley Heath Baptist Church\"), in December 1833\\. This was the first Christian Church meeting in Cradley Heath,Rev. Idris Williams, A History of the Four Ways Baptist Church, Cradley Heath, Staffs. Centenary Souvenir, 1933\\. and has the distinction of having the first Afro\\-Caribbean minister in Britain, Rev. [George Cosens](/wiki/George_Cosens \"George Cosens\"), in 1837\\.Idris Williams, *op. cit.*, p. 35\\.", "### Mining", "Cradley Heath and the surrounding area lie on the [South Staffordshire coalfield](/wiki/South_Staffordshire_coalfield \"South Staffordshire coalfield\"). Ordnance Survey maps surveyed in 1882 show the town to be surrounded by collieries.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1887 \\|title\\=Worcestershire IV.NE \\- Ordnance Survey Six\\-inch England and Wales \\|url\\=https://maps.nls.uk/view/101585833 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-17 \\|website\\=maps.nls.uk \\|publisher\\=Ordnance Survey}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=1885 \\|title\\=Worcestershire IV.SE \\- Ordnance Survey Six\\-inch England and Wales \\|url\\=https://maps.nls.uk/view/101585839 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-17 \\|website\\=maps.nls.uk \\|publisher\\=Ordnance Survey}} Deaths from mining accidents were not unknown. In December 1839, four men were crushed when a coal mine roof collapsed underground; between two and three thousand mourners attended the funeral procession.{{Cite news \\|date\\=18 December 1839 \\|title\\=Fatal coal pit accidents \\|page\\=4 \\|work\\=The Cheltenham Examiner and Gloucestershire Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002212/18391218/046/0004 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2023 \\|via\\=\\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]}} In October 1844, ten men including the 'butty'{{efn\\|'Butty' is an informal term for the mine manager or contractor, who operated the mine on behalf of the owners.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014 \\|title\\=butty \\|work\\=Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition \\|url\\=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/butty \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2023 \\|via\\=\\[\\[thefreedictionary]]}}}} plus a boy aged 12 died in a coal mine explosion. Two horses working underground were also killed. Several ironstone miners working below the coal seam managed to escape, but a further three working horses could not be rescued.{{Cite news \\|date\\=23 October 1844 \\|title\\=Frightful explosion at a coal\\-pit \\|page\\=3 \\|work\\=The Worcestershire Chronicle \\|volume\\=VII \\|number\\=356 \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000350/18441023/036/0003 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2023 \\|via\\=\\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]}} At the inquest it was reported that the mine had been inspected hours earlier, tested for sulphur gas and declared safe. Verdicts of accidental death were given.{{Cite news \\|date\\=30 October 1844 \\|title\\=The coal mine explosion at Rowley Regis — Eleven lives lost \\|page\\=4 \\|work\\=The Wolverhampton Chronicle and General Advertiser for the Midland Counties \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0001308/18441030/016/0003 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2023 \\|via\\=\\[\\[British Newspaper Archive]]}}", "### Industry", "From the introduction of machine\\-based nail\\-making around 1830, Cradley Heath developed two prolific industries – chainmaking and nailmaking – which would remain strong for decades afterwards.", "Among the metallurgical companies that were active in the area was the [British Iron Company](/wiki/British_Iron_Company \"British Iron Company\") and its successor, the New British Iron Company, who operated a vast iron and steel works at Corngreaves from 1825 to 1894\\. The works expanded to include rivet and boiler shops and chain works;{{Cite book \\|last\\=Chitham \\|first\\=Edward \\|title\\=Rowley Regis: A History \\|publisher\\=Phillimore \\|year\\=2006 \\|isbn\\=1860774180 \\|pages\\=59}} continuing under other owners until 1912\\. It was only during the 1980s [recession](/wiki/Recession \"Recession\") that the iron\\-working industries based in Cradley Heath began to decline.", "Chain\\-making developed both as a cottage industry where outworkers produced smaller size chains in forges at the rear of their homes — women accounted for two\\-thirds of these workers — and in factories where both smaller and larger size chains were made.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Moss \\|first1\\=Ron \\|title\\=Chain and Anchor making in the Black Country \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Sutton \\|location\\=Stroud \\|isbn\\=0750942215 \\|pages\\=15–17}} Much of the factory output of larger chain was for ship anchors.{{r\\|Moss\\|p\\=34}} In 1903, Samuel Woodhouse \\& Sons at the Eagle Works on Corngreaves Road became the first British manufacturer of electrically welded chain.{{r\\|Moss\\|p\\=109}} Over the summer of 1910, around one thousand local women led and organised by [Mary Macarthur](/wiki/Mary_Macarthur \"Mary Macarthur\") of the [National Federation of Women Workers](/wiki/National_Federation_of_Women_Workers \"National Federation of Women Workers\"), and supported by the [Chain Makers' and Strikers' Association](/wiki/Chain_Makers%27_and_Strikers%27_Association \"Chain Makers' and Strikers' Association\") were involved in a ten\\-week\\-long Chainmakers' Strike. The women successfully campaigned for the implementation of the minimum rate of pay set by the Chain Trade Board — effectively doubling their wages.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.working\\-class\\-women\\-writing.co.uk/the\\-cradley\\-heath\\-women\\-chainmakers\\-strike\\-1910\\.html\\|title\\=The Cradley Heath Women Chainmakers' Strike (1910\\)\\|website\\=Writing Class\\|access\\-date\\=18 December 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://wolvestuc.org.uk/index.php/wbdtuc/32\\-women\\-chainmakers\\-festival?start\\=4\\|title\\=TUC Women Chainmakers' Festival of Cradley Heath\\|website\\=wolvestuc.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=18 December 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=19 December 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219000849/http://wolvestuc.org.uk/index.php/wbdtuc/32\\-women\\-chainmakers\\-festival?start\\=4\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The dispute ended on the 22 October 1910 when the last of the employers agreed to pay the minimum wage.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/explorefurther/images/cradleyheath/\\|title\\=\"Rouse, Ye Women\": The Cradley Heath Chain Makers' Strike, 1910\\|website\\=warwick.ac.uk\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-28}} By 1934 there were 68 chain\\-works and chain\\-shops in Cradley Heath; almost a third of the total for Great Britain. Numbers declined after the Second World War but some outworking continued into the 1950s.{{r\\|Moss\\|p\\=40}} The papers of the Cradley Heath Chainmakers' Trade Union are housed at the [University of Birmingham](/wiki/University_of_Birmingham \"University of Birmingham\") Special Collections.", "The [Workers' Institute](/wiki/Cradley_Heath_Workers%27_Institute \"Cradley Heath Workers' Institute\"), which stood in Lower High Street for almost 100 years, was rebuilt at the [Black Country Living Museum](/wiki/Black_Country_Living_Museum \"Black Country Living Museum\") in 2006, after being dismantled to make way for a bypass.{{cite news\\|title\\=The 'Stute' to be rebuilt\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blackcountry/content/articles/2006/01/19/cradley\\_heath\\_workers\\_institute\\_feature.shtml\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2012\\|newspaper\\=BBC News\\|date\\=19 January 2006}}", "### Media", "Cradley Heath for a short while had a newspaper published in the town. *The Cradley Heath and Stourbridge Observer* was launched on 26 March 1864\\. The seven\\-column, four\\-page broadsheet was published by Thomas Homer of Five\\-Ways, Cradley Heath each Saturday. On Saturday, June 4, 1864 the masthead was changed to *The Observer; Stourbridge, Cradley Heath, Halesowen and District Chronicle*. The newspaper covered not only local news but national and international affairs too. A publisher based in High Street, Stourbridge had taken over by October 1864\\. The newspaper's title was changed to *The* *Stourbridge Observer \\- Cradley Heath, Halesowen and District Chronicle* on 6 October, 1866 and published under that name until 30 June 1888\\.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/catalogueprinte00musegoog/page/n174/mode/2up \\|title\\=British Museum. Catalogue of Printed Books. Supplement: Newspapers published in Great Britain and Ireland, 1801\\-1900 \\|date\\=1905 \\|location\\=London \\|page\\=318 \\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2023 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Internet Archive]]}}", "The Royal Electric Theatre stood on Bank Street from 1913; it closed in 1988 and was demolished in 2006 to make way for a Tesco supermarket.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Workman \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=The life and times of the Royal \\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/black\\-country\\-bugle/20190130/page/11 \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2023 \\|publisher\\=The Black Country Bugle \\|issue\\=1379 \\|date\\=30 January 2019 \\|page\\=11 \\|via\\=\\[\\[PressReader]] \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|language\\=en}} The Majestic Cinema on Cradley Road opened in 1933 and was designed by Dudley architects, Webb and Gray in [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") style. The cinema closed 30 years later and like many others was converted into a bingo hall, which in turn closed in 2000\\. The Majestic had room for 1,500 people, stained glass windows with heraldic patterns at balcony level and a [Christie organ](/wiki/William_Hill_%26_Son_%26_Norman_%26_Beard_Ltd. \"William Hill & Son & Norman & Beard Ltd.\"). The appearance of the building has become rather shabby; the shop units are empty and it faces an uncertain future.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Workman \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=A building that captured the imagination during the Great Depression \\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/black\\-country\\-bugle/20180725/page/22 \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2023 \\|publisher\\=The Black Country Bugle \\|issue\\=1352 \\|date\\=25 July 2018 \\|page\\=22 \\|via\\=\\[\\[PressReader]] \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early history Harriet Taylor was born December 17, 1853, in [Ravenna, Ohio](/wiki/Ravenna%2C_Ohio "Ravenna, Ohio"), the daughter of [Ezra Taylor](/wiki/Ezra_B._Taylor "Ezra B. Taylor"), an Ohio judge.{{cite book \|title\=Ohio, A four volume reference library on the History of a Great State \| editor1\-first\=Simeon D. \|editor1\-last\=Fess \|editor1\-link\=Simeon D. Fess\|volume\=4 \|year\=1937 \|publisher\=Lewis Publishing Company \|location\=Chicago \|page\=435 \|oclc\=418516 }} In 1861, the Taylor family moved to [Warren, Ohio](/wiki/Warren%2C_Ohio "Warren, Ohio"), and it was there that Harriet attended school. Her formal education was limited to the [public schools](/wiki/State_school "State school") of Warren.[Aileen S. Kraditor](/wiki/Aileen_S._Kraditor "Aileen S. Kraditor"), *The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890\-1920* \[1965]. New York: W.W. Norton \& Co., 1981; pg. 268\. Taylor married George W. Upton, an attorney, in 1884\. Their marriage would last for 39 years.["Ohio Women of Note"](http://www.ohioana.org/features/women/hupton.asp), Ohioana Library Association (ohioana.org) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060510234500/http://www.ohioana.org/features/women/hupton.asp \|date\=May 10, 2006 }} ### Political career In 1880, Upton's father was elected as a member of the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") as a [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") from Ohio, succeeding President [James Garfield](/wiki/James_Garfield "James Garfield") in the position.["Mrs. Upton Resigns Post: Will Leave Republican National Committee to Run for Congress"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1924/06/06/104040200.pdf), *New York Times* June 6, 1924 (paywalled). This entrance into the world of high politics provided Harriet with an opportunity to meet leading political leaders of the day, including [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony "Susan B. Anthony") — the person who brought Upton into the movement to win the right to vote for women. Upton was a key organizer and the first president of the Suffrage Association of Warren. She was also a member of the [National American Woman Suffrage Association](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association "National American Woman Suffrage Association") (NAWSA) from 1890\.{{Cite web \|title\=Upton, Harriet Taylor (1853\-1945\) \|url\=https://www.trumbullcountyhistory.com/upton\-harriet\-taylor\-1853\-1945/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-01 \|language\=en\-US}} In 1891, Upton hosted a conclave of women seeking equal rights with men, Ohio Women in Convention, in her home.["Ohio Women's Hall of Fame Bio: Harriet Taylor Upton"](http://www.odjfs.state.oh.us/women/halloffame/bio.asp?ID=300), odjfs.state.oh.us (Ohio Department of Job and Family Services). Accessed November 3, 2022\. [thumb\|[Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony "Susan B. Anthony") \& [Alice Stone Blackwell](/wiki/Alice_Stone_Blackwell "Alice Stone Blackwell") signed [NAWSA](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association "National American Woman Suffrage Association") check, written by the group's treasurer Harriet Taylor Upton.](/wiki/File:Susan_B._Anthony_%26_Alice_Stone_Blackwell_signed_NAWSA_check.jpg "Susan B. Anthony & Alice Stone Blackwell signed NAWSA check.jpg") In 1894, Upton was elected as the treasurer of the NAWSA, the leading national woman suffrage organization. She brought the headquarters of that organization home to Warren, Ohio, from 1903 to 1910, the end of her tenure in that position. In her memoir, she noted that women's right to vote had come at some cost: a decline in chivalry. "Men may not be as good to us as they were before we got the vote, but they have a lot more respect for us." In her view, the tradeoff was worth the cost. Additionally, Upton served as president of the Ohio Woman Suffrage Association[Ohio Memory, a product of the Ohio Historical Society and the State Library of Ohio \| View Images](https://server16007.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/p267401coll36&CISOPTR=16642&REC=13). Server16007\.contentdm.oclc.org. Retrieved on April 2, 2018\. from 1899 to 1908, and again from 1911 to 1920\. [thumb\|Harriet Taylor Upton, 1921](/wiki/File:Harriet_Taylor_Upton_1921.png "Harriet Taylor Upton 1921.png") [thumb\|standing: [Corinne Roosevelt Robinson](/wiki/Corinne_Roosevelt_Robinson "Corinne Roosevelt Robinson"), Mrs. Jennette Hyde, Mrs. Carrie Fosseen, seated: Mrs. Arthur Livermore, Mrs. Harriet Upton, Mrs. Christine Bradley, {{circa\|1921}}{{cite web \|author1\=Underwood \& Underwood \|title\=Famous G.O.P. women arrive \|url\=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/00652558/ \|website\=loc.gov \|access\-date\=20 August 2022 \|language\=en \|date\=1921}}](/wiki/File:Famous_G.O.P._women_arrive_LCCN00652558.jpg "Famous G.O.P. women arrive LCCN00652558.jpg") In 1920, Upton was elected Vice Chair of the Executive Committee of the [Republican National Committee](/wiki/Republican_National_Committee "Republican National Committee"). She was the first woman to serve on that highest national body of Republican Party politics. She stepped down from this position in June 1924 in an attempt to follow her father into the halls of Congress, running unsuccessfully in the August Republican [primary election](/wiki/Partisan_primary "Partisan primary") in the Ohio 19th District for the House of Representatives. In 1928, Upton served as the assistant [campaign manager](/wiki/Campaign_manager "Campaign manager") for the [Republican Party of Ohio](/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Ohio "Republican Party of Ohio"). For all her successes and honors on the national stage, Upton's personal electoral success was modest, being the first woman to be elected to the Warren Board of Education. Throughout her life Upton participated in a number of other organizations, including the [Daughters of the American Revolution](/wiki/Daughters_of_the_American_Revolution "Daughters of the American Revolution"), the [Woman's Christian Temperance Union](/wiki/Women%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union "Women's Christian Temperance Union"), the [Women's Relief Corps](/wiki/Women%27s_Relief_Corps "Women's Relief Corps"), and the [Episcopal Church](/wiki/Episcopal_Church_%28United_States%29 "Episcopal Church (United States)"). ### Death and legacy Harriet Taylor Upton died in [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California"), on November 2, 1945, aged 91\. She was inducted into the [Ohio Women's Hall of Fame](/wiki/Ohio_Women%27s_Hall_of_Fame "Ohio Women's Hall of Fame") in 1981, in the category of Government and Military Service.{{Cite web \|title\=Upton, Harriet Taylor (1853\-1945\) \|url\=https://www.trumbullcountyhistory.com/upton\-harriet\-taylor\-1853\-1945/ \|website\=TrumbullCountyHistory.com \|last\=Metzger \|first\=Kayla \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-01 \|language\=en\-US}} In early 2010, Upton was proposed by the [Ohio Historical Society](/wiki/Ohio_Historical_Society "Ohio Historical Society") as a finalist in a statewide vote for inclusion in [Statuary Hall](/wiki/Statuary_Hall "Statuary Hall") at the [United States Capitol](/wiki/United_States_Capitol "United States Capitol").{{Cite web \|title\=A divided Ohio honored Allen in Washington’s Statuary Hall \|url\=https://www.springfieldnewssun.com/news/state\-\-regional/divided\-ohio\-honored\-allen\-washington\-statuary\-hall/T00UGv4ODWMtiXhCwC9S8H/ \|publisher\=\[\[Springfield News\-Sun]] \|last\=Hershey \|first\=William \|date\=2010\-03\-13 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-01 \|language\=en\-US}} The [Harriet Taylor Upton House](/wiki/Harriet_Taylor_Upton_House "Harriet Taylor Upton House") in Warren, Ohio, is a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark "National Historic Landmark").{{cite web\|url\=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId\=2144\&ResourceType\=Building\|title\=Harriet Taylor Upton House\|accessdate\=2008\-06\-16\|work\=National Historic Landmark summary listing\|publisher\=National Park Service\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606212828/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId\=2144\&ResourceType\=Building\|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-06}} In March 2021, [Mike Loychik](/wiki/Mike_Loychik "Mike Loychik"), a member of the [Ohio House of Representatives](/wiki/Ohio_House_of_Representatives "Ohio House of Representatives") proposed a bill that would rename Ohio's [Mosquito Lake State Park](/wiki/Mosquito_Lake_State_Park "Mosquito Lake State Park") to "Donald J. Trump State Park".{{Cite web \|last\=Tobias \|first\=Andrew \|date\=2021\-03\-12 \|title\=Ohio lawmaker wants to rename Mosquito Lake State Park in honor of Donald Trump \|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/open/2021/03/ohio\-lawmaker\-wants\-to\-rename\-mosquito\-lake\-state\-park\-in\-honor\-of\-donald\-trump.html \|access\-date\=2021\-03\-17 \|website\=Cleveland}} In response to this, a local resident began a petition with the goal of renaming it after Harriet Taylor Upton.{{Cite web \|last\=Cerjak \|first\=Jason \|date\=2021\-03\-17 \|title\=Hubbard woman dumps Trump name idea, has a new idea for Mosquito Lake \|url\=https://www.wkbn.com/news/local\-news/hubbard\-woman\-dumps\-trump\-name\-idea\-has\-a\-new\-idea\-for\-mosquito\-lake/ \|access\-date\=2021\-03\-17 \|website\=WKBN}}
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early history", "Harriet Taylor was born December 17, 1853, in [Ravenna, Ohio](/wiki/Ravenna%2C_Ohio \"Ravenna, Ohio\"), the daughter of [Ezra Taylor](/wiki/Ezra_B._Taylor \"Ezra B. Taylor\"), an Ohio judge.{{cite book \\|title\\=Ohio, A four volume reference library on the History of a Great State \\| editor1\\-first\\=Simeon D. \\|editor1\\-last\\=Fess \\|editor1\\-link\\=Simeon D. Fess\\|volume\\=4 \\|year\\=1937 \\|publisher\\=Lewis Publishing Company \\|location\\=Chicago \\|page\\=435 \\|oclc\\=418516 }}", "In 1861, the Taylor family moved to [Warren, Ohio](/wiki/Warren%2C_Ohio \"Warren, Ohio\"), and it was there that Harriet attended school. Her formal education was limited to the [public schools](/wiki/State_school \"State school\") of Warren.[Aileen S. Kraditor](/wiki/Aileen_S._Kraditor \"Aileen S. Kraditor\"), *The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890\\-1920* \\[1965]. New York: W.W. Norton \\& Co., 1981; pg. 268\\.", "Taylor married George W. Upton, an attorney, in 1884\\. Their marriage would last for 39 years.[\"Ohio Women of Note\"](http://www.ohioana.org/features/women/hupton.asp), Ohioana Library Association (ohioana.org)\n{{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060510234500/http://www.ohioana.org/features/women/hupton.asp \\|date\\=May 10, 2006 }}", "### Political career", "In 1880, Upton's father was elected as a member of the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") as a [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") from Ohio, succeeding President [James Garfield](/wiki/James_Garfield \"James Garfield\") in the position.[\"Mrs. Upton Resigns Post: Will Leave Republican National Committee to Run for Congress\"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1924/06/06/104040200.pdf), *New York Times* June 6, 1924 (paywalled). This entrance into the world of high politics provided Harriet with an opportunity to meet leading political leaders of the day, including [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony \"Susan B. Anthony\") — the person who brought Upton into the movement to win the right to vote for women.", "Upton was a key organizer and the first president of the Suffrage Association of Warren. She was also a member of the [National American Woman Suffrage Association](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association \"National American Woman Suffrage Association\") (NAWSA) from 1890\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Upton, Harriet Taylor (1853\\-1945\\) \\|url\\=https://www.trumbullcountyhistory.com/upton\\-harriet\\-taylor\\-1853\\-1945/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-01 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In 1891, Upton hosted a conclave of women seeking equal rights with men, Ohio Women in Convention, in her home.[\"Ohio Women's Hall of Fame Bio: Harriet Taylor Upton\"](http://www.odjfs.state.oh.us/women/halloffame/bio.asp?ID=300), odjfs.state.oh.us (Ohio Department of Job and Family Services). Accessed November 3, 2022\\.\n[thumb\\|[Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony \"Susan B. Anthony\") \\& [Alice Stone Blackwell](/wiki/Alice_Stone_Blackwell \"Alice Stone Blackwell\") signed [NAWSA](/wiki/National_American_Woman_Suffrage_Association \"National American Woman Suffrage Association\") check, written by the group's treasurer Harriet Taylor Upton.](/wiki/File:Susan_B._Anthony_%26_Alice_Stone_Blackwell_signed_NAWSA_check.jpg \"Susan B. Anthony & Alice Stone Blackwell signed NAWSA check.jpg\")\nIn 1894, Upton was elected as the treasurer of the NAWSA, the leading national woman suffrage organization. She brought the headquarters of that organization home to Warren, Ohio, from 1903 to 1910, the end of her tenure in that position. In her memoir, she noted that women's right to vote had come at some cost: a decline in chivalry. \"Men may not be as good to us as they were before we got the vote, but they have a lot more respect for us.\" In her view, the tradeoff was worth the cost. Additionally, Upton served as president of the Ohio Woman Suffrage Association[Ohio Memory, a product of the Ohio Historical Society and the State Library of Ohio \\| View Images](https://server16007.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/p267401coll36&CISOPTR=16642&REC=13). Server16007\\.contentdm.oclc.org. Retrieved on April 2, 2018\\. from 1899 to 1908, and again from 1911 to 1920\\.\n[thumb\\|Harriet Taylor Upton, 1921](/wiki/File:Harriet_Taylor_Upton_1921.png \"Harriet Taylor Upton 1921.png\")\n[thumb\\|standing: [Corinne Roosevelt Robinson](/wiki/Corinne_Roosevelt_Robinson \"Corinne Roosevelt Robinson\"), Mrs. Jennette Hyde, Mrs. Carrie Fosseen, seated: Mrs. Arthur Livermore, Mrs. Harriet Upton, Mrs. Christine Bradley, {{circa\\|1921}}{{cite web \\|author1\\=Underwood \\& Underwood \\|title\\=Famous G.O.P. women arrive \\|url\\=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/00652558/ \\|website\\=loc.gov \\|access\\-date\\=20 August 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=1921}}](/wiki/File:Famous_G.O.P._women_arrive_LCCN00652558.jpg \"Famous G.O.P. women arrive LCCN00652558.jpg\")", "In 1920, Upton was elected Vice Chair of the Executive Committee of the [Republican National Committee](/wiki/Republican_National_Committee \"Republican National Committee\"). She was the first woman to serve on that highest national body of Republican Party politics. She stepped down from this position in June 1924 in an attempt to follow her father into the halls of Congress, running unsuccessfully in the August Republican [primary election](/wiki/Partisan_primary \"Partisan primary\") in the Ohio 19th District for the House of Representatives.", "In 1928, Upton served as the assistant [campaign manager](/wiki/Campaign_manager \"Campaign manager\") for the [Republican Party of Ohio](/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Ohio \"Republican Party of Ohio\"). For all her successes and honors on the national stage, Upton's personal electoral success was modest, being the first woman to be elected to the Warren Board of Education.", "Throughout her life Upton participated in a number of other organizations, including the [Daughters of the American Revolution](/wiki/Daughters_of_the_American_Revolution \"Daughters of the American Revolution\"), the [Woman's Christian Temperance Union](/wiki/Women%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union \"Women's Christian Temperance Union\"), the [Women's Relief Corps](/wiki/Women%27s_Relief_Corps \"Women's Relief Corps\"), and the [Episcopal Church](/wiki/Episcopal_Church_%28United_States%29 \"Episcopal Church (United States)\").", "### Death and legacy", "Harriet Taylor Upton died in [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\"), on November 2, 1945, aged 91\\. She was inducted into the [Ohio Women's Hall of Fame](/wiki/Ohio_Women%27s_Hall_of_Fame \"Ohio Women's Hall of Fame\") in 1981, in the category of Government and Military Service.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Upton, Harriet Taylor (1853\\-1945\\) \\|url\\=https://www.trumbullcountyhistory.com/upton\\-harriet\\-taylor\\-1853\\-1945/ \\|website\\=TrumbullCountyHistory.com \\|last\\=Metzger \\|first\\=Kayla \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-01 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "In early 2010, Upton was proposed by the [Ohio Historical Society](/wiki/Ohio_Historical_Society \"Ohio Historical Society\") as a finalist in a statewide vote for inclusion in [Statuary Hall](/wiki/Statuary_Hall \"Statuary Hall\") at the [United States Capitol](/wiki/United_States_Capitol \"United States Capitol\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=A divided Ohio honored Allen in Washington’s Statuary Hall \\|url\\=https://www.springfieldnewssun.com/news/state\\-\\-regional/divided\\-ohio\\-honored\\-allen\\-washington\\-statuary\\-hall/T00UGv4ODWMtiXhCwC9S8H/ \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springfield News\\-Sun]] \\|last\\=Hershey \\|first\\=William \\|date\\=2010\\-03\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-01 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "The [Harriet Taylor Upton House](/wiki/Harriet_Taylor_Upton_House \"Harriet Taylor Upton House\") in Warren, Ohio, is a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark \"National Historic Landmark\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId\\=2144\\&ResourceType\\=Building\\|title\\=Harriet Taylor Upton House\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-06\\-16\\|work\\=National Historic Landmark summary listing\\|publisher\\=National Park Service\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606212828/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId\\=2144\\&ResourceType\\=Building\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-06}}", "In March 2021, [Mike Loychik](/wiki/Mike_Loychik \"Mike Loychik\"), a member of the [Ohio House of Representatives](/wiki/Ohio_House_of_Representatives \"Ohio House of Representatives\") proposed a bill that would rename Ohio's [Mosquito Lake State Park](/wiki/Mosquito_Lake_State_Park \"Mosquito Lake State Park\") to \"Donald J. Trump State Park\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Tobias \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-12 \\|title\\=Ohio lawmaker wants to rename Mosquito Lake State Park in honor of Donald Trump \\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/open/2021/03/ohio\\-lawmaker\\-wants\\-to\\-rename\\-mosquito\\-lake\\-state\\-park\\-in\\-honor\\-of\\-donald\\-trump.html \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-17 \\|website\\=Cleveland}} In response to this, a local resident began a petition with the goal of renaming it after Harriet Taylor Upton.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cerjak \\|first\\=Jason \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-17 \\|title\\=Hubbard woman dumps Trump name idea, has a new idea for Mosquito Lake \\|url\\=https://www.wkbn.com/news/local\\-news/hubbard\\-woman\\-dumps\\-trump\\-name\\-idea\\-has\\-a\\-new\\-idea\\-for\\-mosquito\\-lake/ \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-17 \\|website\\=WKBN}}", "" ]
Topography ---------- The [Western Fells](/wiki/Western_Fells "Western Fells") occupy a triangular sector of the Lake District, bordered by the River Cocker to the north east and [Wasdale](/wiki/Wasdale "Wasdale") to the south east. Westwards the hills diminish toward the coastal plain of Cumberland. At the central hub of the high country are [Great Gable](/wiki/Great_Gable "Great Gable") and its satellites, while two principal ridges fan out on either flank of [Ennerdale](/wiki/Ennerdale%2C_Cumbria "Ennerdale, Cumbria"), the western fells in effect being a great horseshoe around this long wild valley.[Alfred Wainwright](/wiki/Alfred_Wainwright "Alfred Wainwright"): *A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, Volume 7 The Western Fells*: Westmorland Gazette (1966\): {{ISBN\|0\-7112\-2460\-9}} Scoat Fell is on the southern arm. The main watershed runs broadly westwards from Great Gable, dividing the headwaters of Ennerdale and [Wasdale](/wiki/Wasdale "Wasdale"). The principal fells in this section are [Kirk Fell](/wiki/Kirk_Fell "Kirk Fell"), [Pillar](/wiki/Pillar_%28Lake_District%29 "Pillar (Lake District)"), Scoat Fell, [Haycock](/wiki/Haycock_%28Lake_District%29 "Haycock (Lake District)") and [Caw Fell](/wiki/Caw_Fell "Caw Fell"), followed by the lower [Lank Rigg](/wiki/Lank_Rigg "Lank Rigg") group. Scoat Fell occupies an important position at the crossroads of five ridges. To the east, across the subsidiary top of Black Crag, is Pillar. Southward is a long descending ridge heading toward the shore of Wastwater. The high point is [Red Pike](/wiki/Red_Pike_%28Wasdale%29 "Red Pike (Wasdale)"), before the terminal height of [Yewbarrow](/wiki/Yewbarrow "Yewbarrow"). The main watershed continues west to Haycock, while two short spurs jut north into Ennerdale. These are Tewit How which descends from the western end of the plateau and [Steeple](/wiki/Steeple_%28Lake_District%29 "Steeple (Lake District)"), running from the summit. As the radial point of so many ridges Scoat Fell forms the head of several valleys, the major ones being the Wasdale feeders of Mosedale and Nether Beck. Mosedale begins on the eastern flanks of Scoat Fell, between Red Pike and Pillar, in the hollow of Black Comb. There are crags in the headwall, particularly to the south. Nether Beck has its birth at Scoat Tarn, a large pool to the south of the fell. This corrie [tarn](/wiki/Tarn_%28lake%29 "Tarn (lake)"), held in place by grassy [moraines](/wiki/Moraine "Moraine") is around 65 ft deep.Blair, Don: *Exploring Lakeland Tarns*: Lakeland Manor Press (2003\): {{ISBN\|0\-9543904\-1\-5}} Between Steeple and Pillar to the north is Windgap Cove with Black Crag, a [Hewitt](/wiki/Hewitt_%28hill%29 "Hewitt (hill)") at its head. Wind Gap is the [col](/wiki/Mountain_pass "Mountain pass") between Black Crag and Pillar, while the small Mirk Cove lies between Black Crag and the summit. Finally Mirklin Cove is the corrie between Steeple and Tewit How, drained into Ennerdale by Low Beck. All of the northern coves are home to impressive crags. Of Scoat Fell's various satellites, Little Scoat Fell and Black Fell are generally considered to be a part of the parent fell, while Steeple, despite its clearly derivative position, is counted as a separate fell. This is due to its impressive appearance from Ennerdale rather than any great [relative height](/wiki/Topographic_prominence "Topographic prominence"), a triumph of the emotions over logic.
[ "Topography\n----------", "The [Western Fells](/wiki/Western_Fells \"Western Fells\") occupy a triangular sector of the Lake District, bordered by the River Cocker to the north east and [Wasdale](/wiki/Wasdale \"Wasdale\") to the south east. Westwards the hills diminish toward the coastal plain of Cumberland. At the central hub of the high country are [Great Gable](/wiki/Great_Gable \"Great Gable\") and its satellites, while two principal ridges fan out on either flank of [Ennerdale](/wiki/Ennerdale%2C_Cumbria \"Ennerdale, Cumbria\"), the western fells in effect being a great horseshoe around this long wild valley.[Alfred Wainwright](/wiki/Alfred_Wainwright \"Alfred Wainwright\"): *A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, Volume 7 The Western Fells*: Westmorland Gazette (1966\\): {{ISBN\\|0\\-7112\\-2460\\-9}} Scoat Fell is on the southern arm.", "The main watershed runs broadly westwards from Great Gable, dividing the headwaters of Ennerdale and [Wasdale](/wiki/Wasdale \"Wasdale\"). The principal fells in this section are [Kirk Fell](/wiki/Kirk_Fell \"Kirk Fell\"), [Pillar](/wiki/Pillar_%28Lake_District%29 \"Pillar (Lake District)\"), Scoat Fell, [Haycock](/wiki/Haycock_%28Lake_District%29 \"Haycock (Lake District)\") and [Caw Fell](/wiki/Caw_Fell \"Caw Fell\"), followed by the lower [Lank Rigg](/wiki/Lank_Rigg \"Lank Rigg\") group.", "Scoat Fell occupies an important position at the crossroads of five ridges. To the east, across the subsidiary top of Black Crag, is Pillar. Southward is a long descending ridge heading toward the shore of Wastwater. The high point is [Red Pike](/wiki/Red_Pike_%28Wasdale%29 \"Red Pike (Wasdale)\"), before the terminal height of [Yewbarrow](/wiki/Yewbarrow \"Yewbarrow\"). The main watershed continues west to Haycock, while two short spurs jut north into Ennerdale. These are Tewit How which descends from the western end of the plateau and [Steeple](/wiki/Steeple_%28Lake_District%29 \"Steeple (Lake District)\"), running from the summit.", "As the radial point of so many ridges Scoat Fell forms the head of several valleys, the major ones being the Wasdale feeders of Mosedale and Nether Beck. Mosedale begins on the eastern flanks of Scoat Fell, between Red Pike and Pillar, in the hollow of Black Comb. There are crags in the headwall, particularly to the south. Nether Beck has its birth at Scoat Tarn, a large pool to the south of the fell. This corrie [tarn](/wiki/Tarn_%28lake%29 \"Tarn (lake)\"), held in place by grassy [moraines](/wiki/Moraine \"Moraine\") is around 65 ft deep.Blair, Don: *Exploring Lakeland Tarns*: Lakeland Manor Press (2003\\): {{ISBN\\|0\\-9543904\\-1\\-5}} Between Steeple and Pillar to the north is Windgap Cove with Black Crag, a [Hewitt](/wiki/Hewitt_%28hill%29 \"Hewitt (hill)\") at its head. Wind Gap is the [col](/wiki/Mountain_pass \"Mountain pass\") between Black Crag and Pillar, while the small Mirk Cove lies between Black Crag and the summit. Finally Mirklin Cove is the corrie between Steeple and Tewit How, drained into Ennerdale by Low Beck. All of the northern coves are home to impressive crags.", "Of Scoat Fell's various satellites, Little Scoat Fell and Black Fell are generally considered to be a part of the parent fell, while Steeple, despite its clearly derivative position, is counted as a separate fell. This is due to its impressive appearance from Ennerdale rather than any great [relative height](/wiki/Topographic_prominence \"Topographic prominence\"), a triumph of the emotions over logic.", "" ]
Plot summary ------------ In 2075, teenager Matt Dodson applies to join the prestigious Interplanetary Patrol. After a number of physical, mental, and ethics tests, he is accepted as a cadet. He makes friends with fellow recruits William "Tex" Jarman, [Venus](/wiki/Venus "Venus")\-born Oscar Jensen, and Pierre Armand from [Ganymede](/wiki/Ganymede_%28moon%29 "Ganymede (moon)"). His first roommate is Girard Burke, the arrogant son of a wealthy spaceship builder. They are transported to the orbiting [school ship](/wiki/School_ship "School ship") PRS *James Randolph* for further training. Burke eventually either resigns or is asked to leave, and goes into the merchant service, but the remainder do well enough to be assigned to working Patrol ships. Dodson, Jarman and Jensen ship out on the *Aes Triplex*. Their first real mission is to help search for a missing research vessel, the *Pathfinder*, in the [asteroid belt](/wiki/Asteroid_belt "Asteroid belt"). They find it, but all aboard are dead, the unlucky victims of a fast\-moving object that punctured the ship when the armored outer airlock door was open. Before the accident, a researcher on the *Pathfinder* had found evidence that the [planet which blew up to form the asteroids](/wiki/Phaeton_%28hypothetical_planet%29 "Phaeton (hypothetical planet)") was inhabited by an intelligent species, and that the explosion had been artificial. The captain of the *Aes Triplex* transfers half the crew to the repaired *Pathfinder* so that they can take the ship and the news of the startling discovery back to Earth quickly. With the remainder (including all three cadets), he plots a slower, fuel\-efficient, elliptical voyage back to Earth. Then, he receives an urgent message to investigate an incident on Venus. He sends Lieutenant Thurlow and the cadets to the planet's surface. The lander touches down on a [sinkhole](/wiki/Sinkhole "Sinkhole"), giving the crew barely enough time to get out before it disappears in the mud. With Thurlow comatose, injured when the lander fell over, Jensen assumes command. He contacts the sentient, usually friendly Venerians, but the entire party is taken captive. They soon find out why. These particular natives had never seen human beings before, until old classmate Burke showed up in a prospecting ship. He had taken the matriarch of the local clan hostage when she refused to give him permission to exploit a rich deposit of radioactive ores. The locals promptly attacked the ship and killed his crew; Burke managed to send a message for help before being taken prisoner. Jensen gains the matriarch's trust and convinces her that they are honorable and civilized, unlike Burke, and the Patrolmen are released. Unfortunately, neither the lander nor Burke's ship is flightworthy. To their amazement, the matriarch takes the stranded humans to the carefully preserved *Astarte*, the legendary first ship to set out for Venus over a century before and thought to have been lost en route. According to the log, the crew perished from disease. With the help of the natives, the cadets recommission the ship and fly it back to Venus's South Pole colony. Dodson is initially disappointed when they are not treated as heroes, but then realizes that what they accomplished was simply what was expected of Patrolmen.
[ "Plot summary\n------------", "In 2075, teenager Matt Dodson applies to join the prestigious Interplanetary Patrol. After a number of physical, mental, and ethics tests, he is accepted as a cadet. He makes friends with fellow recruits William \"Tex\" Jarman, [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\")\\-born Oscar Jensen, and Pierre Armand from [Ganymede](/wiki/Ganymede_%28moon%29 \"Ganymede (moon)\"). His first roommate is Girard Burke, the arrogant son of a wealthy spaceship builder. They are transported to the orbiting [school ship](/wiki/School_ship \"School ship\") PRS *James Randolph* for further training. Burke eventually either resigns or is asked to leave, and goes into the merchant service, but the remainder do well enough to be assigned to working Patrol ships.", "Dodson, Jarman and Jensen ship out on the *Aes Triplex*. Their first real mission is to help search for a missing research vessel, the *Pathfinder*, in the [asteroid belt](/wiki/Asteroid_belt \"Asteroid belt\"). They find it, but all aboard are dead, the unlucky victims of a fast\\-moving object that punctured the ship when the armored outer airlock door was open. Before the accident, a researcher on the *Pathfinder* had found evidence that the [planet which blew up to form the asteroids](/wiki/Phaeton_%28hypothetical_planet%29 \"Phaeton (hypothetical planet)\") was inhabited by an intelligent species, and that the explosion had been artificial. The captain of the *Aes Triplex* transfers half the crew to the repaired *Pathfinder* so that they can take the ship and the news of the startling discovery back to Earth quickly. With the remainder (including all three cadets), he plots a slower, fuel\\-efficient, elliptical voyage back to Earth.", "Then, he receives an urgent message to investigate an incident on Venus. He sends Lieutenant Thurlow and the cadets to the planet's surface. The lander touches down on a [sinkhole](/wiki/Sinkhole \"Sinkhole\"), giving the crew barely enough time to get out before it disappears in the mud. With Thurlow comatose, injured when the lander fell over, Jensen assumes command. He contacts the sentient, usually friendly Venerians, but the entire party is taken captive. They soon find out why.", "These particular natives had never seen human beings before, until old classmate Burke showed up in a prospecting ship. He had taken the matriarch of the local clan hostage when she refused to give him permission to exploit a rich deposit of radioactive ores. The locals promptly attacked the ship and killed his crew; Burke managed to send a message for help before being taken prisoner.", "Jensen gains the matriarch's trust and convinces her that they are honorable and civilized, unlike Burke, and the Patrolmen are released. Unfortunately, neither the lander nor Burke's ship is flightworthy. To their amazement, the matriarch takes the stranded humans to the carefully preserved *Astarte*, the legendary first ship to set out for Venus over a century before and thought to have been lost en route. According to the log, the crew perished from disease. With the help of the natives, the cadets recommission the ship and fly it back to Venus's South Pole colony. Dodson is initially disappointed when they are not treated as heroes, but then realizes that what they accomplished was simply what was expected of Patrolmen.", "" ]
Themes ------ The Patrol is entrusted by the worldwide [Earth](/wiki/Earth "Earth") government with a monopoly on [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon"), and is expected to maintain a credible threat to drop them on Earth from orbit as a [deterrent](/wiki/Deterrence_theory "Deterrence theory") against breaking the peace. Matt, on a visit home, causes a family argument when his parents refuse to believe that the Patrol—and especially their son—would actually bomb Iowa. The cadets are expected to renounce their loyalty to their respective countries and replace it by a wider allegiance to [humanity](/wiki/Human "Human") as a whole and to the sentient species of the Solar System. They are told the stories of four Patrol heroes/martyrs who exemplify this quality. One of them, Rivera, leaves orders to annihilate his hometown if he is held captive there during negotiations. Heinlein later expanded another of these anecdotes into "[The Long Watch](/wiki/The_Long_Watch "The Long Watch")". The young, idealistic Matt feels that he should be able, if the need arose, to emulate Rivera and destroy his own Iowa hometown. His father tells him such a need would never arise, since the Patrol's cosmopolitan allegiance is little more than a sham and in fact it is controlled by the "North American Federation" and serves its interests. Later, Matt's mentor in the Patrol makes him understand that if such an unlikely dilemma should arise, his commanding officer would lock him in his room rather than expect him to participate in the attack. The mentor uses this scenario to force Matt to confront the personal and political issues involved in the institutional control of atomic weapons in a more mature way. Written almost a decade before the [American Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/American_Civil_Rights_Movement "American Civil Rights Movement"), and at a time when non\-white characters were almost entirely absent from science fiction, the book also explores the theme of [racism](/wiki/Racism "Racism"), both literally, in discussions about the cosmopolitan racial makeup of the (all\-male) Patrol, and metaphorically, in its description of conflict with the Venerians. [Venus is described](/wiki/Venus_in_fiction%23Swamp "Venus in fiction#Swamp"){{Broken anchor\|date\=2024\-03\-24\|bot\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\|reason\= The anchor (Swamp) \[\[Special:Diff/1061064162\|has been deleted]].}} as intensely hot and (incorrectly, as is now known) swampy, but habitable. The Venerians are at first thought to be primitive, but it is later revealed that they have a high level of technological sophistication, though developed along radically different lines than that of humans. There is also a subplot revolving around the issue of what it means to be a good soldier. Discouraged by the intellectual demands of his Patrol training, and attracted to the glamor and esprit de corps of the [Marines](/wiki/Space_marines "Space marines"), Matt requests a transfer, but is dissuaded by his mentor. The mentor, dividing human motivations into three types, explains that the Patrol, which has the responsibility of holding the ultimate weapon and keeping overall peace, is manned by a certain sort of person, the man of ideals (its motto is *[Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?](/wiki/Quis_custodiet_ipsos_custodes%3F "Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?")).* In contrast, the Marines, the service branch which deals with ordinary military affairs, are trained to prize unquestioning loyalty and bravery as the highest ideals, and are deliberately recruited from the type of person who seeks glory and excitement. Matt belongs to the former category. The Merchant Service, by implication, is for a third category, those motivated by economic concerns — which is where Burke fits in. The novel contains an early description of a [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone"): {{quote\|Matt dug a candy bar out of his pouch, split it and gave half to Jarman, who accepted it gratefully. "You're a pal, Matt, I've been living on my own fat ever since breakfast \-\- and that's risky. Say, your telephone is sounding. "Oh!" Matt fumbled in his pouch and got out his phone. "Hello?"}} The phone "was limited by its short range to the neighborhood of an earth\-side \[i.e. terrestrial] relay office". A cadet avoids having to talk to his family while traveling by packing his phone in luggage.
[ "Themes\n------", "The Patrol is entrusted by the worldwide [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") government with a monopoly on [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\"), and is expected to maintain a credible threat to drop them on Earth from orbit as a [deterrent](/wiki/Deterrence_theory \"Deterrence theory\") against breaking the peace. Matt, on a visit home, causes a family argument when his parents refuse to believe that the Patrol—and especially their son—would actually bomb Iowa.", "The cadets are expected to renounce their loyalty to their respective countries and replace it by a wider allegiance to [humanity](/wiki/Human \"Human\") as a whole and to the sentient species of the Solar System. They are told the stories of four Patrol heroes/martyrs who exemplify this quality. One of them, Rivera, leaves orders to annihilate his hometown if he is held captive there during negotiations. Heinlein later expanded another of these anecdotes into \"[The Long Watch](/wiki/The_Long_Watch \"The Long Watch\")\".", "The young, idealistic Matt feels that he should be able, if the need arose, to emulate Rivera and destroy his own Iowa hometown. His father tells him such a need would never arise, since the Patrol's cosmopolitan allegiance is little more than a sham and in fact it is controlled by the \"North American Federation\" and serves its interests. Later, Matt's mentor in the Patrol makes him understand that if such an unlikely dilemma should arise, his commanding officer would lock him in his room rather than expect him to participate in the attack. The mentor uses this scenario to force Matt to confront the personal and political issues involved in the institutional control of atomic weapons in a more mature way.", "Written almost a decade before the [American Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/American_Civil_Rights_Movement \"American Civil Rights Movement\"), and at a time when non\\-white characters were almost entirely absent from science fiction, the book also explores the theme of [racism](/wiki/Racism \"Racism\"), both literally, in discussions about the cosmopolitan racial makeup of the (all\\-male) Patrol, and metaphorically, in its description of conflict with the Venerians. [Venus is described](/wiki/Venus_in_fiction%23Swamp \"Venus in fiction#Swamp\"){{Broken anchor\\|date\\=2024\\-03\\-24\\|bot\\=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration\\|reason\\= The anchor (Swamp) \\[\\[Special:Diff/1061064162\\|has been deleted]].}} as intensely hot and (incorrectly, as is now known) swampy, but habitable. The Venerians are at first thought to be primitive, but it is later revealed that they have a high level of technological sophistication, though developed along radically different lines than that of humans.", "There is also a subplot revolving around the issue of what it means to be a good soldier. Discouraged by the intellectual demands of his Patrol training, and attracted to the glamor and esprit de corps of the [Marines](/wiki/Space_marines \"Space marines\"), Matt requests a transfer, but is dissuaded by his mentor. The mentor, dividing human motivations into three types, explains that the Patrol, which has the responsibility of holding the ultimate weapon and keeping overall peace, is manned by a certain sort of person, the man of ideals (its motto is *[Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?](/wiki/Quis_custodiet_ipsos_custodes%3F \"Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?\")).* In contrast, the Marines, the service branch which deals with ordinary military affairs, are trained to prize unquestioning loyalty and bravery as the highest ideals, and are deliberately recruited from the type of person who seeks glory and excitement. Matt belongs to the former category. The Merchant Service, by implication, is for a third category, those motivated by economic concerns — which is where Burke fits in.", "The novel contains an early description of a [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\"):", "{{quote\\|Matt dug a candy bar out of his pouch, split it and gave half to Jarman, who accepted it gratefully. \"You're a pal, Matt, I've been living on my own fat ever since breakfast \\-\\- and that's risky. Say, your telephone is sounding.", "\"Oh!\" Matt fumbled in his pouch and got out his phone. \"Hello?\"}}", "The phone \"was limited by its short range to the neighborhood of an earth\\-side \\[i.e. terrestrial] relay office\". A cadet avoids having to talk to his family while traveling by packing his phone in luggage.", "" ]
Actor – theatre --------------- In 2004 Brennan performed as one of the leads in *A Little Silhouette of a Man* at the Theatre Royal [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester "Winchester"). Brennan then toured the South West of the UK with a production by Wessex Actors Company, as the lead role in *Does Santa Really Dream of Reindeer*. The show played 13 venues across the region and was well reviewed. He teamed up again with the Wessex Actors Company in 2005 for a larger scale tour of [The Mayor of Casterbridge](/wiki/The_Mayor_of_Casterbridge "The Mayor of Casterbridge") in a lead supporting role as Donald Farfrae, directed by Michael Barry. The play toured 18 venues across [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset "Dorset"), [Devon](/wiki/Devon "Devon"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall "Cornwall") and [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset "Somerset"). 2006 saw Brennan take the stage in Joe Flavin's production of *Blue* in [Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden "London Borough of Camden"), London, as one of three actors dealing with the loss of their friend. In 2008 at the [Edinburgh Fringe Festival](/wiki/Edinburgh_Fringe_Festival "Edinburgh Fringe Festival"), Brennan drew rave reviews for his "brilliantly convincing"[http://www.edinburghfestival.list.co.uk/article/11198\-the\-open\-couple](http://www.edinburghfestival.list.co.uk/article/11198-the-open-couple) {{Dead link\|date\=March 2022}} performance in the two hander *The Open Couple* playing opposite Jennifer Sarah Dean and directed by Peter Snee. There were also performances in London. In 2012 he gave his voice to a recorded version, performed live with puppets of *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol "A Christmas Carol")*, performing the role of Bob Cratchett, directed by Peter Snee. In 2013 he performed as Theo [Houdini](/wiki/Houdini "Houdini") in the lead role of the play [*Houdini*](/wiki/Houdini_%28play%29 "Houdini (play)") in the UK \& Ireland Tour. Although the play drew mixed reviews, including a strong four\-star review from *[The Stage](/wiki/The_Stage "The Stage")*, Brennan for the most part was praised, with comparisons being made to a young De Niro, Brando and even Daniel Day\-Lewis. In 2016 he was the lead role of Professor Goodman in the national Australian tour of *Ghost Stories*, directed by Jennifer Sarah Dean and Peter Snee. The play earned strong reviews and sold out many of its dates as it toured Melbourne, Adelaide, Wagga Wagga, Canberra, Perth and Geelong.{{cite web\|url\=https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/ghost\-stories\-a\-live\-fright\-ng\-ya\-117489\|title \= Ghost Stories a live fright\|date \= 7 September 2016}}
[ "Actor – theatre\n---------------", "In 2004 Brennan performed as one of the leads in *A Little Silhouette of a Man* at the Theatre Royal [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester \"Winchester\"). Brennan then toured the South West of the UK with a production by Wessex Actors Company, as the lead role in *Does Santa Really Dream of Reindeer*. The show played 13 venues across the region and was well reviewed.", "He teamed up again with the Wessex Actors Company in 2005 for a larger scale tour of [The Mayor of Casterbridge](/wiki/The_Mayor_of_Casterbridge \"The Mayor of Casterbridge\") in a lead supporting role as Donald Farfrae, directed by Michael Barry. The play toured 18 venues across [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset \"Dorset\"), [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall \"Cornwall\") and [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset \"Somerset\").", "2006 saw Brennan take the stage in Joe Flavin's production of *Blue* in [Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden \"London Borough of Camden\"), London, as one of three actors dealing with the loss of their friend.", "In 2008 at the [Edinburgh Fringe Festival](/wiki/Edinburgh_Fringe_Festival \"Edinburgh Fringe Festival\"), Brennan drew rave reviews for his \"brilliantly convincing\"[http://www.edinburghfestival.list.co.uk/article/11198\\-the\\-open\\-couple](http://www.edinburghfestival.list.co.uk/article/11198-the-open-couple) {{Dead link\\|date\\=March 2022}} performance in the two hander *The Open Couple* playing opposite Jennifer Sarah Dean and directed by Peter Snee. There were also performances in London.", "In 2012 he gave his voice to a recorded version, performed live with puppets of *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol \"A Christmas Carol\")*, performing the role of Bob Cratchett, directed by Peter Snee.", "In 2013 he performed as Theo [Houdini](/wiki/Houdini \"Houdini\") in the lead role of the play [*Houdini*](/wiki/Houdini_%28play%29 \"Houdini (play)\") in the UK \\& Ireland Tour. Although the play drew mixed reviews, including a strong four\\-star review from *[The Stage](/wiki/The_Stage \"The Stage\")*, Brennan for the most part was praised, with comparisons being made to a young De Niro, Brando and even Daniel Day\\-Lewis.", "In 2016 he was the lead role of Professor Goodman in the national Australian tour of *Ghost Stories*, directed by Jennifer Sarah Dean and Peter Snee. The play earned strong reviews and sold out many of its dates as it toured Melbourne, Adelaide, Wagga Wagga, Canberra, Perth and Geelong.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/ghost\\-stories\\-a\\-live\\-fright\\-ng\\-ya\\-117489\\|title \\= Ghost Stories a live fright\\|date \\= 7 September 2016}}", "" ]
History ------- The region was home to several [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe") tribes at the start of the 19th century, with a particularly significant community established near present\-day [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose%2C_Michigan "Montrose, Michigan"). The Flint River had several convenient fords which became points of contention among rival tribes, as attested by the presence of nearby arrowheads and burial mounds. Some of the city currently resides atop ancient Ojibwe burial grounds.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2009/12/ancestral\_remains\_recovered\_fr.html\|title\=Ancestral remains recovered from American Indian burial ground in Flint\|work\=MLive.com\|access\-date\=July 12, 2017\|language\=en\-US}} ### 19th century: lumber and the beginnings of the automobile industry In 1819, [Jacob Smith](/wiki/Jacob_Smith_%28Michigan_fur_trader%29 "Jacob Smith (Michigan fur trader)"), a fur trader on cordial terms with both the local Ojibwe and the territorial government, founded a trading post at the Grand Traverse of the Flint River. On several occasions, Smith negotiated land exchanges with the Ojibwe on behalf of the U.S. government, and he was highly regarded on both sides. Smith apportioned many of his holdings to his children. As the ideal stopover on the overland route between Detroit and [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan "Saginaw, Michigan"), Flint grew into a small but prosperous village and incorporated in 1855\. The 1860 U.S. census indicated that Genesee County had a population of 22,498 of Michigan's 750,000\. In the latter half of the 19th century, Flint became a center of the Michigan lumber industry. Revenue from lumber funded the establishment of a local carriage\-making industry. As horse\-drawn carriages gave way to the automobiles, Flint then naturally grew into a major player in the nascent auto industry. Buick Motor Company, after a rudimentary start in Detroit, soon moved to Flint. [AC Spark Plug](/wiki/ACDelco "ACDelco") originated in Flint. These were followed by several now\-defunct automobile marques such as the [Dort](/wiki/Dort_Motor_Car_Company "Dort Motor Car Company"), [Little](/wiki/Little_%28automobile%29 "Little (automobile)"), [Flint](/wiki/Flint_%28automobile%29 "Flint (automobile)"), and [Mason](/wiki/Mason_Truck "Mason Truck") brands. Chevrolet's first (and for many years, main) manufacturing facility was also in Flint, although the Chevrolet headquarters were in Detroit. For a brief period, all Chevrolets and Buicks were built in Flint. The first Ladies' Library Association in Michigan was started in Flint in 1851 in the home of Maria Smith Stockton, daughter of the founder of the community. This library, initially private, is considered the precursor of the current Flint Public Library.{{Cite web \|title\=Flint Public Library \|url\=https://www.geneseehistory.org/flint\-public\-library.html \|access\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|website\=GENESEE COUNTY HISTORICAL SOCIETY \|language\=en}} ### Early and mid\-20th century: the auto industry takes shape {{Main\|Flint, Michigan auto industry\|History of General Motors}} [thumb\|[Buick](/wiki/Buick "Buick") factory complex in Flint, 1912](/wiki/File:When_the_Whistle_Blows_at_the_Buick.jpg "When the Whistle Blows at the Buick.jpg") In 1904, local entrepreneur [William C. Durant](/wiki/William_C._Durant "William C. Durant") was brought in to manage Buick, which became the largest manufacturer of automobiles by 1908\. In 1908, Durant founded General Motors (GM), filing incorporation papers in New Jersey, with headquarters in Flint. GM moved its headquarters to Detroit in the mid\-1920s.[General Motors \| Corporate Information – History \| GM](http://www.gm.com/company/corp_info/history/gmhis1900.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610221410/http://www.gm.com/company/corp\_info/history/gmhis1900\.html \|date\=June 10, 2011 }} Durant lost control of GM twice during his lifetime. On the first occasion, he befriended [Louis Chevrolet](/wiki/Louis_Chevrolet "Louis Chevrolet") and founded Chevrolet, which was a runaway success. He used the capital from this success to buy back share control. He later lost decisive control again, permanently. Durant experienced financial ruin in the [stock market crash of 1929](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 "Wall Street Crash of 1929") and subsequently ran a bowling alley in Flint until the time of his death in 1947\. The city's mayors were targeted for recall twice, Mayor [David R. Cuthbertson](/wiki/David_R._Cuthbertson "David R. Cuthbertson") in 1924 and Mayor [William H. McKeighan](/wiki/William_H._McKeighan "William H. McKeighan") in 1927\. Recall supporters in both cases were jailed by the police. Cuthbertson had angered the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") (KKK) by the appointment of a Catholic police chief. The KKK led the recall effort and supported [Judson Transue](/wiki/Judson_L._Transue "Judson L. Transue"), Cuthbertson's elected successor. Transue however did not remove the police chief. McKeighan survived his recall only to face conspiracy charges in 1928\.{{cite news \|first\=James M. \|last\=Miller \|title\=Crackdowns on 'reds,' booze didn't silence decade's roar \|url\=http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920main.html \|work\=\[\[Flint Journal]]: Journal of the 20th Century \|publisher\=Booth Newspapers \|access\-date\=March 6, 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527003224/http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920main.html\|archive\-date\=May 27, 2011}} McKeighan was under investigation for a multitude of crimes which angered city leaders enough to push for changes in the city charter.{{cite news\|last1\=Crawford\|first1\=Kim\|title\=Flint mayor commanded attention from – voters, police\|url\=http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920flintmayor.html\|access\-date\=October 24, 2014\|work\=Journal of the 20th Century\|publisher\=The Flint Journal\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041109020208/http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920flintmayor.html\|archive\-date\=November 9, 2004}} In 1928, the city adopted a new city charter with a council\-manager form of government. Subsequently, McKeighan ran the "Green Slate" of candidates who won in 1931 and 1932 and he was select as mayor in 1931\. In 1935, the city residents approved a charter amendment establishing the Civil Service Commission.{{cite news\|title\=Proposal 5: Voters can eliminate Flint Civil Service Commission with charter vote\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/10/proposal\_5\_voters\_can\_eliminat.html\|access\-date\=October 24, 2014\|work\=The Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=October 17, 2014}} For the last century, Flint's history has been dominated by both the auto industry and car culture. The [Sit\-Down Strike](/wiki/Flint_Sit-Down_Strike "Flint Sit-Down Strike") of 1936–1937 saw the fledgling [United Automobile Workers](/wiki/United_Auto_Workers "United Auto Workers") triumph over General Motors and establish itself as a major union, leading to widespread unionization in US industry. The successful mediation of the strike by Governor [Frank Murphy](/wiki/Frank_Murphy "Frank Murphy"), culminating in a one\-page agreement recognizing the Union and rehiring workers fired due to strike participation began an era of successful organizing by the UAW.{{cite web \|url\=http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id\=115\&category\=business \|title\=Detroit News, Rearview Mirror, ''The Sitdown strike at General Motors''. \|access\-date\=May 21, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120709044347/http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id\=115\&category\=business \|archive\-date\=July 9, 2012 }} The city was a major contributor of tanks and other war machines during World War II due to its extensive manufacturing facilities. For decades, Flint remained politically significant as a major population center as well as for its importance to the automotive industry. A freighter named after the city, the [SS *City of Flint*](/wiki/SS_City_of_Flint_%281919%29 "SS City of Flint (1919)"), was the first US ship to be captured during the Second World War, in October 1939\. The vessel was later sunk in 1943\.{{cite book \|title\=Å være eller ikke være – Under orlogsflagget i den annen verdenskrig \|last\=Bjørnsson \|first\=Nils \|year\=1994 \|publisher\=Sjømilitære Samfund ved Forlaget Norsk Tidsskrift for Sjøvesen \|location\=Haakonsvern \|isbn\=82\-990969\-3\-6 \|page\=23 \|language\=no }} On June 8, 1953, the [Flint\-Beecher tornado](/wiki/1953_Flint-Beecher_tornado "1953 Flint-Beecher tornado"), a large F5 [tornado](/wiki/Tornado "Tornado"), struck the city, killing 116 people. The city's population peaked in 1960 at almost 200,000, at which time it was the second largest city in the state. The decades of the 1950s and 1960s are seen as the height of Flint's prosperity and influence. They culminated with the establishment of many local institutions, most notably the [Flint Cultural Center](/wiki/Flint_Cultural_Center "Flint Cultural Center").{{cite web\|url\=http://flintcultural.org/ \|title\=Flint Cultural Center \|publisher\=Flintcultural.org \|access\-date\=May 21, 2012}} This landmark remains one of the city's chief commercial and artistic draws to this day. The city's [Bishop International Airport](/wiki/Bishop_International_Airport "Bishop International Airport") was the busiest in Michigan for [United Airlines](/wiki/United_Airlines "United Airlines") apart from [Detroit Metropolitan Airport](/wiki/Detroit_Metropolitan_Airport "Detroit Metropolitan Airport"), with flights to many destinations in the Mid\-West and the Mid\-Atlantic.United Airlines timetable, April 27\. 1969, <https://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/ua/ua69/> ### Late 20th century: deindustrialization and demographic changes Since the late 1960s through the end of the 20th century, Flint has suffered from [disinvestment](/wiki/Disinvestment "Disinvestment"), [deindustrialization](/wiki/Deindustrialization "Deindustrialization"), [depopulation](/wiki/Population_decline "Population decline") and [urban decay](/wiki/Urban_decay "Urban decay"), as well as high rates of crime, unemployment and poverty. Initially, this took the form of "[white flight](/wiki/White_flight "White flight")" that afflicted many urban industrialized American towns and cities. Given Flint's role in the automotive industry, this decline was exacerbated by the [1973 oil crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis "1973 oil crisis") with spiking oil prices and the U.S. auto industry's subsequent loss of market share to imports, as Japanese manufacturers were producing cars with better [fuel economy](/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobiles "Fuel economy in automobiles").Peter Cheney, 'Globe and Mail,' November 5, 2015, "The rise of Japan: How the car industry was won" [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe\-drive/adventure/red\-line/the\-rise\-of\-japan\-how\-the\-car\-industry\-was\-won/article27100187/](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/adventure/red-line/the-rise-of-japan-how-the-car-industry-was-won/article27100187/) In the 1980s, the rate of deindustrialization accelerated again with local GM employment falling from a 1978 high of 80,000 to under 8,000 by 2010\. Only 10% of the manufacturing work force from its height remains in Flint. Many factors have been blamed, including [outsourcing](/wiki/Outsourcing "Outsourcing"), [offshoring](/wiki/Offshoring "Offshoring"), increased [automation](/wiki/Automation "Automation"), and moving jobs to [non\-union](/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States "Labor unions in the United States") facilities in right to work states and foreign countries. This decline was highlighted in the film *[Roger \& Me](/wiki/Roger_%26_Me "Roger & Me")* by [Michael Moore](/wiki/Michael_Moore "Michael Moore") (the title refers to [Roger B. Smith](/wiki/Roger_Smith_%28executive%29 "Roger Smith (executive)"), the CEO of General Motors during the 1980s). Also highlighted in Moore's documentary was the failure of city officials to reverse the trends with entertainment options (e.g. the now\-demolished [AutoWorld](/wiki/AutoWorld_%28theme_park%29 "AutoWorld (theme park)")) during the 1980s. Moore, a native of [Davison](/wiki/Davison%2C_Michigan "Davison, Michigan") (a Flint suburb), revisited Flint in his later movies, including *[Bowling for Columbine](/wiki/Bowling_for_Columbine "Bowling for Columbine")*, *[Fahrenheit 9/11](/wiki/Fahrenheit_9/11 "Fahrenheit 9/11")*, and *[Fahrenheit 11/9](/wiki/Fahrenheit_11/9 "Fahrenheit 11/9")*. ### 21st century #### First financial emergency: 2002–2004 By 2002, Flint had accrued $30 million in debt.{{cite news\|last\=Mostafavi\|first\=Beata\|title\=What happened last time? A look back at Flint's 2002 state takeover\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/what\_happened\_last\_time\_a\_look.html\|access\-date\=December 5, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=November 10, 2011}} On March 5, 2002, the city's voters [recalled](/wiki/Recall_election "Recall election") Mayor [Woodrow Stanley](/wiki/Woodrow_Stanley "Woodrow Stanley"). On May 22, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan "Governor of Michigan") [John Engler](/wiki/John_Engler "John Engler") declared a financial emergency in Flint, and on July 8 the state appointed an [emergency financial manager](/wiki/Financial_emergency_in_Michigan "Financial emergency in Michigan"),{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Flint would be only Michigan city to twice undergo emergency state takeover\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/flint\_would\_be\_only\_michigan\_c.html\|access\-date\=November 14, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=November 8, 2011}} Ed Kurtz. The emergency financial manager displaced the temporary mayor, [Darnell Earley](/wiki/Darnell_Earley "Darnell Earley"), in the city administrator position. In August 2002, city voters elected former Mayor [James Rutherford](/wiki/James_W._Rutherford "James W. Rutherford") to finish the remainder of Stanley's term of office. On September 24, Kurtz commissioned a salary and wage study for top city officials from an outside accounting and consulting firm. The financial manager then installed a new code enforcement program for annual rental inspections and emergency demolitions. On October 8, Kurtz ordered cuts in pay for the mayor (from $107,000 to $24,000\) and the City Council members (from $23,000 to $18,000\). He also eliminated insurance benefits for most officials. After spending $245,000 fighting the takeover, the City Council ended the lawsuits on October 14\. Immediately thereafter on October 16, a new interim financial plan was put in place by the manager. This plan initiated controls on hiring, overnight travel and spending by city employees. On November 12, Kurtz directed the city's retirement board to stop unusual pension benefits, which had decreased some retiree pensions by 3\.5%. Kurtz sought the return of overpayments to the pension fund. However, in December, the state attorney general stated that emergency financial managers do not have authority over the retirement system. With contract talks stalled, Kurtz stated that there either need to be cuts or layoffs to union employees. That same month, the city's recreation centers were temporarily closed. Emergency measures continued in 2003\. In May, Kurtz increased water and sewer bills by 11% and shut down operations of the ombudsman's office. In September, a 4% pay cut was agreed to by the city's largest union. In October, Kurtz moved in favor of infrastructure improvements, authorizing $1 million in sewer and road projects. [Don Williamson](/wiki/Don_Williamson "Don Williamson") was elected a full\-term mayor and sworn in on November 10\. In December, city audits reported nearly $14 million in reductions in the city deficit. For the 2003–2004 budget year, estimates decreased that amount to between $6 million and $8 million. With pressure from Kurtz for large layoffs and replacement of the board on February 17, 2004, the City Retirement Board agreed to four proposals reducing the amount of the city's contribution into the system. On March 24, Kurtz indicated that he would raise the City Council's and the mayor's pay, and in May, Kurtz laid off 10 workers as part of 35 job cuts for the 2004–05 budget. In June 2004, Kurtz reported that the financial emergency was over. #### Redevelopment [thumb\|[The Durant](/wiki/The_Durant "The Durant"), built in 1919](/wiki/File:Flint_July_2018_01_%28The_Durant_-_Hotel_Durant%29.jpg "Flint July 2018 01 (The Durant - Hotel Durant).jpg") In November 2013, [American Cast Iron Pipe Company](/wiki/American_Cast_Iron_Pipe_Company "American Cast Iron Pipe Company"), a [Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama "Birmingham, Alabama") based company, became the first to build a production facility in Flint's former [Buick City](/wiki/Buick_City "Buick City") site, purchasing the property from the [RACER Trust](/wiki/RACER_Trust "RACER Trust").[Pipe maker to add 60 jobs at Flint's Buick City property](http://www.freep.com/article/20131113/BUSINESS0101/311130151/Flint-Buick-City-American-Cast-Iron-Pipe-Co-General-Motors-RACER-GM) *Detroit Free Press*, November 13, 2013 Commercially, local organizations have attempted to pool their resources in the central business district and to expand and bolster higher education at four local institutions. Examples of their efforts include the following: * Landmarks such as the First National Bank building have been extensively renovated, often to create lofts or office space, and filming for the [Will Ferrell](/wiki/Will_Ferrell "Will Ferrell") movie *[Semi\-Pro](/wiki/Semi-Pro "Semi-Pro")* resulted in renovations to the Capitol Theatre. * [The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building "The Paterson Building") at Saginaw and Third street has been owned by the Collison Family, Thomas W. Collison \& Co., Inc., for the last 30 years. The building is rich in [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") throughout the interior and exterior. The building also houses its own garage in the lower level, providing heated valet parking to The Paterson Building Tenants. * In 2004, University Park, the first planned residential community in Flint in over 30 years, was built north of Fifth Avenue off Saginaw Street, Flint's main thoroughfare. * Local foundations have funded the renovation and redecoration of Saginaw Street and have begun work turning University Avenue (formerly known as Third Avenue) into a mile\-long "University Corridor" connecting [University of Michigan–Flint](/wiki/University_of_Michigan%E2%80%93Flint "University of Michigan–Flint") with [Kettering University](/wiki/Kettering_University "Kettering University"). * [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium "Atwood Stadium"), located on University Avenue, received extensive renovations, and the Cultivating Our Community project landscaped 16 different locations as a part of a $415,600 beautification project. * Wade Trim and Rowe Incorporated made major renovations to transform empty downtown Flint blocks into business, entertainment, and housing centers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.whatsupdowntown.com \|title\=What's Up Downtown? \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202102003/http://www.whatsupdowntown.com/ \|archive\-date\=February 2, 2015 }} [WNEM\-TV](/wiki/WNEM-TV "WNEM-TV"), a television station based in [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan "Saginaw, Michigan"), uses space in the Wade Trim building facing Saginaw Street as a secondary studio and newsroom.{{cite news \|url\=http://blog.mlive.com/flintjournal/newsnow/2007/09/wnem\_plans\_studio\_in\_downtown.html \|title\=WNEM plans studio in downtown Flint \| newspaper\=The Flint Journal}} * The long\-vacant [Durant Hotel](/wiki/The_Durant "The Durant"), formerly owned by the [United Hotels Company](/wiki/United_Hotels_Company_of_America "United Hotels Company of America"),{{cite news\|title\=Receivers Named For Hotel Firm\|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-09 \|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=October 14, 2015\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=November 18, 1933}} was turned into a mixture of commercial space and apartments intended to attract young professionals or college students, with 93 units.[The Durant hotel full for the first time; site of a dozen weddings, prom and other events downtown Flint](https://www.mlive.com/business/mid-michigan/2011/08/the_durant_hotel_full_for_the.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, January 21, 2019 * In March 2008, the Crim Race Foundation put up an offer to buy the vacant Character Inn and turn it into a fitness center and do a multimillion\-dollar renovation.{{cite web\|url\=http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\=news/local\&id\=6028243 \|title\=Crim offers to purchase Character Inn \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629043405/http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\=news%2Flocal\&id\=6028243 \|archive\-date\=June 29, 2011 }} [thumb\|[The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building "The Paterson Building")](/wiki/File:The_Paterson_Building.jpg "The Paterson Building.jpg") Similar to a plan in Detroit, Flint is in the process of tearing down thousands of abandoned homes to create available real estate. As of June 2009, approximately 1,100 homes have been demolished in Flint, with one official estimating another 3,000 more will have to be torn down.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\-cities\-may\-have\-to\-be\-bulldozed\-in\-order\-to\-survive.html\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090615055407/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\-cities\-may\-have\-to\-be\-bulldozed\-in\-order\-to\-survive.html\|url\-status\= dead\|archive\-date\= June 15, 2009\|title\= US cities may have to be bulldozed in order to survive\|access\-date\=June 18, 2009\|author\= Tom Leonard\|date\= June 12, 2009\|work\=The Daily Telegraph }} #### Second financial emergency: 2011–2015 On September 30, 2011, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan "Governor of Michigan") [Rick Snyder](/wiki/Rick_Snyder "Rick Snyder") appointed an eight\-member team to review Flint's financial state with a request to report back in 30 days (half the legal time for a review).{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Gov. Snyder appoints team to review Flint's finances under emergency manager law, requests report within 30 days\| url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/09/gov\_snyder\_appoints\_team\_to\_re.html \|access\-date\=November 14, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=September 30, 2011}} On November 8, Mayor [Dayne Walling](/wiki/Dayne_Walling "Dayne Walling") defeated challenger Darryl Buchanan 8,819 votes (56%) to 6,868 votes (44%).{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=About 19 percent of voters turned out to re\-elect Flint Mayor Dayne Walling\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/about\_19\_percent\_of\_voters\_tur.html\|access\-date\=November 9, 2011\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=November 9, 2011}} That same day, the Michigan State review panel declared Flint to be in a state of a "local government financial emergency" recommending the state again appoint an emergency manager.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Dayne Walling re\-elected mayor as state declares financial emergency in Flint\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/dayne\_walling\_re\-elected\_as\_st.html\|access\-date\=November 9, 2011\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=November 9, 2011}} On November 14, the City Council voted 7 to 2 to not appeal the state review with Mayor Walling concurring the next day.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Flint emergency: Timeline of state takeover\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/12/flint\_emergency\_timeline\_of\_st\_1\.html\|access\-date\=December 1, 2012\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=December 1, 2012}} Governor Snyder appointed [Michael Brown](/wiki/Michael_Brown_%28Michigan_politician%29 "Michael Brown (Michigan politician)") as the city's emergency manager.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Former Acting Mayor Michael Brown named Flint's emergency manager\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/former\_acting\_mayor\_michael\_br.html\|access\-date\=November 29, 2011\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=November 29, 2011}} On December 2, Brown dismissed a number of top administrators. Pay and benefits from Flint's elected officials were automatically removed.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Shakeup at Flint City Hall as new emergency manager issues layoffs, pay cuts\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/12/layoffs\_pay\_cuts\_for\_some\_at\_f.html\|access\-date\=December 5, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=December 2, 2011}} On December 8, the office of ombudsman and the Civil Service Commission were eliminated by Brown. On January 16, 2012, protestors against the emergency manager law including Flint residents marched near the governor's home. The next day, Brown filed a financial and operating plan with the state as mandated by law. The next month, each ward in the city had a community engagement meeting hosted by Brown. Governor Snyder on March 7 made a statewide public safety message from Flint City Hall that included help for Flint with plans for reopening the Flint lockup and increasing state police patrols in Flint. On March 20, 2012, days after a lawsuit was filed by labor union [AFSCME](/wiki/American_Federation_of_State%2C_County_and_Municipal_Employees "American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees"), and a [restraining order](/wiki/Restraining_order "Restraining order") was issued against Brown, his appointment was found to be in violation of the Michigan Open Meetings Act, and Mayor Walling and the City Council had their powers returned.{{cite news\|title\=Judge: State violated law in appointing Flint emergency manager; Powers of mayor, city council reinstated\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/emergency\_manager\_lawsuit.html\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=March 20, 2012}} The state immediately filed an emergency appeal, claiming the financial emergency still existed.[State plans emergency appeal after judge removes Flint emergency manager, restores mayor and city council](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/state_plans_emergency_appeal_a.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 20, 2012 On March 26, the appeal was granted, putting Brown back in power.[Flint emergency manager reinstated as battle over Public Act 4 continues](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/flint_emergency_manager_reinst.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 26, 2012 Brown and several unions agreed to new contract terms in April. Brown unveiled his fiscal year 2013 budget on April 23\. It included cuts in nearly every department including police and fire, as well as higher taxes.April 24, 2012\. [Flint emergency manager unveils budget with fee hikes, public safety layoffs](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/04/flint_emergency_manager_unveil.html) *The Flint Journal*. MLive Media Group. An Obsolete Property Rehabilitation District was created by Manager Brown in June 2012 for 11 downtown Flint properties. On July 19, the city pension system was transferred to the Municipal Employees Retirement System by the city's retirement board which led to a legal challenge. On August 3, 2012, the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court "Michigan Supreme Court") ordered the state Board of Canvassers to certify a referendum on Public Act 4, the Emergency Manager Law, for the November ballot. Brown made several actions on August 7 including placing a $6 million public safety millage on the ballot and sold [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers "Genesee Towers") to a development group for $1 to demolish the structure. The board certified the referendum petition on August 8, returning the previous Emergency Financial Manager Law into effect. With Brown previously temporary mayor for the last few years, he was ineligible to be the Emergency Financial Manager. [Ed Kurtz](/wiki/Ed_Kurtz "Ed Kurtz") was once again appointed [Emergency Financial Manager](/wiki/Emergency_financial_manager "Emergency financial manager") by the Emergency Financial Assistance Loan Board. Two lawsuits were filed in September 2012, one by the city council against Kurtz's appointment, while another was against the state in Ingham County Circuit Court claiming the old emergency financial manager law remains repealed. On November 30, [State Treasurer](/wiki/State_Treasurer_of_Michigan "State Treasurer of Michigan") [Andy Dillon](/wiki/Andy_Dillon "Andy Dillon") announced the financial emergency was still ongoing, and the emergency manager was still needed.[State treasury: Flint emergency financial manager still needed](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/11/state_treasurys_perspective_fl.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 30, 2012 Michael Brown was re\-appointed Emergency Manager on June 26, 2013, and returned to work on July 8\.[Emergency manager in Flint will be Michael Brown after Ed Kurtz steps down](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/michael_brown_is_back_as_emerg.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 26, 2013 Flint had an $11\.3 million projected deficit when Brown started as emergency manager in 2011\. The city faced a $19\.1 million combined deficit from 2012, with plans to borrow $12 million to cover part of it.[Public safety still a big concern as Mike Brown readies return as Flint's emergency manager](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/is_second_time_for_michael_bro.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 30, 2013 Brown resigned from his position in early September 2013, and his last day was October 31\. He was succeeded by Saginaw city manager (and former Flint temporary mayor) Darnell Earley.[New Flint emergency manager Darnell Earley to take over after Michael Brown resigns](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/09/michael_brown_resigns_as_flint.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, September 11, 2013 Earley formed a blue ribbon committee on governance with 23 members on January 16, 2014, to review city operations and consider possible charter amendments.{{cite news\|last1\=Adams\|first1\=Dominic\|title\=A list of who is on the Flint Blue Ribbon Committee on Governance\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/01/flints\_blue\_ribbon\_committee\_m.html\|access\-date\=July 20, 2015\|work\=The Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=January 9, 2014}} The blue ribbon committee recommend that the city move to a council\-manager government.{{cite news\|last1\=Acosta\|first1\=Roberto\|title\=Blue ribbon report recommends big changes for how Flint is governed\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/flint\-river/index.ssf/2014/07/blue\_ribbon\_report\_recommends.html\|access\-date\=July 20, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=July 24, 2014}} Six charter amendment proposals were placed on the {{dts\|2014\|11\|4}}, ballot with the charter review commission proposal passing along with reduction of mayoral staff appointments and budgetary amendments. Proposals which would eliminate certain executive departments, the Civil Service Commission and the ombudsman office were defeated.{{cite news\|last1\=Fonger\|first1\=Ron\|title\=Flint voters OK first review of city charter in 40 years, work to start after February election\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/11/flint\_voters\_city\_charter.html\|access\-date\=July 20, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=MLive Media Group\|date\=November 5, 2014}} Flint elected a nine\-member [Charter Review Commission](/wiki/Government_of_Flint%2C_Michigan%23Charter_Review_Commission "Government of Flint, Michigan#Charter Review Commission") on May 5, 2015\.{{cite news\|last1\=Fonger\|first1\=Ron\|title\=Big job ahead for nine elected to Flint Charter Review Commission\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/05/big\_job\_ahead\_for\_nine\_elected.html\|access\-date\=November 11, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=May 6, 2015}} With Earley appointed to be emergency manager for [Detroit Public Schools](/wiki/Detroit_Public_Schools_Community_District "Detroit Public Schools Community District") on {{dts\|2015\|1\|13}}, city financial adviser Jerry Ambrose was selected to finish out the financial emergency with an expected exit in April.{{cite news\|title\=Jerry Ambrose named Flint's fourth emergency manager as Darnell Earley heads to Detroit\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/01/jerry\_ambrose\_tapped\_as\_next\_e.html\|access\-date\=January 13, 2015\|work\=The Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=January 13, 2015}} On {{dts\|2015\|4\|30}}, the state moved the city from under an emergency manager receivership to a Receivership Transition Advisory Board.{{cite news\|last1\=Fonger\|first1\=Ron\|title\='A heavy burden' lifted from Flint as Gov. Rick Snyder declares end of financial emergency\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/04/a\_heavy\_burden\_lifted\_from\_fli.html\|access\-date\=July 18, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=April 29, 2015}} On November 3, 2015, Flint residents elected [Karen Weaver](/wiki/Karen_Weaver "Karen Weaver") as their first female mayor.[Karen Weaver makes history, elected Flint's first woman mayor](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/11/karen_weaver_makes_history_ele_1.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 3, 2015 On January 22, 2016, the Receivership Transition Advisory Board unanimously voted to return some powers, including appointment authority, to the mayor.[Powers returned to Flint mayor, no staffing changes announced](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/01/powers_returned_to_flint_mayor.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive, January 22, 2016 The Receivership Transit Authority Board was formally dissolved by State Treasurer Nick Khouri on April 10, 2018, returning the city to local control.{{cite web \|title\=Flint Released from Receivership, All Remaining Emergency Manager Orders Repealed \|url\=https://www.michigan.gov/treasury/0,4679,7\-121\-1755\_73555\_85267\_85268\-464775\-\-,00\.html \|website\=Michigan.gov \|publisher\=Michigan Department of Treasury \|access\-date\=August 22, 2019}} #### Water state of emergency {{Main\|Flint water crisis}} [thumb\|President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") sips filtered Flint water following a roundtable on the [Flint water crisis](/wiki/Flint_water_crisis "Flint water crisis"), 2016](/wiki/File:President_Obama_sips_filtered_water_from_Flint.jpg "President Obama sips filtered water from Flint.jpg") In April 2014, during a financial crisis, state\-appointed emergency manager Darnell Earley changed Flint's water source from the [Detroit Water and Sewerage Department](/wiki/Detroit_Water_and_Sewerage_Department "Detroit Water and Sewerage Department") (sourced from [Lake Huron](/wiki/Lake_Huron "Lake Huron")) to the Flint River.{{Cite web \|last\=Fleming \|first\=Leonard N. \|title\=Darnell Earley: The man in power during Flint switch \|url\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/michigan/flint\-water\-crisis/2016/03/14/darnell\-earley\-flint\-water\-crisis/81788654/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|website\=The Detroit News \|language\=en\-US}} The problem was compounded with the fact that anticorrosive measures were not implemented. After two independent studies, [lead poisoning](/wiki/Lead_poisoning "Lead poisoning") caused by the water was found in the area's population.{{cite web\|title\=Engineering's Marc Edwards heads to Flint as part of study into unprecedented corrosion problem\|url\=http://vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2015/09/091415\-engineering\-edwardsflint.html\|publisher\=Virginia Tech\|access\-date\=December 30, 2015}}{{Cite web\|title \= State of emergency declared in Flint, Michigan over poisoned water supply \|work\= World Socialist Web Site\|date\= December 16, 2015\|url \= https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2015/12/16/flin\-d16\.html\|access\-date \= December 30, 2015}} This has led to several lawsuits, the resignation of several officials, fifteen criminal indictments, and a federal public health state of emergency for all of Genesee County.{{Cite news\|title \= In Flint, Mich., there's so much lead in children's blood that a state of emergency is declared\|url \= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning\-mix/wp/2015/12/15/toxic\-water\-soaring\-lead\-levels\-in\-childrens\-blood\-create\-state\-of\-emergency\-in\-flint\-mich/\|newspaper \= The Washington Post\|date\=December 15, 2015 \|access\-date \=December 15, 2015\|issn \= 0190\-8286\|language \= en\-US\|first \= Yanan\|last \= Wang}}Daniel Bethencourt, [After Flint water crisis, families file lawsuit](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2015/11/13/after-flint-water-crisis-families-file-lawsuit/75744376/), *Detroit Free Press* (November 13, 2015\).[Director Dan Wyant resigns after task force blasts MDEQ over Flint water crisis](http://www.mlive.com/lansing-news/index.ssf/2015/12/deq_director_dan_wyant_resigns.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 29, 2015[Two former Flint emergency managers charged with water crisis crimes](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/12/former_state_emergency_manager.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 20, 2016
[ "History\n-------", "The region was home to several [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") tribes at the start of the 19th century, with a particularly significant community established near present\\-day [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose%2C_Michigan \"Montrose, Michigan\"). The Flint River had several convenient fords which became points of contention among rival tribes, as attested by the presence of nearby arrowheads and burial mounds. Some of the city currently resides atop ancient Ojibwe burial grounds.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2009/12/ancestral\\_remains\\_recovered\\_fr.html\\|title\\=Ancestral remains recovered from American Indian burial ground in Flint\\|work\\=MLive.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2017\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### 19th century: lumber and the beginnings of the automobile industry", "In 1819, [Jacob Smith](/wiki/Jacob_Smith_%28Michigan_fur_trader%29 \"Jacob Smith (Michigan fur trader)\"), a fur trader on cordial terms with both the local Ojibwe and the territorial government, founded a trading post at the Grand Traverse of the Flint River. On several occasions, Smith negotiated land exchanges with the Ojibwe on behalf of the U.S. government, and he was highly regarded on both sides. Smith apportioned many of his holdings to his children. As the ideal stopover on the overland route between Detroit and [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan \"Saginaw, Michigan\"), Flint grew into a small but prosperous village and incorporated in 1855\\. The 1860 U.S. census indicated that Genesee County had a population of 22,498 of Michigan's 750,000\\.", "In the latter half of the 19th century, Flint became a center of the Michigan lumber industry. Revenue from lumber funded the establishment of a local carriage\\-making industry. As horse\\-drawn carriages gave way to the automobiles, Flint then naturally grew into a major player in the nascent auto industry. Buick Motor Company, after a rudimentary start in Detroit, soon moved to Flint. [AC Spark Plug](/wiki/ACDelco \"ACDelco\") originated in Flint. These were followed by several now\\-defunct automobile marques such as the [Dort](/wiki/Dort_Motor_Car_Company \"Dort Motor Car Company\"), [Little](/wiki/Little_%28automobile%29 \"Little (automobile)\"), [Flint](/wiki/Flint_%28automobile%29 \"Flint (automobile)\"), and [Mason](/wiki/Mason_Truck \"Mason Truck\") brands. Chevrolet's first (and for many years, main) manufacturing facility was also in Flint, although the Chevrolet headquarters were in Detroit. For a brief period, all Chevrolets and Buicks were built in Flint.", "The first Ladies' Library Association in Michigan was started in Flint in 1851 in the home of Maria Smith Stockton, daughter of the founder of the community. This library, initially private, is considered the precursor of the current Flint Public Library.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Flint Public Library \\|url\\=https://www.geneseehistory.org/flint\\-public\\-library.html \\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|website\\=GENESEE COUNTY HISTORICAL SOCIETY \\|language\\=en}}", "### Early and mid\\-20th century: the auto industry takes shape", "{{Main\\|Flint, Michigan auto industry\\|History of General Motors}}\n[thumb\\|[Buick](/wiki/Buick \"Buick\") factory complex in Flint, 1912](/wiki/File:When_the_Whistle_Blows_at_the_Buick.jpg \"When the Whistle Blows at the Buick.jpg\")\nIn 1904, local entrepreneur [William C. Durant](/wiki/William_C._Durant \"William C. Durant\") was brought in to manage Buick, which became the largest manufacturer of automobiles by 1908\\. In 1908, Durant founded General Motors (GM), filing incorporation papers in New Jersey, with headquarters in Flint. GM moved its headquarters to Detroit in the mid\\-1920s.[General Motors \\| Corporate Information – History \\| GM](http://www.gm.com/company/corp_info/history/gmhis1900.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610221410/http://www.gm.com/company/corp\\_info/history/gmhis1900\\.html \\|date\\=June 10, 2011 }} Durant lost control of GM twice during his lifetime. On the first occasion, he befriended [Louis Chevrolet](/wiki/Louis_Chevrolet \"Louis Chevrolet\") and founded Chevrolet, which was a runaway success. He used the capital from this success to buy back share control. He later lost decisive control again, permanently. Durant experienced financial ruin in the [stock market crash of 1929](/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929 \"Wall Street Crash of 1929\") and subsequently ran a bowling alley in Flint until the time of his death in 1947\\.", "The city's mayors were targeted for recall twice, Mayor [David R. Cuthbertson](/wiki/David_R._Cuthbertson \"David R. Cuthbertson\") in 1924 and Mayor [William H. McKeighan](/wiki/William_H._McKeighan \"William H. McKeighan\") in 1927\\. Recall supporters in both cases were jailed by the police. Cuthbertson had angered the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") (KKK) by the appointment of a Catholic police chief. The KKK led the recall effort and supported [Judson Transue](/wiki/Judson_L._Transue \"Judson L. Transue\"), Cuthbertson's elected successor. Transue however did not remove the police chief. McKeighan survived his recall only to face conspiracy charges in 1928\\.{{cite news \\|first\\=James M. \\|last\\=Miller \\|title\\=Crackdowns on 'reds,' booze didn't silence decade's roar \\|url\\=http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920main.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[Flint Journal]]: Journal of the 20th Century \\|publisher\\=Booth Newspapers \\|access\\-date\\=March 6, 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527003224/http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920main.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2011}} McKeighan was under investigation for a multitude of crimes which angered city leaders enough to push for changes in the city charter.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Crawford\\|first1\\=Kim\\|title\\=Flint mayor commanded attention from – voters, police\\|url\\=http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920flintmayor.html\\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2014\\|work\\=Journal of the 20th Century\\|publisher\\=The Flint Journal\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041109020208/http://www.flintjournal.com/20thcentury/1920/1920flintmayor.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 9, 2004}}", "In 1928, the city adopted a new city charter with a council\\-manager form of government. Subsequently, McKeighan ran the \"Green Slate\" of candidates who won in 1931 and 1932 and he was select as mayor in 1931\\. In 1935, the city residents approved a charter amendment establishing the Civil Service Commission.{{cite news\\|title\\=Proposal 5: Voters can eliminate Flint Civil Service Commission with charter vote\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/10/proposal\\_5\\_voters\\_can\\_eliminat.html\\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2014\\|work\\=The Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=October 17, 2014}}", "For the last century, Flint's history has been dominated by both the auto industry and car culture. The [Sit\\-Down Strike](/wiki/Flint_Sit-Down_Strike \"Flint Sit-Down Strike\") of 1936–1937 saw the fledgling [United Automobile Workers](/wiki/United_Auto_Workers \"United Auto Workers\") triumph over General Motors and establish itself as a major union, leading to widespread unionization in US industry. The successful mediation of the strike by Governor [Frank Murphy](/wiki/Frank_Murphy \"Frank Murphy\"), culminating in a one\\-page agreement recognizing the Union and rehiring workers fired due to strike participation began an era of successful organizing by the UAW.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id\\=115\\&category\\=business \\|title\\=Detroit News, Rearview Mirror, ''The Sitdown strike at General Motors''. \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120709044347/http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id\\=115\\&category\\=business \\|archive\\-date\\=July 9, 2012 }} The city was a major contributor of tanks and other war machines during World War II due to its extensive manufacturing facilities. For decades, Flint remained politically significant as a major population center as well as for its importance to the automotive industry.", "A freighter named after the city, the [SS *City of Flint*](/wiki/SS_City_of_Flint_%281919%29 \"SS City of Flint (1919)\"), was the first US ship to be captured during the Second World War, in October 1939\\. The vessel was later sunk in 1943\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Å være eller ikke være – Under orlogsflagget i den annen verdenskrig \\|last\\=Bjørnsson \\|first\\=Nils \\|year\\=1994 \\|publisher\\=Sjømilitære Samfund ved Forlaget Norsk Tidsskrift for Sjøvesen \\|location\\=Haakonsvern \\|isbn\\=82\\-990969\\-3\\-6 \\|page\\=23 \\|language\\=no }} On June 8, 1953, the [Flint\\-Beecher tornado](/wiki/1953_Flint-Beecher_tornado \"1953 Flint-Beecher tornado\"), a large F5 [tornado](/wiki/Tornado \"Tornado\"), struck the city, killing 116 people.", "The city's population peaked in 1960 at almost 200,000, at which time it was the second largest city in the state. The decades of the 1950s and 1960s are seen as the height of Flint's prosperity and influence. They culminated with the establishment of many local institutions, most notably the [Flint Cultural Center](/wiki/Flint_Cultural_Center \"Flint Cultural Center\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://flintcultural.org/ \\|title\\=Flint Cultural Center \\|publisher\\=Flintcultural.org \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2012}} This landmark remains one of the city's chief commercial and artistic draws to this day. The city's [Bishop International Airport](/wiki/Bishop_International_Airport \"Bishop International Airport\") was the busiest in Michigan for [United Airlines](/wiki/United_Airlines \"United Airlines\") apart from [Detroit Metropolitan Airport](/wiki/Detroit_Metropolitan_Airport \"Detroit Metropolitan Airport\"), with flights to many destinations in the Mid\\-West and the Mid\\-Atlantic.United Airlines timetable, April 27\\. 1969, <https://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/ua/ua69/>", "### Late 20th century: deindustrialization and demographic changes", "Since the late 1960s through the end of the 20th century, Flint has suffered from [disinvestment](/wiki/Disinvestment \"Disinvestment\"), [deindustrialization](/wiki/Deindustrialization \"Deindustrialization\"), [depopulation](/wiki/Population_decline \"Population decline\") and [urban decay](/wiki/Urban_decay \"Urban decay\"), as well as high rates of crime, unemployment and poverty. Initially, this took the form of \"[white flight](/wiki/White_flight \"White flight\")\" that afflicted many urban industrialized American towns and cities. Given Flint's role in the automotive industry, this decline was exacerbated by the [1973 oil crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis \"1973 oil crisis\") with spiking oil prices and the U.S. auto industry's subsequent loss of market share to imports, as Japanese manufacturers were producing cars with better [fuel economy](/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobiles \"Fuel economy in automobiles\").Peter Cheney, 'Globe and Mail,' November 5, 2015, \"The rise of Japan: How the car industry was won\" [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe\\-drive/adventure/red\\-line/the\\-rise\\-of\\-japan\\-how\\-the\\-car\\-industry\\-was\\-won/article27100187/](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/adventure/red-line/the-rise-of-japan-how-the-car-industry-was-won/article27100187/)", "In the 1980s, the rate of deindustrialization accelerated again with local GM employment falling from a 1978 high of 80,000 to under 8,000 by 2010\\. Only 10% of the manufacturing work force from its height remains in Flint. Many factors have been blamed, including [outsourcing](/wiki/Outsourcing \"Outsourcing\"), [offshoring](/wiki/Offshoring \"Offshoring\"), increased [automation](/wiki/Automation \"Automation\"), and moving jobs to [non\\-union](/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States \"Labor unions in the United States\") facilities in right to work states and foreign countries.", "This decline was highlighted in the film *[Roger \\& Me](/wiki/Roger_%26_Me \"Roger & Me\")* by [Michael Moore](/wiki/Michael_Moore \"Michael Moore\") (the title refers to [Roger B. Smith](/wiki/Roger_Smith_%28executive%29 \"Roger Smith (executive)\"), the CEO of General Motors during the 1980s). Also highlighted in Moore's documentary was the failure of city officials to reverse the trends with entertainment options (e.g. the now\\-demolished [AutoWorld](/wiki/AutoWorld_%28theme_park%29 \"AutoWorld (theme park)\")) during the 1980s. Moore, a native of [Davison](/wiki/Davison%2C_Michigan \"Davison, Michigan\") (a Flint suburb), revisited Flint in his later movies, including *[Bowling for Columbine](/wiki/Bowling_for_Columbine \"Bowling for Columbine\")*, *[Fahrenheit 9/11](/wiki/Fahrenheit_9/11 \"Fahrenheit 9/11\")*,\nand *[Fahrenheit 11/9](/wiki/Fahrenheit_11/9 \"Fahrenheit 11/9\")*.", "### 21st century", "#### First financial emergency: 2002–2004", "By 2002, Flint had accrued $30 million in debt.{{cite news\\|last\\=Mostafavi\\|first\\=Beata\\|title\\=What happened last time? A look back at Flint's 2002 state takeover\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/what\\_happened\\_last\\_time\\_a\\_look.html\\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 10, 2011}} On March 5, 2002, the city's voters [recalled](/wiki/Recall_election \"Recall election\") Mayor [Woodrow Stanley](/wiki/Woodrow_Stanley \"Woodrow Stanley\"). On May 22, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan \"Governor of Michigan\") [John Engler](/wiki/John_Engler \"John Engler\") declared a financial emergency in Flint, and on July 8 the state appointed an [emergency financial manager](/wiki/Financial_emergency_in_Michigan \"Financial emergency in Michigan\"),{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Flint would be only Michigan city to twice undergo emergency state takeover\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/flint\\_would\\_be\\_only\\_michigan\\_c.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 8, 2011}} Ed Kurtz. The emergency financial manager displaced the temporary mayor, [Darnell Earley](/wiki/Darnell_Earley \"Darnell Earley\"), in the city administrator position.", "In August 2002, city voters elected former Mayor [James Rutherford](/wiki/James_W._Rutherford \"James W. Rutherford\") to finish the remainder of Stanley's term of office. On September 24, Kurtz commissioned a salary and wage study for top city officials from an outside accounting and consulting firm. The financial manager then installed a new code enforcement program for annual rental inspections and emergency demolitions. On October 8, Kurtz ordered cuts in pay for the mayor (from $107,000 to $24,000\\) and the City Council members (from $23,000 to $18,000\\). He also eliminated insurance benefits for most officials. After spending $245,000 fighting the takeover, the City Council ended the lawsuits on October 14\\. Immediately thereafter on October 16, a new interim financial plan was put in place by the manager. This plan initiated controls on hiring, overnight travel and spending by city employees. On November 12, Kurtz directed the city's retirement board to stop unusual pension benefits, which had decreased some retiree pensions by 3\\.5%. Kurtz sought the return of overpayments to the pension fund. However, in December, the state attorney general stated that emergency financial managers do not have authority over the retirement system. With contract talks stalled, Kurtz stated that there either need to be cuts or layoffs to union employees. That same month, the city's recreation centers were temporarily closed.", "Emergency measures continued in 2003\\. In May, Kurtz increased water and sewer bills by 11% and shut down operations of the ombudsman's office. In September, a 4% pay cut was agreed to by the city's largest union. In October, Kurtz moved in favor of infrastructure improvements, authorizing $1 million in sewer and road projects. [Don Williamson](/wiki/Don_Williamson \"Don Williamson\") was elected a full\\-term mayor and sworn in on November 10\\. In December, city audits reported nearly $14 million in reductions in the city deficit. For the 2003–2004 budget year, estimates decreased that amount to between $6 million and $8 million.", "With pressure from Kurtz for large layoffs and replacement of the board on February 17, 2004, the City Retirement Board agreed to four proposals reducing the amount of the city's contribution into the system. On March 24, Kurtz indicated that he would raise the City Council's and the mayor's pay, and in May, Kurtz laid off 10 workers as part of 35 job cuts for the 2004–05 budget. In June 2004, Kurtz reported that the financial emergency was over.", "#### Redevelopment", "[thumb\\|[The Durant](/wiki/The_Durant \"The Durant\"), built in 1919](/wiki/File:Flint_July_2018_01_%28The_Durant_-_Hotel_Durant%29.jpg \"Flint July 2018 01 (The Durant - Hotel Durant).jpg\")\nIn November 2013, [American Cast Iron Pipe Company](/wiki/American_Cast_Iron_Pipe_Company \"American Cast Iron Pipe Company\"), a [Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama \"Birmingham, Alabama\") based company, became the first to build a production facility in Flint's former [Buick City](/wiki/Buick_City \"Buick City\") site, purchasing the property from the [RACER Trust](/wiki/RACER_Trust \"RACER Trust\").[Pipe maker to add 60 jobs at Flint's Buick City property](http://www.freep.com/article/20131113/BUSINESS0101/311130151/Flint-Buick-City-American-Cast-Iron-Pipe-Co-General-Motors-RACER-GM) *Detroit Free Press*, November 13, 2013 Commercially, local organizations have attempted to pool their resources in the central business district and to expand and bolster higher education at four local institutions. Examples of their efforts include the following:\n* Landmarks such as the First National Bank building have been extensively renovated, often to create lofts or office space, and filming for the [Will Ferrell](/wiki/Will_Ferrell \"Will Ferrell\") movie *[Semi\\-Pro](/wiki/Semi-Pro \"Semi-Pro\")* resulted in renovations to the Capitol Theatre.\n* [The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building \"The Paterson Building\") at Saginaw and Third street has been owned by the Collison Family, Thomas W. Collison \\& Co., Inc., for the last 30 years. The building is rich in [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") throughout the interior and exterior. The building also houses its own garage in the lower level, providing heated valet parking to The Paterson Building Tenants.\n* In 2004, University Park, the first planned residential community in Flint in over 30 years, was built north of Fifth Avenue off Saginaw Street, Flint's main thoroughfare.\n* Local foundations have funded the renovation and redecoration of Saginaw Street and have begun work turning University Avenue (formerly known as Third Avenue) into a mile\\-long \"University Corridor\" connecting [University of Michigan–Flint](/wiki/University_of_Michigan%E2%80%93Flint \"University of Michigan–Flint\") with [Kettering University](/wiki/Kettering_University \"Kettering University\").\n* [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium \"Atwood Stadium\"), located on University Avenue, received extensive renovations, and the Cultivating Our Community project landscaped 16 different locations as a part of a $415,600 beautification project.\n* Wade Trim and Rowe Incorporated made major renovations to transform empty downtown Flint blocks into business, entertainment, and housing centers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.whatsupdowntown.com \\|title\\=What's Up Downtown? \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202102003/http://www.whatsupdowntown.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 2, 2015 }} [WNEM\\-TV](/wiki/WNEM-TV \"WNEM-TV\"), a television station based in [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan \"Saginaw, Michigan\"), uses space in the Wade Trim building facing Saginaw Street as a secondary studio and newsroom.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://blog.mlive.com/flintjournal/newsnow/2007/09/wnem\\_plans\\_studio\\_in\\_downtown.html \\|title\\=WNEM plans studio in downtown Flint \\| newspaper\\=The Flint Journal}}\n* The long\\-vacant [Durant Hotel](/wiki/The_Durant \"The Durant\"), formerly owned by the [United Hotels Company](/wiki/United_Hotels_Company_of_America \"United Hotels Company of America\"),{{cite news\\|title\\=Receivers Named For Hotel Firm\\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2015\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=November 18, 1933}} was turned into a mixture of commercial space and apartments intended to attract young professionals or college students, with 93 units.[The Durant hotel full for the first time; site of a dozen weddings, prom and other events downtown Flint](https://www.mlive.com/business/mid-michigan/2011/08/the_durant_hotel_full_for_the.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, January 21, 2019\n* In March 2008, the Crim Race Foundation put up an offer to buy the vacant Character Inn and turn it into a fitness center and do a multimillion\\-dollar renovation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\\=news/local\\&id\\=6028243 \\|title\\=Crim offers to purchase Character Inn \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629043405/http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\\=news%2Flocal\\&id\\=6028243 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2011 }}", "[thumb\\|[The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building \"The Paterson Building\")](/wiki/File:The_Paterson_Building.jpg \"The Paterson Building.jpg\")\nSimilar to a plan in Detroit, Flint is in the process of tearing down thousands of abandoned homes to create available real estate. As of June 2009, approximately 1,100 homes have been demolished in Flint, with one official estimating another 3,000 more will have to be torn down.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\\-cities\\-may\\-have\\-to\\-be\\-bulldozed\\-in\\-order\\-to\\-survive.html\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090615055407/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\\-cities\\-may\\-have\\-to\\-be\\-bulldozed\\-in\\-order\\-to\\-survive.html\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|archive\\-date\\= June 15, 2009\\|title\\= US cities may have to be bulldozed in order to survive\\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2009\\|author\\= Tom Leonard\\|date\\= June 12, 2009\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph }}", "#### Second financial emergency: 2011–2015", "On September 30, 2011, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan \"Governor of Michigan\") [Rick Snyder](/wiki/Rick_Snyder \"Rick Snyder\") appointed an eight\\-member team to review Flint's financial state with a request to report back in 30 days (half the legal time for a review).{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Gov. Snyder appoints team to review Flint's finances under emergency manager law, requests report within 30 days\\| url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/09/gov\\_snyder\\_appoints\\_team\\_to\\_re.html \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=September 30, 2011}} On November 8, Mayor [Dayne Walling](/wiki/Dayne_Walling \"Dayne Walling\") defeated challenger Darryl Buchanan 8,819 votes (56%) to 6,868 votes (44%).{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=About 19 percent of voters turned out to re\\-elect Flint Mayor Dayne Walling\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/about\\_19\\_percent\\_of\\_voters\\_tur.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2011\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 9, 2011}} That same day, the Michigan State review panel declared Flint to be in a state of a \"local government financial emergency\" recommending the state again appoint an emergency manager.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Dayne Walling re\\-elected mayor as state declares financial emergency in Flint\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/dayne\\_walling\\_re\\-elected\\_as\\_st.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2011\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 9, 2011}} On November 14, the City Council voted 7 to 2 to not appeal the state review with Mayor Walling concurring the next day.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Flint emergency: Timeline of state takeover\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/12/flint\\_emergency\\_timeline\\_of\\_st\\_1\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=December 1, 2012\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=December 1, 2012}} Governor Snyder appointed [Michael Brown](/wiki/Michael_Brown_%28Michigan_politician%29 \"Michael Brown (Michigan politician)\") as the city's emergency manager.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Former Acting Mayor Michael Brown named Flint's emergency manager\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/former\\_acting\\_mayor\\_michael\\_br.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 29, 2011\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 29, 2011}} On December 2, Brown dismissed a number of top administrators. Pay and benefits from Flint's elected officials were automatically removed.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Shakeup at Flint City Hall as new emergency manager issues layoffs, pay cuts\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/12/layoffs\\_pay\\_cuts\\_for\\_some\\_at\\_f.html\\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=December 2, 2011}} On December 8, the office of ombudsman and the Civil Service Commission were eliminated by Brown.", "On January 16, 2012, protestors against the emergency manager law including Flint residents marched near the governor's home. The next day, Brown filed a financial and operating plan with the state as mandated by law. The next month, each ward in the city had a community engagement meeting hosted by Brown. Governor Snyder on March 7 made a statewide public safety message from Flint City Hall that included help for Flint with plans for reopening the Flint lockup and increasing state police patrols in Flint.", "On March 20, 2012, days after a lawsuit was filed by labor union [AFSCME](/wiki/American_Federation_of_State%2C_County_and_Municipal_Employees \"American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees\"), and a [restraining order](/wiki/Restraining_order \"Restraining order\") was issued against Brown, his appointment was found to be in violation of the Michigan Open Meetings Act, and Mayor Walling and the City Council had their powers returned.{{cite news\\|title\\=Judge: State violated law in appointing Flint emergency manager; Powers of mayor, city council reinstated\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/emergency\\_manager\\_lawsuit.html\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=March 20, 2012}} The state immediately filed an emergency appeal, claiming the financial emergency still existed.[State plans emergency appeal after judge removes Flint emergency manager, restores mayor and city council](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/state_plans_emergency_appeal_a.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 20, 2012 On March 26, the appeal was granted, putting Brown back in power.[Flint emergency manager reinstated as battle over Public Act 4 continues](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/flint_emergency_manager_reinst.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 26, 2012 Brown and several unions agreed to new contract terms in April. Brown unveiled his fiscal year 2013 budget on April 23\\. It included cuts in nearly every department including police and fire, as well as higher taxes.April 24, 2012\\. [Flint emergency manager unveils budget with fee hikes, public safety layoffs](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/04/flint_emergency_manager_unveil.html) *The Flint Journal*. MLive Media Group. An Obsolete Property Rehabilitation District was created by Manager Brown in June 2012 for 11 downtown Flint properties. On July 19, the city pension system was transferred to the Municipal Employees Retirement System by the city's retirement board which led to a legal challenge.", "On August 3, 2012, the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court \"Michigan Supreme Court\") ordered the state Board of Canvassers to certify a referendum on Public Act 4, the Emergency Manager Law, for the November ballot. Brown made several actions on August 7 including placing a $6 million public safety millage on the ballot and sold [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers \"Genesee Towers\") to a development group for $1 to demolish the structure. The board certified the referendum petition on August 8, returning the previous Emergency Financial Manager Law into effect. With Brown previously temporary mayor for the last few years, he was ineligible to be the Emergency Financial Manager. [Ed Kurtz](/wiki/Ed_Kurtz \"Ed Kurtz\") was once again appointed [Emergency Financial Manager](/wiki/Emergency_financial_manager \"Emergency financial manager\") by the Emergency Financial Assistance Loan Board.", "Two lawsuits were filed in September 2012, one by the city council against Kurtz's appointment, while another was against the state in Ingham County Circuit Court claiming the old emergency financial manager law remains repealed. On November 30, [State Treasurer](/wiki/State_Treasurer_of_Michigan \"State Treasurer of Michigan\") [Andy Dillon](/wiki/Andy_Dillon \"Andy Dillon\") announced the financial emergency was still ongoing, and the emergency manager was still needed.[State treasury: Flint emergency financial manager still needed](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/11/state_treasurys_perspective_fl.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 30, 2012", "Michael Brown was re\\-appointed Emergency Manager on June 26, 2013, and returned to work on July 8\\.[Emergency manager in Flint will be Michael Brown after Ed Kurtz steps down](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/michael_brown_is_back_as_emerg.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 26, 2013 Flint had an $11\\.3 million projected deficit when Brown started as emergency manager in 2011\\. The city faced a $19\\.1 million combined deficit from 2012, with plans to borrow $12 million to cover part of it.[Public safety still a big concern as Mike Brown readies return as Flint's emergency manager](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/is_second_time_for_michael_bro.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 30, 2013 Brown resigned from his position in early September 2013, and his last day was October 31\\. He was succeeded by Saginaw city manager (and former Flint temporary mayor) Darnell Earley.[New Flint emergency manager Darnell Earley to take over after Michael Brown resigns](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/09/michael_brown_resigns_as_flint.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, September 11, 2013", "Earley formed a blue ribbon committee on governance with 23 members on January 16, 2014, to review city operations and consider possible charter amendments.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Adams\\|first1\\=Dominic\\|title\\=A list of who is on the Flint Blue Ribbon Committee on Governance\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/01/flints\\_blue\\_ribbon\\_committee\\_m.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2015\\|work\\=The Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=January 9, 2014}} The blue ribbon committee recommend that the city move to a council\\-manager government.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Acosta\\|first1\\=Roberto\\|title\\=Blue ribbon report recommends big changes for how Flint is governed\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/flint\\-river/index.ssf/2014/07/blue\\_ribbon\\_report\\_recommends.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=July 24, 2014}} Six charter amendment proposals were placed on the {{dts\\|2014\\|11\\|4}}, ballot with the charter review commission proposal passing along with reduction of mayoral staff appointments and budgetary amendments. Proposals which would eliminate certain executive departments, the Civil Service Commission and the ombudsman office were defeated.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Fonger\\|first1\\=Ron\\|title\\=Flint voters OK first review of city charter in 40 years, work to start after February election\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/11/flint\\_voters\\_city\\_charter.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=MLive Media Group\\|date\\=November 5, 2014}} Flint elected a nine\\-member [Charter Review Commission](/wiki/Government_of_Flint%2C_Michigan%23Charter_Review_Commission \"Government of Flint, Michigan#Charter Review Commission\") on May 5, 2015\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Fonger\\|first1\\=Ron\\|title\\=Big job ahead for nine elected to Flint Charter Review Commission\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/05/big\\_job\\_ahead\\_for\\_nine\\_elected.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=May 6, 2015}}", "With Earley appointed to be emergency manager for [Detroit Public Schools](/wiki/Detroit_Public_Schools_Community_District \"Detroit Public Schools Community District\") on {{dts\\|2015\\|1\\|13}}, city financial adviser Jerry Ambrose was selected to finish out the financial emergency with an expected exit in April.{{cite news\\|title\\=Jerry Ambrose named Flint's fourth emergency manager as Darnell Earley heads to Detroit\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/01/jerry\\_ambrose\\_tapped\\_as\\_next\\_e.html\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2015\\|work\\=The Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=January 13, 2015}} On {{dts\\|2015\\|4\\|30}}, the state moved the city from under an emergency manager receivership to a Receivership Transition Advisory Board.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Fonger\\|first1\\=Ron\\|title\\='A heavy burden' lifted from Flint as Gov. Rick Snyder declares end of financial emergency\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/04/a\\_heavy\\_burden\\_lifted\\_from\\_fli.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=April 29, 2015}} On November 3, 2015, Flint residents elected [Karen Weaver](/wiki/Karen_Weaver \"Karen Weaver\") as their first female mayor.[Karen Weaver makes history, elected Flint's first woman mayor](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/11/karen_weaver_makes_history_ele_1.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 3, 2015 On January 22, 2016, the Receivership Transition Advisory Board unanimously voted to return some powers, including appointment authority, to the mayor.[Powers returned to Flint mayor, no staffing changes announced](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/01/powers_returned_to_flint_mayor.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive, January 22, 2016 The Receivership Transit Authority Board was formally dissolved by State Treasurer Nick Khouri on April 10, 2018, returning the city to local control.{{cite web \\|title\\=Flint Released from Receivership, All Remaining Emergency Manager Orders Repealed \\|url\\=https://www.michigan.gov/treasury/0,4679,7\\-121\\-1755\\_73555\\_85267\\_85268\\-464775\\-\\-,00\\.html \\|website\\=Michigan.gov \\|publisher\\=Michigan Department of Treasury \\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2019}}", "#### Water state of emergency", "{{Main\\|Flint water crisis}}\n[thumb\\|President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") sips filtered Flint water following a roundtable on the [Flint water crisis](/wiki/Flint_water_crisis \"Flint water crisis\"), 2016](/wiki/File:President_Obama_sips_filtered_water_from_Flint.jpg \"President Obama sips filtered water from Flint.jpg\")\nIn April 2014, during a financial crisis, state\\-appointed emergency manager Darnell Earley changed Flint's water source from the [Detroit Water and Sewerage Department](/wiki/Detroit_Water_and_Sewerage_Department \"Detroit Water and Sewerage Department\") (sourced from [Lake Huron](/wiki/Lake_Huron \"Lake Huron\")) to the Flint River.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fleming \\|first\\=Leonard N. \\|title\\=Darnell Earley: The man in power during Flint switch \\|url\\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/michigan/flint\\-water\\-crisis/2016/03/14/darnell\\-earley\\-flint\\-water\\-crisis/81788654/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|website\\=The Detroit News \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The problem was compounded with the fact that anticorrosive measures were not implemented. After two independent studies, [lead poisoning](/wiki/Lead_poisoning \"Lead poisoning\") caused by the water was found in the area's population.{{cite web\\|title\\=Engineering's Marc Edwards heads to Flint as part of study into unprecedented corrosion problem\\|url\\=http://vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2015/09/091415\\-engineering\\-edwardsflint.html\\|publisher\\=Virginia Tech\\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2015}}{{Cite web\\|title \\= State of emergency declared in Flint, Michigan over poisoned water supply \\|work\\= World Socialist Web Site\\|date\\= December 16, 2015\\|url \\= https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2015/12/16/flin\\-d16\\.html\\|access\\-date \\= December 30, 2015}} This has led to several lawsuits, the resignation of several officials, fifteen criminal indictments, and a federal public health state of emergency for all of Genesee County.{{Cite news\\|title \\= In Flint, Mich., there's so much lead in children's blood that a state of emergency is declared\\|url \\= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning\\-mix/wp/2015/12/15/toxic\\-water\\-soaring\\-lead\\-levels\\-in\\-childrens\\-blood\\-create\\-state\\-of\\-emergency\\-in\\-flint\\-mich/\\|newspaper \\= The Washington Post\\|date\\=December 15, 2015 \\|access\\-date \\=December 15, 2015\\|issn \\= 0190\\-8286\\|language \\= en\\-US\\|first \\= Yanan\\|last \\= Wang}}Daniel Bethencourt, [After Flint water crisis, families file lawsuit](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2015/11/13/after-flint-water-crisis-families-file-lawsuit/75744376/), *Detroit Free Press* (November 13, 2015\\).[Director Dan Wyant resigns after task force blasts MDEQ over Flint water crisis](http://www.mlive.com/lansing-news/index.ssf/2015/12/deq_director_dan_wyant_resigns.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 29, 2015[Two former Flint emergency managers charged with water crisis crimes](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/12/former_state_emergency_manager.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 20, 2016", "" ]
### 21st century #### First financial emergency: 2002–2004 By 2002, Flint had accrued $30 million in debt.{{cite news\|last\=Mostafavi\|first\=Beata\|title\=What happened last time? A look back at Flint's 2002 state takeover\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/what\_happened\_last\_time\_a\_look.html\|access\-date\=December 5, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=November 10, 2011}} On March 5, 2002, the city's voters [recalled](/wiki/Recall_election "Recall election") Mayor [Woodrow Stanley](/wiki/Woodrow_Stanley "Woodrow Stanley"). On May 22, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan "Governor of Michigan") [John Engler](/wiki/John_Engler "John Engler") declared a financial emergency in Flint, and on July 8 the state appointed an [emergency financial manager](/wiki/Financial_emergency_in_Michigan "Financial emergency in Michigan"),{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Flint would be only Michigan city to twice undergo emergency state takeover\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/flint\_would\_be\_only\_michigan\_c.html\|access\-date\=November 14, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=November 8, 2011}} Ed Kurtz. The emergency financial manager displaced the temporary mayor, [Darnell Earley](/wiki/Darnell_Earley "Darnell Earley"), in the city administrator position. In August 2002, city voters elected former Mayor [James Rutherford](/wiki/James_W._Rutherford "James W. Rutherford") to finish the remainder of Stanley's term of office. On September 24, Kurtz commissioned a salary and wage study for top city officials from an outside accounting and consulting firm. The financial manager then installed a new code enforcement program for annual rental inspections and emergency demolitions. On October 8, Kurtz ordered cuts in pay for the mayor (from $107,000 to $24,000\) and the City Council members (from $23,000 to $18,000\). He also eliminated insurance benefits for most officials. After spending $245,000 fighting the takeover, the City Council ended the lawsuits on October 14\. Immediately thereafter on October 16, a new interim financial plan was put in place by the manager. This plan initiated controls on hiring, overnight travel and spending by city employees. On November 12, Kurtz directed the city's retirement board to stop unusual pension benefits, which had decreased some retiree pensions by 3\.5%. Kurtz sought the return of overpayments to the pension fund. However, in December, the state attorney general stated that emergency financial managers do not have authority over the retirement system. With contract talks stalled, Kurtz stated that there either need to be cuts or layoffs to union employees. That same month, the city's recreation centers were temporarily closed. Emergency measures continued in 2003\. In May, Kurtz increased water and sewer bills by 11% and shut down operations of the ombudsman's office. In September, a 4% pay cut was agreed to by the city's largest union. In October, Kurtz moved in favor of infrastructure improvements, authorizing $1 million in sewer and road projects. [Don Williamson](/wiki/Don_Williamson "Don Williamson") was elected a full\-term mayor and sworn in on November 10\. In December, city audits reported nearly $14 million in reductions in the city deficit. For the 2003–2004 budget year, estimates decreased that amount to between $6 million and $8 million. With pressure from Kurtz for large layoffs and replacement of the board on February 17, 2004, the City Retirement Board agreed to four proposals reducing the amount of the city's contribution into the system. On March 24, Kurtz indicated that he would raise the City Council's and the mayor's pay, and in May, Kurtz laid off 10 workers as part of 35 job cuts for the 2004–05 budget. In June 2004, Kurtz reported that the financial emergency was over. #### Redevelopment [thumb\|[The Durant](/wiki/The_Durant "The Durant"), built in 1919](/wiki/File:Flint_July_2018_01_%28The_Durant_-_Hotel_Durant%29.jpg "Flint July 2018 01 (The Durant - Hotel Durant).jpg") In November 2013, [American Cast Iron Pipe Company](/wiki/American_Cast_Iron_Pipe_Company "American Cast Iron Pipe Company"), a [Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama "Birmingham, Alabama") based company, became the first to build a production facility in Flint's former [Buick City](/wiki/Buick_City "Buick City") site, purchasing the property from the [RACER Trust](/wiki/RACER_Trust "RACER Trust").[Pipe maker to add 60 jobs at Flint's Buick City property](http://www.freep.com/article/20131113/BUSINESS0101/311130151/Flint-Buick-City-American-Cast-Iron-Pipe-Co-General-Motors-RACER-GM) *Detroit Free Press*, November 13, 2013 Commercially, local organizations have attempted to pool their resources in the central business district and to expand and bolster higher education at four local institutions. Examples of their efforts include the following: * Landmarks such as the First National Bank building have been extensively renovated, often to create lofts or office space, and filming for the [Will Ferrell](/wiki/Will_Ferrell "Will Ferrell") movie *[Semi\-Pro](/wiki/Semi-Pro "Semi-Pro")* resulted in renovations to the Capitol Theatre. * [The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building "The Paterson Building") at Saginaw and Third street has been owned by the Collison Family, Thomas W. Collison \& Co., Inc., for the last 30 years. The building is rich in [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") throughout the interior and exterior. The building also houses its own garage in the lower level, providing heated valet parking to The Paterson Building Tenants. * In 2004, University Park, the first planned residential community in Flint in over 30 years, was built north of Fifth Avenue off Saginaw Street, Flint's main thoroughfare. * Local foundations have funded the renovation and redecoration of Saginaw Street and have begun work turning University Avenue (formerly known as Third Avenue) into a mile\-long "University Corridor" connecting [University of Michigan–Flint](/wiki/University_of_Michigan%E2%80%93Flint "University of Michigan–Flint") with [Kettering University](/wiki/Kettering_University "Kettering University"). * [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium "Atwood Stadium"), located on University Avenue, received extensive renovations, and the Cultivating Our Community project landscaped 16 different locations as a part of a $415,600 beautification project. * Wade Trim and Rowe Incorporated made major renovations to transform empty downtown Flint blocks into business, entertainment, and housing centers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.whatsupdowntown.com \|title\=What's Up Downtown? \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202102003/http://www.whatsupdowntown.com/ \|archive\-date\=February 2, 2015 }} [WNEM\-TV](/wiki/WNEM-TV "WNEM-TV"), a television station based in [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan "Saginaw, Michigan"), uses space in the Wade Trim building facing Saginaw Street as a secondary studio and newsroom.{{cite news \|url\=http://blog.mlive.com/flintjournal/newsnow/2007/09/wnem\_plans\_studio\_in\_downtown.html \|title\=WNEM plans studio in downtown Flint \| newspaper\=The Flint Journal}} * The long\-vacant [Durant Hotel](/wiki/The_Durant "The Durant"), formerly owned by the [United Hotels Company](/wiki/United_Hotels_Company_of_America "United Hotels Company of America"),{{cite news\|title\=Receivers Named For Hotel Firm\|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-09 \|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=October 14, 2015\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=November 18, 1933}} was turned into a mixture of commercial space and apartments intended to attract young professionals or college students, with 93 units.[The Durant hotel full for the first time; site of a dozen weddings, prom and other events downtown Flint](https://www.mlive.com/business/mid-michigan/2011/08/the_durant_hotel_full_for_the.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, January 21, 2019 * In March 2008, the Crim Race Foundation put up an offer to buy the vacant Character Inn and turn it into a fitness center and do a multimillion\-dollar renovation.{{cite web\|url\=http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\=news/local\&id\=6028243 \|title\=Crim offers to purchase Character Inn \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629043405/http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\=news%2Flocal\&id\=6028243 \|archive\-date\=June 29, 2011 }} [thumb\|[The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building "The Paterson Building")](/wiki/File:The_Paterson_Building.jpg "The Paterson Building.jpg") Similar to a plan in Detroit, Flint is in the process of tearing down thousands of abandoned homes to create available real estate. As of June 2009, approximately 1,100 homes have been demolished in Flint, with one official estimating another 3,000 more will have to be torn down.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\-cities\-may\-have\-to\-be\-bulldozed\-in\-order\-to\-survive.html\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090615055407/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\-cities\-may\-have\-to\-be\-bulldozed\-in\-order\-to\-survive.html\|url\-status\= dead\|archive\-date\= June 15, 2009\|title\= US cities may have to be bulldozed in order to survive\|access\-date\=June 18, 2009\|author\= Tom Leonard\|date\= June 12, 2009\|work\=The Daily Telegraph }} #### Second financial emergency: 2011–2015 On September 30, 2011, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan "Governor of Michigan") [Rick Snyder](/wiki/Rick_Snyder "Rick Snyder") appointed an eight\-member team to review Flint's financial state with a request to report back in 30 days (half the legal time for a review).{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Gov. Snyder appoints team to review Flint's finances under emergency manager law, requests report within 30 days\| url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/09/gov\_snyder\_appoints\_team\_to\_re.html \|access\-date\=November 14, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=September 30, 2011}} On November 8, Mayor [Dayne Walling](/wiki/Dayne_Walling "Dayne Walling") defeated challenger Darryl Buchanan 8,819 votes (56%) to 6,868 votes (44%).{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=About 19 percent of voters turned out to re\-elect Flint Mayor Dayne Walling\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/about\_19\_percent\_of\_voters\_tur.html\|access\-date\=November 9, 2011\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=November 9, 2011}} That same day, the Michigan State review panel declared Flint to be in a state of a "local government financial emergency" recommending the state again appoint an emergency manager.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Dayne Walling re\-elected mayor as state declares financial emergency in Flint\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/dayne\_walling\_re\-elected\_as\_st.html\|access\-date\=November 9, 2011\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=November 9, 2011}} On November 14, the City Council voted 7 to 2 to not appeal the state review with Mayor Walling concurring the next day.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Flint emergency: Timeline of state takeover\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/12/flint\_emergency\_timeline\_of\_st\_1\.html\|access\-date\=December 1, 2012\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=December 1, 2012}} Governor Snyder appointed [Michael Brown](/wiki/Michael_Brown_%28Michigan_politician%29 "Michael Brown (Michigan politician)") as the city's emergency manager.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Former Acting Mayor Michael Brown named Flint's emergency manager\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/former\_acting\_mayor\_michael\_br.html\|access\-date\=November 29, 2011\|newspaper\=Flint Journal\|date\=November 29, 2011}} On December 2, Brown dismissed a number of top administrators. Pay and benefits from Flint's elected officials were automatically removed.{{cite news\|last\=Longley\|first\=Kristin\|title\=Shakeup at Flint City Hall as new emergency manager issues layoffs, pay cuts\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/12/layoffs\_pay\_cuts\_for\_some\_at\_f.html\|access\-date\=December 5, 2011\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=December 2, 2011}} On December 8, the office of ombudsman and the Civil Service Commission were eliminated by Brown. On January 16, 2012, protestors against the emergency manager law including Flint residents marched near the governor's home. The next day, Brown filed a financial and operating plan with the state as mandated by law. The next month, each ward in the city had a community engagement meeting hosted by Brown. Governor Snyder on March 7 made a statewide public safety message from Flint City Hall that included help for Flint with plans for reopening the Flint lockup and increasing state police patrols in Flint. On March 20, 2012, days after a lawsuit was filed by labor union [AFSCME](/wiki/American_Federation_of_State%2C_County_and_Municipal_Employees "American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees"), and a [restraining order](/wiki/Restraining_order "Restraining order") was issued against Brown, his appointment was found to be in violation of the Michigan Open Meetings Act, and Mayor Walling and the City Council had their powers returned.{{cite news\|title\=Judge: State violated law in appointing Flint emergency manager; Powers of mayor, city council reinstated\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/emergency\_manager\_lawsuit.html\|newspaper\=The Flint Journal\|date\=March 20, 2012}} The state immediately filed an emergency appeal, claiming the financial emergency still existed.[State plans emergency appeal after judge removes Flint emergency manager, restores mayor and city council](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/state_plans_emergency_appeal_a.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 20, 2012 On March 26, the appeal was granted, putting Brown back in power.[Flint emergency manager reinstated as battle over Public Act 4 continues](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/flint_emergency_manager_reinst.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 26, 2012 Brown and several unions agreed to new contract terms in April. Brown unveiled his fiscal year 2013 budget on April 23\. It included cuts in nearly every department including police and fire, as well as higher taxes.April 24, 2012\. [Flint emergency manager unveils budget with fee hikes, public safety layoffs](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/04/flint_emergency_manager_unveil.html) *The Flint Journal*. MLive Media Group. An Obsolete Property Rehabilitation District was created by Manager Brown in June 2012 for 11 downtown Flint properties. On July 19, the city pension system was transferred to the Municipal Employees Retirement System by the city's retirement board which led to a legal challenge. On August 3, 2012, the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court "Michigan Supreme Court") ordered the state Board of Canvassers to certify a referendum on Public Act 4, the Emergency Manager Law, for the November ballot. Brown made several actions on August 7 including placing a $6 million public safety millage on the ballot and sold [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers "Genesee Towers") to a development group for $1 to demolish the structure. The board certified the referendum petition on August 8, returning the previous Emergency Financial Manager Law into effect. With Brown previously temporary mayor for the last few years, he was ineligible to be the Emergency Financial Manager. [Ed Kurtz](/wiki/Ed_Kurtz "Ed Kurtz") was once again appointed [Emergency Financial Manager](/wiki/Emergency_financial_manager "Emergency financial manager") by the Emergency Financial Assistance Loan Board. Two lawsuits were filed in September 2012, one by the city council against Kurtz's appointment, while another was against the state in Ingham County Circuit Court claiming the old emergency financial manager law remains repealed. On November 30, [State Treasurer](/wiki/State_Treasurer_of_Michigan "State Treasurer of Michigan") [Andy Dillon](/wiki/Andy_Dillon "Andy Dillon") announced the financial emergency was still ongoing, and the emergency manager was still needed.[State treasury: Flint emergency financial manager still needed](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/11/state_treasurys_perspective_fl.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 30, 2012 Michael Brown was re\-appointed Emergency Manager on June 26, 2013, and returned to work on July 8\.[Emergency manager in Flint will be Michael Brown after Ed Kurtz steps down](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/michael_brown_is_back_as_emerg.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 26, 2013 Flint had an $11\.3 million projected deficit when Brown started as emergency manager in 2011\. The city faced a $19\.1 million combined deficit from 2012, with plans to borrow $12 million to cover part of it.[Public safety still a big concern as Mike Brown readies return as Flint's emergency manager](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/is_second_time_for_michael_bro.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 30, 2013 Brown resigned from his position in early September 2013, and his last day was October 31\. He was succeeded by Saginaw city manager (and former Flint temporary mayor) Darnell Earley.[New Flint emergency manager Darnell Earley to take over after Michael Brown resigns](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/09/michael_brown_resigns_as_flint.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, September 11, 2013 Earley formed a blue ribbon committee on governance with 23 members on January 16, 2014, to review city operations and consider possible charter amendments.{{cite news\|last1\=Adams\|first1\=Dominic\|title\=A list of who is on the Flint Blue Ribbon Committee on Governance\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/01/flints\_blue\_ribbon\_committee\_m.html\|access\-date\=July 20, 2015\|work\=The Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=January 9, 2014}} The blue ribbon committee recommend that the city move to a council\-manager government.{{cite news\|last1\=Acosta\|first1\=Roberto\|title\=Blue ribbon report recommends big changes for how Flint is governed\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/flint\-river/index.ssf/2014/07/blue\_ribbon\_report\_recommends.html\|access\-date\=July 20, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=July 24, 2014}} Six charter amendment proposals were placed on the {{dts\|2014\|11\|4}}, ballot with the charter review commission proposal passing along with reduction of mayoral staff appointments and budgetary amendments. Proposals which would eliminate certain executive departments, the Civil Service Commission and the ombudsman office were defeated.{{cite news\|last1\=Fonger\|first1\=Ron\|title\=Flint voters OK first review of city charter in 40 years, work to start after February election\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/11/flint\_voters\_city\_charter.html\|access\-date\=July 20, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=MLive Media Group\|date\=November 5, 2014}} Flint elected a nine\-member [Charter Review Commission](/wiki/Government_of_Flint%2C_Michigan%23Charter_Review_Commission "Government of Flint, Michigan#Charter Review Commission") on May 5, 2015\.{{cite news\|last1\=Fonger\|first1\=Ron\|title\=Big job ahead for nine elected to Flint Charter Review Commission\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/05/big\_job\_ahead\_for\_nine\_elected.html\|access\-date\=November 11, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=May 6, 2015}} With Earley appointed to be emergency manager for [Detroit Public Schools](/wiki/Detroit_Public_Schools_Community_District "Detroit Public Schools Community District") on {{dts\|2015\|1\|13}}, city financial adviser Jerry Ambrose was selected to finish out the financial emergency with an expected exit in April.{{cite news\|title\=Jerry Ambrose named Flint's fourth emergency manager as Darnell Earley heads to Detroit\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/01/jerry\_ambrose\_tapped\_as\_next\_e.html\|access\-date\=January 13, 2015\|work\=The Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=January 13, 2015}} On {{dts\|2015\|4\|30}}, the state moved the city from under an emergency manager receivership to a Receivership Transition Advisory Board.{{cite news\|last1\=Fonger\|first1\=Ron\|title\='A heavy burden' lifted from Flint as Gov. Rick Snyder declares end of financial emergency\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/04/a\_heavy\_burden\_lifted\_from\_fli.html\|access\-date\=July 18, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=April 29, 2015}} On November 3, 2015, Flint residents elected [Karen Weaver](/wiki/Karen_Weaver "Karen Weaver") as their first female mayor.[Karen Weaver makes history, elected Flint's first woman mayor](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/11/karen_weaver_makes_history_ele_1.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 3, 2015 On January 22, 2016, the Receivership Transition Advisory Board unanimously voted to return some powers, including appointment authority, to the mayor.[Powers returned to Flint mayor, no staffing changes announced](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/01/powers_returned_to_flint_mayor.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive, January 22, 2016 The Receivership Transit Authority Board was formally dissolved by State Treasurer Nick Khouri on April 10, 2018, returning the city to local control.{{cite web \|title\=Flint Released from Receivership, All Remaining Emergency Manager Orders Repealed \|url\=https://www.michigan.gov/treasury/0,4679,7\-121\-1755\_73555\_85267\_85268\-464775\-\-,00\.html \|website\=Michigan.gov \|publisher\=Michigan Department of Treasury \|access\-date\=August 22, 2019}} #### Water state of emergency {{Main\|Flint water crisis}} [thumb\|President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") sips filtered Flint water following a roundtable on the [Flint water crisis](/wiki/Flint_water_crisis "Flint water crisis"), 2016](/wiki/File:President_Obama_sips_filtered_water_from_Flint.jpg "President Obama sips filtered water from Flint.jpg") In April 2014, during a financial crisis, state\-appointed emergency manager Darnell Earley changed Flint's water source from the [Detroit Water and Sewerage Department](/wiki/Detroit_Water_and_Sewerage_Department "Detroit Water and Sewerage Department") (sourced from [Lake Huron](/wiki/Lake_Huron "Lake Huron")) to the Flint River.{{Cite web \|last\=Fleming \|first\=Leonard N. \|title\=Darnell Earley: The man in power during Flint switch \|url\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/michigan/flint\-water\-crisis/2016/03/14/darnell\-earley\-flint\-water\-crisis/81788654/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|website\=The Detroit News \|language\=en\-US}} The problem was compounded with the fact that anticorrosive measures were not implemented. After two independent studies, [lead poisoning](/wiki/Lead_poisoning "Lead poisoning") caused by the water was found in the area's population.{{cite web\|title\=Engineering's Marc Edwards heads to Flint as part of study into unprecedented corrosion problem\|url\=http://vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2015/09/091415\-engineering\-edwardsflint.html\|publisher\=Virginia Tech\|access\-date\=December 30, 2015}}{{Cite web\|title \= State of emergency declared in Flint, Michigan over poisoned water supply \|work\= World Socialist Web Site\|date\= December 16, 2015\|url \= https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2015/12/16/flin\-d16\.html\|access\-date \= December 30, 2015}} This has led to several lawsuits, the resignation of several officials, fifteen criminal indictments, and a federal public health state of emergency for all of Genesee County.{{Cite news\|title \= In Flint, Mich., there's so much lead in children's blood that a state of emergency is declared\|url \= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning\-mix/wp/2015/12/15/toxic\-water\-soaring\-lead\-levels\-in\-childrens\-blood\-create\-state\-of\-emergency\-in\-flint\-mich/\|newspaper \= The Washington Post\|date\=December 15, 2015 \|access\-date \=December 15, 2015\|issn \= 0190\-8286\|language \= en\-US\|first \= Yanan\|last \= Wang}}Daniel Bethencourt, [After Flint water crisis, families file lawsuit](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2015/11/13/after-flint-water-crisis-families-file-lawsuit/75744376/), *Detroit Free Press* (November 13, 2015\).[Director Dan Wyant resigns after task force blasts MDEQ over Flint water crisis](http://www.mlive.com/lansing-news/index.ssf/2015/12/deq_director_dan_wyant_resigns.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 29, 2015[Two former Flint emergency managers charged with water crisis crimes](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/12/former_state_emergency_manager.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 20, 2016
[ "### 21st century", "#### First financial emergency: 2002–2004", "By 2002, Flint had accrued $30 million in debt.{{cite news\\|last\\=Mostafavi\\|first\\=Beata\\|title\\=What happened last time? A look back at Flint's 2002 state takeover\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/what\\_happened\\_last\\_time\\_a\\_look.html\\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 10, 2011}} On March 5, 2002, the city's voters [recalled](/wiki/Recall_election \"Recall election\") Mayor [Woodrow Stanley](/wiki/Woodrow_Stanley \"Woodrow Stanley\"). On May 22, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan \"Governor of Michigan\") [John Engler](/wiki/John_Engler \"John Engler\") declared a financial emergency in Flint, and on July 8 the state appointed an [emergency financial manager](/wiki/Financial_emergency_in_Michigan \"Financial emergency in Michigan\"),{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Flint would be only Michigan city to twice undergo emergency state takeover\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/flint\\_would\\_be\\_only\\_michigan\\_c.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 8, 2011}} Ed Kurtz. The emergency financial manager displaced the temporary mayor, [Darnell Earley](/wiki/Darnell_Earley \"Darnell Earley\"), in the city administrator position.", "In August 2002, city voters elected former Mayor [James Rutherford](/wiki/James_W._Rutherford \"James W. Rutherford\") to finish the remainder of Stanley's term of office. On September 24, Kurtz commissioned a salary and wage study for top city officials from an outside accounting and consulting firm. The financial manager then installed a new code enforcement program for annual rental inspections and emergency demolitions. On October 8, Kurtz ordered cuts in pay for the mayor (from $107,000 to $24,000\\) and the City Council members (from $23,000 to $18,000\\). He also eliminated insurance benefits for most officials. After spending $245,000 fighting the takeover, the City Council ended the lawsuits on October 14\\. Immediately thereafter on October 16, a new interim financial plan was put in place by the manager. This plan initiated controls on hiring, overnight travel and spending by city employees. On November 12, Kurtz directed the city's retirement board to stop unusual pension benefits, which had decreased some retiree pensions by 3\\.5%. Kurtz sought the return of overpayments to the pension fund. However, in December, the state attorney general stated that emergency financial managers do not have authority over the retirement system. With contract talks stalled, Kurtz stated that there either need to be cuts or layoffs to union employees. That same month, the city's recreation centers were temporarily closed.", "Emergency measures continued in 2003\\. In May, Kurtz increased water and sewer bills by 11% and shut down operations of the ombudsman's office. In September, a 4% pay cut was agreed to by the city's largest union. In October, Kurtz moved in favor of infrastructure improvements, authorizing $1 million in sewer and road projects. [Don Williamson](/wiki/Don_Williamson \"Don Williamson\") was elected a full\\-term mayor and sworn in on November 10\\. In December, city audits reported nearly $14 million in reductions in the city deficit. For the 2003–2004 budget year, estimates decreased that amount to between $6 million and $8 million.", "With pressure from Kurtz for large layoffs and replacement of the board on February 17, 2004, the City Retirement Board agreed to four proposals reducing the amount of the city's contribution into the system. On March 24, Kurtz indicated that he would raise the City Council's and the mayor's pay, and in May, Kurtz laid off 10 workers as part of 35 job cuts for the 2004–05 budget. In June 2004, Kurtz reported that the financial emergency was over.", "#### Redevelopment", "[thumb\\|[The Durant](/wiki/The_Durant \"The Durant\"), built in 1919](/wiki/File:Flint_July_2018_01_%28The_Durant_-_Hotel_Durant%29.jpg \"Flint July 2018 01 (The Durant - Hotel Durant).jpg\")\nIn November 2013, [American Cast Iron Pipe Company](/wiki/American_Cast_Iron_Pipe_Company \"American Cast Iron Pipe Company\"), a [Birmingham, Alabama](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Alabama \"Birmingham, Alabama\") based company, became the first to build a production facility in Flint's former [Buick City](/wiki/Buick_City \"Buick City\") site, purchasing the property from the [RACER Trust](/wiki/RACER_Trust \"RACER Trust\").[Pipe maker to add 60 jobs at Flint's Buick City property](http://www.freep.com/article/20131113/BUSINESS0101/311130151/Flint-Buick-City-American-Cast-Iron-Pipe-Co-General-Motors-RACER-GM) *Detroit Free Press*, November 13, 2013 Commercially, local organizations have attempted to pool their resources in the central business district and to expand and bolster higher education at four local institutions. Examples of their efforts include the following:\n* Landmarks such as the First National Bank building have been extensively renovated, often to create lofts or office space, and filming for the [Will Ferrell](/wiki/Will_Ferrell \"Will Ferrell\") movie *[Semi\\-Pro](/wiki/Semi-Pro \"Semi-Pro\")* resulted in renovations to the Capitol Theatre.\n* [The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building \"The Paterson Building\") at Saginaw and Third street has been owned by the Collison Family, Thomas W. Collison \\& Co., Inc., for the last 30 years. The building is rich in [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") throughout the interior and exterior. The building also houses its own garage in the lower level, providing heated valet parking to The Paterson Building Tenants.\n* In 2004, University Park, the first planned residential community in Flint in over 30 years, was built north of Fifth Avenue off Saginaw Street, Flint's main thoroughfare.\n* Local foundations have funded the renovation and redecoration of Saginaw Street and have begun work turning University Avenue (formerly known as Third Avenue) into a mile\\-long \"University Corridor\" connecting [University of Michigan–Flint](/wiki/University_of_Michigan%E2%80%93Flint \"University of Michigan–Flint\") with [Kettering University](/wiki/Kettering_University \"Kettering University\").\n* [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium \"Atwood Stadium\"), located on University Avenue, received extensive renovations, and the Cultivating Our Community project landscaped 16 different locations as a part of a $415,600 beautification project.\n* Wade Trim and Rowe Incorporated made major renovations to transform empty downtown Flint blocks into business, entertainment, and housing centers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.whatsupdowntown.com \\|title\\=What's Up Downtown? \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202102003/http://www.whatsupdowntown.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 2, 2015 }} [WNEM\\-TV](/wiki/WNEM-TV \"WNEM-TV\"), a television station based in [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan \"Saginaw, Michigan\"), uses space in the Wade Trim building facing Saginaw Street as a secondary studio and newsroom.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://blog.mlive.com/flintjournal/newsnow/2007/09/wnem\\_plans\\_studio\\_in\\_downtown.html \\|title\\=WNEM plans studio in downtown Flint \\| newspaper\\=The Flint Journal}}\n* The long\\-vacant [Durant Hotel](/wiki/The_Durant \"The Durant\"), formerly owned by the [United Hotels Company](/wiki/United_Hotels_Company_of_America \"United Hotels Company of America\"),{{cite news\\|title\\=Receivers Named For Hotel Firm\\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2015\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=November 18, 1933}} was turned into a mixture of commercial space and apartments intended to attract young professionals or college students, with 93 units.[The Durant hotel full for the first time; site of a dozen weddings, prom and other events downtown Flint](https://www.mlive.com/business/mid-michigan/2011/08/the_durant_hotel_full_for_the.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, January 21, 2019\n* In March 2008, the Crim Race Foundation put up an offer to buy the vacant Character Inn and turn it into a fitness center and do a multimillion\\-dollar renovation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\\=news/local\\&id\\=6028243 \\|title\\=Crim offers to purchase Character Inn \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629043405/http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section\\=news%2Flocal\\&id\\=6028243 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 29, 2011 }}", "[thumb\\|[The Paterson Building](/wiki/The_Paterson_Building \"The Paterson Building\")](/wiki/File:The_Paterson_Building.jpg \"The Paterson Building.jpg\")\nSimilar to a plan in Detroit, Flint is in the process of tearing down thousands of abandoned homes to create available real estate. As of June 2009, approximately 1,100 homes have been demolished in Flint, with one official estimating another 3,000 more will have to be torn down.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\\-cities\\-may\\-have\\-to\\-be\\-bulldozed\\-in\\-order\\-to\\-survive.html\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090615055407/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/5516536/US\\-cities\\-may\\-have\\-to\\-be\\-bulldozed\\-in\\-order\\-to\\-survive.html\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|archive\\-date\\= June 15, 2009\\|title\\= US cities may have to be bulldozed in order to survive\\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2009\\|author\\= Tom Leonard\\|date\\= June 12, 2009\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph }}", "#### Second financial emergency: 2011–2015", "On September 30, 2011, [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_Michigan \"Governor of Michigan\") [Rick Snyder](/wiki/Rick_Snyder \"Rick Snyder\") appointed an eight\\-member team to review Flint's financial state with a request to report back in 30 days (half the legal time for a review).{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Gov. Snyder appoints team to review Flint's finances under emergency manager law, requests report within 30 days\\| url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/09/gov\\_snyder\\_appoints\\_team\\_to\\_re.html \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=September 30, 2011}} On November 8, Mayor [Dayne Walling](/wiki/Dayne_Walling \"Dayne Walling\") defeated challenger Darryl Buchanan 8,819 votes (56%) to 6,868 votes (44%).{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=About 19 percent of voters turned out to re\\-elect Flint Mayor Dayne Walling\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/about\\_19\\_percent\\_of\\_voters\\_tur.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2011\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 9, 2011}} That same day, the Michigan State review panel declared Flint to be in a state of a \"local government financial emergency\" recommending the state again appoint an emergency manager.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Dayne Walling re\\-elected mayor as state declares financial emergency in Flint\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/dayne\\_walling\\_re\\-elected\\_as\\_st.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 9, 2011\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 9, 2011}} On November 14, the City Council voted 7 to 2 to not appeal the state review with Mayor Walling concurring the next day.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Flint emergency: Timeline of state takeover\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/12/flint\\_emergency\\_timeline\\_of\\_st\\_1\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=December 1, 2012\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=December 1, 2012}} Governor Snyder appointed [Michael Brown](/wiki/Michael_Brown_%28Michigan_politician%29 \"Michael Brown (Michigan politician)\") as the city's emergency manager.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Former Acting Mayor Michael Brown named Flint's emergency manager\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/11/former\\_acting\\_mayor\\_michael\\_br.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 29, 2011\\|newspaper\\=Flint Journal\\|date\\=November 29, 2011}} On December 2, Brown dismissed a number of top administrators. Pay and benefits from Flint's elected officials were automatically removed.{{cite news\\|last\\=Longley\\|first\\=Kristin\\|title\\=Shakeup at Flint City Hall as new emergency manager issues layoffs, pay cuts\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2011/12/layoffs\\_pay\\_cuts\\_for\\_some\\_at\\_f.html\\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2011\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=December 2, 2011}} On December 8, the office of ombudsman and the Civil Service Commission were eliminated by Brown.", "On January 16, 2012, protestors against the emergency manager law including Flint residents marched near the governor's home. The next day, Brown filed a financial and operating plan with the state as mandated by law. The next month, each ward in the city had a community engagement meeting hosted by Brown. Governor Snyder on March 7 made a statewide public safety message from Flint City Hall that included help for Flint with plans for reopening the Flint lockup and increasing state police patrols in Flint.", "On March 20, 2012, days after a lawsuit was filed by labor union [AFSCME](/wiki/American_Federation_of_State%2C_County_and_Municipal_Employees \"American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees\"), and a [restraining order](/wiki/Restraining_order \"Restraining order\") was issued against Brown, his appointment was found to be in violation of the Michigan Open Meetings Act, and Mayor Walling and the City Council had their powers returned.{{cite news\\|title\\=Judge: State violated law in appointing Flint emergency manager; Powers of mayor, city council reinstated\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/emergency\\_manager\\_lawsuit.html\\|newspaper\\=The Flint Journal\\|date\\=March 20, 2012}} The state immediately filed an emergency appeal, claiming the financial emergency still existed.[State plans emergency appeal after judge removes Flint emergency manager, restores mayor and city council](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/state_plans_emergency_appeal_a.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 20, 2012 On March 26, the appeal was granted, putting Brown back in power.[Flint emergency manager reinstated as battle over Public Act 4 continues](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/03/flint_emergency_manager_reinst.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, March 26, 2012 Brown and several unions agreed to new contract terms in April. Brown unveiled his fiscal year 2013 budget on April 23\\. It included cuts in nearly every department including police and fire, as well as higher taxes.April 24, 2012\\. [Flint emergency manager unveils budget with fee hikes, public safety layoffs](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/04/flint_emergency_manager_unveil.html) *The Flint Journal*. MLive Media Group. An Obsolete Property Rehabilitation District was created by Manager Brown in June 2012 for 11 downtown Flint properties. On July 19, the city pension system was transferred to the Municipal Employees Retirement System by the city's retirement board which led to a legal challenge.", "On August 3, 2012, the [Michigan Supreme Court](/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court \"Michigan Supreme Court\") ordered the state Board of Canvassers to certify a referendum on Public Act 4, the Emergency Manager Law, for the November ballot. Brown made several actions on August 7 including placing a $6 million public safety millage on the ballot and sold [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers \"Genesee Towers\") to a development group for $1 to demolish the structure. The board certified the referendum petition on August 8, returning the previous Emergency Financial Manager Law into effect. With Brown previously temporary mayor for the last few years, he was ineligible to be the Emergency Financial Manager. [Ed Kurtz](/wiki/Ed_Kurtz \"Ed Kurtz\") was once again appointed [Emergency Financial Manager](/wiki/Emergency_financial_manager \"Emergency financial manager\") by the Emergency Financial Assistance Loan Board.", "Two lawsuits were filed in September 2012, one by the city council against Kurtz's appointment, while another was against the state in Ingham County Circuit Court claiming the old emergency financial manager law remains repealed. On November 30, [State Treasurer](/wiki/State_Treasurer_of_Michigan \"State Treasurer of Michigan\") [Andy Dillon](/wiki/Andy_Dillon \"Andy Dillon\") announced the financial emergency was still ongoing, and the emergency manager was still needed.[State treasury: Flint emergency financial manager still needed](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2012/11/state_treasurys_perspective_fl.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 30, 2012", "Michael Brown was re\\-appointed Emergency Manager on June 26, 2013, and returned to work on July 8\\.[Emergency manager in Flint will be Michael Brown after Ed Kurtz steps down](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/michael_brown_is_back_as_emerg.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 26, 2013 Flint had an $11\\.3 million projected deficit when Brown started as emergency manager in 2011\\. The city faced a $19\\.1 million combined deficit from 2012, with plans to borrow $12 million to cover part of it.[Public safety still a big concern as Mike Brown readies return as Flint's emergency manager](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/06/is_second_time_for_michael_bro.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, June 30, 2013 Brown resigned from his position in early September 2013, and his last day was October 31\\. He was succeeded by Saginaw city manager (and former Flint temporary mayor) Darnell Earley.[New Flint emergency manager Darnell Earley to take over after Michael Brown resigns](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2013/09/michael_brown_resigns_as_flint.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, September 11, 2013", "Earley formed a blue ribbon committee on governance with 23 members on January 16, 2014, to review city operations and consider possible charter amendments.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Adams\\|first1\\=Dominic\\|title\\=A list of who is on the Flint Blue Ribbon Committee on Governance\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/01/flints\\_blue\\_ribbon\\_committee\\_m.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2015\\|work\\=The Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=January 9, 2014}} The blue ribbon committee recommend that the city move to a council\\-manager government.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Acosta\\|first1\\=Roberto\\|title\\=Blue ribbon report recommends big changes for how Flint is governed\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/flint\\-river/index.ssf/2014/07/blue\\_ribbon\\_report\\_recommends.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=July 24, 2014}} Six charter amendment proposals were placed on the {{dts\\|2014\\|11\\|4}}, ballot with the charter review commission proposal passing along with reduction of mayoral staff appointments and budgetary amendments. Proposals which would eliminate certain executive departments, the Civil Service Commission and the ombudsman office were defeated.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Fonger\\|first1\\=Ron\\|title\\=Flint voters OK first review of city charter in 40 years, work to start after February election\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2014/11/flint\\_voters\\_city\\_charter.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=MLive Media Group\\|date\\=November 5, 2014}} Flint elected a nine\\-member [Charter Review Commission](/wiki/Government_of_Flint%2C_Michigan%23Charter_Review_Commission \"Government of Flint, Michigan#Charter Review Commission\") on May 5, 2015\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Fonger\\|first1\\=Ron\\|title\\=Big job ahead for nine elected to Flint Charter Review Commission\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/05/big\\_job\\_ahead\\_for\\_nine\\_elected.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=May 6, 2015}}", "With Earley appointed to be emergency manager for [Detroit Public Schools](/wiki/Detroit_Public_Schools_Community_District \"Detroit Public Schools Community District\") on {{dts\\|2015\\|1\\|13}}, city financial adviser Jerry Ambrose was selected to finish out the financial emergency with an expected exit in April.{{cite news\\|title\\=Jerry Ambrose named Flint's fourth emergency manager as Darnell Earley heads to Detroit\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/01/jerry\\_ambrose\\_tapped\\_as\\_next\\_e.html\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2015\\|work\\=The Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=January 13, 2015}} On {{dts\\|2015\\|4\\|30}}, the state moved the city from under an emergency manager receivership to a Receivership Transition Advisory Board.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Fonger\\|first1\\=Ron\\|title\\='A heavy burden' lifted from Flint as Gov. Rick Snyder declares end of financial emergency\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/04/a\\_heavy\\_burden\\_lifted\\_from\\_fli.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=April 29, 2015}} On November 3, 2015, Flint residents elected [Karen Weaver](/wiki/Karen_Weaver \"Karen Weaver\") as their first female mayor.[Karen Weaver makes history, elected Flint's first woman mayor](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2015/11/karen_weaver_makes_history_ele_1.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, November 3, 2015 On January 22, 2016, the Receivership Transition Advisory Board unanimously voted to return some powers, including appointment authority, to the mayor.[Powers returned to Flint mayor, no staffing changes announced](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/01/powers_returned_to_flint_mayor.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive, January 22, 2016 The Receivership Transit Authority Board was formally dissolved by State Treasurer Nick Khouri on April 10, 2018, returning the city to local control.{{cite web \\|title\\=Flint Released from Receivership, All Remaining Emergency Manager Orders Repealed \\|url\\=https://www.michigan.gov/treasury/0,4679,7\\-121\\-1755\\_73555\\_85267\\_85268\\-464775\\-\\-,00\\.html \\|website\\=Michigan.gov \\|publisher\\=Michigan Department of Treasury \\|access\\-date\\=August 22, 2019}}", "#### Water state of emergency", "{{Main\\|Flint water crisis}}\n[thumb\\|President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") sips filtered Flint water following a roundtable on the [Flint water crisis](/wiki/Flint_water_crisis \"Flint water crisis\"), 2016](/wiki/File:President_Obama_sips_filtered_water_from_Flint.jpg \"President Obama sips filtered water from Flint.jpg\")\nIn April 2014, during a financial crisis, state\\-appointed emergency manager Darnell Earley changed Flint's water source from the [Detroit Water and Sewerage Department](/wiki/Detroit_Water_and_Sewerage_Department \"Detroit Water and Sewerage Department\") (sourced from [Lake Huron](/wiki/Lake_Huron \"Lake Huron\")) to the Flint River.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fleming \\|first\\=Leonard N. \\|title\\=Darnell Earley: The man in power during Flint switch \\|url\\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/michigan/flint\\-water\\-crisis/2016/03/14/darnell\\-earley\\-flint\\-water\\-crisis/81788654/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|website\\=The Detroit News \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The problem was compounded with the fact that anticorrosive measures were not implemented. After two independent studies, [lead poisoning](/wiki/Lead_poisoning \"Lead poisoning\") caused by the water was found in the area's population.{{cite web\\|title\\=Engineering's Marc Edwards heads to Flint as part of study into unprecedented corrosion problem\\|url\\=http://vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2015/09/091415\\-engineering\\-edwardsflint.html\\|publisher\\=Virginia Tech\\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2015}}{{Cite web\\|title \\= State of emergency declared in Flint, Michigan over poisoned water supply \\|work\\= World Socialist Web Site\\|date\\= December 16, 2015\\|url \\= https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2015/12/16/flin\\-d16\\.html\\|access\\-date \\= December 30, 2015}} This has led to several lawsuits, the resignation of several officials, fifteen criminal indictments, and a federal public health state of emergency for all of Genesee County.{{Cite news\\|title \\= In Flint, Mich., there's so much lead in children's blood that a state of emergency is declared\\|url \\= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning\\-mix/wp/2015/12/15/toxic\\-water\\-soaring\\-lead\\-levels\\-in\\-childrens\\-blood\\-create\\-state\\-of\\-emergency\\-in\\-flint\\-mich/\\|newspaper \\= The Washington Post\\|date\\=December 15, 2015 \\|access\\-date \\=December 15, 2015\\|issn \\= 0190\\-8286\\|language \\= en\\-US\\|first \\= Yanan\\|last \\= Wang}}Daniel Bethencourt, [After Flint water crisis, families file lawsuit](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2015/11/13/after-flint-water-crisis-families-file-lawsuit/75744376/), *Detroit Free Press* (November 13, 2015\\).[Director Dan Wyant resigns after task force blasts MDEQ over Flint water crisis](http://www.mlive.com/lansing-news/index.ssf/2015/12/deq_director_dan_wyant_resigns.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 29, 2015[Two former Flint emergency managers charged with water crisis crimes](http://www.mlive.com/news/flint/index.ssf/2016/12/former_state_emergency_manager.html) *The Flint Journal* via MLive.com, December 20, 2016", "" ]
Geography --------- [thumb\|Downtown Flint looking northwest, taken from a now\-demolished skyscraper, the Genesee Towers. The downtown core has seen some improvement in recent years due to an influx of younger people, college students, and new restaurants and bars.](/wiki/File:Downtown_Flint_Michigan_taken_from_Genesee_Towers.jpg "Downtown Flint Michigan taken from Genesee Towers.jpg") Flint lies in the [Flint/Tri\-Cities](/wiki/Flint/Tri-Cities "Flint/Tri-Cities") region of [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan "Michigan"). Flint and [Genesee County](/wiki/Genesee_County%2C_Michigan "Genesee County, Michigan") can be categorized as a subregion of Flint/Tri\-Cities. It is located along the Flint River, which flows through [Lapeer](/wiki/Lapeer_County%2C_Michigan "Lapeer County, Michigan"), Genesee, and [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw_County%2C_Michigan "Saginaw County, Michigan") counties and is {{convert\|78\.3\|mi\|abbr\=on}} long.{{Cite web\|url\=http://geo.msu.edu/extra/geogmich/miwatershed.html\|title\=Lakes, Rivers and Wetlands\|publisher\=Michigan State University \|access\-date\=February 20, 2017}} According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), the city has a total area of {{convert\|34\.06\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}}, of which, {{convert\|33\.42\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}} is land and {{convert\|0\.64\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}} is water.{{cite web\|title\=US Gazetteer files 2010 \|url\=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz\_places\_national.txt \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=November 25, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125061959/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz\_places\_national.txt \|archive\-date\=January 25, 2012 }} Flint lies just to the northeast of the Flint hills. The terrain is low and rolling along the south and east sides, and flatter to the northwest. ### Neighborhoods [thumb\|Hall's Flats on the West Side is one of Flint's many neighborhoods.](/wiki/File:Flint_hallsflats.JPG "Flint hallsflats.JPG") Flint has several neighborhoods grouped around the center of the city on the four cardinal sides. The downtown business district is centered on Saginaw Street south of the Flint River. Just west, on opposite sides of the river, are Carriage Town (north) and the Grand Traverse Street District (south). Both neighborhoods boast strong neighborhood associations. These neighborhoods were the center of manufacturing for and profits from the nation's carriage industry until the 1920s and are the site of many well\-preserved [Victorian homes](/wiki/Victorian_house "Victorian house") and the setting of Atwood Stadium. The University Avenue corridor of Carriage Town is home to the largest concentration of Greek housing in the area, with fraternity houses from both Kettering University, and the University of Michigan\-Flint. Chapter houses include [Phi Delta Theta](/wiki/Phi_Delta_Theta "Phi Delta Theta"), [Sigma Alpha Epsilon](/wiki/Sigma_Alpha_Epsilon "Sigma Alpha Epsilon"), [Delta Chi](/wiki/Delta_Chi "Delta Chi"), [Theta Chi](/wiki/Theta_Chi "Theta Chi"), [Lambda Chi Alpha](/wiki/Lambda_Chi_Alpha "Lambda Chi Alpha"), [Theta Xi](/wiki/Theta_Xi "Theta Xi"), [Alpha Phi Alpha](/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha "Alpha Phi Alpha"), [Phi Gamma Delta](/wiki/Phi_Gamma_Delta "Phi Gamma Delta"), and [Delta Tau Delta](/wiki/Delta_Tau_Delta "Delta Tau Delta") Fraternities. Just north of downtown is River Village, an example of gentrification via mixed\-income public housing. To the east of [I\-475](/wiki/Interstate_475_%28Michigan%29 "Interstate 475 (Michigan)") is [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park%2C_Flint "Central Park, Flint") and Fairfield Village. These are the only two neighborhoods between UM\-Flint and [Mott Community College](/wiki/Mott_Community_College "Mott Community College") and enjoy strong neighborhood associations. Central Park piloted a project to convert street lights to LED and is defined by seven cul\-de\-sacs. The North Side and 5th Ward are predominantly African American, with such historic districts as Buick City and Civic Park on the north, and Sugar Hill, Floral Park, and Kent and Elm Parks on the south. Many of these neighborhoods were the original centers of early Michigan [blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues"). The South Side in particular was also a center for multi\-racial migration from Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South") since World War II. These neighborhoods are most often lower income but have maintained some level of economic stratification. The East Side is the site of the Applewood Mott Estate, and Mott Community College, the [Cultural Center](/wiki/Flint_Cultural_Center "Flint Cultural Center"), and [East Village](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Flint "East Village, Flint"), one of Flint's more prosperous areas. The surrounding neighborhood is called the College/Cultural Neighborhood, with a strong neighborhood association, lower crime rate and stable housing prices. Just north is Eastside Proper, also known as the State Streets, and has much of Flint's Hispanic community.Warikoo, Niraj. "[Flint immigrants struggle to get help, info on water](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20160204074923/http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)). *[Detroit Free Press](/wiki/Detroit_Free_Press "Detroit Free Press")*. February 4, 2016\. Retrieved on February 4, 2016\. The West Side includes the main site of the 1936–37 sit\-down strike, the Mott Park neighborhood, Kettering University, and the historic Woodcroft Estates, owned in the past by legendary automotive executives and current home to prominent and historic Flint families such as the Motts, the Manleys, and the Smiths. Facilities associated with General Motors in the past and present are scattered throughout the city, including GM Truck and Bus, Flint Metal Center and Powertrain South (clustered together on the city's southwestern corner); Powertrain North, Flint Tool and Die and Delphi East. The largest plant, Buick City, and adjacent facilities have been demolished. [thumb\|The [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers "Genesee Towers") (left), now demolished, and [Mott Foundation Building](/wiki/Mott_Foundation_Building "Mott Foundation Building") (right). [The Flint Journal](/wiki/The_Flint_Journal "The Flint Journal")'s former headquarters (now used by the [Michigan State University College of Human Medicine](/wiki/Michigan_State_University_College_of_Human_Medicine "Michigan State University College of Human Medicine")) is to the far left.](/wiki/File:Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg "Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg") Half of Flint's fourteen tallest buildings were built during the 1920s. The 19\-story Genesee Towers, formerly the city's tallest building, was completed in 1968\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.skyscraperpage.com/cities/?cityID\=1064/ \|title\=Flint, Michigan \|publisher\=SkyscraperPage.com \|access\-date\=May 21, 2012}} The building became unused in later years and fell into severe disrepair: a cautionary sign warning of falling debris was put on the sidewalk in front of it. An investment company purchased the building for $1, and it was demolished (by [implosion](/wiki/Building_implosion "Building implosion")) on December 22, 2013\. ### Climate [thumb\|Climate chart for Flint](/wiki/File:Monthly_Climate_Normals_%281991-2020%29_-_Flint_Area%2C_MI%28ThreadEx%29.svg "Monthly Climate Normals (1991-2020) - Flint Area, MI(ThreadEx).svg") Typical of southeastern Michigan, Flint has a [humid continental climate](/wiki/Humid_continental_climate "Humid continental climate") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification") *Dfb*), and is part of USDA [Hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone "Hardiness zone") 6a.{{cite web\|title\=USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map\|url\=http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/\|publisher\=United States Department of Agriculture\|access\-date\=June 1, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227032333/http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/\|archive\-date\=February 27, 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} Winters are cold, with moderate [snowfall](/wiki/Snowfall "Snowfall") and temperatures not rising above freezing on an average 52 days annually, while dropping to {{convert\|0\|°F\|0}} or below on an average 9\.3 days a year; summers are warm to hot with temperatures exceeding {{convert\|90\|°F\|0}} on 9\.0 days. The monthly daily mean temperature ranges from {{convert\|23\.0\|°F\|1}} in January to {{convert\|70\.9\|°F\|1}} in July. Official temperature extremes range from {{convert\|108\|°F\|0}} on [July 8 and 13, 1936](/wiki/1936_North_American_heat_wave "1936 North American heat wave") down to {{convert\|\-25\|°F\|0}} on January 18, 1976, and February 20, 2015; the record low maximum is {{convert\|\-4\|°F\|0}} on [January 18, 1994](/wiki/1994_North_American_cold_wave "1994 North American cold wave"), while, conversely the record high minimum is {{convert\|79\|°F\|0}} on July 18, 1942\. Decades may pass between readings of {{convert\|100\|°F\|0}} or higher, which last occurred [July 17, 2012](/wiki/Summer_2012_North_American_heat_wave "Summer 2012 North American heat wave"). The average window for freezing temperatures is October 8 thru May 7, allowing a growing season of 153 days. On June 8, 1953, Flint was hit by [an F5 tornado](/wiki/1953_Flint%E2%80%93Beecher_tornado "1953 Flint–Beecher tornado"), which claimed 116 lives.{{cite web\|title\=NOAA MARKS 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF THIRD DEADLIEST YEAR FOR TORNADOES\|url\=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s1135\.htm\|publisher\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\|access\-date\=June 7, 2015}} Precipitation is moderate and somewhat evenly\-distributed throughout the year, although the warmer months average more, averaging {{convert\|31\.97\|in\|mm}} annually, but historically ranging from {{convert\|18\.08\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} in 1963 to {{convert\|45\.38\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} in 1975\. Snowfall, which typically falls in measurable amounts between November 12 through April 9 (occasionally in October and very rarely in May), averages {{convert\|52\.1\|in\|cm\|0}} per year, although historically ranging from {{convert\|16\.0\|in\|cm\|abbr\=on}} in 1944–45 to {{convert\|85\.3\|in\|cm\|abbr\=on}} in 2017–18\. A snow depth of {{convert\|1\|in\|cm\|abbr\=on}} or more occurs on an average 64 days, with 53 days from December to February. {{Weather box \| location \= Flint, Michigan (\[\[Bishop International Airport\|Bishop Int'l]]), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1921–present \| single line \= Y \| Jan record high F \= 65 \| Feb record high F \= 73 \| Mar record high F \= 86 \| Apr record high F \= 88 \| May record high F \= 93 \| Jun record high F \= 104 \| Jul record high F \= 108 \| Aug record high F \= 103 \| Sep record high F \= 100 \| Oct record high F \= 89 \| Nov record high F \= 79 \| Dec record high F \= 70 \| year record high F \= 108 \| Jan avg record high F \= 52\.1 \| Feb avg record high F \= 53\.0 \| Mar avg record high F \= 68\.1 \| Apr avg record high F \= 78\.4 \| May avg record high F \= 86\.2 \| Jun avg record high F \= 91\.9 \| Jul avg record high F \= 92\.7 \| Aug avg record high F \= 91\.5 \| Sep avg record high F \= 88\.4 \| Oct avg record high F \= 79\.3 \| Nov avg record high F \= 66\.0 \| Dec avg record high F \= 55\.1 \| year avg record high F \= 94\.8 \| Jan high F \= 29\.9 \| Feb high F \= 32\.8 \| Mar high F \= 43\.3 \| Apr high F \= 56\.7 \| May high F \= 68\.9 \| Jun high F \= 78\.2 \| Jul high F \= 82\.1 \| Aug high F \= 79\.9 \| Sep high F \= 73\.1 \| Oct high F \= 60\.1 \| Nov high F \= 46\.6 \| Dec high F \= 34\.9 \| year high F \= 57\.2 \| Jan mean F \= 23\.0 \| Feb mean F \= 24\.7 \| Mar mean F \= 34\.2 \| Apr mean F \= 46\.0 \| May mean F \= 57\.4 \| Jun mean F \= 67\.1 \| Jul mean F \= 70\.9 \| Aug mean F \= 69\.1 \| Sep mean F \= 61\.7 \| Oct mean F \= 50\.2 \| Nov mean F \= 38\.8 \| Dec mean F \= 28\.7 \| year mean F \= 47\.6 \| Jan low F \= 16\.0 \| Feb low F \= 16\.7 \| Mar low F \= 25\.1 \| Apr low F \= 35\.3 \| May low F \= 46\.0 \| Jun low F \= 55\.9 \| Jul low F \= 59\.7 \| Aug low F \= 58\.3 \| Sep low F \= 50\.4 \| Oct low F \= 40\.3 \| Nov low F \= 31\.0 \| Dec low F \= 22\.5 \| year low F \= 38\.1 \| Jan avg record low F \= −6\.1 \| Feb avg record low F \= −4\.4 \| Mar avg record low F \= 5\.4 \| Apr avg record low F \= 21\.4 \| May avg record low F \= 31\.8 \| Jun avg record low F \= 41\.4 \| Jul avg record low F \= 47\.2 \| Aug avg record low F \= 46\.1 \| Sep avg record low F \= 35\.0 \| Oct avg record low F \= 25\.9 \| Nov avg record low F \= 15\.4 \| Dec avg record low F \= 3\.5 \| year avg record low F \= −10\.2 \| Jan record low F \= −25 \| Feb record low F \= −25 \| Mar record low F \= −16 \| Apr record low F \= 6 \| May record low F \= 22 \| Jun record low F \= 33 \| Jul record low F \= 40 \| Aug record low F \= 37 \| Sep record low F \= 26 \| Oct record low F \= 19 \| Nov record low F \= −7 \| Dec record low F \= −18 \| year record low F \= \-25 \| precipitation colour \= green \| Jan precipitation inch \= 1\.99 \| Feb precipitation inch \= 1\.68 \| Mar precipitation inch \= 1\.97 \| Apr precipitation inch \= 3\.13 \| May precipitation inch \= 3\.68 \| Jun precipitation inch \= 3\.12 \| Jul precipitation inch \= 3\.41 \| Aug precipitation inch \= 3\.16 \| Sep precipitation inch \= 2\.90 \| Oct precipitation inch \= 2\.77 \| Nov precipitation inch \= 2\.27 \| Dec precipitation inch \= 1\.89 \| year precipitation inch \= 31\.97 \| Jan snow inch \= 15\.1 \| Feb snow inch \= 13\.0 \| Mar snow inch \= 6\.6 \| Apr snow inch \= 2\.4 \| May snow inch \= 0\.0 \| Jun snow inch \= 0\.0 \| Jul snow inch \= 0\.0 \| Aug snow inch \= 0\.0 \| Sep snow inch \= 0\.0 \| Oct snow inch \= 0\.3 \| Nov snow inch \= 3\.3 \| Dec snow inch \= 11\.4 \| year snow inch \= 52\.1 \| unit precipitation days \= 0\.01 in \| Jan precipitation days \= 14\.2 \| Feb precipitation days \= 10\.9 \| Mar precipitation days \= 11\.0 \| Apr precipitation days \= 12\.7 \| May precipitation days \= 12\.1 \| Jun precipitation days \= 10\.8 \| Jul precipitation days \= 9\.5 \| Aug precipitation days \= 10\.0 \| Sep precipitation days \= 9\.6 \| Oct precipitation days \= 11\.8 \| Nov precipitation days \= 11\.6 \| Dec precipitation days \= 13\.8 \| year precipitation days \= 138\.0 \| unit snow days \= 0\.1 in \| Jan snow days \= 13\.3 \| Feb snow days \= 10\.7 \| Mar snow days \= 6\.2 \| Apr snow days \= 2\.4 \| May snow days \= 0\.0 \| Jun snow days \= 0\.0 \| Jul snow days \= 0\.0 \| Aug snow days \= 0\.0 \| Sep snow days \= 0\.0 \| Oct snow days \= 0\.3 \| Nov snow days \= 3\.6 \| Dec snow days \= 10\.3 \| year snow days \= 46\.8 \| humidity colour \= green \| Jan humidity \= 75\.3 \| Feb humidity \= 73\.1 \| Mar humidity \= 70\.3 \| Apr humidity \= 65\.8 \| May humidity \= 65\.5 \| Jun humidity \= 68\.4 \| Jul humidity \= 69\.6 \| Aug humidity \= 73\.3 \| Sep humidity \= 75\.6 \| Oct humidity \= 73\.2 \| Nov humidity \= 75\.6 \| Dec humidity \= 77\.4 \| year humidity \= 71\.9 \| Jan dew point C \= \-9\.3 \| Feb dew point C \= \-8\.8 \| Mar dew point C \= \-4\.2 \| Apr dew point C \= 1\.1 \| May dew point C \= 7\.0 \| Jun dew point C \= 12\.6 \| Jul dew point C \= 15\.2 \| Aug dew point C \= 14\.9 \| Sep dew point C \= 11\.4 \| Oct dew point C \= 5\.0 \| Nov dew point C \= \-0\.1 \| Dec dew point C \= \-5\.9 \| source 1 \= NOAA (relative humidity and dew point 1961–1990\){{cite web \|url \= https://w2\.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo\=dtx \|title \= NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data \|publisher \= \[\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] \|access\-date \= May 8, 2021}}{{cite web \|url \= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\=normals\-monthly\-1991\-2020\&startDate\=0001\-01\-01\&endDate\=9996\-12\-31\&stations\=USW00014826\&format\=pdf \|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title \= Station: Flint Bishop INTL AP, MI \|work \= U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991–2020\) \|access\-date \= May 8, 2021 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20230916000212/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\=normals\-monthly\-1991\-2020\&startDate\=0001\-01\-01\&endDate\=9996\-12\-31\&stations\=USW00014826\&format\=pdf \|archive\-date \= 2023\-09\-16}}{{cite web \|url \= ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO\-Normals/TABLES/REG\_IV/US/GROUP4/72637\.TXT \|title \= FLINT/BISHOP, MI Climate Normals 1961–1990 \|access\-date \= June 20, 2014 \|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20230915233645/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO\-Normals/TABLES/REG\_IV/US/GROUP4/72637\.TXT \|archive\-date \= 2023\-09\-15}} \| source \= }}
[ "Geography\n---------", "[thumb\\|Downtown Flint looking northwest, taken from a now\\-demolished skyscraper, the Genesee Towers. The downtown core has seen some improvement in recent years due to an influx of younger people, college students, and new restaurants and bars.](/wiki/File:Downtown_Flint_Michigan_taken_from_Genesee_Towers.jpg \"Downtown Flint Michigan taken from Genesee Towers.jpg\")", "Flint lies in the [Flint/Tri\\-Cities](/wiki/Flint/Tri-Cities \"Flint/Tri-Cities\") region of [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan \"Michigan\"). Flint and [Genesee County](/wiki/Genesee_County%2C_Michigan \"Genesee County, Michigan\") can be categorized as a subregion of Flint/Tri\\-Cities. It is located along the Flint River, which flows through [Lapeer](/wiki/Lapeer_County%2C_Michigan \"Lapeer County, Michigan\"), Genesee, and [Saginaw](/wiki/Saginaw_County%2C_Michigan \"Saginaw County, Michigan\") counties and is {{convert\\|78\\.3\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} long.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://geo.msu.edu/extra/geogmich/miwatershed.html\\|title\\=Lakes, Rivers and Wetlands\\|publisher\\=Michigan State University \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2017}}", "According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the city has a total area of {{convert\\|34\\.06\\|sqmi\\|sqkm\\|2}}, of which, {{convert\\|33\\.42\\|sqmi\\|sqkm\\|2}} is land and {{convert\\|0\\.64\\|sqmi\\|sqkm\\|2}} is water.{{cite web\\|title\\=US Gazetteer files 2010 \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz\\_places\\_national.txt \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=November 25, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125061959/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz\\_places\\_national.txt \\|archive\\-date\\=January 25, 2012 }} Flint lies just to the northeast of the Flint hills. The terrain is low and rolling along the south and east sides, and flatter to the northwest.", "### Neighborhoods", "[thumb\\|Hall's Flats on the West Side is one of Flint's many neighborhoods.](/wiki/File:Flint_hallsflats.JPG \"Flint hallsflats.JPG\")\nFlint has several neighborhoods grouped around the center of the city on the four cardinal sides. The downtown business district is centered on Saginaw Street south of the Flint River. Just west, on opposite sides of the river, are Carriage Town (north) and the Grand Traverse Street District (south). Both neighborhoods boast strong neighborhood associations. These neighborhoods were the center of manufacturing for and profits from the nation's carriage industry until the 1920s and are the site of many well\\-preserved [Victorian homes](/wiki/Victorian_house \"Victorian house\") and the setting of Atwood Stadium.", "The University Avenue corridor of Carriage Town is home to the largest concentration of Greek housing in the area, with fraternity houses from both Kettering University, and the University of Michigan\\-Flint. Chapter houses include [Phi Delta Theta](/wiki/Phi_Delta_Theta \"Phi Delta Theta\"), [Sigma Alpha Epsilon](/wiki/Sigma_Alpha_Epsilon \"Sigma Alpha Epsilon\"), [Delta Chi](/wiki/Delta_Chi \"Delta Chi\"), [Theta Chi](/wiki/Theta_Chi \"Theta Chi\"), [Lambda Chi Alpha](/wiki/Lambda_Chi_Alpha \"Lambda Chi Alpha\"), [Theta Xi](/wiki/Theta_Xi \"Theta Xi\"), [Alpha Phi Alpha](/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha \"Alpha Phi Alpha\"), [Phi Gamma Delta](/wiki/Phi_Gamma_Delta \"Phi Gamma Delta\"), and [Delta Tau Delta](/wiki/Delta_Tau_Delta \"Delta Tau Delta\") Fraternities.", "Just north of downtown is River Village, an example of gentrification via mixed\\-income public housing. To the east of [I\\-475](/wiki/Interstate_475_%28Michigan%29 \"Interstate 475 (Michigan)\") is [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park%2C_Flint \"Central Park, Flint\") and Fairfield Village. These are the only two neighborhoods between UM\\-Flint and [Mott Community College](/wiki/Mott_Community_College \"Mott Community College\") and enjoy strong neighborhood associations. Central Park piloted a project to convert street lights to LED and is defined by seven cul\\-de\\-sacs.", "The North Side and 5th Ward are predominantly African American, with such historic districts as Buick City and Civic Park on the north, and Sugar Hill, Floral Park, and Kent and Elm Parks on the south. Many of these neighborhoods were the original centers of early Michigan [blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\"). The South Side in particular was also a center for multi\\-racial migration from Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\") since World War II. These neighborhoods are most often lower income but have maintained some level of economic stratification. The East Side is the site of the Applewood Mott Estate, and Mott Community College, the [Cultural Center](/wiki/Flint_Cultural_Center \"Flint Cultural Center\"), and [East Village](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Flint \"East Village, Flint\"), one of Flint's more prosperous areas. The surrounding neighborhood is called the College/Cultural Neighborhood, with a strong neighborhood association, lower crime rate and stable housing prices.", "Just north is Eastside Proper, also known as the State Streets, and has much of Flint's Hispanic community.Warikoo, Niraj. \"[Flint immigrants struggle to get help, info on water](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)\" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20160204074923/http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)). *[Detroit Free Press](/wiki/Detroit_Free_Press \"Detroit Free Press\")*. February 4, 2016\\. Retrieved on February 4, 2016\\.\nThe West Side includes the main site of the 1936–37 sit\\-down strike, the Mott Park neighborhood, Kettering University, and the historic Woodcroft Estates, owned in the past by legendary automotive executives and current home to prominent and historic Flint families such as the Motts, the Manleys, and the Smiths.", "Facilities associated with General Motors in the past and present are scattered throughout the city, including GM Truck and Bus, Flint Metal Center and Powertrain South (clustered together on the city's southwestern corner); Powertrain North, Flint Tool and Die and Delphi East. The largest plant, Buick City, and adjacent facilities have been demolished.", "[thumb\\|The [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers \"Genesee Towers\") (left), now demolished, and [Mott Foundation Building](/wiki/Mott_Foundation_Building \"Mott Foundation Building\") (right). [The Flint Journal](/wiki/The_Flint_Journal \"The Flint Journal\")'s former headquarters (now used by the [Michigan State University College of Human Medicine](/wiki/Michigan_State_University_College_of_Human_Medicine \"Michigan State University College of Human Medicine\")) is to the far left.](/wiki/File:Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg \"Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg\")\nHalf of Flint's fourteen tallest buildings were built during the 1920s. The 19\\-story Genesee Towers, formerly the city's tallest building, was completed in 1968\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.skyscraperpage.com/cities/?cityID\\=1064/ \\|title\\=Flint, Michigan \\|publisher\\=SkyscraperPage.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2012}} The building became unused in later years and fell into severe disrepair: a cautionary sign warning of falling debris was put on the sidewalk in front of it. An investment company purchased the building for $1, and it was demolished (by [implosion](/wiki/Building_implosion \"Building implosion\")) on December 22, 2013\\.", "### Climate", "[thumb\\|Climate chart for Flint](/wiki/File:Monthly_Climate_Normals_%281991-2020%29_-_Flint_Area%2C_MI%28ThreadEx%29.svg \"Monthly Climate Normals (1991-2020) - Flint Area, MI(ThreadEx).svg\")\nTypical of southeastern Michigan, Flint has a [humid continental climate](/wiki/Humid_continental_climate \"Humid continental climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") *Dfb*), and is part of USDA [Hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone \"Hardiness zone\") 6a.{{cite web\\|title\\=USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map\\|url\\=http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/\\|publisher\\=United States Department of Agriculture\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227032333/http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/\\|archive\\-date\\=February 27, 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Winters are cold, with moderate [snowfall](/wiki/Snowfall \"Snowfall\") and temperatures not rising above freezing on an average 52 days annually, while dropping to {{convert\\|0\\|°F\\|0}} or below on an average 9\\.3 days a year; summers are warm to hot with temperatures exceeding {{convert\\|90\\|°F\\|0}} on 9\\.0 days. The monthly daily mean temperature ranges from {{convert\\|23\\.0\\|°F\\|1}} in January to {{convert\\|70\\.9\\|°F\\|1}} in July. Official temperature extremes range from {{convert\\|108\\|°F\\|0}} on [July 8 and 13, 1936](/wiki/1936_North_American_heat_wave \"1936 North American heat wave\") down to {{convert\\|\\-25\\|°F\\|0}} on January 18, 1976, and February 20, 2015; the record low maximum is {{convert\\|\\-4\\|°F\\|0}} on [January 18, 1994](/wiki/1994_North_American_cold_wave \"1994 North American cold wave\"), while, conversely the record high minimum is {{convert\\|79\\|°F\\|0}} on July 18, 1942\\. Decades may pass between readings of {{convert\\|100\\|°F\\|0}} or higher, which last occurred [July 17, 2012](/wiki/Summer_2012_North_American_heat_wave \"Summer 2012 North American heat wave\"). The average window for freezing temperatures is October 8 thru May 7, allowing a growing season of 153 days. On June 8, 1953, Flint was hit by [an F5 tornado](/wiki/1953_Flint%E2%80%93Beecher_tornado \"1953 Flint–Beecher tornado\"), which claimed 116 lives.{{cite web\\|title\\=NOAA MARKS 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF THIRD DEADLIEST YEAR FOR TORNADOES\\|url\\=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s1135\\.htm\\|publisher\\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\\|access\\-date\\=June 7, 2015}}", "Precipitation is moderate and somewhat evenly\\-distributed throughout the year, although the warmer months average more, averaging {{convert\\|31\\.97\\|in\\|mm}} annually, but historically ranging from {{convert\\|18\\.08\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} in 1963 to {{convert\\|45\\.38\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} in 1975\\. Snowfall, which typically falls in measurable amounts between November 12 through April 9 (occasionally in October and very rarely in May), averages {{convert\\|52\\.1\\|in\\|cm\\|0}} per year, although historically ranging from {{convert\\|16\\.0\\|in\\|cm\\|abbr\\=on}} in 1944–45 to {{convert\\|85\\.3\\|in\\|cm\\|abbr\\=on}} in 2017–18\\. A snow depth of {{convert\\|1\\|in\\|cm\\|abbr\\=on}} or more occurs on an average 64 days, with 53 days from December to February.", "{{Weather box\n\\| location \\= Flint, Michigan (\\[\\[Bishop International Airport\\|Bishop Int'l]]), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1921–present\n\\| single line \\= Y\n\\| Jan record high F \\= 65\n\\| Feb record high F \\= 73\n\\| Mar record high F \\= 86\n\\| Apr record high F \\= 88\n\\| May record high F \\= 93\n\\| Jun record high F \\= 104\n\\| Jul record high F \\= 108\n\\| Aug record high F \\= 103\n\\| Sep record high F \\= 100\n\\| Oct record high F \\= 89\n\\| Nov record high F \\= 79\n\\| Dec record high F \\= 70\n\\| year record high F \\= 108\n\\| Jan avg record high F \\= 52\\.1\n\\| Feb avg record high F \\= 53\\.0\n\\| Mar avg record high F \\= 68\\.1\n\\| Apr avg record high F \\= 78\\.4\n\\| May avg record high F \\= 86\\.2\n\\| Jun avg record high F \\= 91\\.9\n\\| Jul avg record high F \\= 92\\.7\n\\| Aug avg record high F \\= 91\\.5\n\\| Sep avg record high F \\= 88\\.4\n\\| Oct avg record high F \\= 79\\.3\n\\| Nov avg record high F \\= 66\\.0\n\\| Dec avg record high F \\= 55\\.1\n\\| year avg record high F \\= 94\\.8\n\\| Jan high F \\= 29\\.9\n\\| Feb high F \\= 32\\.8\n\\| Mar high F \\= 43\\.3\n\\| Apr high F \\= 56\\.7\n\\| May high F \\= 68\\.9\n\\| Jun high F \\= 78\\.2\n\\| Jul high F \\= 82\\.1\n\\| Aug high F \\= 79\\.9\n\\| Sep high F \\= 73\\.1\n\\| Oct high F \\= 60\\.1\n\\| Nov high F \\= 46\\.6\n\\| Dec high F \\= 34\\.9\n\\| year high F \\= 57\\.2\n\\| Jan mean F \\= 23\\.0\n\\| Feb mean F \\= 24\\.7\n\\| Mar mean F \\= 34\\.2\n\\| Apr mean F \\= 46\\.0\n\\| May mean F \\= 57\\.4\n\\| Jun mean F \\= 67\\.1\n\\| Jul mean F \\= 70\\.9\n\\| Aug mean F \\= 69\\.1\n\\| Sep mean F \\= 61\\.7\n\\| Oct mean F \\= 50\\.2\n\\| Nov mean F \\= 38\\.8\n\\| Dec mean F \\= 28\\.7\n\\| year mean F \\= 47\\.6\n\\| Jan low F \\= 16\\.0\n\\| Feb low F \\= 16\\.7\n\\| Mar low F \\= 25\\.1\n\\| Apr low F \\= 35\\.3\n\\| May low F \\= 46\\.0\n\\| Jun low F \\= 55\\.9\n\\| Jul low F \\= 59\\.7\n\\| Aug low F \\= 58\\.3\n\\| Sep low F \\= 50\\.4\n\\| Oct low F \\= 40\\.3\n\\| Nov low F \\= 31\\.0\n\\| Dec low F \\= 22\\.5\n\\| year low F \\= 38\\.1\n\\| Jan avg record low F \\= −6\\.1\n\\| Feb avg record low F \\= −4\\.4\n\\| Mar avg record low F \\= 5\\.4\n\\| Apr avg record low F \\= 21\\.4\n\\| May avg record low F \\= 31\\.8\n\\| Jun avg record low F \\= 41\\.4\n\\| Jul avg record low F \\= 47\\.2\n\\| Aug avg record low F \\= 46\\.1\n\\| Sep avg record low F \\= 35\\.0\n\\| Oct avg record low F \\= 25\\.9\n\\| Nov avg record low F \\= 15\\.4\n\\| Dec avg record low F \\= 3\\.5\n\\| year avg record low F \\= −10\\.2\n\\| Jan record low F \\= −25\n\\| Feb record low F \\= −25\n\\| Mar record low F \\= −16\n\\| Apr record low F \\= 6\n\\| May record low F \\= 22\n\\| Jun record low F \\= 33\n\\| Jul record low F \\= 40\n\\| Aug record low F \\= 37\n\\| Sep record low F \\= 26\n\\| Oct record low F \\= 19\n\\| Nov record low F \\= −7\n\\| Dec record low F \\= −18\n\\| year record low F \\= \\-25\n\\| precipitation colour \\= green\n\\| Jan precipitation inch \\= 1\\.99\n\\| Feb precipitation inch \\= 1\\.68\n\\| Mar precipitation inch \\= 1\\.97\n\\| Apr precipitation inch \\= 3\\.13\n\\| May precipitation inch \\= 3\\.68\n\\| Jun precipitation inch \\= 3\\.12\n\\| Jul precipitation inch \\= 3\\.41\n\\| Aug precipitation inch \\= 3\\.16\n\\| Sep precipitation inch \\= 2\\.90\n\\| Oct precipitation inch \\= 2\\.77\n\\| Nov precipitation inch \\= 2\\.27\n\\| Dec precipitation inch \\= 1\\.89\n\\| year precipitation inch \\= 31\\.97\n\\| Jan snow inch \\= 15\\.1\n\\| Feb snow inch \\= 13\\.0\n\\| Mar snow inch \\= 6\\.6\n\\| Apr snow inch \\= 2\\.4\n\\| May snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Jun snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Jul snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Aug snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Sep snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Oct snow inch \\= 0\\.3\n\\| Nov snow inch \\= 3\\.3\n\\| Dec snow inch \\= 11\\.4\n\\| year snow inch \\= 52\\.1\n\\| unit precipitation days \\= 0\\.01 in\n\\| Jan precipitation days \\= 14\\.2\n\\| Feb precipitation days \\= 10\\.9\n\\| Mar precipitation days \\= 11\\.0\n\\| Apr precipitation days \\= 12\\.7\n\\| May precipitation days \\= 12\\.1\n\\| Jun precipitation days \\= 10\\.8\n\\| Jul precipitation days \\= 9\\.5\n\\| Aug precipitation days \\= 10\\.0\n\\| Sep precipitation days \\= 9\\.6\n\\| Oct precipitation days \\= 11\\.8\n\\| Nov precipitation days \\= 11\\.6\n\\| Dec precipitation days \\= 13\\.8\n\\| year precipitation days \\= 138\\.0\n\\| unit snow days \\= 0\\.1 in\n\\| Jan snow days \\= 13\\.3\n\\| Feb snow days \\= 10\\.7\n\\| Mar snow days \\= 6\\.2\n\\| Apr snow days \\= 2\\.4\n\\| May snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Jun snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Jul snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Aug snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Sep snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\| Oct snow days \\= 0\\.3\n\\| Nov snow days \\= 3\\.6\n\\| Dec snow days \\= 10\\.3\n\\| year snow days \\= 46\\.8\n\\| humidity colour \\= green\n\\| Jan humidity \\= 75\\.3\n\\| Feb humidity \\= 73\\.1\n\\| Mar humidity \\= 70\\.3\n\\| Apr humidity \\= 65\\.8\n\\| May humidity \\= 65\\.5\n\\| Jun humidity \\= 68\\.4\n\\| Jul humidity \\= 69\\.6\n\\| Aug humidity \\= 73\\.3\n\\| Sep humidity \\= 75\\.6\n\\| Oct humidity \\= 73\\.2\n\\| Nov humidity \\= 75\\.6\n\\| Dec humidity \\= 77\\.4\n\\| year humidity \\= 71\\.9\n\\| Jan dew point C \\= \\-9\\.3\n\\| Feb dew point C \\= \\-8\\.8\n\\| Mar dew point C \\= \\-4\\.2\n\\| Apr dew point C \\= 1\\.1\n\\| May dew point C \\= 7\\.0\n\\| Jun dew point C \\= 12\\.6\n\\| Jul dew point C \\= 15\\.2\n\\| Aug dew point C \\= 14\\.9\n\\| Sep dew point C \\= 11\\.4\n\\| Oct dew point C \\= 5\\.0\n\\| Nov dew point C \\= \\-0\\.1\n\\| Dec dew point C \\= \\-5\\.9\n\\| source 1 \\= NOAA (relative humidity and dew point 1961–1990\\){{cite web \n\\|url \\= https://w2\\.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo\\=dtx \n\\|title \\= NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data \n\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] \n\\|access\\-date \\= May 8, 2021}}{{cite web \n\\|url \\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\\=normals\\-monthly\\-1991\\-2020\\&startDate\\=0001\\-01\\-01\\&endDate\\=9996\\-12\\-31\\&stations\\=USW00014826\\&format\\=pdf \n\\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \n\\|title \\= Station: Flint Bishop INTL AP, MI \n\\|work \\= U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991–2020\\) \n\\|access\\-date \\= May 8, 2021\n\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230916000212/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\\=normals\\-monthly\\-1991\\-2020\\&startDate\\=0001\\-01\\-01\\&endDate\\=9996\\-12\\-31\\&stations\\=USW00014826\\&format\\=pdf\n\\|archive\\-date \\= 2023\\-09\\-16}}{{cite web \n\\|url \\= ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO\\-Normals/TABLES/REG\\_IV/US/GROUP4/72637\\.TXT \n\\|title \\= FLINT/BISHOP, MI Climate Normals 1961–1990 \n\\|access\\-date \\= June 20, 2014 \n\\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\n\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20230915233645/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO\\-Normals/TABLES/REG\\_IV/US/GROUP4/72637\\.TXT\n\\|archive\\-date \\= 2023\\-09\\-15}}\n\\| source \\= \n}}", "" ]
### Neighborhoods [thumb\|Hall's Flats on the West Side is one of Flint's many neighborhoods.](/wiki/File:Flint_hallsflats.JPG "Flint hallsflats.JPG") Flint has several neighborhoods grouped around the center of the city on the four cardinal sides. The downtown business district is centered on Saginaw Street south of the Flint River. Just west, on opposite sides of the river, are Carriage Town (north) and the Grand Traverse Street District (south). Both neighborhoods boast strong neighborhood associations. These neighborhoods were the center of manufacturing for and profits from the nation's carriage industry until the 1920s and are the site of many well\-preserved [Victorian homes](/wiki/Victorian_house "Victorian house") and the setting of Atwood Stadium. The University Avenue corridor of Carriage Town is home to the largest concentration of Greek housing in the area, with fraternity houses from both Kettering University, and the University of Michigan\-Flint. Chapter houses include [Phi Delta Theta](/wiki/Phi_Delta_Theta "Phi Delta Theta"), [Sigma Alpha Epsilon](/wiki/Sigma_Alpha_Epsilon "Sigma Alpha Epsilon"), [Delta Chi](/wiki/Delta_Chi "Delta Chi"), [Theta Chi](/wiki/Theta_Chi "Theta Chi"), [Lambda Chi Alpha](/wiki/Lambda_Chi_Alpha "Lambda Chi Alpha"), [Theta Xi](/wiki/Theta_Xi "Theta Xi"), [Alpha Phi Alpha](/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha "Alpha Phi Alpha"), [Phi Gamma Delta](/wiki/Phi_Gamma_Delta "Phi Gamma Delta"), and [Delta Tau Delta](/wiki/Delta_Tau_Delta "Delta Tau Delta") Fraternities. Just north of downtown is River Village, an example of gentrification via mixed\-income public housing. To the east of [I\-475](/wiki/Interstate_475_%28Michigan%29 "Interstate 475 (Michigan)") is [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park%2C_Flint "Central Park, Flint") and Fairfield Village. These are the only two neighborhoods between UM\-Flint and [Mott Community College](/wiki/Mott_Community_College "Mott Community College") and enjoy strong neighborhood associations. Central Park piloted a project to convert street lights to LED and is defined by seven cul\-de\-sacs. The North Side and 5th Ward are predominantly African American, with such historic districts as Buick City and Civic Park on the north, and Sugar Hill, Floral Park, and Kent and Elm Parks on the south. Many of these neighborhoods were the original centers of early Michigan [blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues"). The South Side in particular was also a center for multi\-racial migration from Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South") since World War II. These neighborhoods are most often lower income but have maintained some level of economic stratification. The East Side is the site of the Applewood Mott Estate, and Mott Community College, the [Cultural Center](/wiki/Flint_Cultural_Center "Flint Cultural Center"), and [East Village](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Flint "East Village, Flint"), one of Flint's more prosperous areas. The surrounding neighborhood is called the College/Cultural Neighborhood, with a strong neighborhood association, lower crime rate and stable housing prices. Just north is Eastside Proper, also known as the State Streets, and has much of Flint's Hispanic community.Warikoo, Niraj. "[Flint immigrants struggle to get help, info on water](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20160204074923/http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)). *[Detroit Free Press](/wiki/Detroit_Free_Press "Detroit Free Press")*. February 4, 2016\. Retrieved on February 4, 2016\. The West Side includes the main site of the 1936–37 sit\-down strike, the Mott Park neighborhood, Kettering University, and the historic Woodcroft Estates, owned in the past by legendary automotive executives and current home to prominent and historic Flint families such as the Motts, the Manleys, and the Smiths. Facilities associated with General Motors in the past and present are scattered throughout the city, including GM Truck and Bus, Flint Metal Center and Powertrain South (clustered together on the city's southwestern corner); Powertrain North, Flint Tool and Die and Delphi East. The largest plant, Buick City, and adjacent facilities have been demolished. [thumb\|The [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers "Genesee Towers") (left), now demolished, and [Mott Foundation Building](/wiki/Mott_Foundation_Building "Mott Foundation Building") (right). [The Flint Journal](/wiki/The_Flint_Journal "The Flint Journal")'s former headquarters (now used by the [Michigan State University College of Human Medicine](/wiki/Michigan_State_University_College_of_Human_Medicine "Michigan State University College of Human Medicine")) is to the far left.](/wiki/File:Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg "Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg") Half of Flint's fourteen tallest buildings were built during the 1920s. The 19\-story Genesee Towers, formerly the city's tallest building, was completed in 1968\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.skyscraperpage.com/cities/?cityID\=1064/ \|title\=Flint, Michigan \|publisher\=SkyscraperPage.com \|access\-date\=May 21, 2012}} The building became unused in later years and fell into severe disrepair: a cautionary sign warning of falling debris was put on the sidewalk in front of it. An investment company purchased the building for $1, and it was demolished (by [implosion](/wiki/Building_implosion "Building implosion")) on December 22, 2013\.
[ "### Neighborhoods", "[thumb\\|Hall's Flats on the West Side is one of Flint's many neighborhoods.](/wiki/File:Flint_hallsflats.JPG \"Flint hallsflats.JPG\")\nFlint has several neighborhoods grouped around the center of the city on the four cardinal sides. The downtown business district is centered on Saginaw Street south of the Flint River. Just west, on opposite sides of the river, are Carriage Town (north) and the Grand Traverse Street District (south). Both neighborhoods boast strong neighborhood associations. These neighborhoods were the center of manufacturing for and profits from the nation's carriage industry until the 1920s and are the site of many well\\-preserved [Victorian homes](/wiki/Victorian_house \"Victorian house\") and the setting of Atwood Stadium.", "The University Avenue corridor of Carriage Town is home to the largest concentration of Greek housing in the area, with fraternity houses from both Kettering University, and the University of Michigan\\-Flint. Chapter houses include [Phi Delta Theta](/wiki/Phi_Delta_Theta \"Phi Delta Theta\"), [Sigma Alpha Epsilon](/wiki/Sigma_Alpha_Epsilon \"Sigma Alpha Epsilon\"), [Delta Chi](/wiki/Delta_Chi \"Delta Chi\"), [Theta Chi](/wiki/Theta_Chi \"Theta Chi\"), [Lambda Chi Alpha](/wiki/Lambda_Chi_Alpha \"Lambda Chi Alpha\"), [Theta Xi](/wiki/Theta_Xi \"Theta Xi\"), [Alpha Phi Alpha](/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha \"Alpha Phi Alpha\"), [Phi Gamma Delta](/wiki/Phi_Gamma_Delta \"Phi Gamma Delta\"), and [Delta Tau Delta](/wiki/Delta_Tau_Delta \"Delta Tau Delta\") Fraternities.", "Just north of downtown is River Village, an example of gentrification via mixed\\-income public housing. To the east of [I\\-475](/wiki/Interstate_475_%28Michigan%29 \"Interstate 475 (Michigan)\") is [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park%2C_Flint \"Central Park, Flint\") and Fairfield Village. These are the only two neighborhoods between UM\\-Flint and [Mott Community College](/wiki/Mott_Community_College \"Mott Community College\") and enjoy strong neighborhood associations. Central Park piloted a project to convert street lights to LED and is defined by seven cul\\-de\\-sacs.", "The North Side and 5th Ward are predominantly African American, with such historic districts as Buick City and Civic Park on the north, and Sugar Hill, Floral Park, and Kent and Elm Parks on the south. Many of these neighborhoods were the original centers of early Michigan [blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\"). The South Side in particular was also a center for multi\\-racial migration from Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\") since World War II. These neighborhoods are most often lower income but have maintained some level of economic stratification. The East Side is the site of the Applewood Mott Estate, and Mott Community College, the [Cultural Center](/wiki/Flint_Cultural_Center \"Flint Cultural Center\"), and [East Village](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Flint \"East Village, Flint\"), one of Flint's more prosperous areas. The surrounding neighborhood is called the College/Cultural Neighborhood, with a strong neighborhood association, lower crime rate and stable housing prices.", "Just north is Eastside Proper, also known as the State Streets, and has much of Flint's Hispanic community.Warikoo, Niraj. \"[Flint immigrants struggle to get help, info on water](http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)\" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20160204074923/http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/02/04/flint-immigrants-struggle-get-help-info-water/79530754/)). *[Detroit Free Press](/wiki/Detroit_Free_Press \"Detroit Free Press\")*. February 4, 2016\\. Retrieved on February 4, 2016\\.\nThe West Side includes the main site of the 1936–37 sit\\-down strike, the Mott Park neighborhood, Kettering University, and the historic Woodcroft Estates, owned in the past by legendary automotive executives and current home to prominent and historic Flint families such as the Motts, the Manleys, and the Smiths.", "Facilities associated with General Motors in the past and present are scattered throughout the city, including GM Truck and Bus, Flint Metal Center and Powertrain South (clustered together on the city's southwestern corner); Powertrain North, Flint Tool and Die and Delphi East. The largest plant, Buick City, and adjacent facilities have been demolished.", "[thumb\\|The [Genesee Towers](/wiki/Genesee_Towers \"Genesee Towers\") (left), now demolished, and [Mott Foundation Building](/wiki/Mott_Foundation_Building \"Mott Foundation Building\") (right). [The Flint Journal](/wiki/The_Flint_Journal \"The Flint Journal\")'s former headquarters (now used by the [Michigan State University College of Human Medicine](/wiki/Michigan_State_University_College_of_Human_Medicine \"Michigan State University College of Human Medicine\")) is to the far left.](/wiki/File:Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg \"Genesee-towers-flint-mi.jpg\")\nHalf of Flint's fourteen tallest buildings were built during the 1920s. The 19\\-story Genesee Towers, formerly the city's tallest building, was completed in 1968\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.skyscraperpage.com/cities/?cityID\\=1064/ \\|title\\=Flint, Michigan \\|publisher\\=SkyscraperPage.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2012}} The building became unused in later years and fell into severe disrepair: a cautionary sign warning of falling debris was put on the sidewalk in front of it. An investment company purchased the building for $1, and it was demolished (by [implosion](/wiki/Building_implosion \"Building implosion\")) on December 22, 2013\\.", "" ]
Sports ------ | **Club** | **Sport** | **League** | **Venue** | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [Flint City Bucks](/wiki/Flint_City_Bucks "Flint City Bucks") | [Soccer](/wiki/Soccer "Soccer") | [USL League 2](/wiki/USL_League_2 "USL League 2") | [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium "Atwood Stadium") | | [Flint Rogues Rugby Club](/wiki/Flint_Rogues_Rugby_Club "Flint Rogues Rugby Club") | [Rugby](/wiki/Rugby_union "Rugby union") | [Michigan Rugby Football Union](/wiki/Michigan_Rugby_Football_Union "Michigan Rugby Football Union") | [Longway Park](/wiki/Longway_Park "Longway Park") | | [Flint Fury](/wiki/Flint_Fury "Flint Fury") | [Football](/wiki/American_football "American football") | [Midwest Elite Football Alliance](/wiki/Midwest_Elite_Football_Alliance "Midwest Elite Football Alliance") | [Flint Hamady High School](/wiki/Flint_Hamady_High_School "Flint Hamady High School") | | [Flint United](/wiki/Flint_United "Flint United") | [Men's Basketball](/wiki/Men%27s_Basketball "Men's Basketball") | [The Basketball League](/wiki/The_Basketball_League "The Basketball League") | [Dort Financial Center](/wiki/Dort_Financial_Center "Dort Financial Center") | | [Flint Monarchs](/wiki/Flint_Monarchs "Flint Monarchs") | [Women's basketball](/wiki/Women%27s_basketball "Women's basketball") | [Women's American Basketball](/wiki/Women%27s_American_Basketball "Women's American Basketball"){{cite news\|last1\=Woodyard\|first1\=Eric\|title\=Flint Monarchs locked in to become city's first professional women's basketball team\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/sports/flint/index.ssf/2013/08/flint\_monarchs\_locked\_in\_to\_be.html\|access\-date\=June 12, 2014\|work\=Mlive\|date\=August 12, 2013}} | [Dort Financial Center](/wiki/Dort_Financial_Center "Dort Financial Center") | | [Flint Firebirds](/wiki/Flint_Firebirds "Flint Firebirds") | [Hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey "Ice hockey") | [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League "Ontario Hockey League") | [Dort Financial Center](/wiki/Dort_Financial_Center "Dort Financial Center") | | [Flint City Handball Club](/wiki/Flint_City_Handball_Club "Flint City Handball Club") | [Club Team Handball](/wiki/Club_Team_Handball "Club Team Handball") | [TBD](/wiki/To_be_determined "To be determined") | [Berston Fieldhouse](/wiki/Berston_Fieldhouse "Berston Fieldhouse") | ### American football There is [semi\-pro](/wiki/Semi-professional "Semi-professional") football at Atwood Stadium with the Flint Fury. Atwood is an 11,000\+ seat stadium in downtown Flint which has hosted many events, including baseball. When [artificial turf](/wiki/Artificial_turf "Artificial turf") was installed, it was no longer able to host baseball games.{{why\|date\=March 2016}} The Flint Fury have been in action since 2003, and are currently a part of the [Great Lakes Football League](/wiki/Great_Lakes_Football_League "Great Lakes Football League"). The team was founded by two of its players; Charles Lawler and Prince Goodson, who both played for the defunct Flint Falcons semi\-pro team. The team is now solely owned by Lawler. The 2009 [Heisman Trophy](/wiki/Heisman_Trophy "Heisman Trophy") winner [Mark Ingram II](/wiki/Mark_Ingram_II "Mark Ingram II"), born and raised in Grand Blanc, attended his final year of high school at Flint Southwestern Academy. He won the Heisman with 1304 total votes. Ingram attended the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama "University of Alabama") and is their first Heisman winner. He was a member of the National Champion [2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team](/wiki/2009_Alabama_Crimson_Tide_football_team "2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team"). ### Basketball Many Flint natives have played basketball in the [National Basketball Association](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association "National Basketball Association") (NBA), [NCAA Division 1](/wiki/NCAA_Division_1 "NCAA Division 1") or European professional basketball. [NBA champion](/wiki/NBA_champion "NBA champion") [Glen Rice](/wiki/Glen_Rice "Glen Rice"), [Eddie Robinson](/wiki/Eddie_Robinson_%28basketball%29 "Eddie Robinson (basketball)") and three\-time [NBA champion](/wiki/NBA_champion "NBA champion") [JaVale McGee](/wiki/JaVale_McGee "JaVale McGee"), and [Washington Wizards](/wiki/Washington_Wizards "Washington Wizards") forward [Kyle Kuzma](/wiki/Kyle_Kuzma "Kyle Kuzma") all hail from Flint,[Flint Star: The Greatest Player From Flint You've Never Heard Of, *HoopsAddict.com* Retrieved July 19, 2007](http://hoopsaddict.com/2006/05/24/flint-star-the-greatest-player-from-flint-you%E2%80%99ve-never-heard-of/) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822142248/http://hoopsaddict.com/2006/05/24/flint\-star\-the\-greatest\-player\-from\-flint\-you%E2%80%99ve\-never\-heard\-of/ \|date\=August 22, 2007 }} as do [Morris Peterson](/wiki/Morris_Peterson "Morris Peterson"), [Mateen Cleaves](/wiki/Mateen_Cleaves "Mateen Cleaves"), and [Charlie Bell](/wiki/Charlie_Bell_%28basketball%29 "Charlie Bell (basketball)") (four of the five starters from [Michigan State University](/wiki/Michigan_State_University "Michigan State University")'s "[Flintstones](/wiki/Flintstones_%28basketball%29 "Flintstones (basketball)")" 2000 National Championship team). Local teacher and independent film maker Marcus Davenport chronicles Flint's ties to basketball and the basketball culture in his documentary *Flint Star: The Motion Picture*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.flintstarmovie.com/ \|title\=Flint Star: The Motion Picture \|publisher\=Flintstarmovie.com \|access\-date\=May 21, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514140611/http://www.flintstarmovie.com/ \|archive\-date\=May 14, 2012 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.elevationmag.com/basketball/index.php?itemid\=206 \|title\=Catching up with Marcus Davenport maker of Flint Star "The Motion Picture" \|publisher\=Elevationmag.com \|access\-date\=May 21, 2012}} [Will Ferrell](/wiki/Will_Ferrell "Will Ferrell")'s 2008 movie *[Semi\-Pro](/wiki/Semi-Pro "Semi-Pro")* is based on the fictional basketball team the "Flint Tropics".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.flinttropicsshirts.com/ \|title\=Flint Tropics \|publisher\=Flinttropicsshirts.com \|access\-date\=May 21, 2012}} ### Ice hockey On January 14, 2015, the [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League "Ontario Hockey League")'s [Plymouth Whalers](/wiki/Plymouth_Whalers "Plymouth Whalers") were relocated to Flint after a sale of the team to the owner of Perani Arena for the 2015–16 season.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/sports/flint/index.ssf/2015/02/its\_official\_ontario\_hockey\_le.html\|title\=It's official: Ontario Hockey League approves Plymouth Whalers' move to Flint\|work\=MLive.com\|date\=February 2, 2015}} The team changed its name to the [Flint Firebirds](/wiki/Flint_Firebirds "Flint Firebirds"). ### Other sports Flint is twinned with [Hamilton, Ontario](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario "Hamilton, Ontario"), and its amateur athletes compete in the [CANUSA Games](/wiki/CANUSA_Games "CANUSA Games"), held alternatively between the two cities since 1957\. ### Former sports teams | **Club** | **Sport** | **League** | **Venue** | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Flint Flames (2000\) | [Arena football](/wiki/Arena_football "Arena football") | [Indoor Football League](/wiki/Indoor_Football_League "Indoor Football League") | [IMA Sports Arena](/wiki/IMA_Sports_Arena "IMA Sports Arena") | | [Michigan Pirates](/wiki/Michigan_Pirates "Michigan Pirates") (2007\) | Arena football | [Continental Indoor Football League](/wiki/Continental_Indoor_Football_League "Continental Indoor Football League") | [Perani Arena and Event Center](/wiki/Perani_Arena_and_Event_Center "Perani Arena and Event Center") | | [Flint Phantoms](/wiki/Flint_Phantoms "Flint Phantoms") (2008\) | Arena football | [Continental Indoor Football League](/wiki/Continental_Indoor_Football_League "Continental Indoor Football League") | Perani Arena and Event Center | | [Flint Flyers](/wiki/Flint_Flyers "Flint Flyers") (1889–1891\) | [Baseball](/wiki/Baseball "Baseball") | [Michigan State League](/wiki/Michigan_State_League "Michigan State League") | Venue Unknown | | [Flint Vehicles](/wiki/Flint_Vehicles "Flint Vehicles") (1906–1915, 1921–1925\) | Baseball | Michigan\-Ontario League | Athletic Park | | Flint Halligans (1919–1920\) | Baseball | [Michigan\-Ontario League](/wiki/Michigan-Ontario_League "Michigan-Ontario League") | [Athletic Park](/wiki/Athletic_Park_%28Flint%29 "Athletic Park (Flint)") | | [Flint Gems](/wiki/Flint_Gems "Flint Gems") (1940\) | Baseball | Michigan State League | [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium "Atwood Stadium") | | [Flint Indians](/wiki/Flint_Indians "Flint Indians") (1941\) | Baseball | Michigan State League | Atwood Stadium | | [Flint Arrows](/wiki/Flint_Arrows "Flint Arrows") (1948–1951\) | Baseball | [Central League](/wiki/Central_League_%28baseball%29 "Central League (baseball)") | Atwood Stadium | | Flint Pros (1972–1974\) | [Basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball") | [Continental Basketball Association](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association "Continental Basketball Association") | [IMA Auditorium](/wiki/IMA_Auditorium "IMA Auditorium") | | [Flint Fuze](/wiki/Flint_Fuze "Flint Fuze") (2001\) | Basketball | Continental Basketball Association | IMA Sports Arena | | [UM\-Flint](/wiki/University_of_Michigan-Flint "University of Michigan-Flint") Kodiaks | [College football](/wiki/College_football "College football") | [National Club Football Association](/wiki/National_Club_Football_Association "National Club Football Association") | Atwood Stadium | | [Flint Wildcats](/wiki/Flint_Wildcats "Flint Wildcats") (1974–1977\) | [Football](/wiki/American_football "American football") | Midwest Football League | Atwood Stadium | | [Flint Sabres](/wiki/Flint_Sabres "Flint Sabres") (1974–1988\) | Football | Midwest Football League | Atwood Stadium | | [Flint Falcons](/wiki/Flint_Falcons "Flint Falcons") (1992–2001\) | Football | [Michigan Football League, Ohio Valley Football League](/wiki/Michigan_Football_League%2C_Ohio_Valley_Football_League "Michigan Football League, Ohio Valley Football League") | Atwood Stadium, [Holy Redeemer Field](/wiki/Holy_Redeemer_Field "Holy Redeemer Field") | | [Michigan Admirals](/wiki/Michigan_Admirals "Michigan Admirals") (2002–2009\) | Football | North American Football League, United States Football Alliance | [Hamady Field](/wiki/Hamady_Field "Hamady Field"), [Russ Reynolds Field](/wiki/Russ_Reynolds_Field "Russ Reynolds Field"), [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium "Atwood Stadium") | | [Genesee County Patriots](/wiki/Genesee_County_Patriots "Genesee County Patriots") (2003–2009\) | Football | Ohio Valley Football League, North American Football League | Atwood Stadium, [Guy V. Houston Stadium](/wiki/Guy_V._Houston_Stadium "Guy V. Houston Stadium") | | Flint Blue Devils | Football | League unknown | Atwood Stadium | | Flint Yellow Jackets | Football | League unknown | Atwood Stadium | | [Flint Rampage](/wiki/Flint_Rampage "Flint Rampage") | Football | [Great Lakes Football League](/wiki/Great_Lakes_Football_League "Great Lakes Football League") | Atwood Stadium | | [Flint Generals (1969–1985\)](/wiki/Flint_Generals_%281969%E2%80%931985%29 "Flint Generals (1969–1985)") | [Hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey "Ice hockey") | [International Hockey League](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 "International Hockey League (1945–2001)") | [IMA Center](/wiki/Perani_Arena_and_Event_Center "Perani Arena and Event Center") | | [Flint Spirits](/wiki/Flint_Spirits "Flint Spirits") (1985–1990\) | Hockey | [International Hockey League](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 "International Hockey League (1945–2001)") | IMA Sports Arena | | [Flint Bulldogs](/wiki/Flint_Bulldogs "Flint Bulldogs") (1991–1993\) | Hockey | [Colonial Hockey League](/wiki/United_Hockey_League "United Hockey League") | IMA Sports Arena | | [Flint Generals](/wiki/Flint_Generals "Flint Generals") (1993–2010\) | Hockey | [Colonial/United/International Hockey League](/wiki/United_Hockey_League "United Hockey League") (1993–2010\) | Perani Arena and Event Center | | [Michigan Warriors](/wiki/Michigan_Warriors "Michigan Warriors") (2010–2015\) | Hockey | [North American Hockey League](/wiki/North_American_Hockey_League "North American Hockey League") | [Perani Arena](/wiki/Perani_Arena "Perani Arena"), [Iceland Arena](/wiki/Iceland_Arena "Iceland Arena") | | [Flint City Riveters](/wiki/Flint_City_Riveters "Flint City Riveters") | Women's football | [Women's Football Alliance](/wiki/Women%27s_Football_Alliance "Women's Football Alliance") | Guy V. Houston Stadium | | [Michigan Phoenix](/wiki/Michigan_Phoenix "Michigan Phoenix") | [Women's soccer](/wiki/Women%27s_soccer "Women's soccer") | [Women's Premier Soccer League](/wiki/Women%27s_Premier_Soccer_League "Women's Premier Soccer League") | [Guy V. Houston Stadium](/wiki/Guy_V._Houston_Stadium "Guy V. Houston Stadium") | | [Waza Flo](/wiki/Waza_Flo "Waza Flo") | [Indoor soccer](/wiki/Indoor_soccer "Indoor soccer") | [Major Arena Soccer League](/wiki/Major_Arena_Soccer_League "Major Arena Soccer League"){{cite news\|last1\=Woodyard\|first1\=Eric\|title\=Major Arena Soccer League team moves home games to Flint's Dort Federal Event Center\|url\=http://www.mlive.com/sports/flint/index.ssf/2015/09/major\_arena\_soccer\_league\_team.html\|access\-date\=November 16, 2015\|work\=Flint Journal\|publisher\=Mlive Media Group\|date\=September 29, 2015}} | Dort Federal Credit Union Event Center |
[ "Sports\n------", "", "| **Club** | **Sport** | **League** | **Venue** |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Flint City Bucks](/wiki/Flint_City_Bucks \"Flint City Bucks\") | [Soccer](/wiki/Soccer \"Soccer\") | [USL League 2](/wiki/USL_League_2 \"USL League 2\") | [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium \"Atwood Stadium\") |\n| [Flint Rogues Rugby Club](/wiki/Flint_Rogues_Rugby_Club \"Flint Rogues Rugby Club\") | [Rugby](/wiki/Rugby_union \"Rugby union\") | [Michigan Rugby Football Union](/wiki/Michigan_Rugby_Football_Union \"Michigan Rugby Football Union\") | [Longway Park](/wiki/Longway_Park \"Longway Park\") |\n| [Flint Fury](/wiki/Flint_Fury \"Flint Fury\") | [Football](/wiki/American_football \"American football\") | [Midwest Elite Football Alliance](/wiki/Midwest_Elite_Football_Alliance \"Midwest Elite Football Alliance\") | [Flint Hamady High School](/wiki/Flint_Hamady_High_School \"Flint Hamady High School\") |\n| [Flint United](/wiki/Flint_United \"Flint United\") | [Men's Basketball](/wiki/Men%27s_Basketball \"Men's Basketball\") | [The Basketball League](/wiki/The_Basketball_League \"The Basketball League\") | [Dort Financial Center](/wiki/Dort_Financial_Center \"Dort Financial Center\") |\n| [Flint Monarchs](/wiki/Flint_Monarchs \"Flint Monarchs\") | [Women's basketball](/wiki/Women%27s_basketball \"Women's basketball\") | [Women's American Basketball](/wiki/Women%27s_American_Basketball \"Women's American Basketball\"){{cite news\\|last1\\=Woodyard\\|first1\\=Eric\\|title\\=Flint Monarchs locked in to become city's first professional women's basketball team\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/sports/flint/index.ssf/2013/08/flint\\_monarchs\\_locked\\_in\\_to\\_be.html\\|access\\-date\\=June 12, 2014\\|work\\=Mlive\\|date\\=August 12, 2013}} | [Dort Financial Center](/wiki/Dort_Financial_Center \"Dort Financial Center\") |\n| [Flint Firebirds](/wiki/Flint_Firebirds \"Flint Firebirds\") | [Hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\") | [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League \"Ontario Hockey League\") | [Dort Financial Center](/wiki/Dort_Financial_Center \"Dort Financial Center\") |\n| [Flint City Handball Club](/wiki/Flint_City_Handball_Club \"Flint City Handball Club\") | [Club Team Handball](/wiki/Club_Team_Handball \"Club Team Handball\") | [TBD](/wiki/To_be_determined \"To be determined\") | [Berston Fieldhouse](/wiki/Berston_Fieldhouse \"Berston Fieldhouse\") |", "### American football", "There is [semi\\-pro](/wiki/Semi-professional \"Semi-professional\") football at Atwood Stadium with the Flint Fury. Atwood is an 11,000\\+ seat stadium in downtown Flint which has hosted many events, including baseball. When [artificial turf](/wiki/Artificial_turf \"Artificial turf\") was installed, it was no longer able to host baseball games.{{why\\|date\\=March 2016}} The Flint Fury have been in action since 2003, and are currently a part of the [Great Lakes Football League](/wiki/Great_Lakes_Football_League \"Great Lakes Football League\"). The team was founded by two of its players; Charles Lawler and Prince Goodson, who both played for the defunct Flint Falcons semi\\-pro team. The team is now solely owned by Lawler.", "The 2009 [Heisman Trophy](/wiki/Heisman_Trophy \"Heisman Trophy\") winner [Mark Ingram II](/wiki/Mark_Ingram_II \"Mark Ingram II\"), born and raised in Grand Blanc, attended his final year of high school at Flint Southwestern Academy. He won the Heisman with 1304 total votes. Ingram attended the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama \"University of Alabama\") and is their first Heisman winner. He was a member of the National Champion [2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team](/wiki/2009_Alabama_Crimson_Tide_football_team \"2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team\").", "### Basketball", "Many Flint natives have played basketball in the [National Basketball Association](/wiki/National_Basketball_Association \"National Basketball Association\") (NBA), [NCAA Division 1](/wiki/NCAA_Division_1 \"NCAA Division 1\") or European professional basketball. [NBA champion](/wiki/NBA_champion \"NBA champion\") [Glen Rice](/wiki/Glen_Rice \"Glen Rice\"), [Eddie Robinson](/wiki/Eddie_Robinson_%28basketball%29 \"Eddie Robinson (basketball)\") and three\\-time [NBA champion](/wiki/NBA_champion \"NBA champion\") [JaVale McGee](/wiki/JaVale_McGee \"JaVale McGee\"), and [Washington Wizards](/wiki/Washington_Wizards \"Washington Wizards\") forward [Kyle Kuzma](/wiki/Kyle_Kuzma \"Kyle Kuzma\") all hail from Flint,[Flint Star: The Greatest Player From Flint You've Never Heard Of, *HoopsAddict.com* Retrieved July 19, 2007](http://hoopsaddict.com/2006/05/24/flint-star-the-greatest-player-from-flint-you%E2%80%99ve-never-heard-of/) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822142248/http://hoopsaddict.com/2006/05/24/flint\\-star\\-the\\-greatest\\-player\\-from\\-flint\\-you%E2%80%99ve\\-never\\-heard\\-of/ \\|date\\=August 22, 2007 }} as do [Morris Peterson](/wiki/Morris_Peterson \"Morris Peterson\"), [Mateen Cleaves](/wiki/Mateen_Cleaves \"Mateen Cleaves\"), and [Charlie Bell](/wiki/Charlie_Bell_%28basketball%29 \"Charlie Bell (basketball)\") (four of the five starters from [Michigan State University](/wiki/Michigan_State_University \"Michigan State University\")'s \"[Flintstones](/wiki/Flintstones_%28basketball%29 \"Flintstones (basketball)\")\" 2000 National Championship team).", "Local teacher and independent film maker Marcus Davenport chronicles Flint's ties to basketball and the basketball culture in his documentary *Flint Star: The Motion Picture*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.flintstarmovie.com/ \\|title\\=Flint Star: The Motion Picture \\|publisher\\=Flintstarmovie.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514140611/http://www.flintstarmovie.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 14, 2012 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.elevationmag.com/basketball/index.php?itemid\\=206 \\|title\\=Catching up with Marcus Davenport maker of Flint Star \"The Motion Picture\" \\|publisher\\=Elevationmag.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2012}} [Will Ferrell](/wiki/Will_Ferrell \"Will Ferrell\")'s 2008 movie *[Semi\\-Pro](/wiki/Semi-Pro \"Semi-Pro\")* is based on the fictional basketball team the \"Flint Tropics\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.flinttropicsshirts.com/ \\|title\\=Flint Tropics \\|publisher\\=Flinttropicsshirts.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2012}}", "### Ice hockey", "On January 14, 2015, the [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League \"Ontario Hockey League\")'s [Plymouth Whalers](/wiki/Plymouth_Whalers \"Plymouth Whalers\") were relocated to Flint after a sale of the team to the owner of Perani Arena for the 2015–16 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/sports/flint/index.ssf/2015/02/its\\_official\\_ontario\\_hockey\\_le.html\\|title\\=It's official: Ontario Hockey League approves Plymouth Whalers' move to Flint\\|work\\=MLive.com\\|date\\=February 2, 2015}} The team changed its name to the [Flint Firebirds](/wiki/Flint_Firebirds \"Flint Firebirds\").", "### Other sports", "Flint is twinned with [Hamilton, Ontario](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario \"Hamilton, Ontario\"), and its amateur athletes compete in the [CANUSA Games](/wiki/CANUSA_Games \"CANUSA Games\"), held alternatively between the two cities since 1957\\.", "### Former sports teams", "", "| **Club** | **Sport** | **League** | **Venue** |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Flint Flames (2000\\) | [Arena football](/wiki/Arena_football \"Arena football\") | [Indoor Football League](/wiki/Indoor_Football_League \"Indoor Football League\") | [IMA Sports Arena](/wiki/IMA_Sports_Arena \"IMA Sports Arena\") |\n| [Michigan Pirates](/wiki/Michigan_Pirates \"Michigan Pirates\") (2007\\) | Arena football | [Continental Indoor Football League](/wiki/Continental_Indoor_Football_League \"Continental Indoor Football League\") | [Perani Arena and Event Center](/wiki/Perani_Arena_and_Event_Center \"Perani Arena and Event Center\") |\n| [Flint Phantoms](/wiki/Flint_Phantoms \"Flint Phantoms\") (2008\\) | Arena football | [Continental Indoor Football League](/wiki/Continental_Indoor_Football_League \"Continental Indoor Football League\") | Perani Arena and Event Center |\n| [Flint Flyers](/wiki/Flint_Flyers \"Flint Flyers\") (1889–1891\\) | [Baseball](/wiki/Baseball \"Baseball\") | [Michigan State League](/wiki/Michigan_State_League \"Michigan State League\") | Venue Unknown |\n| [Flint Vehicles](/wiki/Flint_Vehicles \"Flint Vehicles\") (1906–1915, 1921–1925\\) | Baseball | Michigan\\-Ontario League | Athletic Park |\n| Flint Halligans (1919–1920\\) | Baseball | [Michigan\\-Ontario League](/wiki/Michigan-Ontario_League \"Michigan-Ontario League\") | [Athletic Park](/wiki/Athletic_Park_%28Flint%29 \"Athletic Park (Flint)\") |\n| [Flint Gems](/wiki/Flint_Gems \"Flint Gems\") (1940\\) | Baseball | Michigan State League | [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium \"Atwood Stadium\") |\n| [Flint Indians](/wiki/Flint_Indians \"Flint Indians\") (1941\\) | Baseball | Michigan State League | Atwood Stadium |\n| [Flint Arrows](/wiki/Flint_Arrows \"Flint Arrows\") (1948–1951\\) | Baseball | [Central League](/wiki/Central_League_%28baseball%29 \"Central League (baseball)\") | Atwood Stadium |\n| Flint Pros (1972–1974\\) | [Basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\") | [Continental Basketball Association](/wiki/Continental_Basketball_Association \"Continental Basketball Association\") | [IMA Auditorium](/wiki/IMA_Auditorium \"IMA Auditorium\") |\n| [Flint Fuze](/wiki/Flint_Fuze \"Flint Fuze\") (2001\\) | Basketball | Continental Basketball Association | IMA Sports Arena |\n| [UM\\-Flint](/wiki/University_of_Michigan-Flint \"University of Michigan-Flint\") Kodiaks | [College football](/wiki/College_football \"College football\") | [National Club Football Association](/wiki/National_Club_Football_Association \"National Club Football Association\") | Atwood Stadium |\n| [Flint Wildcats](/wiki/Flint_Wildcats \"Flint Wildcats\") (1974–1977\\) | [Football](/wiki/American_football \"American football\") | Midwest Football League | Atwood Stadium |\n| [Flint Sabres](/wiki/Flint_Sabres \"Flint Sabres\") (1974–1988\\) | Football | Midwest Football League | Atwood Stadium |\n| [Flint Falcons](/wiki/Flint_Falcons \"Flint Falcons\") (1992–2001\\) | Football | [Michigan Football League, Ohio Valley Football League](/wiki/Michigan_Football_League%2C_Ohio_Valley_Football_League \"Michigan Football League, Ohio Valley Football League\") | Atwood Stadium, [Holy Redeemer Field](/wiki/Holy_Redeemer_Field \"Holy Redeemer Field\") |\n| [Michigan Admirals](/wiki/Michigan_Admirals \"Michigan Admirals\") (2002–2009\\) | Football | North American Football League, United States Football Alliance | [Hamady Field](/wiki/Hamady_Field \"Hamady Field\"), [Russ Reynolds Field](/wiki/Russ_Reynolds_Field \"Russ Reynolds Field\"), [Atwood Stadium](/wiki/Atwood_Stadium \"Atwood Stadium\") |\n| [Genesee County Patriots](/wiki/Genesee_County_Patriots \"Genesee County Patriots\") (2003–2009\\) | Football | Ohio Valley Football League, North American Football League | Atwood Stadium, [Guy V. Houston Stadium](/wiki/Guy_V._Houston_Stadium \"Guy V. Houston Stadium\") |\n| Flint Blue Devils | Football | League unknown | Atwood Stadium |\n| Flint Yellow Jackets | Football | League unknown | Atwood Stadium |\n| [Flint Rampage](/wiki/Flint_Rampage \"Flint Rampage\") | Football | [Great Lakes Football League](/wiki/Great_Lakes_Football_League \"Great Lakes Football League\") | Atwood Stadium |\n| [Flint Generals (1969–1985\\)](/wiki/Flint_Generals_%281969%E2%80%931985%29 \"Flint Generals (1969–1985)\") | [Hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\") | [International Hockey League](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 \"International Hockey League (1945–2001)\") | [IMA Center](/wiki/Perani_Arena_and_Event_Center \"Perani Arena and Event Center\") |\n| [Flint Spirits](/wiki/Flint_Spirits \"Flint Spirits\") (1985–1990\\) | Hockey | [International Hockey League](/wiki/International_Hockey_League_%281945%E2%80%932001%29 \"International Hockey League (1945–2001)\") | IMA Sports Arena |\n| [Flint Bulldogs](/wiki/Flint_Bulldogs \"Flint Bulldogs\") (1991–1993\\) | Hockey | [Colonial Hockey League](/wiki/United_Hockey_League \"United Hockey League\") | IMA Sports Arena |\n| [Flint Generals](/wiki/Flint_Generals \"Flint Generals\") (1993–2010\\) | Hockey | [Colonial/United/International Hockey League](/wiki/United_Hockey_League \"United Hockey League\") (1993–2010\\) | Perani Arena and Event Center |\n| [Michigan Warriors](/wiki/Michigan_Warriors \"Michigan Warriors\") (2010–2015\\) | Hockey | [North American Hockey League](/wiki/North_American_Hockey_League \"North American Hockey League\") | [Perani Arena](/wiki/Perani_Arena \"Perani Arena\"), [Iceland Arena](/wiki/Iceland_Arena \"Iceland Arena\") |\n| [Flint City Riveters](/wiki/Flint_City_Riveters \"Flint City Riveters\") | Women's football | [Women's Football Alliance](/wiki/Women%27s_Football_Alliance \"Women's Football Alliance\") | Guy V. Houston Stadium |\n| [Michigan Phoenix](/wiki/Michigan_Phoenix \"Michigan Phoenix\") | [Women's soccer](/wiki/Women%27s_soccer \"Women's soccer\") | [Women's Premier Soccer League](/wiki/Women%27s_Premier_Soccer_League \"Women's Premier Soccer League\") | [Guy V. Houston Stadium](/wiki/Guy_V._Houston_Stadium \"Guy V. Houston Stadium\") |\n| [Waza Flo](/wiki/Waza_Flo \"Waza Flo\") | [Indoor soccer](/wiki/Indoor_soccer \"Indoor soccer\") | [Major Arena Soccer League](/wiki/Major_Arena_Soccer_League \"Major Arena Soccer League\"){{cite news\\|last1\\=Woodyard\\|first1\\=Eric\\|title\\=Major Arena Soccer League team moves home games to Flint's Dort Federal Event Center\\|url\\=http://www.mlive.com/sports/flint/index.ssf/2015/09/major\\_arena\\_soccer\\_league\\_team.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 16, 2015\\|work\\=Flint Journal\\|publisher\\=Mlive Media Group\\|date\\=September 29, 2015}} | Dort Federal Credit Union Event Center |", "" ]
Club career ----------- ### Salzburg, Steyr and Grazer AK Manninger started his career as a youth player for [SV Austria Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg "FC Red Bull Salzburg") in 1993\. He was promoted to the first\-team squad at the start of the 1995–1996 season. After his debut, and lone appearance of the season, he was sent on loan at [SK Vorwärts Steyr](/wiki/SK_Vorw%C3%A4rts_Steyr "SK Vorwärts Steyr"), and played his first top\-level game away against [Grazer AK](/wiki/Grazer_AK "Grazer AK"). At the start of 1996–97 season he signed for Grazer AK, making his debut in place of the unfit first\-choice keeper, in the [autumn 1996 UEFA Cup second\-round game](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_UEFA_Cup%23Second_round "1996–97 UEFA Cup#Second round") against [Internazionale Milano](/wiki/F.C._Internazionale_Milano "F.C. Internazionale Milano") at the [Stadio Giuseppe Meazza](/wiki/Stadio_Giuseppe_Meazza "Stadio Giuseppe Meazza") in Milan. He made twenty\-four appearances in his lone season with Grazer AK, before a high\-profile transfer to [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League"), where he was understudy to the experienced [David Seaman](/wiki/David_Seaman "David Seaman"). ### Arsenal, Fiorentina and Espanyol During the [1997–98 season](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_FA_Premier_League "1997–98 FA Premier League") Seaman was injured and Manninger covered for him, enjoying a spell of six clean sheets in a row in the league, a joint club record. The last of these was against [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United "Manchester United") at Old Trafford, where Arsenal won 1–0\. In March 1998, he was named [Premier League Player of the Month](/wiki/Premier_League_Player_of_the_Month%231997%E2%80%9398 "Premier League Player of the Month#1997–98").{{cite web\|title\=A complete history of goalkeeping at Arsene Wenger's Arsenal\|url\= http://www.sport.co.uk/features/Football/974/A\_complete\_history\_of\_goalkeeping\_at\_Arsene\_Wengers\_Arsenal.aspx \|work\=sport.co.uk\|access\-date\=24 February 2012}} However, Manninger had to make way for Seaman once the Englishman returned from injury. Despite only having played 7 games in the [1997–98 FA Premier League](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_FA_Premier_League "1997–98 FA Premier League") season (10 was then required to automatically qualify for a winners' medal), Manninger was granted special dispensation for a medal as his contribution to Arsenal's title win was considered to be significant enough. He also made 5 appearances in Arsenal's FA Cup run. The highlight for Manninger came in the quarter\-final replay at [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United "West Ham United"). The game went to penalties and he saved [Eyal Berkovic's](/wiki/Eyal_Berkovic "Eyal Berkovic") spot kick to help Arsenal through to the semi\-finals.{{cite news\|title\=West Ham 1 Arsenal 1 (aet, 3\-4 on penalties)\|url\=http://www.sportinglife.com/football/news/article/165/7770613/west\-ham\-1\-arsenal\-1\-aet\-3\-4\-on\-penalties\|publisher\=Sporting Life\|access\-date\=12 November 2013\|archive\-date\=12 November 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112165355/http://www.sportinglife.com/football/news/article/165/7770613/west\-ham\-1\-arsenal\-1\-aet\-3\-4\-on\-penalties\|url\-status\=dead}} He was on the bench as Arsenal won the [1998 FA Cup Final](/wiki/1998_FA_Cup_Final "1998 FA Cup Final") to complete the double. Manninger continued to deputise for Seaman for the next three seasons. He made sixty\-four appearances over four seasons for [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C."). After the Gunners bought [Richard Wright](/wiki/Richard_Wright_%28footballer%29 "Richard Wright (footballer)") in 2001, Manninger became number three at Arsenal, and spent the 2001–2002 season on loan at Italian side [ACF Fiorentina](/wiki/ACF_Fiorentina "ACF Fiorentina"), where he made twenty\-four appearances for the [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany") club.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/1470409\.stm\|title\=Manninger completes Fiorentina switch\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=7 August 2001\|access\-date\=16 June 2008}} In July 2002 [RCD Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol "RCD Espanyol") signed Manninger on a four\-year deal for £960,000\.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/2043343\.stm\|title\=Manninger joins Espanyol\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=4 July 2002\|access\-date\=16 June 2008}} However, he was released after just two months at Espanyol without making a first team appearance with Manninger claiming that the Barcelona\-based club had reneged on the contract.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/2211811\.stm\|title\=Espanyol release Manninger\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=23 August 2002\|access\-date\=16 June 2008}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11670\_2258217,00\.html\|title\=Alex breaks silence on Espanyol fiasco\|work\=Sky Sports \| first \= Mark \| last \= Kendall \| access\-date \= 20 January 2013}} ### Torino, Bologna, Siena and Salzburg Manninger subsequently joined Italian side [Torino](/wiki/Torino_F.C. "Torino F.C.") in [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A "Serie A") in January 2003,{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/2658759\.stm\|title\=Manninger joins Torino\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=14 January 2003\|access\-date\=16 June 2008}} and remained with them until the end of the season. At the start of 2003–04 he signed for [Bologna FC](/wiki/Bologna_F.C._1909 "Bologna F.C. 1909") where he spent two seasons largely used as an understudy. He had a short loan spell with [Brescia Calcio](/wiki/Brescia_Calcio "Brescia Calcio") in July 2004, but was subsequently loaned to [A.C. Siena](/wiki/A.C._Siena "A.C. Siena") for the [2004–05 Serie A](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Serie_A "2004–05 Serie A") season during which Manninger made nineteen appearances in the league for the *Robur*. In July 2005, [FC Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg "FC Red Bull Salzburg") re\-signed Manninger from his parent club [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna "Bologna") and during season 2005–06 he made sixteen appearances. ### Return to Siena, Udinese and Juventus Manninger returned to [Siena](/wiki/A.C._Siena "A.C. Siena"), in [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A "Serie A"), this time on a permanent basis for the 2006–07 season. He started the season as the club's first choice keeper but he was injured and replaced by Greek international [Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos](/wiki/Dimitrios_Eleftheropoulos "Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos"), who retained the first team goalkeeper's jersey once Manninger was fit again. He was first choice again at the start of 2007–08 season, ahead of Eleftheropolous, and [Anssi Jaakkola](/wiki/Anssi_Jaakkola "Anssi Jaakkola"). In a two\-year spell at Siena, Manninger made nearly 70 appearances. In July 2008, as a non\-contract player, he returned to Austria for another spell with [FC Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg "FC Red Bull Salzburg"), but before the season started he had signed for [Udinese Calcio](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio "Udinese Calcio"), where he replaced the Juventus\-bound [Antonio Chimenti](/wiki/Antonio_Chimenti "Antonio Chimenti"). However, in a career of brief moves, he stayed with the north east Italian club for just two weeks before being signed by [Juventus](/wiki/Juventus_FC "Juventus FC") as backup for [Gianluigi Buffon](/wiki/Gianluigi_Buffon "Gianluigi Buffon") and Chimenti in August 2008\.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/newsid\=736943\.html \| title \= Manninger swaps Udinese for Juve \| publisher \= UEFA.com \| date \= 5 August 2008 \| access\-date \= 20 January 2013}} A long\-term injury to Buffon resulted in Manninger playing for the first XI from early October 2008 through to late February 2009\. During his tenure with Juventus, Manninger made thirty\-five appearances in all competitions, drawing praise in the media for his performances. Following an injury to Buffon during the [2010 World Cup](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup "2010 FIFA World Cup"), Juventus signed [Marco Storari](/wiki/Marco_Storari "Marco Storari") from [Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan "A.C. Milan") in the summer of 2010, and Manninger was demoted to the role of the club's third–choice goalkeeper.{{cite web \|url\=https://it.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/01d3\-0e706156db6c\-000f69547d79\-1000\-\-juve\-tranquilla\-nelle\-mani\-di\-manninger/?referrer\=%2Fuefachampionsleague%2Fnews%2Fnewsid%3D776679 \|title\=Juve tranquilla nelle mani di Manninger \|publisher\=UEFA.com \|language\=it \|last1\=Radaelli \|first1\=Roberta \|date\=21 November 2008 \|access\-date\=4 June 2020 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11095\_6208010,00\.html\|title\=Buffon return unknown\|publisher\=\[\[Sky Sports]]\|date\=15 June 2010\|access\-date\=24 June 2010}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/sport/calcio/serie\-a/juventus/2010/07/05/news/storari\-5405867/\|title\=''Buffon super, ma io non mi sento un vice''\|work\=La Repubblica\|language\=it\|last1\=Ormezzano\|first1\=Timothy\|date\=5 July 2010\|access\-date\=3 October 2017}} He was released at the end of the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Serie_A "2011–12 Serie A"), following Juventus's league title victory.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/0000240212\.jsp \|title\=Manninger making up for lost time \|publisher\=Bundesliga \|access\-date\=4 June 2020 }} ### Augsburg After four months without a club, Manninger signed for [Bundesliga](/wiki/Bundesliga "Bundesliga") club [FC Augsburg](/wiki/FC_Augsburg "FC Augsburg") to cover for an injury to regular first\-choice goalkeeper [Simon Jentzsch](/wiki/Simon_Jentzsch "Simon Jentzsch"). He made his competitive debut for Augsburg in a [DFB\-Pokal](/wiki/DFB-Pokal "DFB-Pokal") home match against [FC Bayern Munich](/wiki/FC_Bayern_Munich "FC Bayern Munich") on 18 December 2012\. In 2014, he signed a one–year contract extension.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fourfourtwo.com/us/news/manninger\-pens\-one\-year\-augsburg\-extension \|title\=Manninger pens one\-year Augsburg extension \|publisher\=FourFourTwo \|date\=24 February 2014 \|access\-date\=4 June 2020 }} and was released at the end of his contract in June 2016 after having made 38 appearances in all competitions for the German side during his time with the team, 36 of which came in the Bundesliga.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.espn.co.uk/football/soccer\-transfers/story/2911449/liverpool\-considering\-signing\-ex\-arsenal\-goalkeeper\-alex\-manninger\-source \|title\=Liverpool consider signing Manninger, Danny Ward joins Huddersfield on loan \|publisher\=ESPN FC \|last1\=Price \|first1\=Glenn \|date\=11 July 2016 \|access\-date\=4 June 2020 }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/weinzierl\-exit\-heralds\-new\-era\-for\-augsburg/a\-19474291 \|title\=Weinzierl exit heralds new era for Augsburg \|publisher\=DW \|last1\=Chaffer \|first1\=Alex \|date\=17 August 2016 \|access\-date\=4 June 2020 }} ### Liverpool During July 2016, Manninger trained with [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. "Liverpool F.C.") to maintain match fitness and on 22 July 2016, he signed a short\-term contract with the Merseyside club.{{cite web\|title\=Liverpool complete deal for Alex Manninger\|url\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/first\-team/228619\-liverpool\-complete\-deal\-for\-alex\-manninger\|website\=liverpoolfc.com\|publisher\=Liverpool F.C.\|access\-date\=22 July 2016\|date\=22 July 2016}} On 25 May 2017, he announced his retirement from football at the end of his contract.{{cite web\|title\=Manninger set to retire: 'Keeper on career, LFC experience and future\|url\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/first\-team/263769\-manninger\-set\-to\-retire\-keeper\-on\-career\-lfc\-experience\-and\-future\|website\=liverpoolfc.com\|publisher\=Liverpool F.C.\|access\-date\=25 May 2017\|date\=25 May 2017}}
[ "Club career\n-----------", "### Salzburg, Steyr and Grazer AK", "Manninger started his career as a youth player for [SV Austria Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg \"FC Red Bull Salzburg\") in 1993\\. He was promoted to the first\\-team squad at the start of the 1995–1996 season. After his debut, and lone appearance of the season, he was sent on loan at [SK Vorwärts Steyr](/wiki/SK_Vorw%C3%A4rts_Steyr \"SK Vorwärts Steyr\"), and played his first top\\-level game away against [Grazer AK](/wiki/Grazer_AK \"Grazer AK\").", "At the start of 1996–97 season he signed for Grazer AK, making his debut in place of the unfit first\\-choice keeper, in the [autumn 1996 UEFA Cup second\\-round game](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_UEFA_Cup%23Second_round \"1996–97 UEFA Cup#Second round\") against [Internazionale Milano](/wiki/F.C._Internazionale_Milano \"F.C. Internazionale Milano\") at the [Stadio Giuseppe Meazza](/wiki/Stadio_Giuseppe_Meazza \"Stadio Giuseppe Meazza\") in Milan. He made twenty\\-four appearances in his lone season with Grazer AK, before a high\\-profile transfer to [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") in the [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\"), where he was understudy to the experienced [David Seaman](/wiki/David_Seaman \"David Seaman\").", "### Arsenal, Fiorentina and Espanyol", "During the [1997–98 season](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_FA_Premier_League \"1997–98 FA Premier League\") Seaman was injured and Manninger covered for him, enjoying a spell of six clean sheets in a row in the league, a joint club record. The last of these was against [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United \"Manchester United\") at Old Trafford, where Arsenal won 1–0\\. In March 1998, he was named [Premier League Player of the Month](/wiki/Premier_League_Player_of_the_Month%231997%E2%80%9398 \"Premier League Player of the Month#1997–98\").{{cite web\\|title\\=A complete history of goalkeeping at Arsene Wenger's Arsenal\\|url\\= http://www.sport.co.uk/features/Football/974/A\\_complete\\_history\\_of\\_goalkeeping\\_at\\_Arsene\\_Wengers\\_Arsenal.aspx \\|work\\=sport.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2012}} However, Manninger had to make way for Seaman once the Englishman returned from injury. Despite only having played 7 games in the [1997–98 FA Premier League](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_FA_Premier_League \"1997–98 FA Premier League\") season (10 was then required to automatically qualify for a winners' medal), Manninger was granted special dispensation for a medal as his contribution to Arsenal's title win was considered to be significant enough. He also made 5 appearances in Arsenal's FA Cup run. The highlight for Manninger came in the quarter\\-final replay at [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United \"West Ham United\"). The game went to penalties and he saved [Eyal Berkovic's](/wiki/Eyal_Berkovic \"Eyal Berkovic\") spot kick to help Arsenal through to the semi\\-finals.{{cite news\\|title\\=West Ham 1 Arsenal 1 (aet, 3\\-4 on penalties)\\|url\\=http://www.sportinglife.com/football/news/article/165/7770613/west\\-ham\\-1\\-arsenal\\-1\\-aet\\-3\\-4\\-on\\-penalties\\|publisher\\=Sporting Life\\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=12 November 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112165355/http://www.sportinglife.com/football/news/article/165/7770613/west\\-ham\\-1\\-arsenal\\-1\\-aet\\-3\\-4\\-on\\-penalties\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was on the bench as Arsenal won the [1998 FA Cup Final](/wiki/1998_FA_Cup_Final \"1998 FA Cup Final\") to complete the double.", "Manninger continued to deputise for Seaman for the next three seasons. He made sixty\\-four appearances over four seasons for [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\"). After the Gunners bought [Richard Wright](/wiki/Richard_Wright_%28footballer%29 \"Richard Wright (footballer)\") in 2001, Manninger became number three at Arsenal, and spent the 2001–2002 season on loan at Italian side [ACF Fiorentina](/wiki/ACF_Fiorentina \"ACF Fiorentina\"), where he made twenty\\-four appearances for the [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\") club.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/1470409\\.stm\\|title\\=Manninger completes Fiorentina switch\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=7 August 2001\\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2008}}", "In July 2002 [RCD Espanyol](/wiki/RCD_Espanyol \"RCD Espanyol\") signed Manninger on a four\\-year deal for £960,000\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/2043343\\.stm\\|title\\=Manninger joins Espanyol\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=4 July 2002\\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2008}} However, he was released after just two months at Espanyol without making a first team appearance with Manninger claiming that the Barcelona\\-based club had reneged on the contract.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/2211811\\.stm\\|title\\=Espanyol release Manninger\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=23 August 2002\\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2008}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11670\\_2258217,00\\.html\\|title\\=Alex breaks silence on Espanyol fiasco\\|work\\=Sky Sports \\| first \\= Mark \\| last \\= Kendall \\| access\\-date \\= 20 January 2013}}", "### Torino, Bologna, Siena and Salzburg", "Manninger subsequently joined Italian side [Torino](/wiki/Torino_F.C. \"Torino F.C.\") in [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A \"Serie A\") in January 2003,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/2658759\\.stm\\|title\\=Manninger joins Torino\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=14 January 2003\\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2008}} and remained with them until the end of the season. At the start of 2003–04 he signed for [Bologna FC](/wiki/Bologna_F.C._1909 \"Bologna F.C. 1909\") where he spent two seasons largely used as an understudy. He had a short loan spell with [Brescia Calcio](/wiki/Brescia_Calcio \"Brescia Calcio\") in July 2004, but was subsequently loaned to [A.C. Siena](/wiki/A.C._Siena \"A.C. Siena\") for the [2004–05 Serie A](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Serie_A \"2004–05 Serie A\") season during which Manninger made nineteen appearances in the league for the *Robur*.", "In July 2005, [FC Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg \"FC Red Bull Salzburg\") re\\-signed Manninger from his parent club [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna \"Bologna\") and during season 2005–06 he made sixteen appearances.", "### Return to Siena, Udinese and Juventus", "Manninger returned to [Siena](/wiki/A.C._Siena \"A.C. Siena\"), in [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A \"Serie A\"), this time on a permanent basis for the 2006–07 season. He started the season as the club's first choice keeper but he was injured and replaced by Greek international [Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos](/wiki/Dimitrios_Eleftheropoulos \"Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos\"), who retained the first team goalkeeper's jersey once Manninger was fit again. He was first choice again at the start of 2007–08 season, ahead of Eleftheropolous, and [Anssi Jaakkola](/wiki/Anssi_Jaakkola \"Anssi Jaakkola\"). In a two\\-year spell at Siena, Manninger made nearly 70 appearances.", "In July 2008, as a non\\-contract player, he returned to Austria for another spell with [FC Red Bull Salzburg](/wiki/FC_Red_Bull_Salzburg \"FC Red Bull Salzburg\"), but before the season started he had signed for [Udinese Calcio](/wiki/Udinese_Calcio \"Udinese Calcio\"), where he replaced the Juventus\\-bound [Antonio Chimenti](/wiki/Antonio_Chimenti \"Antonio Chimenti\"). However, in a career of brief moves, he stayed with the north east Italian club for just two weeks before being signed by [Juventus](/wiki/Juventus_FC \"Juventus FC\") as backup for [Gianluigi Buffon](/wiki/Gianluigi_Buffon \"Gianluigi Buffon\") and Chimenti in August 2008\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/newsid\\=736943\\.html \\| title \\= Manninger swaps Udinese for Juve \\| publisher \\= UEFA.com \\| date \\= 5 August 2008 \\| access\\-date \\= 20 January 2013}} A long\\-term injury to Buffon resulted in Manninger playing for the first XI from early October 2008 through to late February 2009\\. During his tenure with Juventus, Manninger made thirty\\-five appearances in all competitions, drawing praise in the media for his performances. Following an injury to Buffon during the [2010 World Cup](/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup \"2010 FIFA World Cup\"), Juventus signed [Marco Storari](/wiki/Marco_Storari \"Marco Storari\") from [Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan \"A.C. Milan\") in the summer of 2010, and Manninger was demoted to the role of the club's third–choice goalkeeper.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://it.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/01d3\\-0e706156db6c\\-000f69547d79\\-1000\\-\\-juve\\-tranquilla\\-nelle\\-mani\\-di\\-manninger/?referrer\\=%2Fuefachampionsleague%2Fnews%2Fnewsid%3D776679 \\|title\\=Juve tranquilla nelle mani di Manninger \\|publisher\\=UEFA.com \\|language\\=it \\|last1\\=Radaelli \\|first1\\=Roberta \\|date\\=21 November 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2020 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,11095\\_6208010,00\\.html\\|title\\=Buffon return unknown\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]]\\|date\\=15 June 2010\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2010}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/sport/calcio/serie\\-a/juventus/2010/07/05/news/storari\\-5405867/\\|title\\=''Buffon super, ma io non mi sento un vice''\\|work\\=La Repubblica\\|language\\=it\\|last1\\=Ormezzano\\|first1\\=Timothy\\|date\\=5 July 2010\\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2017}} He was released at the end of the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Serie_A \"2011–12 Serie A\"), following Juventus's league title victory.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bundesliga.com/en/news/Bundesliga/0000240212\\.jsp \\|title\\=Manninger making up for lost time \\|publisher\\=Bundesliga \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2020 }}", "### Augsburg", "After four months without a club, Manninger signed for [Bundesliga](/wiki/Bundesliga \"Bundesliga\") club [FC Augsburg](/wiki/FC_Augsburg \"FC Augsburg\") to cover for an injury to regular first\\-choice goalkeeper [Simon Jentzsch](/wiki/Simon_Jentzsch \"Simon Jentzsch\"). He made his competitive debut for Augsburg in a [DFB\\-Pokal](/wiki/DFB-Pokal \"DFB-Pokal\") home match against [FC Bayern Munich](/wiki/FC_Bayern_Munich \"FC Bayern Munich\") on 18 December 2012\\. In 2014, he signed a one–year contract extension.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fourfourtwo.com/us/news/manninger\\-pens\\-one\\-year\\-augsburg\\-extension \\|title\\=Manninger pens one\\-year Augsburg extension \\|publisher\\=FourFourTwo \\|date\\=24 February 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2020 }} and was released at the end of his contract in June 2016 after having made 38 appearances in all competitions for the German side during his time with the team, 36 of which came in the Bundesliga.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.espn.co.uk/football/soccer\\-transfers/story/2911449/liverpool\\-considering\\-signing\\-ex\\-arsenal\\-goalkeeper\\-alex\\-manninger\\-source \\|title\\=Liverpool consider signing Manninger, Danny Ward joins Huddersfield on loan \\|publisher\\=ESPN FC \\|last1\\=Price \\|first1\\=Glenn \\|date\\=11 July 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2020 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/weinzierl\\-exit\\-heralds\\-new\\-era\\-for\\-augsburg/a\\-19474291 \\|title\\=Weinzierl exit heralds new era for Augsburg \\|publisher\\=DW \\|last1\\=Chaffer \\|first1\\=Alex \\|date\\=17 August 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=4 June 2020 }}", "### Liverpool", "During July 2016, Manninger trained with [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. \"Liverpool F.C.\") to maintain match fitness and on 22 July 2016, he signed a short\\-term contract with the Merseyside club.{{cite web\\|title\\=Liverpool complete deal for Alex Manninger\\|url\\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/first\\-team/228619\\-liverpool\\-complete\\-deal\\-for\\-alex\\-manninger\\|website\\=liverpoolfc.com\\|publisher\\=Liverpool F.C.\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2016\\|date\\=22 July 2016}} On 25 May 2017, he announced his retirement from football at the end of his contract.{{cite web\\|title\\=Manninger set to retire: 'Keeper on career, LFC experience and future\\|url\\=http://www.liverpoolfc.com/news/first\\-team/263769\\-manninger\\-set\\-to\\-retire\\-keeper\\-on\\-career\\-lfc\\-experience\\-and\\-future\\|website\\=liverpoolfc.com\\|publisher\\=Liverpool F.C.\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2017\\|date\\=25 May 2017}}", "" ]
Exhibits -------- The museum houses antique bicycles from the 19th century, [balloon tire](/wiki/Bicycle_tire%23Balloon "Bicycle tire#Balloon") classics of the 1940s and 1950s and banana seat high\-rise handle bar bikes of the 1960s. The museum has more bicycles than it can display at any one time in the 3\-story downtown historic building, despite hanging bicycles from ceilings and mounting them on almost every wall, so the museum occasionally rotates the collection. The collection includes bicycle\-related objects, such as accessories, [cycling jerseys](/wiki/Cycling_jersey "Cycling jersey") and tools from the past 140 years, and a display of hundreds of [head badges](/wiki/Head_badge "Head badge") from some of the thousands of bicycle manufacturers over the years. ### Historic bicycles The oldest bicycles are on the first floor. There is a replica of the earliest form of a bicycle by [Karl von Drais](/wiki/Karl_Drais "Karl Drais"), an 1816 wooden peddle\-less walking bike. The exhibit includes several [Penny\-farthings](/wiki/Penny-farthing "Penny-farthing"), the high\-wheelers, including one mounted so people can try it out. There is a 1901 [ice bike](/wiki/Ice_cycle "Ice cycle"), with a sled runner in front and a spiked rear wheel. Ammunition and assorted supplies are mounted on the rear rack of an 1896 [Columbia Model 40](/wiki/Pope_Manufacturing_Company%23Safety_bicycles "Pope Manufacturing Company#Safety bicycles") modified by the military with a machine gun mounted on it. [Ignaz Schwinn](/wiki/Ignaz_Schwinn "Ignaz Schwinn")'s 1897 custom [tandem bicycle](/wiki/Tandem_bicycle "Tandem bicycle") has a seat between the riders to hold a young child. There is a bicycle that was ridden on the [circus high wire](/wiki/Circus_high_wire_acts "Circus high wire acts"), a 1900 Dayton women's bike by [Davis Sewing Machine Company](/wiki/Davis_Sewing_Machine_Company "Davis Sewing Machine Company"), a replica of the [Wright brothers](/wiki/Wright_brothers "Wright brothers")' 1896 St. Clair airfoil test bicycle, and an 1896 "Zimmy" named after [Arthur Augustus Zimmerman](/wiki/Arthur_Augustus_Zimmerman "Arthur Augustus Zimmerman"), a [racing bicyclist](/wiki/Road_bicycle_racing "Road bicycle racing") known for his rapid pedaling speed. ### Vintage bicycles The museum has an early 1900s [Harley\-Davidson bicycle](/wiki/Harley-Davidson%23World_War_I "Harley-Davidson#World War I") with a sidecar, a yellow and blue 1949 [Donald Duck](/wiki/Donald_Duck "Donald Duck") bike by the [Shelby Cycle Company](/wiki/Shelby_Cycle_Company "Shelby Cycle Company") with a Donald Duck head on the front and a horn that quacks, a 1955 [Huffy RadioBike](/wiki/Huffy%23Post-War_History "Huffy#Post-War History") which has a working radio built into the frame with volume\-control and tuning dials, and a dozen colorful 1960s banana\-seat [Sting Rays](/wiki/Sting_Ray_%28bicycle%29 "Sting Ray (bicycle)"). ### Celebrity bicycles The collection includes one of the modified 1953 Schwinn DX bikes from the 1985 film *[Pee\-wee's Big Adventure](/wiki/Pee-wee%27s_Big_Adventure "Pee-wee's Big Adventure")*, and four bicycles from [Robin Williams](/wiki/Robin_Williams "Robin Williams")' collection — a 1992 high\-tech [Zipp bike](/wiki/Zipp "Zipp") and a white\-with\-polkadots La Carrera Futura 2000\. A shaft\-drive Elgin proto\-type that was owned by Jesse James, and a mountain bike owned by Mickey Mantle are also on display.
[ "Exhibits\n--------", "The museum houses antique bicycles from the 19th century, [balloon tire](/wiki/Bicycle_tire%23Balloon \"Bicycle tire#Balloon\") classics of the 1940s and 1950s and banana seat high\\-rise handle bar bikes of the 1960s.", "The museum has more bicycles than it can display at any one time in the 3\\-story downtown historic building, despite hanging bicycles from ceilings and mounting them on almost every wall, so the museum occasionally rotates the collection. The collection includes bicycle\\-related objects, such as accessories, [cycling jerseys](/wiki/Cycling_jersey \"Cycling jersey\") and tools from the past 140 years, and a display of hundreds of [head badges](/wiki/Head_badge \"Head badge\") from some of the thousands of bicycle manufacturers over the years.", "### Historic bicycles", "The oldest bicycles are on the first floor. There is a replica of the earliest form of a bicycle by [Karl von Drais](/wiki/Karl_Drais \"Karl Drais\"), an 1816 wooden peddle\\-less walking bike. The exhibit includes several [Penny\\-farthings](/wiki/Penny-farthing \"Penny-farthing\"), the high\\-wheelers, including one mounted so people can try it out. There is a 1901 [ice bike](/wiki/Ice_cycle \"Ice cycle\"), with a sled runner in front and a spiked rear wheel. Ammunition and assorted supplies are mounted on the rear rack of an 1896 [Columbia Model 40](/wiki/Pope_Manufacturing_Company%23Safety_bicycles \"Pope Manufacturing Company#Safety bicycles\") modified by the military with a machine gun mounted on it. [Ignaz Schwinn](/wiki/Ignaz_Schwinn \"Ignaz Schwinn\")'s 1897 custom [tandem bicycle](/wiki/Tandem_bicycle \"Tandem bicycle\") has a seat between the riders to hold a young child.", "There is a bicycle that was ridden on the [circus high wire](/wiki/Circus_high_wire_acts \"Circus high wire acts\"), a 1900 Dayton women's bike by [Davis Sewing Machine Company](/wiki/Davis_Sewing_Machine_Company \"Davis Sewing Machine Company\"), a replica of the [Wright brothers](/wiki/Wright_brothers \"Wright brothers\")' 1896 St. Clair airfoil test bicycle, and an 1896 \"Zimmy\" named after [Arthur Augustus Zimmerman](/wiki/Arthur_Augustus_Zimmerman \"Arthur Augustus Zimmerman\"), a [racing bicyclist](/wiki/Road_bicycle_racing \"Road bicycle racing\") known for his rapid pedaling speed.", "### Vintage bicycles", "The museum has an early 1900s [Harley\\-Davidson bicycle](/wiki/Harley-Davidson%23World_War_I \"Harley-Davidson#World War I\") with a sidecar, a yellow and blue 1949 [Donald Duck](/wiki/Donald_Duck \"Donald Duck\") bike by the [Shelby Cycle Company](/wiki/Shelby_Cycle_Company \"Shelby Cycle Company\") with a Donald Duck head on the front and a horn that quacks, a 1955 [Huffy RadioBike](/wiki/Huffy%23Post-War_History \"Huffy#Post-War History\") which has a working radio built into the frame with volume\\-control and tuning dials, and a dozen colorful 1960s banana\\-seat [Sting Rays](/wiki/Sting_Ray_%28bicycle%29 \"Sting Ray (bicycle)\").", "### Celebrity bicycles", "The collection includes one of the modified 1953 Schwinn DX bikes from the 1985 film *[Pee\\-wee's Big Adventure](/wiki/Pee-wee%27s_Big_Adventure \"Pee-wee's Big Adventure\")*, and four bicycles from [Robin Williams](/wiki/Robin_Williams \"Robin Williams\")' collection — a 1992 high\\-tech [Zipp bike](/wiki/Zipp \"Zipp\") and a white\\-with\\-polkadots La Carrera Futura 2000\\. A shaft\\-drive Elgin proto\\-type that was owned by Jesse James, and a mountain bike owned by Mickey Mantle are also on display.", "" ]
Tools ----- ### Operators Houdini's procedural nature is found in its operators. Digital assets are generally constructed by connecting sequences of operators (or **OPs**). This proceduralism has several advantages: it allows users to construct highly detailed geometric or organic objects in comparatively very few steps; it enables and encourages non\-linear development; and new operators can be created in terms of existing operators, a flexible alternative to non\-procedural scripting often relied on in other packages for customisation. Houdini uses this procedural generation in production of [textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping "Texture mapping"), [shaders](/wiki/Shader "Shader"), [particles](/wiki/Particle_system "Particle system"), "channel data" (data used to drive animation), [rendering](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 "Rendering (computer graphics)") and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing "Compositing"). Houdini's operator\-based structure is divided into several main groups: * OBJs – nodes that pass transform information (Traditionally these contain SOPs.) * SOPs – Surface Operators – for procedural modelling. * POPs – Particle Operators – used to manipulate [particles systems](/wiki/Particle_system "Particle system"). * CHOPs – Channel Operators – for procedural animation and audio manipulation. * COPs – Composite Operators – used to perform compositing on footages. * DOPs – Dynamic Operators – for dynamic simulations for fluids, cloth, rigid body interaction etc. * SHOPs – Shading Operator – for representing a dozen or more different shading types for several different renderers. * ROPs – [render](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 "Rendering (computer graphics)") operators – for building networks to represent different render passes and render dependencies. * VOPs – VEX operators – for building nodes of any of the above types using a highly optimized SIMD architecture. * TOPs \- Task Operators{{Cite web\|url\=https://vimeo.com/322225534\|title\=Houdini 17\.5 Launch Event\|date\=8 March 2019}} * LOPs \- Lighting Operators \- for generating USD describing characters, props, lighting, and rendering. Operators are connected together in networks. Data flows through, manipulated by each operator in turn. This data could represent 3D [geometry](/wiki/Geometry "Geometry"), [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap "Bitmap") images, particles, [dynamics](/wiki/Dynamics_%28mechanics%29 "Dynamics (mechanics)"), [shader](/wiki/Shader "Shader") [algorithms](/wiki/Algorithm "Algorithm"), [animation](/wiki/Animation "Animation"), [audio](/wiki/Sound "Sound"), or a combination of these. This [node graph architecture](/wiki/Node_graph_architecture "Node graph architecture") is similar to that employed in node\-based [compositors](/wiki/Compositing_software "Compositing software") such as [Shake](/wiki/Shake_%28software%29 "Shake (software)") or [Nuke](/wiki/Nuke_%28software%29 "Nuke (software)"). Complex networks can be grouped into a single [meta\-operator](/wiki/Meta-operator "Meta-operator") node which behaves like a class definition, and can be instantiated in other networks like any compiled node. In this way users can create their own sophisticated tools without the need for programming. In this way Houdini can be regarded as a highly interactive visual programming toolkit which makes programming more accessible to artists. Houdini's set of tools are mostly implemented as operators. This has led to a higher learning curve than other comparable tools. It is one thing to know what all the nodes do – but the key to success with Houdini is understanding how to represent a desired creative outcome as a network of nodes. Successful users are generally familiar with a large repertoire of networks (algorithms) which achieve standard creative outcomes. The overhead involved in acquiring this repertoire of algorithms is offset by the artistic and algorithmic flexibility afforded by access to lower level building blocks with which to configure shot element creation routines. In large productions, the development of a procedural network to solve a specific element creation challenge makes automation trivial. Many studios that use Houdini on large feature effects, and feature animation projects develop libraries of procedures that can be used to automate generation of many of the elements for that film with almost no artist interaction. Also unique to Houdini is the range of [I/O](/wiki/Input/output "Input/output") **OPs** available to animators, including [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI "MIDI") devices, raw files or [TCP](/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol "Transmission Control Protocol") connections, audio devices (including built\-in [phoneme](/wiki/Phoneme "Phoneme") and [pitch](/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29 "Pitch (music)") detection), [mouse](/wiki/Mouse_%28computing%29 "Mouse (computing)") [cursor](/wiki/Cursor_%28computers%29 "Cursor (computers)") position, and so on. Of particular note is Houdini's ability to work with audio, including sound and music synthesis and spatial 3D sound processing tools. These operators exist in the context called "CHOPs" for which Side Effects won a Technical Achievement Academy Award in 2002\. VEX (Vector Expression) is one of Houdini's internal languages. It is similar to the [Renderman Shading Language](/wiki/Renderman_Shading_Language "Renderman Shading Language"). Using VEX a user can develop custom SOPs, POPs, shaders, etc. The current implementation of VEX utilizes [SIMD](/wiki/SIMD "SIMD")\-style processing.
[ "Tools\n-----", "### Operators", "Houdini's procedural nature is found in its operators. Digital assets are generally constructed by connecting sequences of operators (or **OPs**). This proceduralism has several advantages: it allows users to construct highly detailed geometric or organic objects in comparatively very few steps; it enables and encourages non\\-linear development; and new operators can be created in terms of existing operators, a flexible alternative to non\\-procedural scripting often relied on in other packages for customisation. Houdini uses this procedural generation in production of [textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\"), [shaders](/wiki/Shader \"Shader\"), [particles](/wiki/Particle_system \"Particle system\"), \"channel data\" (data used to drive animation), [rendering](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Rendering (computer graphics)\") and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing \"Compositing\").", "Houdini's operator\\-based structure is divided into several main groups:\n* OBJs – nodes that pass transform information (Traditionally these contain SOPs.)\n* SOPs – Surface Operators – for procedural modelling.\n* POPs – Particle Operators – used to manipulate [particles systems](/wiki/Particle_system \"Particle system\").\n* CHOPs – Channel Operators – for procedural animation and audio manipulation.\n* COPs – Composite Operators – used to perform compositing on footages.\n* DOPs – Dynamic Operators – for dynamic simulations for fluids, cloth, rigid body interaction etc.\n* SHOPs – Shading Operator – for representing a dozen or more different shading types for several different renderers.\n* ROPs – [render](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Rendering (computer graphics)\") operators – for building networks to represent different render passes and render dependencies.\n* VOPs – VEX operators – for building nodes of any of the above types using a highly optimized SIMD architecture.\n* TOPs \\- Task Operators{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://vimeo.com/322225534\\|title\\=Houdini 17\\.5 Launch Event\\|date\\=8 March 2019}}\n* LOPs \\- Lighting Operators \\- for generating USD describing characters, props, lighting, and rendering.", "Operators are connected together in networks. Data flows through, manipulated by each operator in turn. This data could represent 3D [geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\"), [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\") images, particles, [dynamics](/wiki/Dynamics_%28mechanics%29 \"Dynamics (mechanics)\"), [shader](/wiki/Shader \"Shader\") [algorithms](/wiki/Algorithm \"Algorithm\"), [animation](/wiki/Animation \"Animation\"), [audio](/wiki/Sound \"Sound\"), or a combination of these. This [node graph architecture](/wiki/Node_graph_architecture \"Node graph architecture\") is similar to that employed in node\\-based [compositors](/wiki/Compositing_software \"Compositing software\") such as [Shake](/wiki/Shake_%28software%29 \"Shake (software)\") or [Nuke](/wiki/Nuke_%28software%29 \"Nuke (software)\").", "Complex networks can be grouped into a single [meta\\-operator](/wiki/Meta-operator \"Meta-operator\") node which behaves like a class definition, and can be instantiated in other networks like any compiled node. In this way users can create their own sophisticated tools without the need for programming. In this way Houdini can be regarded as a highly interactive visual programming toolkit which makes programming more accessible to artists.", "Houdini's set of tools are mostly implemented as operators. This has led to a higher learning curve than other comparable tools. It is one thing to know what all the nodes do – but the key to success with Houdini is understanding how to represent a desired creative outcome as a network of nodes. Successful users are generally familiar with a large repertoire of networks (algorithms) which achieve standard creative outcomes. The overhead involved in acquiring this repertoire of algorithms is offset by the artistic and algorithmic flexibility afforded by access to lower level building blocks with which to configure shot element creation routines. In large productions, the development of a procedural network to solve a specific element creation challenge makes automation trivial. Many studios that use Houdini on large feature effects, and feature animation projects develop libraries of procedures that can be used to automate generation of many of the elements for that film with almost no artist interaction.", "Also unique to Houdini is the range of [I/O](/wiki/Input/output \"Input/output\") **OPs** available to animators, including [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI \"MIDI\") devices, raw files or [TCP](/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol \"Transmission Control Protocol\") connections, audio devices (including built\\-in [phoneme](/wiki/Phoneme \"Phoneme\") and [pitch](/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29 \"Pitch (music)\") detection), [mouse](/wiki/Mouse_%28computing%29 \"Mouse (computing)\") [cursor](/wiki/Cursor_%28computers%29 \"Cursor (computers)\") position, and so on. Of particular note is Houdini's ability to work with audio, including sound and music synthesis and spatial 3D sound processing tools. These operators exist in the context called \"CHOPs\" for which Side Effects won a Technical Achievement Academy Award in 2002\\.", "VEX (Vector Expression) is one of Houdini's internal languages. It is similar to the [Renderman Shading Language](/wiki/Renderman_Shading_Language \"Renderman Shading Language\"). Using VEX a user can develop custom SOPs, POPs, shaders, etc. The current implementation of VEX utilizes [SIMD](/wiki/SIMD \"SIMD\")\\-style processing.", "" ]
### Operators Houdini's procedural nature is found in its operators. Digital assets are generally constructed by connecting sequences of operators (or **OPs**). This proceduralism has several advantages: it allows users to construct highly detailed geometric or organic objects in comparatively very few steps; it enables and encourages non\-linear development; and new operators can be created in terms of existing operators, a flexible alternative to non\-procedural scripting often relied on in other packages for customisation. Houdini uses this procedural generation in production of [textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping "Texture mapping"), [shaders](/wiki/Shader "Shader"), [particles](/wiki/Particle_system "Particle system"), "channel data" (data used to drive animation), [rendering](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 "Rendering (computer graphics)") and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing "Compositing"). Houdini's operator\-based structure is divided into several main groups: * OBJs – nodes that pass transform information (Traditionally these contain SOPs.) * SOPs – Surface Operators – for procedural modelling. * POPs – Particle Operators – used to manipulate [particles systems](/wiki/Particle_system "Particle system"). * CHOPs – Channel Operators – for procedural animation and audio manipulation. * COPs – Composite Operators – used to perform compositing on footages. * DOPs – Dynamic Operators – for dynamic simulations for fluids, cloth, rigid body interaction etc. * SHOPs – Shading Operator – for representing a dozen or more different shading types for several different renderers. * ROPs – [render](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 "Rendering (computer graphics)") operators – for building networks to represent different render passes and render dependencies. * VOPs – VEX operators – for building nodes of any of the above types using a highly optimized SIMD architecture. * TOPs \- Task Operators{{Cite web\|url\=https://vimeo.com/322225534\|title\=Houdini 17\.5 Launch Event\|date\=8 March 2019}} * LOPs \- Lighting Operators \- for generating USD describing characters, props, lighting, and rendering. Operators are connected together in networks. Data flows through, manipulated by each operator in turn. This data could represent 3D [geometry](/wiki/Geometry "Geometry"), [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap "Bitmap") images, particles, [dynamics](/wiki/Dynamics_%28mechanics%29 "Dynamics (mechanics)"), [shader](/wiki/Shader "Shader") [algorithms](/wiki/Algorithm "Algorithm"), [animation](/wiki/Animation "Animation"), [audio](/wiki/Sound "Sound"), or a combination of these. This [node graph architecture](/wiki/Node_graph_architecture "Node graph architecture") is similar to that employed in node\-based [compositors](/wiki/Compositing_software "Compositing software") such as [Shake](/wiki/Shake_%28software%29 "Shake (software)") or [Nuke](/wiki/Nuke_%28software%29 "Nuke (software)"). Complex networks can be grouped into a single [meta\-operator](/wiki/Meta-operator "Meta-operator") node which behaves like a class definition, and can be instantiated in other networks like any compiled node. In this way users can create their own sophisticated tools without the need for programming. In this way Houdini can be regarded as a highly interactive visual programming toolkit which makes programming more accessible to artists. Houdini's set of tools are mostly implemented as operators. This has led to a higher learning curve than other comparable tools. It is one thing to know what all the nodes do – but the key to success with Houdini is understanding how to represent a desired creative outcome as a network of nodes. Successful users are generally familiar with a large repertoire of networks (algorithms) which achieve standard creative outcomes. The overhead involved in acquiring this repertoire of algorithms is offset by the artistic and algorithmic flexibility afforded by access to lower level building blocks with which to configure shot element creation routines. In large productions, the development of a procedural network to solve a specific element creation challenge makes automation trivial. Many studios that use Houdini on large feature effects, and feature animation projects develop libraries of procedures that can be used to automate generation of many of the elements for that film with almost no artist interaction. Also unique to Houdini is the range of [I/O](/wiki/Input/output "Input/output") **OPs** available to animators, including [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI "MIDI") devices, raw files or [TCP](/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol "Transmission Control Protocol") connections, audio devices (including built\-in [phoneme](/wiki/Phoneme "Phoneme") and [pitch](/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29 "Pitch (music)") detection), [mouse](/wiki/Mouse_%28computing%29 "Mouse (computing)") [cursor](/wiki/Cursor_%28computers%29 "Cursor (computers)") position, and so on. Of particular note is Houdini's ability to work with audio, including sound and music synthesis and spatial 3D sound processing tools. These operators exist in the context called "CHOPs" for which Side Effects won a Technical Achievement Academy Award in 2002\. VEX (Vector Expression) is one of Houdini's internal languages. It is similar to the [Renderman Shading Language](/wiki/Renderman_Shading_Language "Renderman Shading Language"). Using VEX a user can develop custom SOPs, POPs, shaders, etc. The current implementation of VEX utilizes [SIMD](/wiki/SIMD "SIMD")\-style processing.
[ "### Operators", "Houdini's procedural nature is found in its operators. Digital assets are generally constructed by connecting sequences of operators (or **OPs**). This proceduralism has several advantages: it allows users to construct highly detailed geometric or organic objects in comparatively very few steps; it enables and encourages non\\-linear development; and new operators can be created in terms of existing operators, a flexible alternative to non\\-procedural scripting often relied on in other packages for customisation. Houdini uses this procedural generation in production of [textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\"), [shaders](/wiki/Shader \"Shader\"), [particles](/wiki/Particle_system \"Particle system\"), \"channel data\" (data used to drive animation), [rendering](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Rendering (computer graphics)\") and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing \"Compositing\").", "Houdini's operator\\-based structure is divided into several main groups:\n* OBJs – nodes that pass transform information (Traditionally these contain SOPs.)\n* SOPs – Surface Operators – for procedural modelling.\n* POPs – Particle Operators – used to manipulate [particles systems](/wiki/Particle_system \"Particle system\").\n* CHOPs – Channel Operators – for procedural animation and audio manipulation.\n* COPs – Composite Operators – used to perform compositing on footages.\n* DOPs – Dynamic Operators – for dynamic simulations for fluids, cloth, rigid body interaction etc.\n* SHOPs – Shading Operator – for representing a dozen or more different shading types for several different renderers.\n* ROPs – [render](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Rendering (computer graphics)\") operators – for building networks to represent different render passes and render dependencies.\n* VOPs – VEX operators – for building nodes of any of the above types using a highly optimized SIMD architecture.\n* TOPs \\- Task Operators{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://vimeo.com/322225534\\|title\\=Houdini 17\\.5 Launch Event\\|date\\=8 March 2019}}\n* LOPs \\- Lighting Operators \\- for generating USD describing characters, props, lighting, and rendering.", "Operators are connected together in networks. Data flows through, manipulated by each operator in turn. This data could represent 3D [geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\"), [bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\") images, particles, [dynamics](/wiki/Dynamics_%28mechanics%29 \"Dynamics (mechanics)\"), [shader](/wiki/Shader \"Shader\") [algorithms](/wiki/Algorithm \"Algorithm\"), [animation](/wiki/Animation \"Animation\"), [audio](/wiki/Sound \"Sound\"), or a combination of these. This [node graph architecture](/wiki/Node_graph_architecture \"Node graph architecture\") is similar to that employed in node\\-based [compositors](/wiki/Compositing_software \"Compositing software\") such as [Shake](/wiki/Shake_%28software%29 \"Shake (software)\") or [Nuke](/wiki/Nuke_%28software%29 \"Nuke (software)\").", "Complex networks can be grouped into a single [meta\\-operator](/wiki/Meta-operator \"Meta-operator\") node which behaves like a class definition, and can be instantiated in other networks like any compiled node. In this way users can create their own sophisticated tools without the need for programming. In this way Houdini can be regarded as a highly interactive visual programming toolkit which makes programming more accessible to artists.", "Houdini's set of tools are mostly implemented as operators. This has led to a higher learning curve than other comparable tools. It is one thing to know what all the nodes do – but the key to success with Houdini is understanding how to represent a desired creative outcome as a network of nodes. Successful users are generally familiar with a large repertoire of networks (algorithms) which achieve standard creative outcomes. The overhead involved in acquiring this repertoire of algorithms is offset by the artistic and algorithmic flexibility afforded by access to lower level building blocks with which to configure shot element creation routines. In large productions, the development of a procedural network to solve a specific element creation challenge makes automation trivial. Many studios that use Houdini on large feature effects, and feature animation projects develop libraries of procedures that can be used to automate generation of many of the elements for that film with almost no artist interaction.", "Also unique to Houdini is the range of [I/O](/wiki/Input/output \"Input/output\") **OPs** available to animators, including [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI \"MIDI\") devices, raw files or [TCP](/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol \"Transmission Control Protocol\") connections, audio devices (including built\\-in [phoneme](/wiki/Phoneme \"Phoneme\") and [pitch](/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29 \"Pitch (music)\") detection), [mouse](/wiki/Mouse_%28computing%29 \"Mouse (computing)\") [cursor](/wiki/Cursor_%28computers%29 \"Cursor (computers)\") position, and so on. Of particular note is Houdini's ability to work with audio, including sound and music synthesis and spatial 3D sound processing tools. These operators exist in the context called \"CHOPs\" for which Side Effects won a Technical Achievement Academy Award in 2002\\.", "VEX (Vector Expression) is one of Houdini's internal languages. It is similar to the [Renderman Shading Language](/wiki/Renderman_Shading_Language \"Renderman Shading Language\"). Using VEX a user can develop custom SOPs, POPs, shaders, etc. The current implementation of VEX utilizes [SIMD](/wiki/SIMD \"SIMD\")\\-style processing.", "" ]
History ------- Maccabi Netanya Football Club was founded in 1934 and initially played in green and white stripes. The club played their first game against [Beitar Netanya](/wiki/Beitar_Netanya "Beitar Netanya") in 1935 at the Maccabi stadium, which was located in the center of the city. The club's first season was in 1935–36 when they played in [Liga Gimel](/wiki/Liga_Gimel "Liga Gimel") which back then was the third tier in Israeli football. After three seasons in Liga Gimel the club won promotion to [Liga Bet](/wiki/Liga_Bet "Liga Bet") (second tier), and in the 1941–42 season they won Liga Bet to secure promotion to the top division which back then was known as the [Palestine League](/wiki/Palestine_League "Palestine League"). During the early to mid 1940s, a number of British players who served in military bases near Netanya played for the club. The most famous were [Bertie Mee](/wiki/Bertie_Mee "Bertie Mee") and [Tom Finney](/wiki/Tom_Finney "Tom Finney"), who were the first foreigners to play for the club. The [1943–44 season](/wiki/1943%E2%80%9344_Palestine_League "1943–44 Palestine League") of the Palestine League was the first season that Maccabi Netanya played a full season in the top tier of football in the country, they finished the season in the sixth place. During the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War "1948 Arab–Israeli War"), four of the club's players were killed – Israel Arbaitman, Yehuda Blecher, Haim Goldstein, David Liebster and coach Baruch Feuer. After the establishment of the State of Israel, Maccabi Netanya was among the 13 teams that formed the senior league in Israel. In the [1949–50 season](/wiki/1949%E2%80%9350_Israeli_League "1949–50 Israeli League"), Netanya finished in ninth place. In 1954 the club qualified for the [Israel State Cup](/wiki/1953%E2%80%9354_Israel_State_Cup "1953–54 Israel State Cup") for the first time and the next season the club finished in fourth place in the league. After two rather successful seasons, the club had to fight against relegation in the [1955\-56 season](/wiki/1955%E2%80%9356_Liga_Leumit "1955–56 Liga Leumit"). Netanya managed to get back in the top of table in the [1957–58 season](/wiki/1957%E2%80%9358_Liga_Leumit "1957–58 Liga Leumit") as they finished fourth again. In the [1961–62 season](/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_Liga_Leumit "1961–62 Liga Leumit"), after a few years in the bottom of the league, the club got relegated to the second division after finishing 12th and final in the league. Netanya played two seasons in [Liga Alef](/wiki/Liga_Alef "Liga Alef") until in the end of the [1963–64 season](/wiki/1963%E2%80%9364_Liga_Alef "1963–64 Liga Alef") when they won the league and got promoted back to the top division. With the return of the team to [Liga Leumit](/wiki/Liga_Leumit "Liga Leumit"), the team joined the top ranks, with [Mordechai Spiegler](/wiki/Mordechai_Spiegler "Mordechai Spiegler") playing in its ranks. Spiegler finished three consecutive seasons as the top scorer of the league. In the [1968–69 season](/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Liga_Leumit "1968–69 Liga Leumit"), the team finished third in the league with Spiegler again as the top scorer. After the third\-placed finish in 1968–69, the [1970–71 season](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1970-71 "Liga Leumit 1970-71") saw Netanya win their first title by a margin of eleven points, back then the largest in Israeli football history. They also reached the State Cup final, but lost 2–1 to Maccabi Tel Aviv.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/isracuphist.html\|website\=\[\[RSSSF]]\|title\=Israel – List of Cup Finals}} In [1972–73](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1972-73 "Liga Leumit 1972-73") Neyanya finished thirteenth in Liga Leumit, avoiding relegation by only two points. However, the [following season](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1973-74 "Liga Leumit 1973-74") they won their second title. In 1975 they changed their kit to play in black and yellow. They won a third title in [1977–78](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1977-78 "Liga Leumit 1977-78"), and completed the double by beating [Bnei Yehuda](/wiki/Bnei_Yehuda_Tel_Aviv_F.C. "Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv F.C.") 2–1 in the State Cup final. They also finished as winners of their group in the [UEFA Intertoto Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup "UEFA Intertoto Cup"). A fourth championship was won in [1979–80](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1979-80 "Liga Leumit 1979-80") by a margin of ten points, whilst their fifth title, in [1982–83](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1982-83 "Liga Leumit 1982-83") was won by a fourteen\-point margin.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/israhist.html\|website\=\[\[RSSSF]]\|title\=Israel – List of Final Tables}} In the same season they won the [League Cup](/wiki/Toto_Cup "Toto Cup"), a feat repeated the following year. In 1986–87 and 1988–89 they reached the League Cup final, but lost on both occasions. In [1994–95](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1994-95 "Liga Leumit 1994-95") Netanya finished bottom of Liga Leumit and were relegated to [Liga Artzit](/wiki/Liga_Artzit "Liga Artzit"), in the same season the youth team won the [youth championship](/wiki/Israeli_Noar_Leumit_League "Israeli Noar Leumit League"). After winning the league in [1998–99](/wiki/Liga_Artzit_1998-99 "Liga Artzit 1998-99") they returned to the top division. However, they were relegated again in [2003–04](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League_2003-04 "Israeli Premier League 2003-04") after finishing second from bottom, though they made an immediate return to the top division after finishing as Liga Leumuit runners\-up in [2004–05](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_2004-05 "Liga Leumit 2004-05"), a season in which they also won the [Toto Cup](/wiki/Toto_Cup "Toto Cup") Leumit. In December 2005 [Daniel Jammer](/wiki/Daniel_Jammer "Daniel Jammer"), a Jewish German businessman bought the club for a fee of $1,500,000\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L\-3188093,00\.html\|title\=סופית: יאמר רכש את מכבי נתניה; ישלם 1\.5 מיליון דולר\|date\=21 December 2005\|newspaper\=Ynet \|last1\=גנור \|first1\=תומר }} In [2006–07](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League_2006-07 "Israeli Premier League 2006-07") the club finished as Premier League runners\-up, a feat repeated the following season. In April 2008 [Lothar Matthäus](/wiki/Lothar_Matth%C3%A4us "Lothar Matthäus") was appointed manager. Although the club led the league in the early part of the [2008–09 season](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League_2008%E2%80%9309 "Israeli Premier League 2008–09"), they eventually finished fourth and Matthäus was sacked and replaced by [Nati Azaria](/wiki/Nati_Azaria "Nati Azaria"). The [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Israeli_Premier_League "2010–11 Israeli Premier League") saw the club finishing sixth in the top playoff games. The next season Netanya finished in fourth place when they shared the same number of points as the runners\-up. This was quite an achievement considering the fact that the club did not have a stable budget behind them or an owner to invest in the club. They were relegated again in [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Israeli_Premier_League "2012–13 Israeli Premier League") after finishing second from bottom. In August 2013 Eli Segav and Yossi Maor took over as the new owners of the club. Netanya made an immediate return to the top division after finishing as the champions of Liga Leumuit in the [2013–14 season](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Liga_Leumit "2013–14 Liga Leumit"), a season in which they also reached the State Cup final, losing 1–0 to [Ironi Kiryat Shmona](/wiki/Hapoel_Ironi_Kiryat_Shmona_F.C. "Hapoel Ironi Kiryat Shmona F.C.") in front of more than 22,000 supporters of Netanya.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.israelhayom.co.il/article/180425 \|title\=עירוני ק"ש זכתה בגביע המדינה \| ישראל היום \|access\-date\=11 May 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513002524/http://www.israelhayom.co.il/article/180425 \|archive\-date\=13 May 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }} The club got relegated again at the end of the 2015–16 season.{{Cite web\|url\=https://sports.walla.co.il/item/2948932\|title\=ליגת העל: מכבי נתניה הפסידה 2:0 לעירוני קרית שמונה וירדה רשמית ללאומית\|date\=2 April 2016\|website\=Sports.walla.co.il}} This season is regarded as the worst season the club has ever had in the first tier of Israeli football and most have said it was the worst in the history of the club.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.one.co.il/Article/266679\.html\|title\=הזרים של נתניה הודיעו: לא נמשיך בתום העונה\|website\=One.co.il\|date\=5 March 2016 }} Doron Osidon was appointed the chairman of the club by the mayor of Netanya. [Shlomi Dora](/wiki/Shlomi_Dora "Shlomi Dora") was signed as the manager of the club. At the start of the season five players got severely injured (including the main goalscorer and captain [Eran Levy](/wiki/Eran_Levy "Eran Levy")) which caused for many problems. Dora got sacked after the club did not do well, [Reuven Atar](/wiki/Reuven_Atar "Reuven Atar") got called to replace him. After three months of no real change and barely winning any points, Atar was sacked as well. [Guy Tzarfati](/wiki/Guy_Tzarfati "Guy Tzarfati") was called up to be the caretaker manager and after he lost a State Cup game against [Sektzia Nes Tziona](/wiki/Sektzia_Nes_Tziona_F.C. "Sektzia Nes Tziona F.C.") of the third division he was sacked and was replaced by [Meni Koretski](/wiki/Meni_Koretski "Meni Koretski") who could not save the sinking ship. Koretski decided to quit on 26 March.{{Cite web\|url\=https://sports.walla.co.il/item/2946994\|title\=מנחם קורצקי התפטר ממכבי נתניה: "המאבקים הפנימיים השפיעו". פיירברג לועגת\|date\=27 March 2016\|website\=Sports.walla.co.il}} [Omer Peretz](/wiki/Omer_Peretz "Omer Peretz") who retired at the start of the season (after he was one of the players that got injured), became the manager of the club.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.one.co.il/Article/268358\.html\|title\=הכל חוץ מפאר: סיפור הירידה של מכבי נתניה\|website\=One.co.il\|date\=2 April 2016 }} In June 2016 Eyal Segal (a known die hard supporter of Maccabi Netanya) took over as the new owner of the club and declared the goal is to get promoted at the end of the season.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sport5\.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID\=127\&docID\=218143⟨\=HE \|title\=הבעלים של נתניה: עלייה היא לא מילה גסה \|access\-date\=27 May 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114062924/http://www.sport5\.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID\=127\&docID\=218143⟨\=HE \|archive\-date\=14 November 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }} The club started the [2016\-17 season](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Liga_Leumit "2016–17 Liga Leumit") with a deduction of 9 points, but still managed to do the unthinkable as they got promoted back to the top flight of Israeli football as the Leumit champions.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.one.co.il/Article/290529\.html\|title\=עונה אחת ודי: מכבי נתניה עלתה לליגת העל\|website\=One.co.il\|date\=28 April 2017 }} In the 2018–19 season, the club reached the State Cup [final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Israel_State_Cup "2018–19 Israel State Cup") in a replay of the 1978 final against Bnei Yehuda, only this time Netanya lost 4–5 in penalties. 4 years later, Netanya won the [Toto Cup](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Toto_Cup_Al "2022–23 Toto Cup Al") and reached the finals of State Cup yet again, only to lose to [Beitar Jerusalem](/wiki/Beitar_Jerusalem "Beitar Jerusalem").
[ "History\n-------", "Maccabi Netanya Football Club was founded in 1934 and initially played in green and white stripes. The club played their first game against [Beitar Netanya](/wiki/Beitar_Netanya \"Beitar Netanya\") in 1935 at the Maccabi stadium, which was located in the center of the city. The club's first season was in 1935–36 when they played in [Liga Gimel](/wiki/Liga_Gimel \"Liga Gimel\") which back then was the third tier in Israeli football. After three seasons in Liga Gimel the club won promotion to [Liga Bet](/wiki/Liga_Bet \"Liga Bet\") (second tier), and in the 1941–42 season they won Liga Bet to secure promotion to the top division which back then was known as the [Palestine League](/wiki/Palestine_League \"Palestine League\").", "During the early to mid 1940s, a number of British players who served in military bases near Netanya played for the club. The most famous were [Bertie Mee](/wiki/Bertie_Mee \"Bertie Mee\") and [Tom Finney](/wiki/Tom_Finney \"Tom Finney\"), who were the first foreigners to play for the club. The [1943–44 season](/wiki/1943%E2%80%9344_Palestine_League \"1943–44 Palestine League\") of the Palestine League was the first season that Maccabi Netanya played a full season in the top tier of football in the country, they finished the season in the sixth place. During the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War \"1948 Arab–Israeli War\"), four of the club's players were killed – Israel Arbaitman, Yehuda Blecher, Haim Goldstein, David Liebster and coach Baruch Feuer.", "After the establishment of the State of Israel, Maccabi Netanya was among the 13 teams that formed the senior league in Israel. In the [1949–50 season](/wiki/1949%E2%80%9350_Israeli_League \"1949–50 Israeli League\"), Netanya finished in ninth place. In 1954 the club qualified for the [Israel State Cup](/wiki/1953%E2%80%9354_Israel_State_Cup \"1953–54 Israel State Cup\") for the first time and the next season the club finished in fourth place in the league. After two rather successful seasons, the club had to fight against relegation in the [1955\\-56 season](/wiki/1955%E2%80%9356_Liga_Leumit \"1955–56 Liga Leumit\"). Netanya managed to get back in the top of table in the [1957–58 season](/wiki/1957%E2%80%9358_Liga_Leumit \"1957–58 Liga Leumit\") as they finished fourth again. In the [1961–62 season](/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_Liga_Leumit \"1961–62 Liga Leumit\"), after a few years in the bottom of the league, the club got relegated to the second division after finishing 12th and final in the league. Netanya played two seasons in [Liga Alef](/wiki/Liga_Alef \"Liga Alef\") until in the end of the [1963–64 season](/wiki/1963%E2%80%9364_Liga_Alef \"1963–64 Liga Alef\") when they won the league and got promoted back to the top division. With the return of the team to [Liga Leumit](/wiki/Liga_Leumit \"Liga Leumit\"), the team joined the top ranks, with [Mordechai Spiegler](/wiki/Mordechai_Spiegler \"Mordechai Spiegler\") playing in its ranks. Spiegler finished three consecutive seasons as the top scorer of the league. In the [1968–69 season](/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Liga_Leumit \"1968–69 Liga Leumit\"), the team finished third in the league with Spiegler again as the top scorer.", "After the third\\-placed finish in 1968–69, the [1970–71 season](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1970-71 \"Liga Leumit 1970-71\") saw Netanya win their first title by a margin of eleven points, back then the largest in Israeli football history. They also reached the State Cup final, but lost 2–1 to Maccabi Tel Aviv.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/isracuphist.html\\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]]\\|title\\=Israel – List of Cup Finals}} In [1972–73](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1972-73 \"Liga Leumit 1972-73\") Neyanya finished thirteenth in Liga Leumit, avoiding relegation by only two points. However, the [following season](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1973-74 \"Liga Leumit 1973-74\") they won their second title. In 1975 they changed their kit to play in black and yellow. They won a third title in [1977–78](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1977-78 \"Liga Leumit 1977-78\"), and completed the double by beating [Bnei Yehuda](/wiki/Bnei_Yehuda_Tel_Aviv_F.C. \"Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv F.C.\") 2–1 in the State Cup final. They also finished as winners of their group in the [UEFA Intertoto Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Intertoto_Cup \"UEFA Intertoto Cup\"). A fourth championship was won in [1979–80](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1979-80 \"Liga Leumit 1979-80\") by a margin of ten points, whilst their fifth title, in [1982–83](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1982-83 \"Liga Leumit 1982-83\") was won by a fourteen\\-point margin.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/israhist.html\\|website\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]]\\|title\\=Israel – List of Final Tables}} In the same season they won the [League Cup](/wiki/Toto_Cup \"Toto Cup\"), a feat repeated the following year. In 1986–87 and 1988–89 they reached the League Cup final, but lost on both occasions.", "In [1994–95](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_1994-95 \"Liga Leumit 1994-95\") Netanya finished bottom of Liga Leumit and were relegated to [Liga Artzit](/wiki/Liga_Artzit \"Liga Artzit\"), in the same season the youth team won the [youth championship](/wiki/Israeli_Noar_Leumit_League \"Israeli Noar Leumit League\"). After winning the league in [1998–99](/wiki/Liga_Artzit_1998-99 \"Liga Artzit 1998-99\") they returned to the top division. However, they were relegated again in [2003–04](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League_2003-04 \"Israeli Premier League 2003-04\") after finishing second from bottom, though they made an immediate return to the top division after finishing as Liga Leumuit runners\\-up in [2004–05](/wiki/Liga_Leumit_2004-05 \"Liga Leumit 2004-05\"), a season in which they also won the [Toto Cup](/wiki/Toto_Cup \"Toto Cup\") Leumit.", "In December 2005 [Daniel Jammer](/wiki/Daniel_Jammer \"Daniel Jammer\"), a Jewish German businessman bought the club for a fee of $1,500,000\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L\\-3188093,00\\.html\\|title\\=סופית: יאמר רכש את מכבי נתניה; ישלם 1\\.5 מיליון דולר\\|date\\=21 December 2005\\|newspaper\\=Ynet \\|last1\\=גנור \\|first1\\=תומר }} In [2006–07](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League_2006-07 \"Israeli Premier League 2006-07\") the club finished as Premier League runners\\-up, a feat repeated the following season. In April 2008 [Lothar Matthäus](/wiki/Lothar_Matth%C3%A4us \"Lothar Matthäus\") was appointed manager. Although the club led the league in the early part of the [2008–09 season](/wiki/Israeli_Premier_League_2008%E2%80%9309 \"Israeli Premier League 2008–09\"), they eventually finished fourth and Matthäus was sacked and replaced by [Nati Azaria](/wiki/Nati_Azaria \"Nati Azaria\").", "The [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Israeli_Premier_League \"2010–11 Israeli Premier League\") saw the club finishing sixth in the top playoff games. The next season Netanya finished in fourth place when they shared the same number of points as the runners\\-up. This was quite an achievement considering the fact that the club did not have a stable budget behind them or an owner to invest in the club. They were relegated again in [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Israeli_Premier_League \"2012–13 Israeli Premier League\") after finishing second from bottom.", "In August 2013 Eli Segav and Yossi Maor took over as the new owners of the club. Netanya made an immediate return to the top division after finishing as the champions of Liga Leumuit in the [2013–14 season](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Liga_Leumit \"2013–14 Liga Leumit\"), a season in which they also reached the State Cup final, losing 1–0 to [Ironi Kiryat Shmona](/wiki/Hapoel_Ironi_Kiryat_Shmona_F.C. \"Hapoel Ironi Kiryat Shmona F.C.\") in front of more than 22,000 supporters of Netanya.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.israelhayom.co.il/article/180425 \\|title\\=עירוני ק\"ש זכתה בגביע המדינה \\| ישראל היום \\|access\\-date\\=11 May 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513002524/http://www.israelhayom.co.il/article/180425 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 May 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "The club got relegated again at the end of the 2015–16 season.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://sports.walla.co.il/item/2948932\\|title\\=ליגת העל: מכבי נתניה הפסידה 2:0 לעירוני קרית שמונה וירדה רשמית ללאומית\\|date\\=2 April 2016\\|website\\=Sports.walla.co.il}} This season is regarded as the worst season the club has ever had in the first tier of Israeli football and most have said it was the worst in the history of the club.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.one.co.il/Article/266679\\.html\\|title\\=הזרים של נתניה הודיעו: לא נמשיך בתום העונה\\|website\\=One.co.il\\|date\\=5 March 2016 }} Doron Osidon was appointed the chairman of the club by the mayor of Netanya. [Shlomi Dora](/wiki/Shlomi_Dora \"Shlomi Dora\") was signed as the manager of the club. At the start of the season five players got severely injured (including the main goalscorer and captain [Eran Levy](/wiki/Eran_Levy \"Eran Levy\")) which caused for many problems. Dora got sacked after the club did not do well, [Reuven Atar](/wiki/Reuven_Atar \"Reuven Atar\") got called to replace him. After three months of no real change and barely winning any points, Atar was sacked as well. [Guy Tzarfati](/wiki/Guy_Tzarfati \"Guy Tzarfati\") was called up to be the caretaker manager and after he lost a State Cup game against [Sektzia Nes Tziona](/wiki/Sektzia_Nes_Tziona_F.C. \"Sektzia Nes Tziona F.C.\") of the third division he was sacked and was replaced by [Meni Koretski](/wiki/Meni_Koretski \"Meni Koretski\") who could not save the sinking ship. Koretski decided to quit on 26 March.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://sports.walla.co.il/item/2946994\\|title\\=מנחם קורצקי התפטר ממכבי נתניה: \"המאבקים הפנימיים השפיעו\". פיירברג לועגת\\|date\\=27 March 2016\\|website\\=Sports.walla.co.il}} [Omer Peretz](/wiki/Omer_Peretz \"Omer Peretz\") who retired at the start of the season (after he was one of the players that got injured), became the manager of the club.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.one.co.il/Article/268358\\.html\\|title\\=הכל חוץ מפאר: סיפור הירידה של מכבי נתניה\\|website\\=One.co.il\\|date\\=2 April 2016 }}", "In June 2016 Eyal Segal (a known die hard supporter of Maccabi Netanya) took over as the new owner of the club and declared the goal is to get promoted at the end of the season.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sport5\\.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID\\=127\\&docID\\=218143⟨\\=HE \\|title\\=הבעלים של נתניה: עלייה היא לא מילה גסה \\|access\\-date\\=27 May 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114062924/http://www.sport5\\.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID\\=127\\&docID\\=218143⟨\\=HE \\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The club started the [2016\\-17 season](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Liga_Leumit \"2016–17 Liga Leumit\") with a deduction of 9 points, but still managed to do the unthinkable as they got promoted back to the top flight of Israeli football as the Leumit champions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.one.co.il/Article/290529\\.html\\|title\\=עונה אחת ודי: מכבי נתניה עלתה לליגת העל\\|website\\=One.co.il\\|date\\=28 April 2017 }} In the 2018–19 season, the club reached the State Cup [final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Israel_State_Cup \"2018–19 Israel State Cup\") in a replay of the 1978 final against Bnei Yehuda, only this time Netanya lost 4–5 in penalties. 4 years later, Netanya won the [Toto Cup](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Toto_Cup_Al \"2022–23 Toto Cup Al\") and reached the finals of State Cup yet again, only to lose to [Beitar Jerusalem](/wiki/Beitar_Jerusalem \"Beitar Jerusalem\").", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1900\= 338 \|1910\= 462 \|1920\= 535 \|1930\= 704 \|1940\= 765 \|1950\= 794 \|1960\= 843 \|1970\= 844 \|1980\= 830 \|1990\= 831 \|2000\= 892 \|2010\= 784 \|2020\= 849 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|author\=United States Census Bureau\|author\-link\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=June 12, 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:46\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=Oct 15, 2022}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2012\-06\-21}} of 2010, there were 784 people, 351 households, and 212 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|901\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 384 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|441\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 97\.2% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.8% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.2% of the population. There were 351 households, of which 21\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 6\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 2\.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39\.6% were non\-families. 35\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 24\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.09 and the average family size was 2\.67\. The median age in the city was 52\.3 years. 17\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 16\.9% were from 25 to 44; 28\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 32% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45\.7% male and 54\.3% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 892 people, 350 households, and 232 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,026\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 377 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|434\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\.99% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.34% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.56% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.11% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.68% of the population. There were 350 households, out of which 30\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 4\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\.7% were non\-families. 32\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.39 and the average family size was 3\.02\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\.1% under the age of 18, 5\.4% from 18 to 24, 20\.5% from 25 to 44, 19\.7% from 45 to 64, and 29\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 87\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81\.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $36,406, and the median income for a family was $43,375\. Males had a median income of $30,417 versus $20,341 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $16,125\. About 1\.3% of families and 3\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 2\.3% of those under age 18 and 8\.8% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1900\\= 338\n\\|1910\\= 462\n\\|1920\\= 535\n\\|1930\\= 704\n\\|1940\\= 765\n\\|1950\\= 794\n\\|1960\\= 843\n\\|1970\\= 844\n\\|1980\\= 830\n\\|1990\\= 831\n\\|2000\\= 892\n\\|2010\\= 784\n\\|2020\\= 849\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|author\\=United States Census Bureau\\|author\\-link\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=June 12, 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:46\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=Oct 15, 2022}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-06\\-21}} of 2010, there were 784 people, 351 households, and 212 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|901\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 384 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|441\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 97\\.2% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.8% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.2% of the population.", "There were 351 households, of which 21\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 6\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 2\\.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39\\.6% were non\\-families. 35\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 24\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.09 and the average family size was 2\\.67\\.", "The median age in the city was 52\\.3 years. 17\\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 16\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 28\\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 32% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45\\.7% male and 54\\.3% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 892 people, 350 households, and 232 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,026\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 377 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|434\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\\.99% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.34% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.56% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.11% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.68% of the population.", "There were 350 households, out of which 30\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 4\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33\\.7% were non\\-families. 32\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.39 and the average family size was 3\\.02\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\\.1% under the age of 18, 5\\.4% from 18 to 24, 20\\.5% from 25 to 44, 19\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 29\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 87\\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81\\.5 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $36,406, and the median income for a family was $43,375\\. Males had a median income of $30,417 versus $20,341 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $16,125\\. About 1\\.3% of families and 3\\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 2\\.3% of those under age 18 and 8\\.8% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early life Richard Roach Jewell was born in 1810 in Barnstaple, Devon, England. He was trained as an architect/builder in Barnstaple in [Devonshire](/wiki/Devon "Devon"). ### Western Australia In 1852 Jewell emigrated to Western Australia to seek a more temperate climate for his frail wife. They arrived in [Fremantle, Western Australia](/wiki/Fremantle%2C_Western_Australia "Fremantle, Western Australia") on the {{ship\|\|Will Watch\|1813\|2}} on 24 February 1852\.{{Australian Dictionary of Biography\|last\=Oldham\|first\=Ray\|authorlink\=Ray Oldham (author)\|year\=1972\|id\=A040543b\|title\= Jewell, Richard Roach (1810 \- 1891\)\|accessdate\=23 August 2007}} Jewell was initially employed in the Imperial Convict Establishment, which was established to manage British convicts which had started arriving in 1850 (*see: [Convict era of Western Australia](/wiki/Convict_era_of_Western_Australia "Convict era of Western Australia")*). The Fremantle based Convict Establishment was responsible for many large constructions in the colony with an already well established design department in the offices of the Royal Engineers headed by [James Manning](/wiki/James_Manning_%28Western_Australia%29 "James Manning (Western Australia)") as Clerk of Works. Jewell soon transferred to the expanding [Department of Public Works](/wiki/Public_Works_Department%2C_Western_Australia "Public Works Department, Western Australia") based in [Perth](/wiki/Perth%2C_Western_Australia "Perth, Western Australia") and was appointed foreman in January 1853 at a salary of £150\. In a letter to family in England dated 4 February Jewell commented on his salary {{blockquote\|...I only get the £150 and no allowance for lodging, but taking into consideration the differences in prices of provisions and house rent (as it much cheaper here than at Fremantle) it makes but a few pounds a year difference. I like my situation much altho my duties call forth all my exertions to keep them well and faithfully performed.}} In the same letter Jewell wrote of his position and future aspirations; {{blockquote\|...You probably may think that I rank rather low by only being able to write at the end of my name F.P.W. Why is it, we have no clerk of works for the local Govt. and altho F.P.W I stand second in command, and first preferment, which I trust is not far distant, will then bring me to the top of the tree...}} He did not have long to wait, for in June 1853 the Superintendent of Public Works, James Austin resigned after a long\-running battle with [Governor Charles Fitzgerald](/wiki/Charles_Fitzgerald "Charles Fitzgerald") over pay and conditions. Jewell was appointed to the position at an increased salary of £175 with an additional £25 for being Superintendent of Towns. ### Superintendent of Public Works [thumb\|Pensioners' Barracks in 1905 designed by Jewell in 1863](/wiki/File:PensionerBarracks1905Perth.jpg "PensionerBarracks1905Perth.jpg") Jewell's duties initially included overseeing repairs of buildings, roads and bridges, and supervising the construction of the boys' schools in Perth and Fremantle. He was soon given the task of designing major buildings such as [Perth Gaol](/wiki/Perth_Gaol "Perth Gaol") and the court\-house. Jewell was said to have worked hard and long into the night with his book\-keeping duties. In 1853 he wrote to Governor Fitzgerald: > I have the honour to submit for the consideration and approval off His Excellency the Governor that he will be pleased to grant an allowance for candles used in writing the Public accounts done after office hours, as it is impossible to get the same performed during the day without neglecting other duties...Western Australian Museum information sheet: "The Old Perth Gaol" With the arrival of 300 convicts and ticket of leave persons, Perth had the labour necessary to commence building many substantial projects. The first of these that Jewell worked on were the Claisebrook Abattoirs, of which only drawings survive, and the Colonial School on [St Georges Terrace](/wiki/St_Georges_Terrace "St Georges Terrace") that now houses the [National Trust](/wiki/National_Trust_of_Australia "National Trust of Australia"). The Colonial School was built in two stages, the first being completed in 1854 and two wings being added in 1868 giving it a rough crucifix form. To provide for the convicts, Jewell designed the [Perth Gaol](/wiki/Perth_Gaol "Perth Gaol") in 1854\. All of these building utilised limestone carted by barges from quarries at Rocky Bay. In about November 1854, he also designed [Holy Trinity Church, York](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_York%2C_Western_Australia "Holy Trinity Church, York, Western Australia"),Perth Gazette and Independent Journal of Politics and News 3 November 1854, p.2\. which is in brick and of Victorian Romanesque design,{{cite book \|last1\=Apperly \|first1\=Richard \|last2\=Irving \|first2\=Robert \|last3\=Reynolds \|first3\=Peter L. \|title\=A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture, Styles and Terms from 1788 to the Present \|publisher\=Angus and Robertson \|location\=North Ryde \|year\=1989 \|isbn\=0207162018}} and is still standing. #### The Cloisters [thumb\|The Cloisters](/wiki/File:Cloisters%2C_Perth.jpg "Cloisters, Perth.jpg") {{main\|The Cloisters, Perth}} With the colony lacking in funds Jewell also turned to brick construction in Perth. James Brittain had already established a brick yard in East Perth, supplying a wide range of wood fired bricks. The first major brick project by Jewell in Perth was Bishop Hale's Collegiate School of 1858\. This building was designed based on a pattern already established with King's School in [Parramatta, New South Wales](/wiki/Parramatta%2C_New_South_Wales "Parramatta, New South Wales") and St Peters College in [Adelaide, South Australia](/wiki/Adelaide%2C_South_Australia "Adelaide, South Australia"). [Bishop Blagdon Hale](/wiki/Mathew_Blagden_Hale "Mathew Blagden Hale") paid for the building of the school out of his own purse, requesting an English\-[Gothic design](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture"). The building became known as *[The Cloisters](/wiki/The_Cloisters%2C_Perth "The Cloisters, Perth")* due to the effect of the ground floor verandahs. The Cloisters uses a patterned brick style set in Flemish bond with diaper patterns to selected panels. The building was first classified by the National Trust in 1973, and together with the adjoining [Port Jackson Fig Tree](/wiki/Port_Jackson_Fig "Port Jackson Fig") was placed on the permanent heritage register on 20 October 1995\.[Register of Heritage Places](http://register.heritage.wa.gov.au/PDF_Files/C%20Reg/Cloisters%20(P).PDF) number 2119 *The Cloisters* The Cloisters is the oldest building designed by Jewell in Perth still standing at its original location. With the building of the Hammersley Iron offices in the early 1980s behind The Cloisters the area is now known as [Cloisters Square](/wiki/Cloisters_Square "Cloisters Square"). #### Government House {{main\|Government House, Perth}} Government house was designed by Officers of the Royal Engineers and James Manning with building commencing 1859\. The Convict Establishment was based in Fremantle, so Jewell was appointed to supervise the construction. Jewell amended many of the details during construction, citing a common architectural ploy by continually commenting on the lack of information or drawings provided by Manning. This method enabled Jewell to substantially personalise the building to his tastes, with the building being completed in 1864\. #### Perth Town Hall {{main\|Perth Town Hall}} The Perth Town Hall built between 1867 and 1870, was to break from the normal Tudor Gothic designs by using a Flemish style of brick work with French influences. The overall designs are credited to Jewell though Manning was again involved with its building and its generally recognised that the roofing structure was Manning's designs. #### Other buildings [thumb\|[Old gaol](/wiki/Old_Gaol_Museum "Old Gaol Museum") now a museum in Toodyay](/wiki/File:Toodyay_gaol_gnangarra_01.JPG "Toodyay gaol gnangarra 01.JPG") Jewell oversaw construction projects for over 30 years in Western Australia and many important buildings still standing were designed by him. In Perth, these include the [Wesley Church](/wiki/Wesley_Church%2C_Perth "Wesley Church, Perth"), [Public Trust Office](/wiki/Public_Trust_Office "Public Trust Office"), the [Treasury Buildings](/wiki/Treasury_Buildings "Treasury Buildings"), Pensioners' Barracks ([Barracks Arch](/wiki/Barracks_Arch "Barracks Arch")) and [The Deanery](/wiki/The_Deanery%2C_Perth "The Deanery, Perth"). Outside Perth, notable buildings included [Holy Trinity Church](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_York%2C_Western_Australia "Holy Trinity Church, York, Western Australia"), 1855, and the Convent School in [York](/wiki/York%2C_Western_Australia "York, Western Australia"), 1872;Perth Gazette 18 November 1870 page 3 Court No 2 in the [York Courthouse](/wiki/York_Courthouse_Complex "York Courthouse Complex"); [Toodyay](/wiki/Toodyay%2C_Western_Australia "Toodyay, Western Australia") gaol, [Roebourne](/wiki/Roebourne%2C_Western_Australia "Roebourne, Western Australia") residency and police station, [Greenough](/wiki/Greenough%2C_Western_Australia "Greenough, Western Australia") police station and [Geraldton](/wiki/Geraldton%2C_Western_Australia "Geraldton, Western Australia") hospital. ### Retirement and death With the death of his wife on 19 July 1884, Jewell retired and was replaced by [George Temple\-Poole](/wiki/George_Temple-Poole "George Temple-Poole") then working in Ceylon. He died on 1 June 1891 and is buried in the [East Perth Cemeteries](/wiki/East_Perth_Cemeteries "East Perth Cemeteries") near St Bartholomew's Church, another of his many designs.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life", "Richard Roach Jewell was born in 1810 in Barnstaple, Devon, England. He was trained as an architect/builder in Barnstaple in [Devonshire](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\").", "### Western Australia", "In 1852 Jewell emigrated to Western Australia to seek a more temperate climate for his frail wife. They arrived in [Fremantle, Western Australia](/wiki/Fremantle%2C_Western_Australia \"Fremantle, Western Australia\") on the {{ship\\|\\|Will Watch\\|1813\\|2}} on 24 February 1852\\.{{Australian Dictionary of Biography\\|last\\=Oldham\\|first\\=Ray\\|authorlink\\=Ray Oldham (author)\\|year\\=1972\\|id\\=A040543b\\|title\\= Jewell, Richard Roach (1810 \\- 1891\\)\\|accessdate\\=23 August 2007}}", "Jewell was initially employed in the Imperial Convict Establishment, which was established to manage British convicts which had started arriving in 1850 (*see: [Convict era of Western Australia](/wiki/Convict_era_of_Western_Australia \"Convict era of Western Australia\")*). The Fremantle based Convict Establishment was responsible for many large constructions in the colony with an already well established design department in the offices of the Royal Engineers headed by [James Manning](/wiki/James_Manning_%28Western_Australia%29 \"James Manning (Western Australia)\") as Clerk of Works. Jewell soon transferred to the expanding [Department of Public Works](/wiki/Public_Works_Department%2C_Western_Australia \"Public Works Department, Western Australia\") based in [Perth](/wiki/Perth%2C_Western_Australia \"Perth, Western Australia\") and was appointed foreman in January 1853 at a salary of £150\\. In a letter to family in England dated 4 February Jewell commented on his salary\n{{blockquote\\|...I only get the £150 and no allowance for lodging, but taking into consideration the differences in prices of provisions and house rent (as it much cheaper here than at Fremantle) it makes but a few pounds a year difference. I like my situation much altho my duties call forth all my exertions to keep them well and faithfully performed.}} \nIn the same letter Jewell wrote of his position and future aspirations;\n{{blockquote\\|...You probably may think that I rank rather low by only being able to write at the end of my name F.P.W. Why is it, we have no clerk of works for the local Govt. and altho F.P.W I stand second in command, and first preferment, which I trust is not far distant, will then bring me to the top of the tree...}}", "He did not have long to wait, for in June 1853 the Superintendent of Public Works, James Austin resigned after a long\\-running battle with [Governor Charles Fitzgerald](/wiki/Charles_Fitzgerald \"Charles Fitzgerald\") over pay and conditions. Jewell was appointed to the position at an increased salary of £175 with an additional £25 for being Superintendent of Towns.", "### Superintendent of Public Works", "[thumb\\|Pensioners' Barracks in 1905 designed by Jewell in 1863](/wiki/File:PensionerBarracks1905Perth.jpg \"PensionerBarracks1905Perth.jpg\")\nJewell's duties initially included overseeing repairs of buildings, roads and bridges, and supervising the construction of the boys' schools in Perth and Fremantle. He was soon given the task of designing major buildings such as [Perth Gaol](/wiki/Perth_Gaol \"Perth Gaol\") and the court\\-house. Jewell was said to have worked hard and long into the night with his book\\-keeping duties. In 1853 he wrote to Governor Fitzgerald:", "> I have the honour to submit for the consideration and approval off His Excellency the Governor that he will be pleased to grant an allowance for candles used in writing the Public accounts done after office hours, as it is impossible to get the same performed during the day without neglecting other duties...Western Australian Museum information sheet: \"The Old Perth Gaol\"", "", "With the arrival of 300 convicts and ticket of leave persons, Perth had the labour necessary to commence building many substantial projects. The first of these that Jewell worked on were the Claisebrook Abattoirs, of which only drawings survive, and the Colonial School on [St Georges Terrace](/wiki/St_Georges_Terrace \"St Georges Terrace\") that now houses the [National Trust](/wiki/National_Trust_of_Australia \"National Trust of Australia\"). The Colonial School was built in two stages, the first being completed in 1854 and two wings being added in 1868 giving it a rough crucifix form. To provide for the convicts, Jewell designed the [Perth Gaol](/wiki/Perth_Gaol \"Perth Gaol\") in 1854\\. All of these building utilised limestone carted by barges from quarries at Rocky Bay.", "In about November 1854, he also designed [Holy Trinity Church, York](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_York%2C_Western_Australia \"Holy Trinity Church, York, Western Australia\"),Perth Gazette and Independent Journal of Politics and News 3 November 1854, p.2\\. which is in brick and of Victorian Romanesque design,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Apperly \\|first1\\=Richard \\|last2\\=Irving \\|first2\\=Robert \\|last3\\=Reynolds \\|first3\\=Peter L. \\|title\\=A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture, Styles and Terms from 1788 to the Present \\|publisher\\=Angus and Robertson \\|location\\=North Ryde \\|year\\=1989 \\|isbn\\=0207162018}} and is still standing.", "#### The Cloisters", "[thumb\\|The Cloisters](/wiki/File:Cloisters%2C_Perth.jpg \"Cloisters, Perth.jpg\")\n{{main\\|The Cloisters, Perth}}\nWith the colony lacking in funds Jewell also turned to brick construction in Perth. James Brittain had already established a brick yard in East Perth, supplying a wide range of wood fired bricks. The first major brick project by Jewell in Perth was Bishop Hale's Collegiate School of 1858\\. This building was designed based on a pattern already established with King's School in [Parramatta, New South Wales](/wiki/Parramatta%2C_New_South_Wales \"Parramatta, New South Wales\") and St Peters College in [Adelaide, South Australia](/wiki/Adelaide%2C_South_Australia \"Adelaide, South Australia\"). [Bishop Blagdon Hale](/wiki/Mathew_Blagden_Hale \"Mathew Blagden Hale\") paid for the building of the school out of his own purse, requesting an English\\-[Gothic design](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\"). The building became known as *[The Cloisters](/wiki/The_Cloisters%2C_Perth \"The Cloisters, Perth\")* due to the effect of the ground floor verandahs.", "The Cloisters uses a patterned brick style set in Flemish bond with diaper patterns to selected panels. The building was first classified by the National Trust in 1973, and together with the adjoining [Port Jackson Fig Tree](/wiki/Port_Jackson_Fig \"Port Jackson Fig\") was placed on the permanent heritage register on 20 October 1995\\.[Register of Heritage Places](http://register.heritage.wa.gov.au/PDF_Files/C%20Reg/Cloisters%20(P).PDF) number 2119 *The Cloisters* The Cloisters is the oldest building designed by Jewell in Perth still standing at its original location. With the building of the Hammersley Iron offices in the early 1980s behind The Cloisters the area is now known as [Cloisters Square](/wiki/Cloisters_Square \"Cloisters Square\").", "#### Government House", "{{main\\|Government House, Perth}}\nGovernment house was designed by Officers of the Royal Engineers and James Manning with building commencing 1859\\. The Convict Establishment was based in Fremantle, so Jewell was appointed to supervise the construction. Jewell amended many of the details during construction, citing a common architectural ploy by continually commenting on the lack of information or drawings provided by Manning. This method enabled Jewell to substantially personalise the building to his tastes, with the building being completed in 1864\\.", "#### Perth Town Hall", "{{main\\|Perth Town Hall}}\nThe Perth Town Hall built between 1867 and 1870, was to break from the normal Tudor Gothic designs by using a Flemish style of brick work with French influences. The overall designs are credited to Jewell though Manning was again involved with its building and its generally recognised that the roofing structure was Manning's designs.", "#### Other buildings", "[thumb\\|[Old gaol](/wiki/Old_Gaol_Museum \"Old Gaol Museum\") now a museum in Toodyay](/wiki/File:Toodyay_gaol_gnangarra_01.JPG \"Toodyay gaol gnangarra 01.JPG\") \nJewell oversaw construction projects for over 30 years in Western Australia and many important buildings still standing were designed by him. In Perth, these include the [Wesley Church](/wiki/Wesley_Church%2C_Perth \"Wesley Church, Perth\"), [Public Trust Office](/wiki/Public_Trust_Office \"Public Trust Office\"), the [Treasury Buildings](/wiki/Treasury_Buildings \"Treasury Buildings\"), Pensioners' Barracks ([Barracks Arch](/wiki/Barracks_Arch \"Barracks Arch\")) and [The Deanery](/wiki/The_Deanery%2C_Perth \"The Deanery, Perth\"). Outside Perth, notable buildings included [Holy Trinity Church](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_York%2C_Western_Australia \"Holy Trinity Church, York, Western Australia\"), 1855, and the Convent School in [York](/wiki/York%2C_Western_Australia \"York, Western Australia\"), 1872;Perth Gazette 18 November 1870 page 3 Court No 2 in the [York Courthouse](/wiki/York_Courthouse_Complex \"York Courthouse Complex\"); [Toodyay](/wiki/Toodyay%2C_Western_Australia \"Toodyay, Western Australia\") gaol, [Roebourne](/wiki/Roebourne%2C_Western_Australia \"Roebourne, Western Australia\") residency and police station, [Greenough](/wiki/Greenough%2C_Western_Australia \"Greenough, Western Australia\") police station and [Geraldton](/wiki/Geraldton%2C_Western_Australia \"Geraldton, Western Australia\") hospital.", "### Retirement and death", "With the death of his wife on 19 July 1884, Jewell retired and was replaced by [George Temple\\-Poole](/wiki/George_Temple-Poole \"George Temple-Poole\") then working in Ceylon. He died on 1 June 1891 and is buried in the [East Perth Cemeteries](/wiki/East_Perth_Cemeteries \"East Perth Cemeteries\") near St Bartholomew's Church, another of his many designs.", "" ]
Formal definition ----------------- Let \\varphi\\in \\operatorname{Out}(F\_n) where n\\ge 2. Then \\varphi is called *fully irreducible*Thierry Coulbois and Arnaud Hilion, *Botany of irreducible automorphisms of free groups*, [Pacific Journal of Mathematics](/wiki/Pacific_Journal_of_Mathematics "Pacific Journal of Mathematics") **256** (2012\), 291–307 if there do not exist an integer p\\ne 0 and a proper free factor A of F\_n such that \\varphi^p(\[A])\=\[A], where \[A] is the conjugacy class of A in F\_n. Here saying that A is a proper free factor of F\_n means that A\\ne 1 and there exists a [subgroup](/wiki/Subgroup "Subgroup") B\\le F\_n, B\\ne 1 such that F\_n\=A\\ast B. Also, \\Phi\\in \\operatorname{Aut}(F\_n) is called *fully irreducible* if the outer automorphism class \\varphi\\in \\operatorname{Out}(F\_n) of \\Phi is fully irreducible. Two fully irreducibles \\varphi,\\psi\\in \\operatorname{Out}(F\_n) are called *independent* if \\langle \\varphi\\rangle \\cap \\langle \\psi \\rangle \= \\{1\\}. ### Relationship to irreducible automorphisms The notion of being fully irreducible grew out of an older notion of an "irreducible" outer automorphism of F\_n originally introduced in. An element \\varphi\\in \\operatorname{Out}(F\_n), where n\\ge 2, is called *irreducible* if there does not exist a free product decomposition F\_n\=A\_1\\ast\\dots \\ast A\_k \\ast C with k\\ge 1, and with A\_i\\ne 1, i\=1,\\dots k being proper free factors of F\_n, such that \\varphi permutes the conjugacy classes \[A\_1], \\dots, \[A\_k] . Then \\varphi\\in \\operatorname{Out}(F\_n) is fully irreducible in the sense of the definition above if and only if for every p\\ne 0 \\varphi^p is irreducible. It is known that for any *atoroidal* \\varphi\\in \\operatorname{Out}(F\_n) (that is, without periodic conjugacy classes of nontrivial elements of F\_n), being irreducible is equivalent to being fully irreducible.Ilya Kapovich, *Algorithmic detectability of iwip automorphisms*. [Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society](/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_London_Mathematical_Society "Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society") **46** (2014\), no. 2, 279–290\. For non\-atoroidal automorphisms, Bestvina and Handel produce an example of an irreducible but not fully irreducible element of \\operatorname{Out}(F\_n), induced by a suitably chosen pseudo\-Anosov homeomorphism of a surface with more than one boundary component.
[ "Formal definition\n-----------------", "Let \\\\varphi\\\\in \\\\operatorname{Out}(F\\_n) where n\\\\ge 2. Then \\\\varphi is called *fully irreducible*Thierry Coulbois and Arnaud Hilion, *Botany of irreducible automorphisms of free groups*, [Pacific Journal of Mathematics](/wiki/Pacific_Journal_of_Mathematics \"Pacific Journal of Mathematics\") **256** (2012\\), 291–307 if there do not exist an integer p\\\\ne 0 and a proper free factor A of F\\_n such that \\\\varphi^p(\\[A])\\=\\[A], where \\[A] is the conjugacy class of A in F\\_n. \nHere saying that A is a proper free factor of F\\_n means that A\\\\ne 1 and there exists a [subgroup](/wiki/Subgroup \"Subgroup\") B\\\\le F\\_n, B\\\\ne 1 such that F\\_n\\=A\\\\ast B.", "Also, \\\\Phi\\\\in \\\\operatorname{Aut}(F\\_n) is called *fully irreducible* if the outer automorphism class \\\\varphi\\\\in \\\\operatorname{Out}(F\\_n) of \\\\Phi is fully irreducible.", "Two fully irreducibles \\\\varphi,\\\\psi\\\\in \\\\operatorname{Out}(F\\_n) are called *independent* if \\\\langle \\\\varphi\\\\rangle \\\\cap \\\\langle \\\\psi \\\\rangle \\= \\\\{1\\\\}.", "### Relationship to irreducible automorphisms", "The notion of being fully irreducible grew out of an older notion of an \"irreducible\" outer automorphism of F\\_n originally introduced in. An element \\\\varphi\\\\in \\\\operatorname{Out}(F\\_n), where n\\\\ge 2, is called *irreducible* if there does not exist a free product decomposition\nF\\_n\\=A\\_1\\\\ast\\\\dots \\\\ast A\\_k \\\\ast C\nwith k\\\\ge 1, and with A\\_i\\\\ne 1, i\\=1,\\\\dots k being proper free factors of F\\_n, such that \\\\varphi permutes the conjugacy classes \\[A\\_1], \\\\dots, \\[A\\_k] .", "Then \\\\varphi\\\\in \\\\operatorname{Out}(F\\_n) is fully irreducible in the sense of the definition above if and only if for every p\\\\ne 0 \\\\varphi^p is irreducible.", "It is known that for any *atoroidal* \\\\varphi\\\\in \\\\operatorname{Out}(F\\_n) (that is, without periodic conjugacy classes of nontrivial elements of F\\_n), being irreducible is equivalent to being fully irreducible.Ilya Kapovich, *Algorithmic detectability of iwip automorphisms*. [Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society](/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_London_Mathematical_Society \"Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society\") **46** (2014\\), no. 2, 279–290\\. For non\\-atoroidal automorphisms, Bestvina and Handel produce an example of an irreducible but not fully irreducible element of \\\\operatorname{Out}(F\\_n), induced by a suitably chosen pseudo\\-Anosov homeomorphism of a surface with more than one boundary component.", "" ]
Appearances ----------- In *Knights of the Old Republic*, the player's character purchases HK\-47 on Tatooine. Dialogue establishes that [Revan](/wiki/Revan "Revan") built the bloodthirsty droid, which characteristically refers to [organic lifeforms](/wiki/Carbon-based_life "Carbon-based life") as "meatbags". HK\-47 is disabled at the beginning of *The Sith Lords*; the player's character recovers material from damaged droids to repair HK\-47\. Dialogue in *The Sith Lords* expands on the droid's backstory and purpose, establishing that Revan used the droid to kill people who destabilized or weakened the galaxy. In the time frame of the *Trials of Obi\-Wan* expansion to *Star Wars Galaxies*, HK\-47's [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") has transferred into a computer on a Galactic Republic cruiser that later crashed on [Mustafar](/wiki/Mustafar "Mustafar"). The droid calls on players to complete several quests to return him to a droid body. HK\-47 was included as an action figure in the *Champions of the Force* line of *Star Wars* figures.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x\=starwars/article/championsgallery \|title\=''Star Wars Champions of the Force'' Gallery \|work\=\[\[Wizards of the Coast\|Wizards.com]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204121901/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x\=starwars%2Farticle%2Fchampionsgallery \|archive\-date\=2008\-12\-04 \|access\-date\=2011\-04\-23 \|url\-status\=dead }} HK\-47 returns in *[Star Wars: The Old Republic](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Old_Republic "The Old Republic")* as a boss battle in two separate flashpoints and as a mini boss in a level 60 operation.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.swtor.com/media/trailers/mysteries\-knights\-old\-republic \| title\=Star Wars: The Old Republic Trailers \> Mysteries of Knights of the Old Republic \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916075106/http://www.swtor.com/media/trailers/mysteries\-knights\-old\-republic \| archive\-date\=2010\-09\-16}}[Star Wars: The Old Republic \| Trailers \| Fate of the Galaxy](http://www.swtor.com/media/trailers/fate-galaxy) HK\-47 is an unlockable character in the mobile game *[Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes](/wiki/Star_Wars:Galaxy_of_Heroes "Galaxy of Heroes")*. The B\-1 [battle droid](/wiki/Battle_droid "Battle droid") known as "Mister Bones", rebuilt by [New Republic](/wiki/New_Republic_%28Star_Wars%29 "New Republic (Star Wars)") supporter [Temmin "Snap" Wexley](/wiki/Snap_Wexley "Snap Wexley") from droid parts from a scrapyard, is revealed to have been built from parts of HK\-47 in the 2017 [Chuck Wendig](/wiki/Chuck_Wendig "Chuck Wendig") novel *[Star Wars: Aftermath: Empire's End](/wiki/Star_Wars:Aftermath:_Empire%27s_End "Aftermath: Empire's End")*, with HK\-47 briefly taking over Bones after they "glitch" and their voice "warps", causing their "strange, hard\-angle" accent to return and say "COMMENTARY: I SAY WE BLAST THE MEATBAG AND SAVE YOU THE TROUBLE, MASTER". Following Bones' destruction at the end of the novel, their programming briefly reappears in [Marvel Comics](/wiki/Marvel_Comics "Marvel Comics")' *[Star Wars: Poe Dameron](/wiki/Star_Wars:Poe_Dameron "Poe Dameron")* \#13 in before being destroyed again; the character previously appeared in *[Star Wars: Aftermath](/wiki/Star_Wars:Aftermath "Aftermath")* (2015\) and *[Star Wars: Aftermath: Life Debt](/wiki/Star_Wars:Aftermath:_Life_Debt "Aftermath: Life Debt")* (2016\).
[ "Appearances\n-----------", "In *Knights of the Old Republic*, the player's character purchases HK\\-47 on Tatooine. Dialogue establishes that [Revan](/wiki/Revan \"Revan\") built the bloodthirsty droid, which characteristically refers to [organic lifeforms](/wiki/Carbon-based_life \"Carbon-based life\") as \"meatbags\".", "HK\\-47 is disabled at the beginning of *The Sith Lords*; the player's character recovers material from damaged droids to repair HK\\-47\\. Dialogue in *The Sith Lords* expands on the droid's backstory and purpose, establishing that Revan used the droid to kill people who destabilized or weakened the galaxy.", "In the time frame of the *Trials of Obi\\-Wan* expansion to *Star Wars Galaxies*, HK\\-47's [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") has transferred into a computer on a Galactic Republic cruiser that later crashed on [Mustafar](/wiki/Mustafar \"Mustafar\"). The droid calls on players to complete several quests to return him to a droid body.", "HK\\-47 was included as an action figure in the *Champions of the Force* line of *Star Wars* figures.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x\\=starwars/article/championsgallery \\|title\\=''Star Wars Champions of the Force'' Gallery \\|work\\=\\[\\[Wizards of the Coast\\|Wizards.com]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204121901/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x\\=starwars%2Farticle%2Fchampionsgallery \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-04\\-23 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "HK\\-47 returns in *[Star Wars: The Old Republic](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Old_Republic \"The Old Republic\")* as a boss battle in two separate flashpoints and as a mini boss in a level 60 operation.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.swtor.com/media/trailers/mysteries\\-knights\\-old\\-republic \\| title\\=Star Wars: The Old Republic Trailers \\> Mysteries of Knights of the Old Republic \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916075106/http://www.swtor.com/media/trailers/mysteries\\-knights\\-old\\-republic \\| archive\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-16}}[Star Wars: The Old Republic \\| Trailers \\| Fate of the Galaxy](http://www.swtor.com/media/trailers/fate-galaxy)", "HK\\-47 is an unlockable character in the mobile game *[Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes](/wiki/Star_Wars:Galaxy_of_Heroes \"Galaxy of Heroes\")*.", "The B\\-1 [battle droid](/wiki/Battle_droid \"Battle droid\") known as \"Mister Bones\", rebuilt by [New Republic](/wiki/New_Republic_%28Star_Wars%29 \"New Republic (Star Wars)\") supporter [Temmin \"Snap\" Wexley](/wiki/Snap_Wexley \"Snap Wexley\") from droid parts from a scrapyard, is revealed to have been built from parts of HK\\-47 in the 2017 [Chuck Wendig](/wiki/Chuck_Wendig \"Chuck Wendig\") novel *[Star Wars: Aftermath: Empire's End](/wiki/Star_Wars:Aftermath:_Empire%27s_End \"Aftermath: Empire's End\")*, with HK\\-47 briefly taking over Bones after they \"glitch\" and their voice \"warps\", causing their \"strange, hard\\-angle\" accent to return and say \"COMMENTARY: I SAY WE BLAST THE MEATBAG AND SAVE YOU THE TROUBLE, MASTER\". Following Bones' destruction at the end of the novel, their programming briefly reappears in [Marvel Comics](/wiki/Marvel_Comics \"Marvel Comics\")' *[Star Wars: Poe Dameron](/wiki/Star_Wars:Poe_Dameron \"Poe Dameron\")* \\#13 in before being destroyed again; the character previously appeared in *[Star Wars: Aftermath](/wiki/Star_Wars:Aftermath \"Aftermath\")* (2015\\) and *[Star Wars: Aftermath: Life Debt](/wiki/Star_Wars:Aftermath:_Life_Debt \"Aftermath: Life Debt\")* (2016\\).", "" ]
Tourist attractions ------------------- One of the most important attractions near Ganj Basoda is Udayeshwar Nilkantheshwar Temple, a Shiva temple at [Udaipur (Madhya Pradesh)](/wiki/Udaipur_%28Madhya_Pradesh%29 "Udaipur (Madhya Pradesh)").{{cite web\|title\=Places to visit in Udaypur\|url\=http://www.vidisha.nic.in/tourism/tour\_3\.htm\|access\-date\=27 August 2011\|archive\-date\=24 January 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124011642/http://vidisha.nic.in/tourism/tour\_3\.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} Two inscriptions of Hijri 737 and 739 are mentioned in the time of Muhammad Tughlaq and in the Hijri 856 during the reign of Islam Shah Suri, the mosque was constructed and in the inscription of Hijri 894, the mosque was built during the time of Muhammad Shah Khaliji of Mandu. The outer walls of the main Nilkantheshwar Temple have been broken during the time of the rulers of the architectural Muslim rule of UtraKin Devi Deities, whose remains are currently available in the Temple Pragnan. The main temple has been built in the middle and it has three entrances. Shivalinga is installed in the sanctum in which only rays of sun rising on the day of Shivratri falls. In the sanctum sanctorum of the main temple, the shape of the shivaling is about 8 feet, which is covered with bronze which is only thrown on Shivratri day. Presently Lord Shiva is worshiped on the temple Archana. The construction of Shivling is similar to the Shivlinga located in the Bhojpur Shiva temple situated near Bhopal. The idol of various gods and goddesses on the outer wall of the temple has been engraved on stone, most of the idol is equipped with various forms of Lord Shiva. In the important sculpture craft, there is a statue of Mahatmasur Mardini, Kartikeya, etc. in the dance form Natraj Murthy of Lord Shiva. And in addition, the woman displays beauty. Another great ancient Shiva Temple is located at Gamakar Village, about 10 km from Basoda Town. The temple is of Natural origin cave temple. Hundreds of pilgrims visit this temple daily. A large fair is organised every year at Maha Shivratri. Thousands of people visit this place on this day. In village Gamakar, about 500 years old Garhis (small forts where Jagirdars lived) are present which are residents for Raghuwanshi community. The village is well connected with the Basoda Town by road. Pathari located at a road distance of 30 km from Basoda is an ancient site of historical importance for believers of Jainism and Buddhism. Temples (Jain 24 Thirtankars, Gadrmal temple, BHIM Gaja approximately 50 ft height of single stone piece) of 10th–11th century are situated here at Pathari. 18 km from Basoda near village Udaipur is another village Muradpur, where one can see unique statue of Varah (Lord Vishnu avatar) only of its kind in the world. To visit Udaipur, Muradpur and Pathari (badoh), one can follow motorable road from Basoda, following given route—Ganj Basoda (0 km)\- Bareth (10 km)\- Udaipur (16 km)\-Pathari (30 km. For Muradpur (3 km from Udaipur on branch route). You may visit the modern temple of Goddess Sheetala Mata in the heart of Basoda. † Not to be confused with a city in Indian state of [Rajasthan](/wiki/Rajasthan "Rajasthan") with similar name, see [Udaipur](/wiki/Udaipur "Udaipur")
[ "Tourist attractions\n-------------------", "One of the most important attractions near Ganj Basoda is Udayeshwar Nilkantheshwar Temple, a Shiva temple at [Udaipur (Madhya Pradesh)](/wiki/Udaipur_%28Madhya_Pradesh%29 \"Udaipur (Madhya Pradesh)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Places to visit in Udaypur\\|url\\=http://www.vidisha.nic.in/tourism/tour\\_3\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124011642/http://vidisha.nic.in/tourism/tour\\_3\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Two inscriptions of Hijri 737 and 739 are mentioned in the time of Muhammad Tughlaq and in the Hijri 856 during the reign of Islam Shah Suri, the mosque was constructed and in the inscription of Hijri 894, the mosque was built during the time of Muhammad Shah Khaliji of Mandu. The outer walls of the main Nilkantheshwar Temple have been broken during the time of the rulers of the architectural Muslim rule of UtraKin Devi Deities, whose remains are currently available in the Temple Pragnan.", "The main temple has been built in the middle and it has three entrances. Shivalinga is installed in the sanctum in which only rays of sun rising on the day of Shivratri falls. In the sanctum sanctorum of the main temple, the shape of the shivaling is about 8 feet, which is covered with bronze which is only thrown on Shivratri day. Presently Lord Shiva is worshiped on the temple Archana. The construction of Shivling is similar to the Shivlinga located in the Bhojpur Shiva temple situated near Bhopal.", "The idol of various gods and goddesses on the outer wall of the temple has been engraved on stone, most of the idol is equipped with various forms of Lord Shiva. In the important sculpture craft, there is a statue of Mahatmasur Mardini, Kartikeya, etc. in the dance form Natraj Murthy of Lord Shiva. And in addition, the woman displays beauty.", "Another great ancient Shiva Temple is located at Gamakar Village, about 10 km from Basoda Town. The temple is of Natural origin cave temple. Hundreds of pilgrims visit this temple daily. A large fair is organised every year at Maha Shivratri. Thousands of people visit this place on this day. In village Gamakar, about 500 years old Garhis (small forts where Jagirdars lived) are present which are residents for Raghuwanshi community. The village is well connected with the Basoda Town by road.", "Pathari located at a road distance of 30 km from Basoda is an ancient site of historical importance for believers of Jainism and Buddhism. Temples (Jain 24 Thirtankars, Gadrmal temple, BHIM Gaja approximately 50 ft height of single stone piece) of 10th–11th century are situated here at Pathari. 18 km from Basoda near village Udaipur is another village Muradpur, where one can see unique statue of Varah (Lord Vishnu avatar) only of its kind in the world.\nTo visit Udaipur, Muradpur and Pathari (badoh), one can follow motorable road from Basoda, following given route—Ganj Basoda (0 km)\\- Bareth (10 km)\\- Udaipur (16 km)\\-Pathari (30 km. For Muradpur (3 km from Udaipur on branch route).\nYou may visit the modern temple of Goddess Sheetala Mata in the heart of Basoda.", "† Not to be confused with a city in Indian state of [Rajasthan](/wiki/Rajasthan \"Rajasthan\") with similar name, see [Udaipur](/wiki/Udaipur \"Udaipur\")", "" ]
Caribbean --------- {{Main\|Caribbean cuisine}} Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of Amerindian, European and African cuisine. These traditions were brought from the many homelands of this region's population. In addition, the population has created from this vast wealth of tradition many styles that are unique to the region. Seafood is one of the most common cuisine types in the islands, though this is certainly due in part to their location.{{Cite journal\|last\=Spivey\|first\=Diane M.\|year\=2006\|editor\-last\=Palmer\|editor\-first\=Colin\|title\=Latin American and Caribbean Food and Cuisine\|journal\=Encyclopedia of African\-American Culture and History\|publisher\=Macmillan Reference\|publication\-place\=Detroit\|volume\=2\|pages\=838–844}} Each island will likely have its own specialty. Some prepare lobster, while others prefer certain types of fish. For example, the island of Barbados is known for its "flying fish." Another Caribbean mainstay is rice, but the rice on each island may be a little different. Some season their rice, or add peas and other ingredients such as coconut. Sometimes the yellow rice is served on the side, but it is often part of a dish. ### Cuba {{Main\|Cuban cuisine}} [thumb\|right\|150px\|Authentic Cuban dish of [ropa vieja](/wiki/Ropa_vieja "Ropa vieja"), [black beans](/wiki/Common_bean%23Black_beans "Common bean#Black beans"), and [yuca](/wiki/Cassava "Cassava")](/wiki/File:Cubanfood.jpg "Cubanfood.jpg") [Cuban](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") cuisine is a distinctive fusion of Spanish, Indigenous, African and Caribbean cuisines. Cuban recipes share their basic spice palette ([cumin](/wiki/Cumin "Cumin"), oregano, and bay leaves) and preparation techniques with Spanish and African cooking. The black Caribbean rice influence is in the use of local foods such as tropical fruits, root vegetables, fish, etc. A small but noteworthy Chinese influence is the daily use of steamed [white rice](/wiki/White_rice "White rice") as the main carbohydrate in a traditional Cuban meal. Rice is essential to a Cuban meal. It is usually eaten during lunch and dinner almost every day.{{cite book\|url\=http://publisher.abc\-clio.com/9780313376276/548\|title\=Food cultures of the world encyclopedia\|date\=2011\|publisher\=Greenwood\|isbn\=9780313376276\|location\=Santa Barbara, Calif.\|pages\=165–171, 476\|access\-date\=25 September 2016}} Unlike nearby Mexico and Central America, which have tortillas in their cuisines, the only resemblance to the use of tortillas is with *casave*, dating from pre\-Columbian indigenous times which is called Casave. This flatbread is produced by grinding *yuca* ([cassava](/wiki/Cassava "Cassava")) root to form a paste which, when mixed with water, becomes a dough. This is lightly cooked as a flat circular disk and air\-dried to preserve it for consumption for a later time. It is traditionally reconstituted in salt water and eaten with roasted pork. The other culinary curiosity is a regional dish consisting of a roasted rodent uniquely found in Cuba, *jutia* ([Desmarest's hutia](/wiki/Desmarest%27s_hutia "Desmarest's hutia")). ### Dominican Republic {{Main\|Dominican Republic cuisine}} [thumb\|150px\|[Mangú](/wiki/Mang%C3%BA "Mangú") is a popular dish with origins in Africa and its [fufu](/wiki/Fufu "Fufu").](/wiki/File:Mang%C3%BA_with_Veggie_Meat.JPG "Mangú with Veggie Meat.JPG") The cuisine of the Dominican Republic, much like its neighbors, is a fusion of Indigenous (Taino), Spanish, and African cuisines. All or nearly all food groups are accommodated in typical Dominican cuisine, as it incorporates meat or seafood; grains, especially rice, corn, and wheat; vegetables, such as beans and other legumes, potatoes, yuca, or plantains, and salad; dairy products, especially milk and cheese; and fruits, such as oranges, bananas, and mangos. However, there is heaviest consumption of starches and meats, and least of dairy products and non\-starchy vegetables. Differences between Dominican cuisine and those of other parts of the West Indies include the milder spicing, which mainly uses onions, garlic, cilantro, cilantro ancho (culantro), ají cubanela (cubanelle pepper), and oregano. Sofrito, locally known as *sazón*, a sautéed mix including local herbs and spices, is used in many dishes. Throughout the south\-central coast bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in quipes and tipili, two dishes brought by Levantine Middle Eastern immigrants. Other favorite foods and dishes include chicharrón, yautía, pastelitos or empanadas, batata (sweet potato), pasteles en hoja (ground roots pockets), chimichurris, plátanos maduros (ripe plantain), yuca con mojo (boiled yuca/cassava) and tostones/fritos (fried plantains Cuisine also varies due to geographical areas. In general, most Dominican meat dishes tend to involve pork, as pigs are farmed quite heavily on the island. Meat dishes tend to be very well cooked or even stewed in Dominican restaurants, a tradition stemming from the lesser availability of refrigeration on the island. Seaside Dominican fishing villages will have great varieties of seafood, the most common being shrimp, marlin, mahi\-mahi or dorado, and lobster. Most villagers more commonly dine on cheap, lesser\-quality fish, usually stewed with la criolla, a type of rice. Premium seafood tends to be too expensive for the many locals, and is saved for the island's upper class and the tourist resorts. ### Puerto Rico {{Main\|Puerto Rican cuisine}} [thumb\|150px\|[Arroz con gandules](/wiki/Arroz_con_gandules "Arroz con gandules"), regarded as "Puerto Rico national dish"[*Reporter's Notebook.*](https://www.newspapers.com/image/555749450/) York Daily Record (York, Pennsylvania). 15 December 2003\. Page 35\. Accessed 24 January 2021\.](/wiki/File:Arroz_con_gandules.jpg "Arroz con gandules.jpg") Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of the Amerindian [Taínos](/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_people "Taíno people"), Europe ([Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain")), and [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"). In 1493, Spanish colonizers began a period of great change on the islands. The Spanish introduced foods from around the world including Europe, Asia, and Africa. They realized that not all the food they introduced to this new location were viable. So, while they had to abandon some of what was fundamental to their home country, they began to discover the local assets such as pigs and cattle. Still, some of what the Spaniards brought to Puerto Rico became of great importance to modern traditional dishes such as plantains, bananas, and coffee; all of which are now prominent in current Puerto Rican food culture.{{Cite book\|title\=Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia\|url\=https://archive.org/details/foodculturesworl00alba\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Albala\|first\=Ken\|publisher\=Greenwood\|year\=2011\|isbn\=9780313376276\|location\=Santa Barbara, CA\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/foodculturesworl00alba/page/n268 255]\|via\=eBook}} In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago . Many crops cultivated in Puerto Rico stem from New World origins like plantains.{{Cite journal\|journal\=American Journal of Botany\|volume\=101\|doi\=10\.3732/ajb.1300287\|title\=Key plants preserve elements of culture: A study over distance and time of fresh crops in Puerto Rican markets in Hartford, Connecticut, "A moveable feast"\|year\=2014\|last1\=Taylor\|first1\=David W.\|last2\=Anderson\|first2\=Gregory J.\|issue\=4\|pages\=624–636\|pmid\=24688056\|doi\-access\=free}}
[ "Caribbean\n---------", "{{Main\\|Caribbean cuisine}}", "Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of Amerindian, European and African cuisine. These traditions were brought from the many homelands of this region's population. In addition, the population has created from this vast wealth of tradition many styles that are unique to the region.", "Seafood is one of the most common cuisine types in the islands, though this is certainly due in part to their location.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Spivey\\|first\\=Diane M.\\|year\\=2006\\|editor\\-last\\=Palmer\\|editor\\-first\\=Colin\\|title\\=Latin American and Caribbean Food and Cuisine\\|journal\\=Encyclopedia of African\\-American Culture and History\\|publisher\\=Macmillan Reference\\|publication\\-place\\=Detroit\\|volume\\=2\\|pages\\=838–844}} Each island will likely have its own specialty. Some prepare lobster, while others prefer certain types of fish. For example, the island of Barbados is known for its \"flying fish.\"", "Another Caribbean mainstay is rice, but the rice on each island may be a little different. Some season their rice, or add peas and other ingredients such as coconut. Sometimes the yellow rice is served on the side, but it is often part of a dish.", "### Cuba", "{{Main\\|Cuban cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|Authentic Cuban dish of [ropa vieja](/wiki/Ropa_vieja \"Ropa vieja\"), [black beans](/wiki/Common_bean%23Black_beans \"Common bean#Black beans\"), and [yuca](/wiki/Cassava \"Cassava\")](/wiki/File:Cubanfood.jpg \"Cubanfood.jpg\")", "[Cuban](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") cuisine is a distinctive fusion of Spanish, Indigenous, African and Caribbean cuisines. Cuban recipes share their basic spice palette ([cumin](/wiki/Cumin \"Cumin\"), oregano, and bay leaves) and preparation techniques with Spanish and African cooking. The black Caribbean rice influence is in the use of local foods such as tropical fruits, root vegetables, fish, etc. A small but noteworthy Chinese influence is the daily use of steamed [white rice](/wiki/White_rice \"White rice\") as the main carbohydrate in a traditional Cuban meal. Rice is essential to a Cuban meal. It is usually eaten during lunch and dinner almost every day.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://publisher.abc\\-clio.com/9780313376276/548\\|title\\=Food cultures of the world encyclopedia\\|date\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Greenwood\\|isbn\\=9780313376276\\|location\\=Santa Barbara, Calif.\\|pages\\=165–171, 476\\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2016}}", "Unlike nearby Mexico and Central America, which have tortillas in their cuisines, the only resemblance to the use of tortillas is with *casave*, dating from pre\\-Columbian indigenous times which is called Casave. This flatbread is produced by grinding *yuca* ([cassava](/wiki/Cassava \"Cassava\")) root to form a paste which, when mixed with water, becomes a dough. This is lightly cooked as a flat circular disk and air\\-dried to preserve it for consumption for a later time. It is traditionally reconstituted in salt water and eaten with roasted pork. The other culinary curiosity is a regional dish consisting of a roasted rodent uniquely found in Cuba, *jutia* ([Desmarest's hutia](/wiki/Desmarest%27s_hutia \"Desmarest's hutia\")).", "### Dominican Republic", "{{Main\\|Dominican Republic cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150px\\|[Mangú](/wiki/Mang%C3%BA \"Mangú\") is a popular dish with origins in Africa and its [fufu](/wiki/Fufu \"Fufu\").](/wiki/File:Mang%C3%BA_with_Veggie_Meat.JPG \"Mangú with Veggie Meat.JPG\")\nThe cuisine of the Dominican Republic, much like its neighbors, is a fusion of Indigenous (Taino), Spanish, and African cuisines. All or nearly all food groups are accommodated in typical Dominican cuisine, as it incorporates meat or seafood; grains, especially rice, corn, and wheat; vegetables, such as beans and other legumes, potatoes, yuca, or plantains, and salad; dairy products, especially milk and cheese; and fruits, such as oranges, bananas, and mangos. However, there is heaviest consumption of starches and meats, and least of dairy products and non\\-starchy vegetables. Differences between Dominican cuisine and those of other parts of the West Indies include the milder spicing, which mainly uses onions, garlic, cilantro, cilantro ancho (culantro), ají cubanela (cubanelle pepper), and oregano.", "Sofrito, locally known as *sazón*, a sautéed mix including local herbs and spices, is used in many dishes. Throughout the south\\-central coast bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in quipes and tipili, two dishes brought by Levantine Middle Eastern immigrants. Other favorite foods and dishes include chicharrón, yautía, pastelitos or empanadas, batata (sweet potato), pasteles en hoja (ground roots pockets), chimichurris, plátanos maduros (ripe plantain), yuca con mojo (boiled yuca/cassava) and tostones/fritos (fried plantains\nCuisine also varies due to geographical areas. In general, most Dominican meat dishes tend to involve pork, as pigs are farmed quite heavily on the island. Meat dishes tend to be very well cooked or even stewed in Dominican restaurants, a tradition stemming from the lesser availability of refrigeration on the island. Seaside Dominican fishing villages will have great varieties of seafood, the most common being shrimp, marlin, mahi\\-mahi or dorado, and lobster. Most villagers more commonly dine on cheap, lesser\\-quality fish, usually stewed with la criolla, a type of rice. Premium seafood tends to be too expensive for the many locals, and is saved for the island's upper class and the tourist resorts.", "", "### Puerto Rico", "{{Main\\|Puerto Rican cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150px\\|[Arroz con gandules](/wiki/Arroz_con_gandules \"Arroz con gandules\"), regarded as \"Puerto Rico national dish\"[*Reporter's Notebook.*](https://www.newspapers.com/image/555749450/) York Daily Record (York, Pennsylvania). 15 December 2003\\. Page 35\\. Accessed 24 January 2021\\.](/wiki/File:Arroz_con_gandules.jpg \"Arroz con gandules.jpg\")", "Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of the Amerindian [Taínos](/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_people \"Taíno people\"), Europe ([Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\")), and [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\").", "In 1493, Spanish colonizers began a period of great change on the islands. The Spanish introduced foods from around the world including Europe, Asia, and Africa. They realized that not all the food they introduced to this new location were viable. So, while they had to abandon some of what was fundamental to their home country, they began to discover the local assets such as pigs and cattle. Still, some of what the Spaniards brought to Puerto Rico became of great importance to modern traditional dishes such as plantains, bananas, and coffee; all of which are now prominent in current Puerto Rican food culture.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/foodculturesworl00alba\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Albala\\|first\\=Ken\\|publisher\\=Greenwood\\|year\\=2011\\|isbn\\=9780313376276\\|location\\=Santa Barbara, CA\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/foodculturesworl00alba/page/n268 255]\\|via\\=eBook}}", "In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago . Many crops cultivated in Puerto Rico stem from New World origins like plantains.{{Cite journal\\|journal\\=American Journal of Botany\\|volume\\=101\\|doi\\=10\\.3732/ajb.1300287\\|title\\=Key plants preserve elements of culture: A study over distance and time of fresh crops in Puerto Rican markets in Hartford, Connecticut, \"A moveable feast\"\\|year\\=2014\\|last1\\=Taylor\\|first1\\=David W.\\|last2\\=Anderson\\|first2\\=Gregory J.\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=624–636\\|pmid\\=24688056\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "" ]
Central America --------------- Central American cuisine is a fusion of Indigenous, Spanish and African influence.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.visitcentroamerica.com/en/experiences/gastronomy/\|title \= Gastronomy in Central America, a pleasure for the senses\|date \= November 23, 2017}} Most of the countries are within the [Mesoamerica](/wiki/Mesoamerica "Mesoamerica") cultural and historic region. Some of its staple foods, such as [maize](/wiki/Maize "Maize"), [bell peppers](/wiki/Bell_peppers "Bell peppers"), [squash](/wiki/Squash_%28plant%29 "Squash (plant)"), [beans](/wiki/Beans "Beans"), and [tomatoes](/wiki/Tomatoes "Tomatoes") originated and are native to the region and over time have become basic staples in other international cuisines around the world.Mann, Charles C. 1491: Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. Vinton Press. 2005\. pp. 196–97\. Its cuisine varies with its geographical areas, as well as its demographics. In the Pacific coasts of the countries in Central America, the influence of its food is more of an Indigenous and European infusion. In the Caribbean coast the fusion is more of an Indigenous and African fusion. The exception being El Salvador and Belize, where they are the other two countries that do not border both the Pacific and Caribbean. However, their cuisines still possess a fusion of all three cuisines because of their own diverse history, and their neighboring countries' demographics. Another staple in both Pacific and Caribbean cuisine of the area is rice. It is accompanied by a meat (pork, beef, and chicken), or seafood. Dishes mixed with rice are common throughout the region, an example being [gallopinto](/wiki/Gallopinto "Gallopinto"). The Caribbean coasts of Central America also have a more heavy usage of dishes containing [coconut](/wiki/Coconut "Coconut") (milk, oil, etc.). ### Costa Rica {{Main\|Costa Rican cuisine}} [right\|150px\|thumb\|[Gallo pinto](/wiki/Gallo_pinto "Gallo pinto") of Costa Rica](/wiki/File:Gallo_Pinto_at_breakfast.jpg "Gallo Pinto at breakfast.jpg") The main staple, known as *[gallo pinto](/wiki/Gallo_pinto "Gallo pinto")* (or simply *pinto*), consists of rice and black beans, which in many households is eaten at all three meals during the day. Other Costa Rican food staples include corn tortillas, white cheese and picadillos. Tortillas are used to accompany most meals. Costa Ricans will often fill their tortillas with whatever they are eating and eat it in the form of a gallo (direct translation: rooster, however, it resembles a soft Mexican taco). White cheese is non\-processed cheese that is made by adding salt to milk in production. Picadillos are meat and vegetable combinations where one or more vegetables are diced, mixed with beef and garnished with spices. Common vegetables used in picadillos are potatoes, green beans, squash, ayote, chayote and arracache. Often, picadillos are eaten in the form of gallos. ### El Salvador {{Main\|Salvadoran cuisine}} [thumb\|150px\|Salvadorian [pupusas](/wiki/Pupusa "Pupusa")](/wiki/File:Plain_pupusas_revueltas.jpg "Plain pupusas revueltas.jpg") Salvadoran cuisine is a style of cooking derived from the nation of El Salvador. The traditional cuisine consists of food from the Pipil people, with a European twist in most modern dishes. Many of the dishes are made with maize (corn). El Salvador's most notable dish is the [pupusa](/wiki/Pupusa "Pupusa"), a thick hand\-made corn flour or rice flour tortilla stuffed with cheese, chicharrón (fried pork rinds), refried beans or [loroco](/wiki/Loroco "Loroco") (a vine flower bud native to Central America). There are also vegetarian options, often with ayote (a type of squash), or garlic. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach. Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes rellenos. Yuca frita, which is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with pescaditas (fried baby sardines). The yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Panes con Pavo (turkey sandwiches) are warm turkey submarines. The turkey is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and handpulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with turkey, tomato, and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard. A lot of Salvadoran food is served with French bread, or pan frances in Spanish. ### Guatemala {{Main\|Guatemalan cuisine}} [thumb\|150x150px\|[Fiambre](/wiki/Fiambre "Fiambre"), a traditional dish eaten in November. It consists of over 50 ingredients.](/wiki/File:Fiambre_-_11042021_%28cropped%29.jpg "Fiambre - 11042021 (cropped).jpg") The cuisine of [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala "Guatemala") reflects the multicultural nature of Guatemala, in that it involves food that differs in taste depending on the region. Guatemala has 22 departments (or divisions), each of which has very different typical foodstuffs. Guatemalan cuisine is widely known for its candy originating from Antigua Guatemala. There are also foods that it is traditional to eat on certain days of the week \- for example, by tradition it is known that on Thursday, the typical food is "paches" which is like a tamal made with a base of potato, and on Saturday it is traditional to eat tamales. ### Honduras {{Main\|Honduran cuisine}} [right\|150px\|thumb\|Fried Yojoa Fish from [Honduras](/wiki/Honduras "Honduras")](/wiki/File:Fishyyojoa.GIF "Fishyyojoa.GIF") [Honduran](/wiki/Honduras "Honduras") cuisine combines Spanish, Caribbean, and pre\-Columbian influences of the indigenous Maya\-[Lenca](/wiki/Lenca_people "Lenca people") population. Its most notable feature is that it uses more [coconut](/wiki/Coconut "Coconut") than any other [Central American](/wiki/Central_America "Central America") cuisine in both sweet and savory dishes. Regional specialties include pollo con tajadas (fried chicken with fried green banana chips) fried [fish](/wiki/Fish_%28food%29 "Fish (food)"), [carne asada](/wiki/Carne_asada "Carne asada"), and [baleadas](/wiki/Baleada "Baleada"). Platano maduro fritos with sour creme are also a common dish. In addition to the baleadas, the following are also popular: meat roasted with chismol [carne asada](/wiki/Carne_asada "Carne asada"), chicken with rice and corn, fried fish (Yojoa style) with [encurtido](/wiki/Encurtido "Encurtido") (pickled onions and jalapeños). In the coastal areas and in the [Bay Islands](/wiki/Bay_Islands_Department "Bay Islands Department"), seafood and some meats are prepared in many ways, some of which include [coconut](/wiki/Coconut "Coconut") milk. Among the soups the Hondurans enjoy are: [conch](/wiki/Conch "Conch") soup, [bean](/wiki/Bean "Bean") soup, Mondongo soup, or soup of intestine, [seafood](/wiki/Seafood "Seafood") soups, [beef](/wiki/Beef "Beef") soups, all of which are mixed with [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 "Plantain (cooking)"), [yuca](/wiki/Cassava "Cassava"), cabbage among other things, and complemented with [corn](/wiki/Maize "Maize") tortillas. Other typical dishes are the montucas or corn [tamale](/wiki/Tamale "Tamale"), stuffed tortillas, tamales wrapped up with [banana](/wiki/Banana "Banana") leaves, among other types of food. Also part of the Honduran typical dishes are an abundant selection of tropical fruits such as: [papaya](/wiki/Papaya "Papaya"), [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple "Pineapple"), [plums](/wiki/Plum "Plum"), epazotes, [passionfruits](/wiki/Passionfruit "Passionfruit"), and a wide variety of bananas and plantains which are prepared in many ways. ### Nicaragua {{Main\|Nicaraguan cuisine}} [thumb\|150px\|right\|[Baho](/wiki/Vaho "Vaho"), a traditional dish in Nicaragua](/wiki/File:Baho.jpg "Baho.jpg") The cuisine of [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua") is a fusion of Spanish, Caribbean and pre\-Columbian dishes of the indigenous peoples. When the Spaniards first arrived in [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua") they found that the indigenous peoples had incorporated foods available in the area into their [cuisine](/wiki/Cuisine "Cuisine").{{cite web \| title \= Try the culinary delights of Nicaragua cuisine\| publisher \= Nicaragua.com \|url\=http://www.nicaragua.com/cuisine/\| access\-date \= 2006\-05\-08 }} Despite the blending and incorporation of pre\-Columbian and Spanish influenced cuisine, traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast. While the Pacific coast's main staple revolves around fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast makes use of [seafood](/wiki/Seafood "Seafood") and the [coconut](/wiki/Coconut "Coconut"). As in many other [Latin American](/wiki/Latin_America "Latin America") countries, [corn](/wiki/Maize "Maize") is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as [indio viejo](/wiki/Indio_viejo "Indio viejo") and [quesillo](/wiki/Quesillo "Quesillo"). Nicaragua's most famous corn dish is the [Nacatamal](/wiki/Nacatamal "Nacatamal"). Nacatamales originated from the [Nicarao people](/wiki/Nicarao_people "Nicarao people").{{Cite web \|url\=https://mheescape.mheducation.com/2018/12/10/el\-nacatamal\-nicaraguense/ \|title \= The Nicaraguan Nacatamal}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latinpost.com/articles/161066/20230930/nicaragua\-food\-5\-try\-traditional\-dishes\-central\-american\-country.htm\|title\= Five Traditional Nicaraguan Food You Must Try}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://inventedrecipes.com/recipe/1126 \|title \= Nacatamal A Taste of Nicaraguan Tradition Wrapped in Banana Leaves}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://recetasdecomida.pro/receta\-para\-hacer\-nacatamales\-nicaraguenses/8\|title\= Recipes for Nicaraguan Nacatamales}} During [pre\-Columbian](/wiki/Pre-Columbian "Pre-Columbian") times, the Nicarao stuffed their nacatamales with hunted meats like [deer](/wiki/Venison "Venison") and [turkey](/wiki/Turkey_meat "Turkey meat"), [tomatoes](/wiki/Tomatoes "Tomatoes"), [achiote](/wiki/Annatto "Annatto") and [herbs](/wiki/Herbs "Herbs") to season and increase the nacatamal's flavor before being wrapped in corn husks and steamed. After Spanish conquest however, nacatamales were made with introduced meats like pork. They also evolved to include flavorful ingredients like [onions](/wiki/Onions "Onions") and [potatoes](/wiki/Potatoes "Potatoes"), and banana leaves replaced corn husks.{{Cite web \|url\=https://travelfoodatlas.com/nicaraguan\-nacatamales\-recipe \|title \= Nicaraguan Nacatamales Recipe\| date\=August 14, 2023 }}{{Cite web \|url\=https://nicaraguanrecipes.com/nacatamal\-recipe/ \|title \= Nicaraguan Recipes\| date\=June 23, 2019 }} Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as [pinolillo](/wiki/Pinolillo "Pinolillo") and [chicha](/wiki/Chicha "Chicha") as well as in some sweets and desserts. Locally grown vegetables and fruits have been in use since before the arrival of the Spaniards and their influence on Nicaraguan cuisine. Many of Nicaragua's dishes include fruits and vegetables such as [avocado](/wiki/Avocado "Avocado"), [tomato](/wiki/Tomato "Tomato"), [tomatillo](/wiki/Tomatillo "Tomatillo"), [potato](/wiki/Potato "Potato"), [jocote](/wiki/Jocote "Jocote"), [grosella](/wiki/Phyllanthus_acidus "Phyllanthus acidus"), [mimbro](/wiki/Mimbro "Mimbro"), [mango](/wiki/Mango "Mango"), [papaya](/wiki/Papaya "Papaya"), [tamarind](/wiki/Tamarind "Tamarind"), [pipián](/wiki/Pepita "Pepita"), [banana](/wiki/Banana "Banana"), [yuca](/wiki/Cassava "Cassava"), and herbs such as [cilantro](/wiki/Coriander "Coriander"), [oregano](/wiki/Oregano "Oregano") and [achiote](/wiki/Achiote "Achiote").{{Cite journal \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0968089621001036\|title \= Withanolides from dietary tomatillo suppress HT1080 cancer cell growth by targeting mutant IDH1\| date\=2021 \| doi\=10\.1016/j.bmc.2021\.116095 \| last1\=Yang \| first1\=Yueying \| last2\=Xiang \| first2\=Ke \| last3\=Sun \| first3\=Dejuan \| last4\=Zheng \| first4\=Mengzhu \| last5\=Song \| first5\=Zhuorui \| last6\=Li \| first6\=Mingxue \| last7\=Wang \| first7\=Xuanbin \| last8\=Li \| first8\=Hua \| last9\=Chen \| first9\=Lixia \| journal\=Bioorganic \& Medicinal Chemistry \| volume\=36 \| pmid\=33735687 \| s2cid\=232298517 }} [Gallo pinto](/wiki/Gallo_pinto "Gallo pinto") is Nicaragua's [national dish](/wiki/National_dish "National dish"), consisting of red [beans](/wiki/Bean "Bean") and [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice"). The dish has several variations including the addition of [coconut oil](/wiki/Coconut_oil "Coconut oil") or grated [coconut](/wiki/Coconut "Coconut") which is primarily prepared on Nicaragua's [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") coast. It is thought to have originated in Nicaragua; however, there is some controversy about the origins of this dish. ### Panama {{Main\|Panamanian cuisine}} [thumb\|150px\|Panamanian sweets such as Huevitos de Leche, Bocadillos, and Manjar blancos](/wiki/File:Huevitos_de_Leche%2C_Bocadillos_y_manjar_Blancos.jpg "Huevitos de Leche, Bocadillos y manjar Blancos.jpg") [Panamanian](/wiki/Panama "Panama") cuisine has its own unique and rich cuisine. As a land bridge between two continents, Panama is blessed by nature with an unusual variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking. Also, as a crossroads of the world catalyzed by the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"), Panamanian cuisine is influenced by its diverse population of Hispanic, native Amerindian, European, African, Colombian, Jamaican, and Chinese migration. A common Panamanian diet includes seafood such as crab, lobster, and squid, many versions of chicken soup, and vast amounts of fruit such as papayas, coconuts, and bananas.{{Cite web\|url\=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/ethnic\-food\-panama\-16169\.html\|title\=Ethnic Food of Panama\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-26}} They also drink chicha, a very common drink found in Panama.
[ "Central America\n---------------", "Central American cuisine is a fusion of Indigenous, Spanish and African influence.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.visitcentroamerica.com/en/experiences/gastronomy/\\|title \\= Gastronomy in Central America, a pleasure for the senses\\|date \\= November 23, 2017}} Most of the countries are within the [Mesoamerica](/wiki/Mesoamerica \"Mesoamerica\") cultural and historic region. Some of its staple foods, such as [maize](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\"), [bell peppers](/wiki/Bell_peppers \"Bell peppers\"), [squash](/wiki/Squash_%28plant%29 \"Squash (plant)\"), [beans](/wiki/Beans \"Beans\"), and [tomatoes](/wiki/Tomatoes \"Tomatoes\") originated and are native to the region and over time have become basic staples in other international cuisines around the world.Mann, Charles C. 1491: Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. Vinton Press. 2005\\. pp. 196–97\\.", "Its cuisine varies with its geographical areas, as well as its demographics. In the Pacific coasts of the countries in Central America, the influence of its food is more of an Indigenous and European infusion. In the Caribbean coast the fusion is more of an Indigenous and African fusion. The exception being El Salvador and Belize, where they are the other two countries that do not border both the Pacific and Caribbean. However, their cuisines still possess a fusion of all three cuisines because of their own diverse history, and their neighboring countries' demographics.", "Another staple in both Pacific and Caribbean cuisine of the area is rice. It is accompanied by a meat (pork, beef, and chicken), or seafood. Dishes mixed with rice are common throughout the region, an example being [gallopinto](/wiki/Gallopinto \"Gallopinto\"). The Caribbean coasts of Central America also have a more heavy usage of dishes containing [coconut](/wiki/Coconut \"Coconut\") (milk, oil, etc.).", "### Costa Rica", "{{Main\\|Costa Rican cuisine}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|[Gallo pinto](/wiki/Gallo_pinto \"Gallo pinto\") of Costa Rica](/wiki/File:Gallo_Pinto_at_breakfast.jpg \"Gallo Pinto at breakfast.jpg\")", "The main staple, known as *[gallo pinto](/wiki/Gallo_pinto \"Gallo pinto\")* (or simply *pinto*), consists of rice and black beans, which in many households is eaten at all three meals during the day.", "Other Costa Rican food staples include corn tortillas, white cheese and picadillos. Tortillas are used to accompany most meals. Costa Ricans will often fill their tortillas with whatever they are eating and eat it in the form of a gallo (direct translation: rooster, however, it resembles a soft Mexican taco). White cheese is non\\-processed cheese that is made by adding salt to milk in production. Picadillos are meat and vegetable combinations where one or more vegetables are diced, mixed with beef and garnished with spices. Common vegetables used in picadillos are potatoes, green beans, squash, ayote, chayote and arracache. Often, picadillos are eaten in the form of gallos.", "### El Salvador", "{{Main\\|Salvadoran cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Salvadorian [pupusas](/wiki/Pupusa \"Pupusa\")](/wiki/File:Plain_pupusas_revueltas.jpg \"Plain pupusas revueltas.jpg\")", "Salvadoran cuisine is a style of cooking derived from the nation of El Salvador. The traditional cuisine consists of food from the Pipil people, with a European twist in most modern dishes. Many of the dishes are made with maize (corn).", "El Salvador's most notable dish is the [pupusa](/wiki/Pupusa \"Pupusa\"), a thick hand\\-made corn flour or rice flour tortilla stuffed with cheese, chicharrón (fried pork rinds), refried beans or [loroco](/wiki/Loroco \"Loroco\") (a vine flower bud native to Central America). There are also vegetarian options, often with ayote (a type of squash), or garlic. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach.", "Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes rellenos. Yuca frita, which is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with pescaditas (fried baby sardines). The yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Panes con Pavo (turkey sandwiches) are warm turkey submarines. The turkey is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and handpulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with turkey, tomato, and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard. A lot of Salvadoran food is served with French bread, or pan frances in Spanish.", "### Guatemala", "{{Main\\|Guatemalan cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150x150px\\|[Fiambre](/wiki/Fiambre \"Fiambre\"), a traditional dish eaten in November. It consists of over 50 ingredients.](/wiki/File:Fiambre_-_11042021_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Fiambre - 11042021 (cropped).jpg\")\nThe cuisine of [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala \"Guatemala\") reflects the multicultural nature of Guatemala, in that it involves food that differs in taste depending on the region. Guatemala has 22 departments (or divisions), each of which has very different typical foodstuffs. Guatemalan cuisine is widely known for its candy originating from Antigua Guatemala.", "There are also foods that it is traditional to eat on certain days of the week \\- for example, by tradition it is known that on Thursday, the typical food is \"paches\" which is like a tamal made with a base of potato, and on Saturday it is traditional to eat tamales.", "### Honduras", "{{Main\\|Honduran cuisine}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|Fried Yojoa Fish from [Honduras](/wiki/Honduras \"Honduras\")](/wiki/File:Fishyyojoa.GIF \"Fishyyojoa.GIF\")", "[Honduran](/wiki/Honduras \"Honduras\") cuisine combines Spanish, Caribbean, and pre\\-Columbian influences of the indigenous Maya\\-[Lenca](/wiki/Lenca_people \"Lenca people\") population. Its most notable feature is that it uses more [coconut](/wiki/Coconut \"Coconut\") than any other [Central American](/wiki/Central_America \"Central America\") cuisine in both sweet and savory dishes. Regional specialties include pollo con tajadas (fried chicken with fried green banana chips) fried [fish](/wiki/Fish_%28food%29 \"Fish (food)\"), [carne asada](/wiki/Carne_asada \"Carne asada\"), and [baleadas](/wiki/Baleada \"Baleada\"). Platano maduro fritos with sour creme are also a common dish.", "In addition to the baleadas, the following are also popular: meat roasted with chismol [carne asada](/wiki/Carne_asada \"Carne asada\"), chicken with rice and corn, fried fish (Yojoa style) with [encurtido](/wiki/Encurtido \"Encurtido\") (pickled onions and jalapeños). In the coastal areas and in the [Bay Islands](/wiki/Bay_Islands_Department \"Bay Islands Department\"), seafood and some meats are prepared in many ways, some of which include [coconut](/wiki/Coconut \"Coconut\") milk.", "Among the soups the Hondurans enjoy are: [conch](/wiki/Conch \"Conch\") soup, [bean](/wiki/Bean \"Bean\") soup, Mondongo soup, or soup of intestine, [seafood](/wiki/Seafood \"Seafood\") soups, [beef](/wiki/Beef \"Beef\") soups, all of which are mixed with [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 \"Plantain (cooking)\"), [yuca](/wiki/Cassava \"Cassava\"), cabbage among other things, and complemented with [corn](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") tortillas.", "Other typical dishes are the montucas or corn [tamale](/wiki/Tamale \"Tamale\"), stuffed tortillas, tamales wrapped up with [banana](/wiki/Banana \"Banana\") leaves, among other types of food. Also part of the Honduran typical dishes are an abundant selection of tropical fruits such as: [papaya](/wiki/Papaya \"Papaya\"), [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple \"Pineapple\"), [plums](/wiki/Plum \"Plum\"), epazotes, [passionfruits](/wiki/Passionfruit \"Passionfruit\"), and a wide variety of bananas and plantains which are prepared in many ways.", "### Nicaragua", "{{Main\\|Nicaraguan cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|[Baho](/wiki/Vaho \"Vaho\"), a traditional dish in Nicaragua](/wiki/File:Baho.jpg \"Baho.jpg\")", "The cuisine of [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\") is a fusion of Spanish, Caribbean and pre\\-Columbian dishes of the indigenous peoples. When the Spaniards first arrived in [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\") they found that the indigenous peoples had incorporated foods available in the area into their [cuisine](/wiki/Cuisine \"Cuisine\").{{cite web \\| title \\= Try the culinary delights of Nicaragua cuisine\\| publisher \\= Nicaragua.com \\|url\\=http://www.nicaragua.com/cuisine/\\| access\\-date \\= 2006\\-05\\-08 }} Despite the blending and incorporation of pre\\-Columbian and Spanish influenced cuisine, traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast. While the Pacific coast's main staple revolves around fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast makes use of [seafood](/wiki/Seafood \"Seafood\") and the [coconut](/wiki/Coconut \"Coconut\").", "As in many other [Latin American](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\") countries, [corn](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as [indio viejo](/wiki/Indio_viejo \"Indio viejo\") and [quesillo](/wiki/Quesillo \"Quesillo\"). Nicaragua's most famous corn dish is the [Nacatamal](/wiki/Nacatamal \"Nacatamal\"). Nacatamales originated from the [Nicarao people](/wiki/Nicarao_people \"Nicarao people\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://mheescape.mheducation.com/2018/12/10/el\\-nacatamal\\-nicaraguense/ \\|title \\= The Nicaraguan Nacatamal}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latinpost.com/articles/161066/20230930/nicaragua\\-food\\-5\\-try\\-traditional\\-dishes\\-central\\-american\\-country.htm\\|title\\= Five Traditional Nicaraguan Food You Must Try}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://inventedrecipes.com/recipe/1126 \\|title \\= Nacatamal A Taste of Nicaraguan Tradition Wrapped in Banana Leaves}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://recetasdecomida.pro/receta\\-para\\-hacer\\-nacatamales\\-nicaraguenses/8\\|title\\= Recipes for Nicaraguan Nacatamales}} During [pre\\-Columbian](/wiki/Pre-Columbian \"Pre-Columbian\") times, the Nicarao stuffed their nacatamales with hunted meats like [deer](/wiki/Venison \"Venison\") and [turkey](/wiki/Turkey_meat \"Turkey meat\"), [tomatoes](/wiki/Tomatoes \"Tomatoes\"), [achiote](/wiki/Annatto \"Annatto\") and [herbs](/wiki/Herbs \"Herbs\") to season and increase the nacatamal's flavor before being wrapped in corn husks and steamed. After Spanish conquest however, nacatamales were made with introduced meats like pork. They also evolved to include flavorful ingredients like [onions](/wiki/Onions \"Onions\") and [potatoes](/wiki/Potatoes \"Potatoes\"), and banana leaves replaced corn husks.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://travelfoodatlas.com/nicaraguan\\-nacatamales\\-recipe \\|title \\= Nicaraguan Nacatamales Recipe\\| date\\=August 14, 2023 }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://nicaraguanrecipes.com/nacatamal\\-recipe/ \\|title \\= Nicaraguan Recipes\\| date\\=June 23, 2019 }} Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as [pinolillo](/wiki/Pinolillo \"Pinolillo\") and [chicha](/wiki/Chicha \"Chicha\") as well as in some sweets and desserts. Locally grown vegetables and fruits have been in use since before the arrival of the Spaniards and their influence on Nicaraguan cuisine. Many of Nicaragua's dishes include fruits and vegetables such as [avocado](/wiki/Avocado \"Avocado\"), [tomato](/wiki/Tomato \"Tomato\"), [tomatillo](/wiki/Tomatillo \"Tomatillo\"), [potato](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\"), [jocote](/wiki/Jocote \"Jocote\"), [grosella](/wiki/Phyllanthus_acidus \"Phyllanthus acidus\"), [mimbro](/wiki/Mimbro \"Mimbro\"), [mango](/wiki/Mango \"Mango\"), [papaya](/wiki/Papaya \"Papaya\"), [tamarind](/wiki/Tamarind \"Tamarind\"), [pipián](/wiki/Pepita \"Pepita\"), [banana](/wiki/Banana \"Banana\"), [yuca](/wiki/Cassava \"Cassava\"), and herbs such as [cilantro](/wiki/Coriander \"Coriander\"), [oregano](/wiki/Oregano \"Oregano\") and [achiote](/wiki/Achiote \"Achiote\").{{Cite journal \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0968089621001036\\|title \\= Withanolides from dietary tomatillo suppress HT1080 cancer cell growth by targeting mutant IDH1\\| date\\=2021 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/j.bmc.2021\\.116095 \\| last1\\=Yang \\| first1\\=Yueying \\| last2\\=Xiang \\| first2\\=Ke \\| last3\\=Sun \\| first3\\=Dejuan \\| last4\\=Zheng \\| first4\\=Mengzhu \\| last5\\=Song \\| first5\\=Zhuorui \\| last6\\=Li \\| first6\\=Mingxue \\| last7\\=Wang \\| first7\\=Xuanbin \\| last8\\=Li \\| first8\\=Hua \\| last9\\=Chen \\| first9\\=Lixia \\| journal\\=Bioorganic \\& Medicinal Chemistry \\| volume\\=36 \\| pmid\\=33735687 \\| s2cid\\=232298517 }}", "[Gallo pinto](/wiki/Gallo_pinto \"Gallo pinto\") is Nicaragua's [national dish](/wiki/National_dish \"National dish\"), consisting of red [beans](/wiki/Bean \"Bean\") and [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\"). The dish has several variations including the addition of [coconut oil](/wiki/Coconut_oil \"Coconut oil\") or grated [coconut](/wiki/Coconut \"Coconut\") which is primarily prepared on Nicaragua's [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") coast. It is thought to have originated in Nicaragua; however, there is some controversy about the origins of this dish.", "### Panama", "{{Main\\|Panamanian cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Panamanian sweets such as Huevitos de Leche, Bocadillos, and Manjar blancos](/wiki/File:Huevitos_de_Leche%2C_Bocadillos_y_manjar_Blancos.jpg \"Huevitos de Leche, Bocadillos y manjar Blancos.jpg\")", "[Panamanian](/wiki/Panama \"Panama\") cuisine has its own unique and rich cuisine. As a land bridge between two continents, Panama is blessed by nature with an unusual variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking. Also, as a crossroads of the world catalyzed by the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"), Panamanian cuisine is influenced by its diverse population of Hispanic, native Amerindian, European, African, Colombian, Jamaican, and Chinese migration. A common Panamanian diet includes seafood such as crab, lobster, and squid, many versions of chicken soup, and vast amounts of fruit such as papayas, coconuts, and bananas.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/ethnic\\-food\\-panama\\-16169\\.html\\|title\\=Ethnic Food of Panama\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-26}} They also drink chicha, a very common drink found in Panama.", "" ]
South America ------------- {{Main\|South American cuisine}} The richest products of [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America") come from the middle of the continent, the [Amazonia Potatoes](/wiki/Amazonia_Potato "Amazonia Potato") are frequently grown as a result of this, and also plants such as [quinoa](/wiki/Quinoa "Quinoa"). The Peruvian capital, [Lima](/wiki/Lima "Lima"), was declared the "Gastronomic Capital of the Americas" in 2006\. Many [plains](/wiki/Plain "Plain") are also on this continent, which are rich for growing food in abundance. In the [Patagonian](/wiki/Patagonia "Patagonia") south of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"), many people produce [lamb](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton "Lamb and mutton") and [venison](/wiki/Venison "Venison"). [King crab](/wiki/King_crab "King crab") is typically caught at the southern end of the continent. [Antarctic krill](/wiki/Antarctic_krill "Antarctic krill") has been recently discovered and is now considered a fine dish. [Tuna](/wiki/Tuna "Tuna") and [tropical fish](/wiki/Tropical_fish "Tropical fish") are caught all around the continent, but [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island "Easter Island") is where they are found in abundance. [Lobster](/wiki/Lobster_meat "Lobster meat") is also caught in great quantities from the [Juan Fernández Islands](/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Islands "Juan Fernández Islands"). ### Argentina {{Main\|Argentine cuisine}} [right\|150px\|thumb\|[Asado](/wiki/Asado "Asado") of Argentina, a style of [barbecue](/wiki/Barbecue "Barbecue")](/wiki/File:Argentinean_asado.jpg "Argentinean asado.jpg") The cuisine of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") is strongly influenced by Italian and Spanish cuisines and cooking techniques. Indigenous gastronomies derived from groups such as the [Quechua](/wiki/Quechua_people "Quechua people"), [Mapuche](/wiki/Mapuche "Mapuche"), and [Guarani](/wiki/Guarani_people "Guarani people") have also played a role. There are many regional differences, specially in the provincial states of the north, west, east and central Argentina, with many plants, fruits and dishes that are not known or barely known in [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires"). Another determining factor in Argentine cuisine is that Argentina is one of the world's major food producers. It is a major producer of meat (especially beef), wheat, corn, milk, beans, and since the 1970s, soybeans. Given the country's vast production of beef, red meat is an especially common part of the Argentine diet. Due to the very large number of Argentines of Italian ancestry, pizza and especially pasta are also very popular, but there are food traditions from other European nations as well, including the English afternoon tea. ### Bolivia {{Main\|Bolivian cuisine}} [thumb\|150px\|Pique Macho, one of the main Bolivian dishes](/wiki/File:Disfruta_un_buen_Pique_Macho.jpg "Disfruta un buen Pique Macho.jpg") Bolivian cuisine is the result of Spanish cuisine with infusions of ancient [Andean](/wiki/Andean_civilizations "Andean civilizations") tradition and varies greatly due to the [geography of Bolivia](/wiki/Geography_of_Bolivia "Geography of Bolivia"). It has been influenced by the [Inca cuisine](/wiki/Inca_cuisine "Inca cuisine"), [Aymara cuisine](/wiki/Aymara_people%23Culture "Aymara people#Culture"), [Spanish cuisine](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine "Spanish cuisine"), and to a lesser extent the cuisines of other neighboring countries, like [Argentina](/wiki/Argentine_cuisine "Argentine cuisine") and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguayan_cuisine "Paraguayan cuisine"). European immigration to Bolivia is not as common when compared with other Latin American countries, and while German, Italian, [Basque](/wiki/Basque_cuisine "Basque cuisine") and other cuisines have influenced the cuisine of Bolivia, [Spanish cuisine](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine "Spanish cuisine") remains the primary influence.{{cite book \|last1\=Roufs \|first1\=Timothy G. \|last2\=Roufs \|first2\=Kathleen Smyth \|title\=Sweet Treats Around the World \|page\=44}} In Western Bolivia in the [Altiplano](/wiki/Altiplano "Altiplano"), due to the high, cold climate cuisine tends to use spices, whereas in the lowlands of Bolivia in the more Amazonian regions dishes consist of products abundant in the region: fruits, vegetables, fish and [yuca](/wiki/Yuca "Yuca").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bolivianlife.com/a\-guide\-to\-bolivias\-best\-foods/\|title\=A Guide to Bolivia's Most Mouthwatering Foods\|website\=Bolivian Life\|date\=May 8, 2014 \|access\-date\=6 October 2017}} *Almuerzo* is the most important meal of the Bolivian day, so much so that daily life tends to revolve around it. Long lunches are traditional throughout the country, so businesses and shops often close between the hours of 12 and 2 pm, so that the workers have time to return home for lunch. A typical Bolivian lunch would consist of several courses, including a soup, a main course of meat, rice, and potatoes, then a dessert and coffee.[Traditional Cuisine](http://www.bolivia-guide.com/about-bolivia.php?id=80&tid=td2). bolivia\-guide.com Retrieved 2012\-03\-22 Lunch is taken at a leisurely pace and is traditionally followed by a nap, the oft\-cited *[siesta](/wiki/Siesta "Siesta")*. ### Brazil {{Main\|Brazilian cuisine}} [right\|150px\|thumb\|[Moqueca](/wiki/Moqueca "Moqueca") of Brazil](/wiki/File:MOQUECAB.jpg "MOQUECAB.jpg") The cuisine of [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), like Brazil itself, varies greatly by region. Brazilian cuisine can be divided into several distinct locations. From the north of Brazil through the Amazonian jungle, and directly down the Brazilian coastline. This diversity reflects the country's mix of native Amerindians, Portuguese, Africans, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, Syrians, Lebanese and Japanese, among others. This has created a national cooking style marked by the preservation of regional differences. Coffee, being one of the main agricultural products of Brazil,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/countries/brazil/\|title\=The CIA World Factbook\|date\=September 29, 2021}} is an indispensable part of every Brazilian's diet. "Chimarrão,"{{citation needed\|date\=June 2020}} a caffeinated drink made of “erva mate”,{{citation needed\|date\=June 2020}} and the super caffeinated "cafezinho" are commonly served at meals, between meals, and for snacks. The average Brazilian drinks 12\-24 of these concoctions per day.{{Cite journal\|title\=Brazilian cuisine\|journal\=Vegetarian Journal\|volume\=21\|issue\=2}} ### Chile {{Main\|Chilean cuisine}} [right\|150px\|thumb\|Caldillo de Congrio of Chile](/wiki/File:Caldillo_de_congrio.jpg "Caldillo de congrio.jpg") Chilean cuisine stems from the combination of traditional [Spanish cuisine](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine "Spanish cuisine") with indigenous ingredients. European immigrants also brought with them various styles and traditions in cooking, heavily influencing the cuisine of Chile, including Italian, German, and French influences as well as the English afternoon tea. These mixtures have created a unique fusion. Seafood is widely used and an array of produce which historically has grown throughout the region have been implemented into Chilean gastronomy. Many recipes are accompanied and enhanced by [Chilean wine](/wiki/Chilean_wine "Chilean wine") such as [Curanto](/wiki/Curanto "Curanto"). ### Colombia {{Main\|Colombian cuisine}} [right\|150px\|thumb\|[Bandeja paisa](/wiki/Bandeja_paisa "Bandeja paisa") of Colombia](/wiki/File:Banpaisa.png "Banpaisa.png") The cuisine of [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia") consists of a large variety of dishes that take into account the difference in regional climates. For example, in the city of Medellín the typical dish is the [bandeja paisa](/wiki/Bandeja_paisa "Bandeja paisa"). It includes beans, rice, ground meat or carne asada, [chorizo](/wiki/Chorizo "Chorizo"), fried egg, arepa and chicharrón. It is usually accompanied by avocado, tomato and sauces. Inland, the plates resemble the mix of cultures, inherited mainly from Amerindian and European cuisine, and the produce of the land mainly agriculture, cattle, river fishing and other animals' raising. Such is the case of the sancocho soup in Valledupar. Local species of animals like the guaratinaja, part of the wayuu Amerindian culture. ### Ecuador {{Main\|Ecuadorian cuisine}} {{See also\|List of Ecuadorian dishes and foods}} [thumb\|right\|150px\|[Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca "Fanesca") of Ecuador](/wiki/File:Fanesca.jpg "Fanesca.jpg") The food in Ecuador is diverse, varying with altitude, associated agricultural conditions, and ethnic and racial communities. Ecuadorian cuisine is an amalgamation of Spanish, Andean, and Amazonian cuisines and to a lesser degree Italian, Lebanese, African, and Chinese. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional 3 course meal of sopa/soup and segundo/second dish then dessert and a coffee are customary. Dinner is usually lighter and sometimes just coffee or agua de remedio/herbal tea with bread. Beef, chicken, and seafood are popular in the coastal regions and are typically served with carbohydrate\-rich foods, such as rice accompanied with lentils, pasta, or plantain, whereas in the mountainous regions pork, chicken, beef and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are often served with rice, corn, or potatoes. Some of the typical dishes in the [coastal region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Costa "Geography of Ecuador#La Costa") are: a variety of [ceviches](/wiki/Ceviche "Ceviche"), *[pan de yuca](/wiki/Pan_de_yuca "Pan de yuca")* (cassava bread), *corviche* (plantain, peanut and fish dumplings), *[guatita](/wiki/Guatita "Guatita")*, *[encebollado](/wiki/Encebollado "Encebollado")* (fish, cassava and onion stew), *empanada de viento* (deep\-fried flour [empanada](/wiki/Empanada "Empanada") with cheese filling, served sprinkled with sugar), empanada de verde (green plantain empanada with cheese filling), [mangrove crab](/wiki/Mangrove_crab "Mangrove crab"), *arroz con menestra* ([lentil or bean stew and rice](/wiki/Rice_and_beans "Rice and beans")) con [asado](/wiki/Asado "Asado"), *caldo de bola* (beef soup featuring a green plantain ball filled with meat, egg, and spices). Local staples are [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice"), [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 "Plantain (cooking)") and a great variety of [seafood](/wiki/Seafood "Seafood"). Typical dishes in the [mountain region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Sierra "Geography of Ecuador#La Sierra") include: [hornado](/wiki/Hornado "Hornado"), [fritada](/wiki/Fritada "Fritada"), [humitas](/wiki/Humita "Humita"), [tamales](/wiki/Tamale "Tamale"), [llapingachos](/wiki/Llapingacho "Llapingacho"), [lomo saltado](/wiki/Lomo_saltado "Lomo saltado"), and *[churrasco](/wiki/Churrasco "Churrasco")*. [Pork](/wiki/Pork "Pork"), [chicken](/wiki/Chicken_as_food "Chicken as food"), beef, and *cuy* ([guinea pig](/wiki/Guinea_pig "Guinea pig")) are popular in the mountain regions and are served with a variety of grains (especially [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice") and [corn](/wiki/Maize "Maize") or [potatoes](/wiki/Potato "Potato")). A popular street food in mountain regions is *[hornado](/wiki/Hornado "Hornado")*, consisting of potatoes served with roasted pig. [Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca "Fanesca"), a fish soup including several types of bean, is often eaten during [Lent](/wiki/Lent "Lent") and [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter"). During the week before the commemoration of the deceased or [All Souls' Day](/wiki/All_Souls%27_Day "All Souls' Day"), the fruit beverage *[colada morada](/wiki/Colada_morada "Colada morada")* is typical, accompanied by *[t'anta wawa](/wiki/T%27anta_wawa "T'anta wawa")* which is stuffed bread shaped like children. In the rainforest, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. The starchy root is peeled and boiled, fried, or used in a variety of other dishes. Across the nation it is also used as a bread, pan de yuca, which is analogous to the Brazilian [pão de queijo](/wiki/P%C3%A3o_de_queijo "Pão de queijo") and its often consumed alongside different types of drinkable yogurt "yogur persa" brought by Persian immigrants. [Chifa](/wiki/Chifa "Chifa") (from the Mandarin words 吃饭, meaning "to eat rice") Ecuadorian\-Chinese fusion food is a mainstay of Ecuadorian cuisine. ### Paraguay {{Main\|Paraguayan cuisine}} [right\|150px\|thumb\|[Sopa paraguaya](/wiki/Sopa_paraguaya "Sopa paraguaya")](/wiki/File:Sopa_Paraguaya.jpg "Sopa Paraguaya.jpg") The cuisine of Paraguay is the set of dishes and culinary techniques of [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay "Paraguay"). Much like its neighboring countries, Paraguayan cuisine is a fusion of Indigenous cuisine ([Guaraní](/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD_people "Guaraní people")), Spanish cuisine and international cuisines from those who have immigrated over the years. Meat, especially beef, is a staple of the Paraguayan diet. This is reflected in the [Asado](/wiki/Asado "Asado"), a series of barbecuing practices and the social event that are traditional to Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. The cuisine of Paraguay includes unique dishes such as *[sopa paraguaya](/wiki/Sopa_paraguaya "Sopa paraguaya"),* [kiveve](/wiki/Kiveve "Kiveve") prepared using a pumpkin, also known as "andai", or [Chipa Guasú](/wiki/Chipa_Guasu "Chipa Guasu"). Chipa Guasú, an original dish to Paraguay, is a cake made with corn grains that is now widely served in Northeastern Argentina as well. The national drink of Paraguay is known as [terere](/wiki/Terer%C3%A9 "Tereré"), in addition to fruit juices and soft drinks being very common throughout the country. [Yucca](/wiki/Yucca "Yucca") and [corn](/wiki/Corn "Corn") are two important ingredients in Paraguayan cuisine ### Peru {{Main\|Peruvian cuisine}} [thumb\|right\|150px\|[Ceviche](/wiki/Ceviche "Ceviche"), a [Peruvian](/wiki/Peru "Peru") dish that has grown rapidly in popularity](/wiki/File:Ceviche_from_Peru.jpg "Ceviche from Peru.jpg") Peru has a varied cuisine with ingredients like [potato](/wiki/Potato "Potato"), uchu or [Ají](/wiki/Capsicum_baccatum "Capsicum baccatum") ([Capsicum](/wiki/Capsicum "Capsicum") pubescens), [oca](/wiki/Oxalis_tuberosa "Oxalis tuberosa"), [ulluco](/wiki/Ulluco "Ulluco"), [avocado](/wiki/Avocado "Avocado"), fruits like [chirimoya](/wiki/Chirimoya "Chirimoya"), [lúcuma](/wiki/L%C3%BAcuma "Lúcuma") and [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple "Pineapple"), and animals like [taruca](/wiki/Taruca "Taruca") (*Hippocamelus antisensis*), [llama](/wiki/Llama "Llama") and [guinea pig](/wiki/Guinea_pig "Guinea pig") (called *cuy*). The combination of [Inca](/wiki/Inca_cuisine "Inca cuisine") and [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine "Spanish cuisine") culinary traditions, resulted in new meals and ways of preparing them. The arrival of Africans, Chinese and Japanese immigrants in the 19th century also resulted in the development of *Creole* cuisine in the city of [Lima](/wiki/Lima "Lima"), where the vast majority of these immigrants settled. Some typical Peruvian dishes are [ceviche](/wiki/Ceviche "Ceviche") ([fish](/wiki/Fish_%28food%29 "Fish (food)") and [shellfish](/wiki/Shellfish "Shellfish") marinated in [citrus](/wiki/Citrus "Citrus") juices), the chupe de camarones (a [soup](/wiki/Soup "Soup") made of [shrimp](/wiki/Shrimp_and_prawn_as_food "Shrimp and prawn as food") (*Cryphiops caementarius*)), [anticuchos](/wiki/Anticucho "Anticucho") (cow's heart roasted *en [brochette](/wiki/Brochette "Brochette")*), the olluco con charqui (a casserole dish made of [ulluco](/wiki/Ulluco "Ulluco") and [charqui](/wiki/Charqui "Charqui")), the [Andean pachamanca](/wiki/Pachamanca "Pachamanca") (meats, tubers and [broad beans](/wiki/Vicia_faba "Vicia faba") cooked in a stone oven), the [lomo saltado](/wiki/Lomo_saltado "Lomo saltado") (meat fried lightly with tomato and onion, served with [french fries](/wiki/French_fries "French fries") and [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice")) that has a Chinese influence, and the picante de cuy (a casserole dish made of fried guinea pig with some spices). Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the chicha de jora (a [chicha](/wiki/Chicha "Chicha") made of tender corn dried by the sun). There are also chichas made of [peanuts](/wiki/Peanut "Peanut") or [purple corn](/wiki/Purple_corn "Purple corn"), known as [chicha morada](/wiki/Chicha_morada "Chicha morada"). ### Uruguay {{Main\|Uruguayan cuisine}} [thumb\|150px\|A complete chivito\|right](/wiki/File:Chivito_al_pan_uruguayo.jpg "Chivito al pan uruguayo.jpg") The cuisine of [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay") is traditionally based on its European roots, especially from Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, Germany and Britain. Many foods from those countries such as pasta, sausages, and desserts are common in the nation's diet. The Uruguayan barbecue, asado, is one of the most exquisite and famous in the world. A sweet paste, Dulce de Leche is the national obsession, used to fill cookies, cakes, pancakes, [milhojas](/wiki/Milhoja "Milhoja"), and [alfajores](/wiki/Alfajore "Alfajore"). The base of the country's diet is meat and animal products: primarily beef but also chicken, lamb, pig, and sometimes fish. The preferred cooking methods for meats and vegetables are still [boiling](/wiki/Boiling "Boiling") and [roasting](/wiki/Roasting "Roasting"), although modernization has popularized frying (see [milanesas](/wiki/Milanesa "Milanesa") and [chivitos](/wiki/Chivito_%28sandwich%29 "Chivito (sandwich)")). Meanwhile, [wheat](/wiki/Wheat "Wheat") and fruit are generally served fried ([torta frita](/wiki/Torta_frita "Torta frita") and [pasteles](/wiki/Pasteles "Pasteles")), [comfited](/wiki/Comfit "Comfit") ([rapadura](/wiki/Rapadura "Rapadura") and ticholos de banana), and sometimes baked ([rosca](/wiki/Rosca "Rosca") de [chicharrones](/wiki/Chicharrones "Chicharrones")), a new modern style. [Bushmeat](/wiki/Bushmeat "Bushmeat") comes from [mulitas](/wiki/Armadillo "Armadillo") and [carpinchos](/wiki/Capibara "Capibara"). Regional fruits like [butia](/wiki/Butia "Butia") and [pitanga](/wiki/Eugenia_uniflora "Eugenia uniflora") are commonly used for flavoring caña, along with [quinotos](/wiki/Kumquat "Kumquat") and [nísperos](/wiki/N%C3%ADspero "Níspero"). ### Venezuela {{Main\|Venezuelan cuisine}} [thumb\|right\|150px\|[Arepas](/wiki/Arepas "Arepas") of Venezuela with chicken schnitzel, avocado, mayonnaise and red onion](/wiki/File:Arepas_with_chicken_schnitzel%2C_avocado%2C_mayonnaise_and_red_onion.jpg "Arepas with chicken schnitzel, avocado, mayonnaise and red onion.jpg") Due to its land, diversity of agricultural resources, and the cultural diversity of the [Venezuelan](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") people, Venezuelan cuisine often varies greatly from one region to another. Its cuisine, traditional as well as modern, is influenced by its European, Amerindian and West African traditions. [Food staples](/wiki/Food_staple "Food staple") include [corn](/wiki/Maize "Maize"), [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice"), [plantain](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 "Plantain (cooking)"), [yams](/wiki/Yam_%28vegetable%29 "Yam (vegetable)"), [beans](/wiki/Bean "Bean") and several meats. Potatoes, tomatoes, [onions](/wiki/Onion "Onion"), [eggplants](/wiki/Eggplant "Eggplant"), [squashes](/wiki/Squash_%28plant%29 "Squash (plant)"), [spinach](/wiki/Spinach "Spinach") and [zucchini](/wiki/Zucchini "Zucchini") are also common sides in the Venezuelan diet. Venezuela has several representative national dishes such as the [arepa](/wiki/Arepa "Arepa") (a corn based bread like patty), [pan de jamón](/wiki/Pan_de_jam%C3%B3n "Pan de jamón"), [tequeño](/wiki/Teque%C3%B1o "Tequeño"), [pabellón criollo](/wiki/Pabell%C3%B3n_criollo "Pabellón criollo") and the [hallaca](/wiki/Hallaca "Hallaca") at [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") time.
[ "South America\n-------------", "{{Main\\|South American cuisine}}", "The richest products of [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\") come from the middle of the continent, the [Amazonia Potatoes](/wiki/Amazonia_Potato \"Amazonia Potato\") are frequently grown as a result of this, and also plants such as [quinoa](/wiki/Quinoa \"Quinoa\"). The Peruvian capital, [Lima](/wiki/Lima \"Lima\"), was declared the \"Gastronomic Capital of the Americas\" in 2006\\. Many [plains](/wiki/Plain \"Plain\") are also on this continent, which are rich for growing food in abundance. In the [Patagonian](/wiki/Patagonia \"Patagonia\") south of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"), many people produce [lamb](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton \"Lamb and mutton\") and [venison](/wiki/Venison \"Venison\"). [King crab](/wiki/King_crab \"King crab\") is typically caught at the southern end of the continent. [Antarctic krill](/wiki/Antarctic_krill \"Antarctic krill\") has been recently discovered and is now considered a fine dish. [Tuna](/wiki/Tuna \"Tuna\") and [tropical fish](/wiki/Tropical_fish \"Tropical fish\") are caught all around the continent, but [Easter Island](/wiki/Easter_Island \"Easter Island\") is where they are found in abundance. [Lobster](/wiki/Lobster_meat \"Lobster meat\") is also caught in great quantities from the [Juan Fernández Islands](/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Islands \"Juan Fernández Islands\").", "### Argentina", "{{Main\\|Argentine cuisine}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|[Asado](/wiki/Asado \"Asado\") of Argentina, a style of [barbecue](/wiki/Barbecue \"Barbecue\")](/wiki/File:Argentinean_asado.jpg \"Argentinean asado.jpg\")", "The cuisine of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") is strongly influenced by Italian and Spanish cuisines and cooking techniques. Indigenous gastronomies derived from groups such as the [Quechua](/wiki/Quechua_people \"Quechua people\"), [Mapuche](/wiki/Mapuche \"Mapuche\"), and [Guarani](/wiki/Guarani_people \"Guarani people\") have also played a role.\nThere are many regional differences, specially in the provincial states of the north, west, east and central Argentina, with many plants, fruits and dishes that are not known or barely known in [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\").", "Another determining factor in Argentine cuisine is that Argentina is one of the world's major food producers. It is a major producer of meat (especially beef), wheat, corn, milk, beans, and since the 1970s, soybeans. Given the country's vast production of beef, red meat is an especially common part of the Argentine diet. Due to the very large number of Argentines of Italian ancestry, pizza and especially pasta are also very popular, but there are food traditions from other European nations as well, including the English afternoon tea.", "### Bolivia", "{{Main\\|Bolivian cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Pique Macho, one of the main Bolivian dishes](/wiki/File:Disfruta_un_buen_Pique_Macho.jpg \"Disfruta un buen Pique Macho.jpg\")", "Bolivian cuisine is the result of Spanish cuisine with infusions of ancient [Andean](/wiki/Andean_civilizations \"Andean civilizations\") tradition and varies greatly due to the [geography of Bolivia](/wiki/Geography_of_Bolivia \"Geography of Bolivia\"). It has been influenced by the [Inca cuisine](/wiki/Inca_cuisine \"Inca cuisine\"), [Aymara cuisine](/wiki/Aymara_people%23Culture \"Aymara people#Culture\"), [Spanish cuisine](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine \"Spanish cuisine\"), and to a lesser extent the cuisines of other neighboring countries, like [Argentina](/wiki/Argentine_cuisine \"Argentine cuisine\") and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguayan_cuisine \"Paraguayan cuisine\"). European immigration to Bolivia is not as common when compared with other Latin American countries, and while German, Italian, [Basque](/wiki/Basque_cuisine \"Basque cuisine\") and other cuisines have influenced the cuisine of Bolivia, [Spanish cuisine](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine \"Spanish cuisine\") remains the primary influence.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Roufs \\|first1\\=Timothy G. \\|last2\\=Roufs \\|first2\\=Kathleen Smyth \\|title\\=Sweet Treats Around the World \\|page\\=44}}", "In Western Bolivia in the [Altiplano](/wiki/Altiplano \"Altiplano\"), due to the high, cold climate cuisine tends to use spices, whereas in the lowlands of Bolivia in the more Amazonian regions dishes consist of products abundant in the region: fruits, vegetables, fish and [yuca](/wiki/Yuca \"Yuca\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bolivianlife.com/a\\-guide\\-to\\-bolivias\\-best\\-foods/\\|title\\=A Guide to Bolivia's Most Mouthwatering Foods\\|website\\=Bolivian Life\\|date\\=May 8, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2017}}", "*Almuerzo* is the most important meal of the Bolivian day, so much so that daily life tends to revolve around it. Long lunches are traditional throughout the country, so businesses and shops often close between the hours of 12 and 2 pm, so that the workers have time to return home for lunch. A typical Bolivian lunch would consist of several courses, including a soup, a main course of meat, rice, and potatoes, then a dessert and coffee.[Traditional Cuisine](http://www.bolivia-guide.com/about-bolivia.php?id=80&tid=td2). bolivia\\-guide.com Retrieved 2012\\-03\\-22 Lunch is taken at a leisurely pace and is traditionally followed by a nap, the oft\\-cited *[siesta](/wiki/Siesta \"Siesta\")*.", "### Brazil", "{{Main\\|Brazilian cuisine}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|[Moqueca](/wiki/Moqueca \"Moqueca\") of Brazil](/wiki/File:MOQUECAB.jpg \"MOQUECAB.jpg\")", "The cuisine of [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), like Brazil itself, varies greatly by region. Brazilian cuisine can be divided into several distinct locations. From the north of Brazil through the Amazonian jungle, and directly down the Brazilian coastline.", "This diversity reflects the country's mix of native Amerindians, Portuguese, Africans, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, Syrians, Lebanese and Japanese, among others. This has created a national cooking style marked by the preservation of regional differences.", "Coffee, being one of the main agricultural products of Brazil,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/countries/brazil/\\|title\\=The CIA World Factbook\\|date\\=September 29, 2021}} is an indispensable part of every Brazilian's diet. \"Chimarrão,\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2020}} a caffeinated drink made of “erva mate”,{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2020}} and the super caffeinated \"cafezinho\" are commonly served at meals, between meals, and for snacks. The average Brazilian drinks 12\\-24 of these concoctions per day.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=Brazilian cuisine\\|journal\\=Vegetarian Journal\\|volume\\=21\\|issue\\=2}}", "### Chile", "{{Main\\|Chilean cuisine}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|Caldillo de Congrio of Chile](/wiki/File:Caldillo_de_congrio.jpg \"Caldillo de congrio.jpg\")", "Chilean cuisine stems from the combination of traditional [Spanish cuisine](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine \"Spanish cuisine\") with indigenous ingredients.", "European immigrants also brought with them various styles and traditions in cooking, heavily influencing the cuisine of Chile, including Italian, German, and French influences as well as the English afternoon tea. These mixtures have created a unique fusion. Seafood is widely used and an array of produce which historically has grown throughout the region have been implemented into Chilean gastronomy. Many recipes are accompanied and enhanced by [Chilean wine](/wiki/Chilean_wine \"Chilean wine\") such as [Curanto](/wiki/Curanto \"Curanto\").", "### Colombia", "{{Main\\|Colombian cuisine}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|[Bandeja paisa](/wiki/Bandeja_paisa \"Bandeja paisa\") of Colombia](/wiki/File:Banpaisa.png \"Banpaisa.png\")", "The cuisine of [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") consists of a large variety of dishes that take into account the difference in regional climates. For example, in the city of Medellín the typical dish is the [bandeja paisa](/wiki/Bandeja_paisa \"Bandeja paisa\"). It includes beans, rice, ground meat or carne asada, [chorizo](/wiki/Chorizo \"Chorizo\"), fried egg, arepa and chicharrón. It is usually accompanied by avocado, tomato and sauces.", "Inland, the plates resemble the mix of cultures, inherited mainly from Amerindian and European cuisine, and the produce of the land mainly agriculture, cattle, river fishing and other animals' raising. Such is the case of the sancocho soup in Valledupar. Local species of animals like the guaratinaja, part of the wayuu Amerindian culture.", "### Ecuador", "{{Main\\|Ecuadorian cuisine}}\n{{See also\\|List of Ecuadorian dishes and foods}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|[Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca \"Fanesca\") of Ecuador](/wiki/File:Fanesca.jpg \"Fanesca.jpg\")", "The food in Ecuador is diverse, varying with altitude, associated agricultural conditions, and ethnic and racial communities. Ecuadorian cuisine is an amalgamation of Spanish, Andean, and Amazonian cuisines and to a lesser degree Italian, Lebanese, African, and Chinese. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional 3 course meal of sopa/soup and segundo/second dish then dessert and a coffee are customary. Dinner is usually lighter and sometimes just coffee or agua de remedio/herbal tea with bread.", "Beef, chicken, and seafood are popular in the coastal regions and are typically served with carbohydrate\\-rich foods, such as rice accompanied with lentils, pasta, or plantain, whereas in the mountainous regions pork, chicken, beef and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are often served with rice, corn, or potatoes.", "Some of the typical dishes in the [coastal region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Costa \"Geography of Ecuador#La Costa\") are: a variety of [ceviches](/wiki/Ceviche \"Ceviche\"), *[pan de yuca](/wiki/Pan_de_yuca \"Pan de yuca\")* (cassava bread), *corviche* (plantain, peanut and fish dumplings), *[guatita](/wiki/Guatita \"Guatita\")*, *[encebollado](/wiki/Encebollado \"Encebollado\")* (fish, cassava and onion stew), *empanada de viento* (deep\\-fried flour [empanada](/wiki/Empanada \"Empanada\") with cheese filling, served sprinkled with sugar), empanada de verde (green plantain empanada with cheese filling), [mangrove crab](/wiki/Mangrove_crab \"Mangrove crab\"), *arroz con menestra* ([lentil or bean stew and rice](/wiki/Rice_and_beans \"Rice and beans\")) con [asado](/wiki/Asado \"Asado\"), *caldo de bola* (beef soup featuring a green plantain ball filled with meat, egg, and spices). Local staples are [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\"), [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 \"Plantain (cooking)\") and a great variety of [seafood](/wiki/Seafood \"Seafood\").", "Typical dishes in the [mountain region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Sierra \"Geography of Ecuador#La Sierra\") include: [hornado](/wiki/Hornado \"Hornado\"), [fritada](/wiki/Fritada \"Fritada\"), [humitas](/wiki/Humita \"Humita\"), [tamales](/wiki/Tamale \"Tamale\"), [llapingachos](/wiki/Llapingacho \"Llapingacho\"), [lomo saltado](/wiki/Lomo_saltado \"Lomo saltado\"), and *[churrasco](/wiki/Churrasco \"Churrasco\")*. [Pork](/wiki/Pork \"Pork\"), [chicken](/wiki/Chicken_as_food \"Chicken as food\"), beef, and *cuy* ([guinea pig](/wiki/Guinea_pig \"Guinea pig\")) are popular in the mountain regions and are served with a variety of grains (especially [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\") and [corn](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") or [potatoes](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\")). A popular street food in mountain regions is *[hornado](/wiki/Hornado \"Hornado\")*, consisting of potatoes served with roasted pig. [Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca \"Fanesca\"), a fish soup including several types of bean, is often eaten during [Lent](/wiki/Lent \"Lent\") and [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\"). During the week before the commemoration of the deceased or [All Souls' Day](/wiki/All_Souls%27_Day \"All Souls' Day\"), the fruit beverage *[colada morada](/wiki/Colada_morada \"Colada morada\")* is typical, accompanied by *[t'anta wawa](/wiki/T%27anta_wawa \"T'anta wawa\")* which is stuffed bread shaped like children.", "In the rainforest, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. The starchy root is peeled and boiled, fried, or used in a variety of other dishes. Across the nation it is also used as a bread, pan de yuca, which is analogous to the Brazilian [pão de queijo](/wiki/P%C3%A3o_de_queijo \"Pão de queijo\") and its often consumed alongside different types of drinkable yogurt \"yogur persa\" brought by Persian immigrants.", "[Chifa](/wiki/Chifa \"Chifa\") (from the Mandarin words 吃饭, meaning \"to eat rice\") Ecuadorian\\-Chinese fusion food is a mainstay of Ecuadorian cuisine.", "### Paraguay", "{{Main\\|Paraguayan cuisine}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|[Sopa paraguaya](/wiki/Sopa_paraguaya \"Sopa paraguaya\")](/wiki/File:Sopa_Paraguaya.jpg \"Sopa Paraguaya.jpg\")", "The cuisine of Paraguay is the set of dishes and culinary techniques of [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay \"Paraguay\"). Much like its neighboring countries, Paraguayan cuisine is a fusion of Indigenous cuisine ([Guaraní](/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD_people \"Guaraní people\")), Spanish cuisine and international cuisines from those who have immigrated over the years. Meat, especially beef, is a staple of the Paraguayan diet. This is reflected in the [Asado](/wiki/Asado \"Asado\"), a series of barbecuing practices and the social event that are traditional to Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay.", "The cuisine of Paraguay includes unique dishes such as *[sopa paraguaya](/wiki/Sopa_paraguaya \"Sopa paraguaya\"),* [kiveve](/wiki/Kiveve \"Kiveve\") prepared using a pumpkin, also known as \"andai\", or [Chipa Guasú](/wiki/Chipa_Guasu \"Chipa Guasu\"). Chipa Guasú, an original dish to Paraguay, is a cake made with corn grains that is now widely served in Northeastern Argentina as well. The national drink of Paraguay is known as [terere](/wiki/Terer%C3%A9 \"Tereré\"), in addition to fruit juices and soft drinks being very common throughout the country. [Yucca](/wiki/Yucca \"Yucca\") and [corn](/wiki/Corn \"Corn\") are two important ingredients in Paraguayan cuisine", "### Peru", "{{Main\\|Peruvian cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|[Ceviche](/wiki/Ceviche \"Ceviche\"), a [Peruvian](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") dish that has grown rapidly in popularity](/wiki/File:Ceviche_from_Peru.jpg \"Ceviche from Peru.jpg\")", "Peru has a varied cuisine with ingredients like [potato](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\"), uchu or [Ají](/wiki/Capsicum_baccatum \"Capsicum baccatum\") ([Capsicum](/wiki/Capsicum \"Capsicum\") pubescens), [oca](/wiki/Oxalis_tuberosa \"Oxalis tuberosa\"), [ulluco](/wiki/Ulluco \"Ulluco\"), [avocado](/wiki/Avocado \"Avocado\"), fruits like [chirimoya](/wiki/Chirimoya \"Chirimoya\"), [lúcuma](/wiki/L%C3%BAcuma \"Lúcuma\") and [pineapple](/wiki/Pineapple \"Pineapple\"), and animals like [taruca](/wiki/Taruca \"Taruca\") (*Hippocamelus antisensis*), [llama](/wiki/Llama \"Llama\") and [guinea pig](/wiki/Guinea_pig \"Guinea pig\") (called *cuy*). The combination of [Inca](/wiki/Inca_cuisine \"Inca cuisine\") and [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_cuisine \"Spanish cuisine\") culinary traditions, resulted in new meals and ways of preparing them. The arrival of Africans, Chinese and Japanese immigrants in the 19th century also resulted in the development of *Creole* cuisine in the city of [Lima](/wiki/Lima \"Lima\"), where the vast majority of these immigrants settled.", "Some typical Peruvian dishes are [ceviche](/wiki/Ceviche \"Ceviche\") ([fish](/wiki/Fish_%28food%29 \"Fish (food)\") and [shellfish](/wiki/Shellfish \"Shellfish\") marinated in [citrus](/wiki/Citrus \"Citrus\") juices), the chupe de camarones (a [soup](/wiki/Soup \"Soup\") made of [shrimp](/wiki/Shrimp_and_prawn_as_food \"Shrimp and prawn as food\") (*Cryphiops caementarius*)), [anticuchos](/wiki/Anticucho \"Anticucho\") (cow's heart roasted *en [brochette](/wiki/Brochette \"Brochette\")*), the olluco con charqui (a casserole dish made of [ulluco](/wiki/Ulluco \"Ulluco\") and [charqui](/wiki/Charqui \"Charqui\")), the [Andean pachamanca](/wiki/Pachamanca \"Pachamanca\") (meats, tubers and [broad beans](/wiki/Vicia_faba \"Vicia faba\") cooked in a stone oven), the [lomo saltado](/wiki/Lomo_saltado \"Lomo saltado\") (meat fried lightly with tomato and onion, served with [french fries](/wiki/French_fries \"French fries\") and [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\")) that has a Chinese influence, and the picante de cuy (a casserole dish made of fried guinea pig with some spices). Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the chicha de jora (a [chicha](/wiki/Chicha \"Chicha\") made of tender corn dried by the sun). There are also chichas made of [peanuts](/wiki/Peanut \"Peanut\") or [purple corn](/wiki/Purple_corn \"Purple corn\"), known as [chicha morada](/wiki/Chicha_morada \"Chicha morada\").", "### Uruguay", "{{Main\\|Uruguayan cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|150px\\|A complete chivito\\|right](/wiki/File:Chivito_al_pan_uruguayo.jpg \"Chivito al pan uruguayo.jpg\")", "The cuisine of [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\") is traditionally based on its European roots, especially from Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, Germany and Britain. Many foods from those countries such as pasta, sausages, and desserts are common in the nation's diet. The Uruguayan barbecue, asado, is one of the most exquisite and famous in the world. A sweet paste, Dulce de Leche is the national obsession, used to fill cookies, cakes, pancakes, [milhojas](/wiki/Milhoja \"Milhoja\"), and [alfajores](/wiki/Alfajore \"Alfajore\").", "The base of the country's diet is meat and animal products: primarily beef but also chicken, lamb, pig, and sometimes fish. The preferred cooking methods for meats and vegetables are still [boiling](/wiki/Boiling \"Boiling\") and [roasting](/wiki/Roasting \"Roasting\"), although modernization has popularized frying (see [milanesas](/wiki/Milanesa \"Milanesa\") and [chivitos](/wiki/Chivito_%28sandwich%29 \"Chivito (sandwich)\")). Meanwhile, [wheat](/wiki/Wheat \"Wheat\") and fruit are generally served fried ([torta frita](/wiki/Torta_frita \"Torta frita\") and [pasteles](/wiki/Pasteles \"Pasteles\")), [comfited](/wiki/Comfit \"Comfit\") ([rapadura](/wiki/Rapadura \"Rapadura\") and ticholos de banana), and sometimes baked ([rosca](/wiki/Rosca \"Rosca\") de [chicharrones](/wiki/Chicharrones \"Chicharrones\")), a new modern style. [Bushmeat](/wiki/Bushmeat \"Bushmeat\") comes from [mulitas](/wiki/Armadillo \"Armadillo\") and [carpinchos](/wiki/Capibara \"Capibara\"). Regional fruits like [butia](/wiki/Butia \"Butia\") and [pitanga](/wiki/Eugenia_uniflora \"Eugenia uniflora\") are commonly used for flavoring caña, along with [quinotos](/wiki/Kumquat \"Kumquat\") and [nísperos](/wiki/N%C3%ADspero \"Níspero\").", "### Venezuela", "{{Main\\|Venezuelan cuisine}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|[Arepas](/wiki/Arepas \"Arepas\") of Venezuela with chicken schnitzel, avocado, mayonnaise and red onion](/wiki/File:Arepas_with_chicken_schnitzel%2C_avocado%2C_mayonnaise_and_red_onion.jpg \"Arepas with chicken schnitzel, avocado, mayonnaise and red onion.jpg\")", "Due to its land, diversity of agricultural resources, and the cultural diversity of the [Venezuelan](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") people, Venezuelan cuisine often varies greatly from one region to another. Its cuisine, traditional as well as modern, is influenced by its European, Amerindian and West African traditions. [Food staples](/wiki/Food_staple \"Food staple\") include [corn](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\"), [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\"), [plantain](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 \"Plantain (cooking)\"), [yams](/wiki/Yam_%28vegetable%29 \"Yam (vegetable)\"), [beans](/wiki/Bean \"Bean\") and several meats. Potatoes, tomatoes, [onions](/wiki/Onion \"Onion\"), [eggplants](/wiki/Eggplant \"Eggplant\"), [squashes](/wiki/Squash_%28plant%29 \"Squash (plant)\"), [spinach](/wiki/Spinach \"Spinach\") and [zucchini](/wiki/Zucchini \"Zucchini\") are also common sides in the Venezuelan diet. Venezuela has several representative national dishes such as the [arepa](/wiki/Arepa \"Arepa\") (a corn based bread like patty), [pan de jamón](/wiki/Pan_de_jam%C3%B3n \"Pan de jamón\"), [tequeño](/wiki/Teque%C3%B1o \"Tequeño\"), [pabellón criollo](/wiki/Pabell%C3%B3n_criollo \"Pabellón criollo\") and the [hallaca](/wiki/Hallaca \"Hallaca\") at [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") time.", "" ]
### Ecuador {{Main\|Ecuadorian cuisine}} {{See also\|List of Ecuadorian dishes and foods}} [thumb\|right\|150px\|[Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca "Fanesca") of Ecuador](/wiki/File:Fanesca.jpg "Fanesca.jpg") The food in Ecuador is diverse, varying with altitude, associated agricultural conditions, and ethnic and racial communities. Ecuadorian cuisine is an amalgamation of Spanish, Andean, and Amazonian cuisines and to a lesser degree Italian, Lebanese, African, and Chinese. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional 3 course meal of sopa/soup and segundo/second dish then dessert and a coffee are customary. Dinner is usually lighter and sometimes just coffee or agua de remedio/herbal tea with bread. Beef, chicken, and seafood are popular in the coastal regions and are typically served with carbohydrate\-rich foods, such as rice accompanied with lentils, pasta, or plantain, whereas in the mountainous regions pork, chicken, beef and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are often served with rice, corn, or potatoes. Some of the typical dishes in the [coastal region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Costa "Geography of Ecuador#La Costa") are: a variety of [ceviches](/wiki/Ceviche "Ceviche"), *[pan de yuca](/wiki/Pan_de_yuca "Pan de yuca")* (cassava bread), *corviche* (plantain, peanut and fish dumplings), *[guatita](/wiki/Guatita "Guatita")*, *[encebollado](/wiki/Encebollado "Encebollado")* (fish, cassava and onion stew), *empanada de viento* (deep\-fried flour [empanada](/wiki/Empanada "Empanada") with cheese filling, served sprinkled with sugar), empanada de verde (green plantain empanada with cheese filling), [mangrove crab](/wiki/Mangrove_crab "Mangrove crab"), *arroz con menestra* ([lentil or bean stew and rice](/wiki/Rice_and_beans "Rice and beans")) con [asado](/wiki/Asado "Asado"), *caldo de bola* (beef soup featuring a green plantain ball filled with meat, egg, and spices). Local staples are [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice"), [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 "Plantain (cooking)") and a great variety of [seafood](/wiki/Seafood "Seafood"). Typical dishes in the [mountain region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Sierra "Geography of Ecuador#La Sierra") include: [hornado](/wiki/Hornado "Hornado"), [fritada](/wiki/Fritada "Fritada"), [humitas](/wiki/Humita "Humita"), [tamales](/wiki/Tamale "Tamale"), [llapingachos](/wiki/Llapingacho "Llapingacho"), [lomo saltado](/wiki/Lomo_saltado "Lomo saltado"), and *[churrasco](/wiki/Churrasco "Churrasco")*. [Pork](/wiki/Pork "Pork"), [chicken](/wiki/Chicken_as_food "Chicken as food"), beef, and *cuy* ([guinea pig](/wiki/Guinea_pig "Guinea pig")) are popular in the mountain regions and are served with a variety of grains (especially [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice") and [corn](/wiki/Maize "Maize") or [potatoes](/wiki/Potato "Potato")). A popular street food in mountain regions is *[hornado](/wiki/Hornado "Hornado")*, consisting of potatoes served with roasted pig. [Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca "Fanesca"), a fish soup including several types of bean, is often eaten during [Lent](/wiki/Lent "Lent") and [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter"). During the week before the commemoration of the deceased or [All Souls' Day](/wiki/All_Souls%27_Day "All Souls' Day"), the fruit beverage *[colada morada](/wiki/Colada_morada "Colada morada")* is typical, accompanied by *[t'anta wawa](/wiki/T%27anta_wawa "T'anta wawa")* which is stuffed bread shaped like children. In the rainforest, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. The starchy root is peeled and boiled, fried, or used in a variety of other dishes. Across the nation it is also used as a bread, pan de yuca, which is analogous to the Brazilian [pão de queijo](/wiki/P%C3%A3o_de_queijo "Pão de queijo") and its often consumed alongside different types of drinkable yogurt "yogur persa" brought by Persian immigrants. [Chifa](/wiki/Chifa "Chifa") (from the Mandarin words 吃饭, meaning "to eat rice") Ecuadorian\-Chinese fusion food is a mainstay of Ecuadorian cuisine.
[ "### Ecuador", "{{Main\\|Ecuadorian cuisine}}\n{{See also\\|List of Ecuadorian dishes and foods}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|[Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca \"Fanesca\") of Ecuador](/wiki/File:Fanesca.jpg \"Fanesca.jpg\")", "The food in Ecuador is diverse, varying with altitude, associated agricultural conditions, and ethnic and racial communities. Ecuadorian cuisine is an amalgamation of Spanish, Andean, and Amazonian cuisines and to a lesser degree Italian, Lebanese, African, and Chinese. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional 3 course meal of sopa/soup and segundo/second dish then dessert and a coffee are customary. Dinner is usually lighter and sometimes just coffee or agua de remedio/herbal tea with bread.", "Beef, chicken, and seafood are popular in the coastal regions and are typically served with carbohydrate\\-rich foods, such as rice accompanied with lentils, pasta, or plantain, whereas in the mountainous regions pork, chicken, beef and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are often served with rice, corn, or potatoes.", "Some of the typical dishes in the [coastal region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Costa \"Geography of Ecuador#La Costa\") are: a variety of [ceviches](/wiki/Ceviche \"Ceviche\"), *[pan de yuca](/wiki/Pan_de_yuca \"Pan de yuca\")* (cassava bread), *corviche* (plantain, peanut and fish dumplings), *[guatita](/wiki/Guatita \"Guatita\")*, *[encebollado](/wiki/Encebollado \"Encebollado\")* (fish, cassava and onion stew), *empanada de viento* (deep\\-fried flour [empanada](/wiki/Empanada \"Empanada\") with cheese filling, served sprinkled with sugar), empanada de verde (green plantain empanada with cheese filling), [mangrove crab](/wiki/Mangrove_crab \"Mangrove crab\"), *arroz con menestra* ([lentil or bean stew and rice](/wiki/Rice_and_beans \"Rice and beans\")) con [asado](/wiki/Asado \"Asado\"), *caldo de bola* (beef soup featuring a green plantain ball filled with meat, egg, and spices). Local staples are [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\"), [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 \"Plantain (cooking)\") and a great variety of [seafood](/wiki/Seafood \"Seafood\").", "Typical dishes in the [mountain region](/wiki/Geography_of_Ecuador%23La_Sierra \"Geography of Ecuador#La Sierra\") include: [hornado](/wiki/Hornado \"Hornado\"), [fritada](/wiki/Fritada \"Fritada\"), [humitas](/wiki/Humita \"Humita\"), [tamales](/wiki/Tamale \"Tamale\"), [llapingachos](/wiki/Llapingacho \"Llapingacho\"), [lomo saltado](/wiki/Lomo_saltado \"Lomo saltado\"), and *[churrasco](/wiki/Churrasco \"Churrasco\")*. [Pork](/wiki/Pork \"Pork\"), [chicken](/wiki/Chicken_as_food \"Chicken as food\"), beef, and *cuy* ([guinea pig](/wiki/Guinea_pig \"Guinea pig\")) are popular in the mountain regions and are served with a variety of grains (especially [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\") and [corn](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") or [potatoes](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\")). A popular street food in mountain regions is *[hornado](/wiki/Hornado \"Hornado\")*, consisting of potatoes served with roasted pig. [Fanesca](/wiki/Fanesca \"Fanesca\"), a fish soup including several types of bean, is often eaten during [Lent](/wiki/Lent \"Lent\") and [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\"). During the week before the commemoration of the deceased or [All Souls' Day](/wiki/All_Souls%27_Day \"All Souls' Day\"), the fruit beverage *[colada morada](/wiki/Colada_morada \"Colada morada\")* is typical, accompanied by *[t'anta wawa](/wiki/T%27anta_wawa \"T'anta wawa\")* which is stuffed bread shaped like children.", "In the rainforest, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. The starchy root is peeled and boiled, fried, or used in a variety of other dishes. Across the nation it is also used as a bread, pan de yuca, which is analogous to the Brazilian [pão de queijo](/wiki/P%C3%A3o_de_queijo \"Pão de queijo\") and its often consumed alongside different types of drinkable yogurt \"yogur persa\" brought by Persian immigrants.", "[Chifa](/wiki/Chifa \"Chifa\") (from the Mandarin words 吃饭, meaning \"to eat rice\") Ecuadorian\\-Chinese fusion food is a mainstay of Ecuadorian cuisine.", "" ]
History ------- The bank was founded in 1969 as a consumer credit institution to finance goods purchased by customers of the mail order firm [Otto Versand](/wiki/Otto_GmbH "Otto GmbH").Homepage Hanseatic Bank, Wir über uns (in German) [https://www.hanseaticbank.de/services/ueber\-uns](https://www.hanseaticbank.de/services/ueber-uns) At the time, the bank was operating under the name Hanseatic Bank Teilzahlungsfinanzierungs\-GmbH \& Co KG.Kompany, {{cite web \|url\=https://www.kompany.de/p/de/hra68192%20hamburg \|title\=Hanseatic Bank GMBH \& Co Kg \|accessdate\=2015\-04\-29 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402173808/https://www.kompany.de/p/de/hra68192%20hamburg \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-02 }} Its initial activity consisted of providing Otto customers with consumer credits for their purchases from mail\-order catalogues and managing the corresponding payment transactions. In 1976, it was converted into a chartered [universal bank](/wiki/Universal_bank "Universal bank").PDF Hanseatic Bank: Facts and Figures, Homepage Hanseatic Bank, <https://www.hanseaticbank.de/content/download/1261/file/Hanseatic%20Bank_Facts%20and%20Figures_en.pdf> This enabled the product portfolio to be expanded to include all banking products. In addition to issuing consumer loans, savings certificates and deposits made it possible for customers to make secure investments. Later, this segment was further expanded to include transactions with funds and life insurance policies. A branch network was set up as part of the introduction of deposit\-taking business. In 1976, branch offices were opened in Essen, Hanau, Hanover and Nuremberg in addition to Hamburg. In 1985, the bank was one of the first providers to introduce ATMs in Germany. ### 1990 \- 2005 After the German reunification in 1990, the branch network was extended to the East German cities of Leipzig, Dresden, Erfurt, Schwerin and Rostock from 1991 to 1993\. The factoring business with Otto and Schwab was also introduced in 1990\. The development of the real estate business started in the mid\-1990s. From 1996 to 2005, the pre\-financing of the state subsidy for owner\-occupied homes was part of the portfolio. Since 1997, the bank offers its own product “EigentümerDarlehen”, a personal loan for home owners. ### 2005 \- present Until 2005, Otto Versand held 90 percent and Schwab Versand 10 percent of the shares in Hanseatic Bank.Brochure, “Gute Gründe für die Hanseatic Bank” (in German) In 2005, the major French bank [Société Générale](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale "Société Générale") acquired 75 percent of the shares; Otto Group continues to own a 25\-percent stake. In 2006, Hanseatic Bank founded its subsidiary Hanseatic Service Center GmbH (HSCE), where the employees are responsible for the lending and deposit administration and answer customers’ and partners’ questions via phone and e\-mail. In 2007, the bank developed a customer credit card for Otto and Schwab customers. One year later, the bank's own GenialCard credit card was launched, followed by the GoldCard in 2015\. In the meantime, the credit card business has been further expanded with cooperation partners. On February 10, 2019 Hanseatic Bank celebrated its 50th anniversary. In 2020, all branch locations outside of Hamburg were closed. Hanseatic Bank is currently only operating with one branch in Hamburg. ### Former managing directors [thumb\|The managing directors of Hanseatic Bank: Detlef Zell and Michel Billon](/wiki/File:Detlef_Zell_und_Michel_Billon%2C_die_beiden_Gesch%C3%A4ftsf%C3%BChrer_der_Hanseatic_Bank_2017.jpg "Detlef Zell und Michel Billon, die beiden Geschäftsführer der Hanseatic Bank 2017.jpg") Since its foundation, Hanseatic Bank has had 14 different managing directors. Currently, Detlef Zell and Michel Billon hold this office. The managing directors in detail: * until 1969: Horst Hansen * 1969\-1971: Wilhelm Hopp * 1971\-1973: Peter Ott * 1973\-1977: Walter Willhöft * 1974\-1985: Friedhelm Rüther * 1977\-1981: Dr. jur. Ullrich Pannwitz * 1981\-1992: Dr. jur. Michael E. Crüsemann * 1981\-1983: Hans Duve * 1985\-2001: Karl\-Heinz Albien * 1992\-2007: Torsten BrandesHamburg local court (Amtsgericht), historic excerpt, HR B 12564, page 1 to 5\. * 2001\-now: Detlef Zell * 2006\-2009: Arnaud Leclair * 2009\-2010: Stéphane Riehl * 2010\-now: Michel BillonHamburg local court (Amtsgericht), HR B 12564, page 1 to 4\.
[ "History\n-------", "The bank was founded in 1969 as a consumer credit institution to finance goods purchased by customers of the mail order firm [Otto Versand](/wiki/Otto_GmbH \"Otto GmbH\").Homepage Hanseatic Bank, Wir über uns (in German) [https://www.hanseaticbank.de/services/ueber\\-uns](https://www.hanseaticbank.de/services/ueber-uns) At the time, the bank was operating under the name Hanseatic Bank Teilzahlungsfinanzierungs\\-GmbH \\& Co KG.Kompany, {{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.kompany.de/p/de/hra68192%20hamburg \\|title\\=Hanseatic Bank GMBH \\& Co Kg \\|accessdate\\=2015\\-04\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402173808/https://www.kompany.de/p/de/hra68192%20hamburg \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 }} Its initial activity consisted of providing Otto customers with consumer credits for their purchases from mail\\-order catalogues and managing the corresponding payment transactions.", "In 1976, it was converted into a chartered [universal bank](/wiki/Universal_bank \"Universal bank\").PDF Hanseatic Bank: Facts and Figures, Homepage Hanseatic Bank, <https://www.hanseaticbank.de/content/download/1261/file/Hanseatic%20Bank_Facts%20and%20Figures_en.pdf> This enabled the product portfolio to be expanded to include all banking products. In addition to issuing consumer loans, savings certificates and deposits made it possible for customers to make secure investments. Later, this segment was further expanded to include transactions with funds and life insurance policies. A branch network was set up as part of the introduction of deposit\\-taking business. In 1976, branch offices were opened in Essen, Hanau, Hanover and Nuremberg in addition to Hamburg. In 1985, the bank was one of the first providers to introduce ATMs in Germany.", "### 1990 \\- 2005", "After the German reunification in 1990, the branch network was extended to the East German cities of Leipzig, Dresden, Erfurt, Schwerin and Rostock from 1991 to 1993\\. The factoring business with Otto and Schwab was also introduced in 1990\\.", "The development of the real estate business started in the mid\\-1990s. From 1996 to 2005, the pre\\-financing of the state subsidy for owner\\-occupied homes was part of the portfolio. Since 1997, the bank offers its own product “EigentümerDarlehen”, a personal loan for home owners.", "### 2005 \\- present", "Until 2005, Otto Versand held 90 percent and Schwab Versand 10 percent of the shares in Hanseatic Bank.Brochure, “Gute Gründe für die Hanseatic Bank” (in German) In 2005, the major French bank [Société Générale](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale \"Société Générale\") acquired 75 percent of the shares; Otto Group continues to own a 25\\-percent stake.", "In 2006, Hanseatic Bank founded its subsidiary Hanseatic Service Center GmbH (HSCE), where the employees are responsible for the lending and deposit administration and answer customers’ and partners’ questions via phone and e\\-mail.", "In 2007, the bank developed a customer credit card for Otto and Schwab customers. One year later, the bank's own GenialCard credit card was launched, followed by the GoldCard in 2015\\. In the meantime, the credit card business has been further expanded with cooperation partners.", "On February 10, 2019 Hanseatic Bank celebrated its 50th anniversary.", "In 2020, all branch locations outside of Hamburg were closed. Hanseatic Bank is currently only operating with one branch in Hamburg.", "### Former managing directors", "[thumb\\|The managing directors of Hanseatic Bank: Detlef Zell and Michel Billon](/wiki/File:Detlef_Zell_und_Michel_Billon%2C_die_beiden_Gesch%C3%A4ftsf%C3%BChrer_der_Hanseatic_Bank_2017.jpg \"Detlef Zell und Michel Billon, die beiden Geschäftsführer der Hanseatic Bank 2017.jpg\")\nSince its foundation, Hanseatic Bank has had 14 different managing directors. Currently, Detlef Zell and Michel Billon hold this office.", "The managing directors in detail:\n* until 1969: Horst Hansen\n* 1969\\-1971: Wilhelm Hopp\n* 1971\\-1973: Peter Ott\n* 1973\\-1977: Walter Willhöft\n* 1974\\-1985: Friedhelm Rüther\n* 1977\\-1981: Dr. jur. Ullrich Pannwitz\n* 1981\\-1992: Dr. jur. Michael E. Crüsemann\n* 1981\\-1983: Hans Duve\n* 1985\\-2001: Karl\\-Heinz Albien\n* 1992\\-2007: Torsten BrandesHamburg local court (Amtsgericht), historic excerpt, HR B 12564, page 1 to 5\\.\n* 2001\\-now: Detlef Zell\n* 2006\\-2009: Arnaud Leclair\n* 2009\\-2010: Stéphane Riehl\n* 2010\\-now: Michel BillonHamburg local court (Amtsgericht), HR B 12564, page 1 to 4\\.", "" ]
History ------- The hamlet was founded by [Lieutenant\-Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant-Colonel "Lieutenant-Colonel") [Samuel Ryerse](/wiki/Samuel_Ryerse "Samuel Ryerse"), brother of [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") [Joseph Ryerson](/wiki/Joseph_Ryerson "Joseph Ryerson") and uncle of [Egerton Ryerson](/wiki/Egerton_Ryerson "Egerton Ryerson"). Ryerse served with the [New Jersey Volunteers](/wiki/New_Jersey_Volunteers "New Jersey Volunteers") and later commanded the [1st Norfolk Militia](/wiki/1st_Norfolk_Militia "1st Norfolk Militia"). Its harbour was important for shipping cargo from Norfolk County across the lake;{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nornet.on.ca/\~jcardiff/transcipts/bios\-photos/essays/glorious.html\|title \= Genealogy \| Transcriptions \| Photos \* Bios \| Essays \| Glorious Old Norfolk}} although its importance declined significantly sometime around the 1880s due to the advent of the railroad.[*Port Ryerse recognized as a historic village*](http://www.simcoereformer.ca/2013/06/23/port-ryerse-recognized-as-a-historic-village) at Simcoe Reformer Samuel Ryerse was a United Empire Loyalist who fought with the British during the American Revolution and came to Upper Canada in 1794 where he received 3000 acres of land. He built a grist mill at the mouth of Young's Creek and a settlement grew up around it. Ryerse remained involved with the military as Lieutenant of the County of Norfolk and was also the chairman of the Court of Quarter Sessions.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.waynecook.com/ahaldimand\-norfolk.html \| title\=Historical Plaques of Haldimand\-Norfolk \| access\-date\=2024\-03\-15 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812005624/http://www.waynecook.com/ahaldimand\-norfolk.html \| archive\-date\=2016\-08\-12}} The mill was burned by American troops in 1814 during the War of 1812\. In later years, two new gristmills were built at the same location but both burned down (in 1860 and in 1890\). A brick schoolhouse was built in 1871\. Port Ryerse is also the birthplace of [John Edward Brownlee](/wiki/John_Edward_Brownlee "John Edward Brownlee"), who was the Premier of the province of Alberta during the [Roaring Twenties](/wiki/Roaring_Twenties "Roaring Twenties") and through the early years of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). John Brownlee had one sister, Maude, born September 12, 1888\.Foster (1981\) 4 The Brownlees lived in the general store building, and it was here that John spent the happiest times of his childhood: he much preferred his parents' books, their political discussions with neighbours, and the details of their business to life outside the store.Foster (1981\) 3–4 One anecdote has the village children, displeased with his serious temperament, throwing him into Lake Erie.Foster (1981\) 3 By the age of seven, John was assisting at the store with such tasks as mixing [butter](/wiki/Butter "Butter") from the different dairies with which his father dealt to produce a standardized blend. A public [elementary school](/wiki/Elementary_school "Elementary school") called Port Ryerse School was located here that was in operation from the 19th century to the 1950s. Both [Caucasian](/wiki/Caucasian_race "Caucasian race") and [African\-Canadian](/wiki/Black_Canadians "Black Canadians") students were [photographed](/wiki/Photograph "Photograph") attending the school in the year 1898\.{{cite web \| url \= http://www.nornet.on.ca/\~jcardiff/submissions/ryerse\_98/\| title \= Port Ryerse School 1898 \| publisher \= Nornet \| date \= \| accessdate \= 2008\-05\-12}} The teacher shown in the 1898 school photograph was Miss A. Exelby and the picture was taken on September 14, 1898\. At least 194 different species of bird have been discovered here between 1875 and 2019; including the [Passenger pigeon](/wiki/Passenger_pigeon "Passenger pigeon"), the [Indigo bunting](/wiki/Indigo_bunting "Indigo bunting"), and the [Northern cardinal](/wiki/Northern_cardinal "Northern cardinal").{{cite web \| url \= https://ebird.org/canada/hotspot/L879247?yr\=all\&m\=\&rank\=lrec\| title \= Bird Counts in Port Ryerse, Ontario \| publisher \= eBird \| date \= \| accessdate \= 2019\-05\-22}} In 2001, Haldimand\-Norfolk was dissolved into two separate single\-tier counties. Port Ryerse became part of the newly formed County of Norfolk. ### Cemetery The Memorial Anglican Church Cemetery is located in the hamlet; with at least 26 individuals or families buried here. There are various traditional British surnames like Fletcher, Lawrence, Ryerse, Sells, and Stalker among those buried at this cemetery. The most recent burial in the Memorial Anglican Church Cemetery happens to be of Miss Sarah Fletcher (who died in 1880\). Lieut\-Colonel Samuel Vanderhoff Ryerse Sr. was the oldest known male to be buried in this cemetery (died in 1812\) while the oldest known female to be buried at this cemetery is Sarah Ryerse (née Underhill; died in 1838 in her 81st year).
[ "History\n-------", "The hamlet was founded by [Lieutenant\\-Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant-Colonel \"Lieutenant-Colonel\") [Samuel Ryerse](/wiki/Samuel_Ryerse \"Samuel Ryerse\"), brother of [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") [Joseph Ryerson](/wiki/Joseph_Ryerson \"Joseph Ryerson\") and uncle of [Egerton Ryerson](/wiki/Egerton_Ryerson \"Egerton Ryerson\"). Ryerse served with the [New Jersey Volunteers](/wiki/New_Jersey_Volunteers \"New Jersey Volunteers\") and later commanded the [1st Norfolk Militia](/wiki/1st_Norfolk_Militia \"1st Norfolk Militia\").", "Its harbour was important for shipping cargo from Norfolk County across the lake;{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nornet.on.ca/\\~jcardiff/transcipts/bios\\-photos/essays/glorious.html\\|title \\= Genealogy \\| Transcriptions \\| Photos \\* Bios \\| Essays \\| Glorious Old Norfolk}} although its importance declined significantly sometime around the 1880s due to the advent of the railroad.[*Port Ryerse recognized as a historic village*](http://www.simcoereformer.ca/2013/06/23/port-ryerse-recognized-as-a-historic-village) at Simcoe Reformer", "Samuel Ryerse was a United Empire Loyalist who fought with the British during the American Revolution and came to Upper Canada in 1794 where he received 3000 acres of land. He built a grist mill at the mouth of Young's Creek and a settlement grew up around it. Ryerse remained involved with the military as Lieutenant of the County of Norfolk and was also the chairman of the Court of Quarter Sessions.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.waynecook.com/ahaldimand\\-norfolk.html \\| title\\=Historical Plaques of Haldimand\\-Norfolk \\| access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-15 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812005624/http://www.waynecook.com/ahaldimand\\-norfolk.html \\| archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-12}}", "The mill was burned by American troops in 1814 during the War of 1812\\. In later years, two new gristmills were built at the same location but both burned down (in 1860 and in 1890\\). A brick schoolhouse was built in 1871\\.", "Port Ryerse is also the birthplace of [John Edward Brownlee](/wiki/John_Edward_Brownlee \"John Edward Brownlee\"), who was the Premier of the province of Alberta during the [Roaring Twenties](/wiki/Roaring_Twenties \"Roaring Twenties\") and through the early years of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). John Brownlee had one sister, Maude, born September 12, 1888\\.Foster (1981\\) 4 The Brownlees lived in the general store building, and it was here that John spent the happiest times of his childhood: he much preferred his parents' books, their political discussions with neighbours, and the details of their business to life outside the store.Foster (1981\\) 3–4 One anecdote has the village children, displeased with his serious temperament, throwing him into Lake Erie.Foster (1981\\) 3 By the age of seven, John was assisting at the store with such tasks as mixing [butter](/wiki/Butter \"Butter\") from the different dairies with which his father dealt to produce a standardized blend.", "A public [elementary school](/wiki/Elementary_school \"Elementary school\") called Port Ryerse School was located here that was in operation from the 19th century to the 1950s. Both [Caucasian](/wiki/Caucasian_race \"Caucasian race\") and [African\\-Canadian](/wiki/Black_Canadians \"Black Canadians\") students were [photographed](/wiki/Photograph \"Photograph\") attending the school in the year 1898\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://www.nornet.on.ca/\\~jcardiff/submissions/ryerse\\_98/\\| title \\= Port Ryerse School 1898 \\| publisher \\= Nornet \\| date \\= \\| accessdate \\= 2008\\-05\\-12}} The teacher shown in the 1898 school photograph was Miss A. Exelby and the picture was taken on September 14, 1898\\.", "At least 194 different species of bird have been discovered here between 1875 and 2019; including the [Passenger pigeon](/wiki/Passenger_pigeon \"Passenger pigeon\"), the [Indigo bunting](/wiki/Indigo_bunting \"Indigo bunting\"), and the [Northern cardinal](/wiki/Northern_cardinal \"Northern cardinal\").{{cite web \\| url \\= https://ebird.org/canada/hotspot/L879247?yr\\=all\\&m\\=\\&rank\\=lrec\\| title \\= Bird Counts in Port Ryerse, Ontario \\| publisher \\= eBird \\| date \\= \\| accessdate \\= 2019\\-05\\-22}}", "In 2001, Haldimand\\-Norfolk was dissolved into two separate single\\-tier counties. Port Ryerse became part of the newly formed County of Norfolk.", "### Cemetery", "The Memorial Anglican Church Cemetery is located in the hamlet; with at least 26 individuals or families buried here.", "There are various traditional British surnames like Fletcher, Lawrence, Ryerse, Sells, and Stalker among those buried at this cemetery. The most recent burial in the Memorial Anglican Church Cemetery happens to be of Miss Sarah Fletcher (who died in 1880\\). Lieut\\-Colonel Samuel Vanderhoff Ryerse Sr. was the oldest known male to be buried in this cemetery (died in 1812\\) while the oldest known female to be buried at this cemetery is Sarah Ryerse (née Underhill; died in 1838 in her 81st year).", "" ]
Design ------ The Widgeon 12 is a recreational [sailboat](/wiki/Sailboat "Sailboat"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass "Fiberglass"), with wood trim. It has a [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig "Fractional rig") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop "Sloop") rig with a loose\-footed [mainsail](/wiki/Mainsail "Mainsail"), a nearly [plumb stem](/wiki/Plumb_stem "Plumb stem"), a vertical [transom](/wiki/Transom_%28nautical%29 "Transom (nautical)"), a transom\-hung, kick\-up [rudder](/wiki/Rudder "Rudder") controlled by a [tiller](/wiki/Tiller "Tiller") and a retractable [centerboard](/wiki/Centerboard "Centerboard"). It displaces {{convert\|180\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} and the fiberglass centerboard weighs {{convert\|15\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}. It may be equipped with a [spinnaker](/wiki/Spinnaker "Spinnaker") of {{convert\|72\|sqft\|m2\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web\|url \= https://www.sailrite.com/Oday\-Widgeon\-Sail\-Data\|title \= O'Day Widgeon\|access\-date \= 6 July 2020\|work \=Sailrite\|year\= 2020\|archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20200706153305/https://www.sailrite.com/Oday\-Widgeon\-Sail\-Data\|archive\-date \= 6 July 2020\|url\-status\= live}} The boat has a [draft](/wiki/Draft_%28hull%29 "Draft (hull)") of {{convert\|3\.50\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with the centerboard extended and {{convert\|0\.42\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with it retracted, allowing [beaching](/wiki/Beaching_%28nautical%29 "Beaching (nautical)") or ground transportation on a [trailer](/wiki/Boat_trailer "Boat trailer") or car roof rack. The boat may be fitted with a small [outboard motor](/wiki/Outboard_motor "Outboard motor") of up to {{convert\|4\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} for docking and maneuvering. The design can accommodate four people although it is normally raced with two sailors. For sailing the design is equipped with a sealed mast, plus the boat has foam flotation to enhance self rescue in the event of a [capsize](/wiki/Capsize "Capsize"). It has a [bow eye](/wiki/Eye_bolt "Eye bolt") that can be used to attach a [painter line](/wiki/Painter_%28rope%29 "Painter (rope)") for mooring or trailering the boat. Factory options available included an [outhaul](/wiki/Outhaul "Outhaul"), [boom vang](/wiki/Boom_vang "Boom vang") and a tiller extension for [hiking out](/wiki/Hiking_%28sailing%29 "Hiking (sailing)"). The bow stowage compartment has optional doors. The design has a [Portsmouth Yardstick](/wiki/Portsmouth_Yardstick "Portsmouth Yardstick") racing average handicap of 122\.6\.
[ "Design\n------", "The Widgeon 12 is a recreational [sailboat](/wiki/Sailboat \"Sailboat\"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass \"Fiberglass\"), with wood trim. It has a [fractional](/wiki/Fractional_rig \"Fractional rig\") [sloop](/wiki/Sloop \"Sloop\") rig with a loose\\-footed [mainsail](/wiki/Mainsail \"Mainsail\"), a nearly [plumb stem](/wiki/Plumb_stem \"Plumb stem\"), a vertical [transom](/wiki/Transom_%28nautical%29 \"Transom (nautical)\"), a transom\\-hung, kick\\-up [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") controlled by a [tiller](/wiki/Tiller \"Tiller\") and a retractable [centerboard](/wiki/Centerboard \"Centerboard\"). It displaces {{convert\\|180\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and the fiberglass centerboard weighs {{convert\\|15\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. It may be equipped with a [spinnaker](/wiki/Spinnaker \"Spinnaker\") of {{convert\\|72\\|sqft\\|m2\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web\\|url \\= https://www.sailrite.com/Oday\\-Widgeon\\-Sail\\-Data\\|title \\= O'Day Widgeon\\|access\\-date \\= 6 July 2020\\|work \\=Sailrite\\|year\\= 2020\\|archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20200706153305/https://www.sailrite.com/Oday\\-Widgeon\\-Sail\\-Data\\|archive\\-date \\= 6 July 2020\\|url\\-status\\= live}}", "The boat has a [draft](/wiki/Draft_%28hull%29 \"Draft (hull)\") of {{convert\\|3\\.50\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with the centerboard extended and {{convert\\|0\\.42\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with it retracted, allowing [beaching](/wiki/Beaching_%28nautical%29 \"Beaching (nautical)\") or ground transportation on a [trailer](/wiki/Boat_trailer \"Boat trailer\") or car roof rack.", "The boat may be fitted with a small [outboard motor](/wiki/Outboard_motor \"Outboard motor\") of up to {{convert\\|4\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} for docking and maneuvering.", "The design can accommodate four people although it is normally raced with two sailors. For sailing the design is equipped with a sealed mast, plus the boat has foam flotation to enhance self rescue in the event of a [capsize](/wiki/Capsize \"Capsize\"). It has a [bow eye](/wiki/Eye_bolt \"Eye bolt\") that can be used to attach a [painter line](/wiki/Painter_%28rope%29 \"Painter (rope)\") for mooring or trailering the boat.", "Factory options available included an [outhaul](/wiki/Outhaul \"Outhaul\"), [boom vang](/wiki/Boom_vang \"Boom vang\") and a tiller extension for [hiking out](/wiki/Hiking_%28sailing%29 \"Hiking (sailing)\"). The bow stowage compartment has optional doors.", "The design has a [Portsmouth Yardstick](/wiki/Portsmouth_Yardstick \"Portsmouth Yardstick\") racing average handicap of 122\\.6\\.", "" ]
Plot ---- [Alexandre Borges](/wiki/Alexandre_Borges "Alexandre Borges") and [Murilo Benicio](/wiki/Murilo_Benicio "Murilo Benicio") interpret rivals in history, respectively Jacques Leclair and Victor Valentin, who spend the entire novel feuding over who stands in the world as a successful fashion designer, named transformed into designer collections and paraded in major fashion weeks and photographed for celebrity magazines. Their names, however, are not true. Under the flamboyant personality and seductive affected Jacques Leclair hides the fun and kitschy André Spina, a father of four, who works with the segment of dresses for parties. Victor Valentin, in turn, is a figure invented by Ariclenes Martins, Ari, to compete for the spotlight with André. Born in the same village Belenzinho neighborhood on the east side of São Paulo, and enemies since childhood, André Spina and Ariclenes Martins always played everything: toys, friends and girls. André owns a studio in Tatuapé, which goes by the name of Jacques Leclair, being very prestigious by the region's elite. Much of his success comes from his irresistible power of seduction, he disguises himself assuming an affected, like gay, not to arouse the jealousy of the husbands of their customers behavior. He began his career next dressmaker Martha ([Dira Paes](/wiki/Dira_Paes "Dira Paes")), her neighbor in Belenzinho, who fashioned his first creations and encouraged to invest in party clothes to. Abandoned her when she met Ana Maria, the daughter of a big wholesaler and he had the money he needed to mount his first workshop. Ana Maria had four children: Pedro ([Marco Pigossi](/wiki/Marco_Pigossi "Marco Pigossi")), Valquíria ([Juliana Paiva](/wiki/Juliana_Paiva "Juliana Paiva")) and twins Maria Beatriz (Mabi) ([Clara Tiezzi](/wiki/Clara_Tiezzi "Clara Tiezzi")), and Luis Felipe (Lipe) ([David Lucas](/wiki/David_Lucas_%28actor%29 "David Lucas (actor)")). Well off, living in a duplex Garden Analia Franco and the children's aunt, Julia ([Nicette Bruno](/wiki/Nicette_Bruno "Nicette Bruno")), who created him as a son, André dreams become an elite stylist, and it is in this context that he know Jaqueline ([Claudia Raia](/wiki/Claudia_Raia "Claudia Raia")). Jacqueline lives in a large apartment in Jardins neighborhood. Elegant and indisputable good taste, lives a broken marriage with Breno ([Tato Gabus Mendes](/wiki/Tato_Gabus_Mendes "Tato Gabus Mendes")), with whom he has a daughter, Thaísa ([Fernanda Souza](/wiki/Fernanda_Souza "Fernanda Souza")), which is nothing like her mother. At the suggestion of a friend of Thaísa, you need to buy a dress for a party, Jaqueline arrives at the studio of Jacques Leclair and get mesmerized by the seductive way the stylist. Like other clients, she can not resist the charm of Jacques and becomes his mistress. With its exquisite taste, Jacqueline realizes that the problem of dresses Jacques Leclair is information overload: the clothes are well cut, but there are many sparkles and ruffles. She begins to edit the creations, making small adjustments to the original sketches and turning them into sophisticated pieces dresses, leading the designer to realize you need that woman as his right arm. Furthermore, Jaqueline is the key of the gates of high society that craves Jacques, thanks to its network of social relations. She is a great friend of Stela ([Mila Moreira](/wiki/Mila_Moreira "Mila Moreira")), personal stylist who advises companies and individuals, and has a column in the respected magazine Fashion Brazil. With Jaqueline at her side, the name of Jacques Leclair finally begins to appear. Passionate designer, Jacqueline decides to separate from Breno and starts a war over family assets. Breno hires private detective Mario Gossip ([Luis Gustavo](/wiki/Luis_Gustavo_%28actor%29 "Luis Gustavo (actor)")) so that it proves the infidelity of his wife \- according to the prenuptial agreement signed by the two, he can drive her home only with the clothes on his case proves that she is unfaithful. Jaqueline leaves sure going to marry Jacques Leclair house, but the designer, who is not in love, gives the lame excuse that their children will not forgive him if he tried to replace their deceased mother. Jacqueline now lives in the hope of marrying Jacques when the children emancipate themselves, and do not mind helping you to shine in the fashion world. But the stylist, vain, seduces and leaves clients with several of them, always hidden from the jealous Jaqueline. Until Jaqueline hires Clotilde ([Juliana Alves](/wiki/Juliana_Alves "Juliana Alves")) to work in the studio, not realizing that the purpose of the girl of humble appearance is win and marry Jacques Leclair. Passionate, André surrenders to the charms of quirky girl. When Jaqueline discovers the involvement of the two, vows revenge. Ari, meanwhile, went on to win big money in the lottery. He married his girlfriend, Susan ([Malu Mader](/wiki/Malu_Mader "Malu Mader")) \- with whom he had a son, Luti ([Humberto Carrão](/wiki/Humberto_Carr%C3%A3o "Humberto Carrão")) \- and was living with his family in the upscale neighborhood of Jardins. Why not learn to manage your money, but lost everything after betting in uncertain business. The marriage ended, since Ari and Suzana found to have incompatible personalities and styles. Suzana devoted to studies, secured his place in the market and rose to head the magazine Fashion Brazil. With the end of fortune Ari, was obliged to support her ex\-husband not to harm the child studies, we decided to live with his father. It Suzana who pays the rent of the two. Wise, Luti knew that Ari needed him more than his mother, and chose to help him pay the household bills. The boy is divided between the college of Fine Arts and works as a waiter. While waiting to be honored again by luck, and sure will do a brilliant idea to recover the fortune he had a day Ari invents projects ever go right, always with help friend Chico ([Rodrigo Lopez](/wiki/Rodrigo_Lopez_%28actor%29 "Rodrigo Lopez (actor)")) of a type messier than he. Until your attention is drawn to an old lady in rags, a homeless who carries a collection of dolls for which creates many dresses. Among his belongings, is a doll that she presents as Victor Valentine, "the most beautiful and courageous prince of Spain." Ari wastes no time and, given the opportunity at hand, houses the lady in a nursing home, provides tissue and stimulates create new and original models. Then, the designer asks son to turn them into sketches. Ari takes the designs made by Luti for Marta and Nicole ([Elizangela](/wiki/Elizangela "Elizangela")) seamstresses, their neighbors in Belenzinho confeccionarem models, and reveals his plan to become a famous Spanish couturier. Marta, who was abandoned by Jacques Leclair in his youth, does not believe that the plan could work, but accept the risk. They summon Desirée ([Mayana Neiva](/wiki/Mayana_Neiva "Mayana Neiva")), daughter Nicole, to parade the first outfit, a stunning red dress, in a party of Fashion magazine Brazil, before a crowd of photographers and important guests of the fashion world. The dress makes huge success and everyone wants to know the name of the stylist responsible for the design, generating a ti\-ti\-ti around the identity of Victor Valentine, Ari manages to keep a secret until the final stages of the plot. Characterized as Valentine, with a costume similar to a matador, Ari is seductive with customers, fueling the myth of false Spanish designer. At one point, Jaqueline, who swore revenge on Jacques, passes to the side of Ari, and then also break up with him and create his own label. What Ari ignores is that the sweet old lady who sews dresses for dolls, source of its success, is actually Cecilia (Regina Braga), a missing mother of Andrew. When young, she left the child in the care of her sister, Julia, and departed with her new boyfriend. Abandoned and not daring to return home, Cecilia let the guilt consume so that affected his sanity \- to the point of not even remember his real name. The rivalry between Ari and Andrew remains throughout the plot, being tough when your kids, Luti and Valkyrie, fall in love, living a troubled relationship. At one point, Jaqueline, who had turned up nun along the plot, marries the surfer Thales ([Armando Babaioff](/wiki/Armando_Babaioff "Armando Babaioff")), who owns a construction. Marriage, in fact, is forged, so Thales can redeem his inheritance, by his grandmother retained. The link, in turn, allows Jaqueline Jacques revenge by making him sign a partnership agreement with Thales. At the time of signing the papers, documents and exchange Thales Jacques ends up selling its brand to Thales, losing the autonomy of their business. Jaqueline turns creative director Jacques Leclair brand. After many exchanges of barbs, jabs, sabotage and ups and downs of both parties, designers end up agreeing to make peace, albeit grudgingly, after the story of Cecilia is discovered. With the care and treatment received at the clinic where Ari left, the mother of Andrew reclaims memory and sanity, and back to the family, demanding a truce between the two. Ari, who spent the entire novel trying to win back his ex\-wife, Susan discovers that Martha is the woman of your life, and ask the seamstress in marriage. Susan finds a new love, the novel writer Fernando Flores ([Fábio Assunção](/wiki/F%C3%A1bio_Assun%C3%A7%C3%A3o "Fábio Assunção")). And Andrew continues with Clotilde. At the end of the plot, Ari, and Jacqueline Jacques, after defeating their respective brands in a fashion contest, join forces, encouraged by Clotilde, and create a society to shine in the fashion world.
[ "Plot\n----", "[Alexandre Borges](/wiki/Alexandre_Borges \"Alexandre Borges\") and [Murilo Benicio](/wiki/Murilo_Benicio \"Murilo Benicio\") interpret rivals in history, respectively Jacques Leclair and Victor Valentin, who spend the entire novel feuding over who stands in the world as a successful fashion designer, named transformed into designer collections and paraded in major fashion weeks and photographed for celebrity magazines. Their names, however, are not true. Under the flamboyant personality and seductive affected Jacques Leclair hides the fun and kitschy André Spina, a father of four, who works with the segment of dresses for parties. Victor Valentin, in turn, is a figure invented by Ariclenes Martins, Ari, to compete for the spotlight with André.", "Born in the same village Belenzinho neighborhood on the east side of São Paulo, and enemies since childhood, André Spina and Ariclenes Martins always played everything: toys, friends and girls. André owns a studio in Tatuapé, which goes by the name of Jacques Leclair, being very prestigious by the region's elite.", "Much of his success comes from his irresistible power of seduction, he disguises himself assuming an affected, like gay, not to arouse the jealousy of the husbands of their customers behavior. He began his career next dressmaker Martha ([Dira Paes](/wiki/Dira_Paes \"Dira Paes\")), her neighbor in Belenzinho, who fashioned his first creations and encouraged to invest in party clothes to. Abandoned her when she met Ana Maria, the daughter of a big wholesaler and he had the money he needed to mount his first workshop. Ana Maria had four children: Pedro ([Marco Pigossi](/wiki/Marco_Pigossi \"Marco Pigossi\")), Valquíria ([Juliana Paiva](/wiki/Juliana_Paiva \"Juliana Paiva\")) and twins Maria Beatriz (Mabi) ([Clara Tiezzi](/wiki/Clara_Tiezzi \"Clara Tiezzi\")), and Luis Felipe (Lipe) ([David Lucas](/wiki/David_Lucas_%28actor%29 \"David Lucas (actor)\")). Well off, living in a duplex Garden Analia Franco and the children's aunt, Julia ([Nicette Bruno](/wiki/Nicette_Bruno \"Nicette Bruno\")), who created him as a son, André dreams become an elite stylist, and it is in this context that he know Jaqueline ([Claudia Raia](/wiki/Claudia_Raia \"Claudia Raia\")).", "Jacqueline lives in a large apartment in Jardins neighborhood. Elegant and indisputable good taste, lives a broken marriage with Breno ([Tato Gabus Mendes](/wiki/Tato_Gabus_Mendes \"Tato Gabus Mendes\")), with whom he has a daughter, Thaísa ([Fernanda Souza](/wiki/Fernanda_Souza \"Fernanda Souza\")), which is nothing like her mother. At the suggestion of a friend of Thaísa, you need to buy a dress for a party, Jaqueline arrives at the studio of Jacques Leclair and get mesmerized by the seductive way the stylist. Like other clients, she can not resist the charm of Jacques and becomes his mistress.", "With its exquisite taste, Jacqueline realizes that the problem of dresses Jacques Leclair is information overload: the clothes are well cut, but there are many sparkles and ruffles. She begins to edit the creations, making small adjustments to the original sketches and turning them into sophisticated pieces dresses, leading the designer to realize you need that woman as his right arm. Furthermore, Jaqueline is the key of the gates of high society that craves Jacques, thanks to its network of social relations. She is a great friend of Stela ([Mila Moreira](/wiki/Mila_Moreira \"Mila Moreira\")), personal stylist who advises companies and individuals, and has a column in the respected magazine Fashion Brazil. With Jaqueline at her side, the name of Jacques Leclair finally begins to appear.", "Passionate designer, Jacqueline decides to separate from Breno and starts a war over family assets. Breno hires private detective Mario Gossip ([Luis Gustavo](/wiki/Luis_Gustavo_%28actor%29 \"Luis Gustavo (actor)\")) so that it proves the infidelity of his wife \\- according to the prenuptial agreement signed by the two, he can drive her home only with the clothes on his case proves that she is unfaithful. Jaqueline leaves sure going to marry Jacques Leclair house, but the designer, who is not in love, gives the lame excuse that their children will not forgive him if he tried to replace their deceased mother.", "Jacqueline now lives in the hope of marrying Jacques when the children emancipate themselves, and do not mind helping you to shine in the fashion world. But the stylist, vain, seduces and leaves clients with several of them, always hidden from the jealous Jaqueline. Until Jaqueline hires Clotilde ([Juliana Alves](/wiki/Juliana_Alves \"Juliana Alves\")) to work in the studio, not realizing that the purpose of the girl of humble appearance is win and marry Jacques Leclair. Passionate, André surrenders to the charms of quirky girl. When Jaqueline discovers the involvement of the two, vows revenge.", "Ari, meanwhile, went on to win big money in the lottery. He married his girlfriend, Susan ([Malu Mader](/wiki/Malu_Mader \"Malu Mader\")) \\- with whom he had a son, Luti ([Humberto Carrão](/wiki/Humberto_Carr%C3%A3o \"Humberto Carrão\")) \\- and was living with his family in the upscale neighborhood of Jardins. Why not learn to manage your money, but lost everything after betting in uncertain business. The marriage ended, since Ari and Suzana found to have incompatible personalities and styles. Suzana devoted to studies, secured his place in the market and rose to head the magazine Fashion Brazil. With the end of fortune Ari, was obliged to support her ex\\-husband not to harm the child studies, we decided to live with his father. It Suzana who pays the rent of the two. Wise, Luti knew that Ari needed him more than his mother, and chose to help him pay the household bills. The boy is divided between the college of Fine Arts and works as a waiter.", "While waiting to be honored again by luck, and sure will do a brilliant idea to recover the fortune he had a day Ari invents projects ever go right, always with help friend Chico ([Rodrigo Lopez](/wiki/Rodrigo_Lopez_%28actor%29 \"Rodrigo Lopez (actor)\")) of a type messier than he. Until your attention is drawn to an old lady in rags, a homeless who carries a collection of dolls for which creates many dresses. Among his belongings, is a doll that she presents as Victor Valentine, \"the most beautiful and courageous prince of Spain.\" Ari wastes no time and, given the opportunity at hand, houses the lady in a nursing home, provides tissue and stimulates create new and original models. Then, the designer asks son to turn them into sketches.", "Ari takes the designs made by Luti for Marta and Nicole ([Elizangela](/wiki/Elizangela \"Elizangela\")) seamstresses, their neighbors in Belenzinho confeccionarem models, and reveals his plan to become a famous Spanish couturier. Marta, who was abandoned by Jacques Leclair in his youth, does not believe that the plan could work, but accept the risk. They summon Desirée ([Mayana Neiva](/wiki/Mayana_Neiva \"Mayana Neiva\")), daughter Nicole, to parade the first outfit, a stunning red dress, in a party of Fashion magazine Brazil, before a crowd of photographers and important guests of the fashion world. The dress makes huge success and everyone wants to know the name of the stylist responsible for the design, generating a ti\\-ti\\-ti around the identity of Victor Valentine, Ari manages to keep a secret until the final stages of the plot.", "Characterized as Valentine, with a costume similar to a matador, Ari is seductive with customers, fueling the myth of false Spanish designer. At one point, Jaqueline, who swore revenge on Jacques, passes to the side of Ari, and then also break up with him and create his own label.", "What Ari ignores is that the sweet old lady who sews dresses for dolls, source of its success, is actually Cecilia (Regina Braga), a missing mother of Andrew. When young, she left the child in the care of her sister, Julia, and departed with her new boyfriend. Abandoned and not daring to return home, Cecilia let the guilt consume so that affected his sanity \\- to the point of not even remember his real name.", "The rivalry between Ari and Andrew remains throughout the plot, being tough when your kids, Luti and Valkyrie, fall in love, living a troubled relationship. At one point, Jaqueline, who had turned up nun along the plot, marries the surfer Thales ([Armando Babaioff](/wiki/Armando_Babaioff \"Armando Babaioff\")), who owns a construction. Marriage, in fact, is forged, so Thales can redeem his inheritance, by his grandmother retained. The link, in turn, allows Jaqueline Jacques revenge by making him sign a partnership agreement with Thales. At the time of signing the papers, documents and exchange Thales Jacques ends up selling its brand to Thales, losing the autonomy of their business. Jaqueline turns creative director Jacques Leclair brand.", "After many exchanges of barbs, jabs, sabotage and ups and downs of both parties, designers end up agreeing to make peace, albeit grudgingly, after the story of Cecilia is discovered. With the care and treatment received at the clinic where Ari left, the mother of Andrew reclaims memory and sanity, and back to the family, demanding a truce between the two.", "Ari, who spent the entire novel trying to win back his ex\\-wife, Susan discovers that Martha is the woman of your life, and ask the seamstress in marriage. Susan finds a new love, the novel writer Fernando Flores ([Fábio Assunção](/wiki/F%C3%A1bio_Assun%C3%A7%C3%A3o \"Fábio Assunção\")). And Andrew continues with Clotilde.", "At the end of the plot, Ari, and Jacqueline Jacques, after defeating their respective brands in a fashion contest, join forces, encouraged by Clotilde, and create a society to shine in the fashion world.", "" ]