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Phonotactics
------------
{{Further\|Hiragana\|Katakana\|Transcription into Japanese}}
### Within a mora
| Phonotactically legal phoneme sequences, each counting as one mora
| {{IPA\|/\-a/}} | {{IPA\|/\-i/}} | {{IPA\|/\-u/}} | {{IPA\|/\-e/}} | {{IPA\|/\-o/}} | {{IPA\|/\-ja/}} | {{IPA\|/\-ju/}} | {{IPA\|/\-jo/}} |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{IPA\|/\[\[Zero (linguistics)\|∅]]\-/}} | {{IPA\|/a/}} | {{IPA\|/i/}} | {{IPA\|/u/\[ɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/e/}} | {{IPA\|/o/}} | {{IPA\|/ja/}} | {{IPA\|/ju/\[jɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/jo/}} |
| {{IPA\|/k\-/}} | {{IPA\|/ka/}} | {{IPA\|/ki/\[kʲi]}} | {{IPA\|/ku/\[kɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/ke/}} | {{IPA\|/ko/}} | {{IPA\|/kja/\[kʲa]}} | {{IPA\|/kju/\[kʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/kjo/\[kʲo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/ɡ\-/}} | {{IPA\|/ɡa/}} | {{IPA\|/ɡi/\[ɡʲi]}} | {{IPA\|/ɡu/\[ɡɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/ɡe/}} | {{IPA\|/ɡo/}} | {{IPA\|/ɡja/\[ɡʲa]}} | {{IPA\|/ɡju/\[ɡʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/ɡjo/\[ɡʲo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/s\-/}} | {{IPA\|/sa/}} | {{IPA\|/si/\[ɕi]}} | {{IPA\|/su/\[sɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/se/}} | {{IPA\|/so/}} | {{IPA\|/sja/\[ɕa]}} | {{IPA\|/sju/\[ɕɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/sjo/\[ɕo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/z\-/}} | {{IPA\|/za/\[(d)za]}} | {{IPA\|/zi/\[(d)ʑi]}} | {{IPA\|/zu/\[(d)zɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/ze/\[(d)ze]}} | {{IPA\|/zo/\[(d)zo]}} | {{IPA\|/zja/\[(d)ʑa]}} | {{IPA\|/zju/\[(d)ʑɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/zjo/\[(d)ʑo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/t\-/}} | {{IPA\|/ta/}} | {{IPA\|/ti/\[tɕi]}} | {{IPA\|/tu/\[tsɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/te/}} | {{IPA\|/to/}} | {{IPA\|/tja/\[tɕa]}} | {{IPA\|/tju/\[tɕɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/tjo/\[tɕo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/d\-/}} | {{IPA\|/da/}} | {{IPA\|(/di/)\[(d)ʑi]}} | {{IPA\|(/du/)\[(d)zɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/de/}} | {{IPA\|/do/}} | {{IPA\|(/dja/)\[(d)ʑa]}} | {{IPA\|(/dju/)\[(d)ʑɨ]}} | {{IPA\|(/djo/)\[(d)ʑo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/n\-/}} | {{IPA\|/na/}} | {{IPA\|/ni/\[ɲi]}} | {{IPA\|/nu/\[nɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/ne/}} | {{IPA\|/no/}} | {{IPA\|/nja/\[ɲa]}} | {{IPA\|/nju/\[ɲɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/njo/\[ɲo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/h\-/}} | {{IPA\|/ha/}} | {{IPA\|/hi/\[çi]}} | {{IPA\|/hu/\[ɸɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/he/}} | {{IPA\|/ho/}} | {{IPA\|/hja/\[ça]}} | {{IPA\|/hju/\[çɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/hjo/\[ço]}} |
| {{IPA\|/b\-/}} | {{IPA\|/ba/}} | {{IPA\|/bi/\[bʲi]}} | {{IPA\|/bu/\[bɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/be/}} | {{IPA\|/bo/}} | {{IPA\|/bja/\[bʲa]}} | {{IPA\|/bju/\[bʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/bjo/\[bʲo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/p\-/}} | {{IPA\|/pa/}} | {{IPA\|/pi/\[pʲi]}} | {{IPA\|/pu/\[pɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/pe/}} | {{IPA\|/po/}} | {{IPA\|/pja/\[pʲa]}} | {{IPA\|/pju/\[pʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/pjo/\[pʲo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/m\-/}} | {{IPA\|/ma/}} | {{IPA\|/mi/\[mʲi]}} | {{IPA\|/mu/\[mɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/me/}} | {{IPA\|/mo/}} | {{IPA\|/mja/\[mʲa]}} | {{IPA\|/mju/\[mʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/mjo/\[mʲo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/r\-/}} | {{IPA\|/ra/\[ɾa]}} | {{IPA\|/ri/\[ɾʲi]}} | {{IPA\|/ru/\[ɾɯ]}} | {{IPA\|/re/\[ɾe]}} | {{IPA\|/ro/\[ɾo]}} | {{IPA\|/rja/\[ɾʲa]}} | {{IPA\|/rju/\[ɾʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\|/rjo/\[ɾʲo]}} |
| {{IPA\|/w\-/}} | {{IPA\|/wa/\[β̞a]}} | | | | | | | |
| Marginal combinations mostly found in Western loans{{sfnp\|Irwin\|2011\|pp\=75–76}} | | | | | | | | |
| {{IPA\|\[ɕ\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\|\[ɕe]}} | | | | |
| {{IPA\|\[(d)ʑ\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\|\[(d)ʑe]}} | | | | |
| {{IPA\|\[t\-]}} | | {{IPA\|\[tʲi]}} | {{IPA\|\[tɯ]}} | | | | {{IPA\|\[tʲɨ]}} | |
| {{IPA\|\[tɕ\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\|\[tɕe]}} | | | | |
| {{IPA\|\[ts\-]}} | {{IPA\|\[tsa]}} | {{IPA\|\[tsʲi]}} | | {{IPA\|\[tse]}} | {{IPA\|\[tso]}} | | | |
| {{IPA\|\[d\-]}} | | {{IPA\|\[dʲi]}} | {{IPA\|\[dɯ]}} | | | | {{IPA\|\[dʲɨ]}} | |
| {{IPA\|\[ɸ\-]}} | {{IPA\|\[ɸa]}} | {{IPA\|\[ɸʲi]}} | | {{IPA\|\[ɸe]}} | {{IPA\|\[ɸo]}} | | {{IPA\|\[ɸʲɨ]}} | |
| {{IPA\|\[j\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\|\[je]}} | | | | |
| {{IPA\|\[β̞\-]}} | | {{IPA\|\[β̞i]}} | | {{IPA\|\[β̞e]}} | {{IPA\|\[β̞o]}} | | | |
| Special moras | | | | | | | | |
| {{IPA\|/V\-/}} | {{IPA\|/N/\[ɴ, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, ɰ̃]}} | | | | | | | | |
| {{IPA\|/V\-C/}} | {{IPA\|/Q/}}(geminates the following consonant) | | | | | | | | |
| {{IPA\|/V\-/}} | {{IPA\|/R/\[ː]}} | | | | | | | | |
#### Palatals
A Japanese syllable can start with the palatal glide {{IPA\|/j/}} or with a consonant followed by {{IPA\|/j/}}. These onsets normally can be found only before the back vowels {{IPA\|/a o u/}}.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=88}}
Before {{IPA\|/i/}}, {{IPA\|/j/}} never occurs.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=88}} All consonants are [phonetically palatalized](/wiki/%23Palatalized_consonants "#Palatalized consonants") before {{IPA\|/i/}}, but do not contrast in this position with unpalatalized consonants: as a result, palatalization in this context can be analyzed as allophonic. In native Japanese vocabulary, coronal obstruent phones (i.e. {{IPA\|\[t s d (d)z]}}) do not occur before {{IPA\|/i/}}, and in contexts where a morphological process such as verb inflection would place a coronal obstruent phoneme before {{IPA\|/i/}}, the coronal is replaced with an [alveolo\-palatal sibilant](/wiki/%23Alveolo-palatal_sibilants "#Alveolo-palatal sibilants"), resulting in alternations such as {{IPA\|\[matanai]}} 'wait' (negative) vs. {{IPA\|\[matɕimasɯ]}} 'wait' (polite) or {{IPA\|\[kasanai]}} 'lend' (negative) vs. {{IPA\|\[kaɕimasɯ]}} 'lend' (polite).{{sfnp\|Crawford\|2009\|page\=15}} Thus, {{IPA\|\[tɕ ɕ (d)ʑ]}} function in native vocabulary as the palatalized counterparts of coronal consonant phonemes. However, the analysis of alveolo\-palatal sibilants as palatalized allophones of coronal consonants is complicated by loanwords. The sequences {{IPA\|\[ti di]}} are distinguished from {{IPA\|\[tɕi (d)ʑi]}} in recent loanwords (with {{IPA\|\[ti]}} generally preserved in words borrowed more recently than 1930{{sfnp\|Broselow\|Huffman\|Hwang\|Kao\|2012\|page\=99}}) and to a lesser extent, some speakers may exhibit a contrast in loanwords between {{IPA\|\[tsi (d)zi si]}} and {{IPA\|\[tɕi (d)ʑi ɕi]}}.
Before {{IPA\|/e/}}, {{IPA\|\[j]}} was lost in the current standard language.{{efn\|Some \[\[Japanese dialects\#Kyushu Japanese\|dialects (such as Kyushu)]] and \[\[Late Middle Japanese\#Consonants\|pre\-modern versions of the language]] contain {{IPA\|\[je]}}, as well as exhibiting {{IPA\|\[ɕe]}} in place of modern standard {{IPA\|\[se]}}.}}{{sfnp\|Smith\|1980\|loc\=§3\.1\.4\.2\.5}} The use of the mora {{IPA\|\[je]}} in loanwords is inconsistent: adapted pronunciations with {{IPA\|\[ie]}} ({{lang\|ja\|イエ}}), such as {{lang\|ja\|イエローカード}} {{transliteration\|ja\|ierōkādo}} from English *yellow card*,{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|p\=90}}{{sfnp\|Irwin\|2011\|p\=93}} continue to be used even for recent borrowings. In theory, pronunciations with {{IPA\|\[je]}} can be represented by the spelling {{lang\|ja\|イェ}} (mostly used to transcribe proper nouns), although it's not clear that the use of the spelling {{lang\|ja\|イェ}} necessarily corresponds to how speakers phonetically realize the sequence.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|p\=90}} Foreign {{IPA\|\[je]}} may alternatively be adapted as {{IPA\|/e/}} in some cases.{{sfnp\|Smith\|1980\|loc\=§5\.6}} For some speakers, the optional, colloquial coalescence of certain other [vowel sequences](/wiki/%23Vowel_sequences_and_long_vowels "#Vowel sequences and long vowels") to {{IPA\|\[eː]}} can produce {{IPA\|\[jeː]}} in native forms, such as {{IPA\|\[hajeː]}} (a variant pronunciation of {{IPA\|/hajai/}} 'fast').{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|p\=27}}
As discussed [above](/wiki/%23Competing_phonemic_analyses "#Competing phonemic analyses"), the sequences {{IPA\|\[tɕe (d)ʑe ɕe]}} do not occur in standard Japanese outside of foreign loanwords and a few marginal exclamations. There are no morphological alternations motivated by this gap,{{sfnp\|Crawford\|2009\|page\=69}} since no morphemes have an underlying form ending in {{IPA\|\[tɕ (d)ʑ ɕ]}}. In borrowed words, {{IPA\|\[tɕe]}} has been consistently retained at all time periods, with very few exceptions.{{efn\|The use of {{IPA\|\[se]}} instead of {{IPA\|\[tɕe]}} in {{lang\|ja\|セロ}} {{transliteration\|ja\|sero}} from ''cello'' seems to be unique.{{sfnp\|Crawford\|2009\|pages\=71\-72}}{{sfnp\|Smith\|1980\|loc\=§5\.6}} Another rare exception, showing adaptation to {{IPA\|\[tɕi]}} (vowel raising), is {{lang\|ja\|チッキ}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|chikki}}) from English ''check'' (less common than {{lang\|ja\|チェック}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|chekku}})).{{sfnp\|Crawford\|2009\|page\=72}}}} The sequences {{IPA\|\[(d)ʑe]}} and {{IPA\|\[ɕe]}} have usually been retained in words borrowed more recently than around 1950, whereas words borrowed before that point may show depalatalization to {{IPA\|\[(d)ze]}} and {{IPA\|\[se]}} respectively,{{sfnp\|Crawford\|2009\|page\=72}} as seen in the 19th\-century borrowed forms {{lang\|ja\|ゼリー}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|zerī}}) from English *jelly*, {{lang\|ja\|ゼントルマン}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|zentoruman}}) from English *gentleman*,{{sfnp\|Irwin\|2011\|p\=88}} and {{lang\|ja\|セパード}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|sepādo}}) from English *shepherd*.{{sfnp\|Smith\|1980\|loc\=§3\.1\.4\.2\.5, §5\.6}}
The sequences {{IPA\|\[ɸʲɯ dʲɯ tʲɯ]}} occur only in recent loans, such as {{lang\|ja\|フュージョン}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|fyūjon}}), {{lang\|ja\|デュエット}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|dyuetto}}), {{lang\|ja\|テューバ}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|tyūba}}) from *fusion, duet, tuba*: they can be interpreted as {{IPA\|/fju dju tju/}} in analyses where {{IPA\|\[tɕ]}} is not interpreted as {{IPA\|/tj/}}.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|pp\=80, 229}}
#### Pre\-{{IPA\|/u/}} consonants
Several Japanese consonants developed special phonetic values before {{IPA\|/u/}}. Though originally allophonic, some of these variants have arguably attained phonemic status because of later neutralizations or the introduction of novel contrasts in loanwords.
In core vocabulary, {{IPA\|\[ɸɯ]}} can be analyzed as an allophonic realization of {{IPA\|/hu/}}.{{sfnp\|Itō\|Mester\|1995\|p\=825}} However, in words of foreign origin, the [voiceless bilabial fricative](/wiki/%23Voiceless_bilabial_fricative "#Voiceless bilabial fricative") {{IPA\|\[ɸ]}} can occur before vowels other than {{IPA\|/u/}}. This introduces a distinctive contrast between {{IPA\|\[ɸa ɸe ɸi ɸo]}} and {{IPA\|\[ha he çi ho]}}; therefore, {{harvcoltxt\|Vance\|2008}} recognizes {{IPA\|\[ɸ]}} as a distinct consonant phoneme {{IPA\|/f/}}, and interprets {{IPA\|\[ɸɯ]}} as phonemically {{IPA\|/fu/}}, leaving \*{{IPA\|/hu/}} as a gap.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|pp\=80, 82}} In contrast, {{harvcoltxt\|Watanabe\|2009}} prefers the analysis {{IPA\|/hu/}} and argues that {{IPA\|/h/}} in this context is distinct phonemically and sometimes phonetically from the {{IPA\|/f/}} {{IPA\|\[ɸ]}} found in foreign {{IPA\|/fa fe fi fo/}}{{sfnp\|Watanabe\|2009\|p\=90}} (which would leave \*{{IPA\|/fu/}} as a gap). In any case, {{IPA\|/h/}} and {{IPA\|/f/}} do not contrast before {{IPA\|/u/}}.
Outside of loanwords, {{IPA\|\[tɯ]}} and {{IPA\|\[dɯ]}} do not occur, because {{IPA\|/t d/}} were affricated to {{IPA\|\[ts dz]}} before {{IPA\|/u/}}.{{sfnp\|Watanabe\|2009\|pp\=163\-176}}
In dialects that show neutralization of the {{IPA\|\[dz z]}} contrast, the merged phone {{IPA\|\[(d)z]}} can occur before {{IPA\|/a, e, o/}} as well as before {{IPA\|/u/}}. Thus, for these dialects, {{IPA\|\[(d)zɯ]}} can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA\|/zu/}}, leaving {{IPA\|/du/}} as a gap.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|pp\=85\-88}}
In core vocabulary, the [voiceless coronal affricate](/wiki/%23Voiceless_coronal_affricate "#Voiceless coronal affricate") {{IPA\|\[ts]}} occurs only before the vowel {{IPA\|/u/}}; thus {{IPA\|\[tsɯ]}} can be analyzed as an allophonic realization of {{IPA\|/tu/}}.{{sfnp\|Itō\|Mester\|1995\|p\=825}} Verb inflection shows alternations between {{IPA\|\[t]}} and {{IPA\|\[ts]}}, as in {{IPA\|\[katanai]}} 'win' (negative) and {{IPA\|\[katsɯ]}} 'win' (present tense).{{sfnp\|Itō\|Mester\|1995\|p\=825}} However, the interpretation of {{IPA\|\[tsɯ]}} as {{IPA\|/tu/}} (with {{IPA\|\[ts]}} merely an allophone of {{IPA\|/t/}}) is complicated by the occurrence of {{IPA\|\[ts]}} before vowels other than {{IPA\|/u/}} in loanwords.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|p\=84}}
In addition, unaffricated {{IPA\|\[tɯ dɯ]}} are sometimes used in recent loanwords. They can be represented in kana by {{lang\|ja\|トゥ}} and {{lang\|ja\|ドゥ}}, which received official recognition by a cabinet notice in 1991 as an alternative to the use of {{IPA\|\[tsɯ] \[(d)zɯ]}} or {{IPA\|\[to] \[do]}} to adapt foreign {{IPA\|\[tu] \[du]}}.{{sfnp\|Watanabe\|2009\|p\=163}} Forms where {{IPA\|\[tɯ]}} and {{IPA\|\[dɯ]}} can be found include the following:
{{lang\-en\|Today}} → {{IPA\|\[tɯdei]}}
{{lang\-fr\|toujours}} {{IPA\|\[tuʒuʀ]}} → {{IPA\|\[tɯ(d)ʑɯːɾɯ]}}
{{lang\-fr\|douze}} {{IPA\|\[duz]}} → {{IPA\|\[dɯːzɯ]}}{{sfnp\|Shinohara\|2004\|p\=316}}
Older loanwords from French display adaptation of {{IPA\|\[tɯ]}} as {{IPA\|\[tsɯ]}} and of {{IPA\|\[dɯ]}} as {{IPA\|\[do]}}:
{{lang\-fr\|Toulouse}} {{IPA\|\[tuluz]}} → {{IPA\|\[tsɯːɾɯːzɯ]}}
{{lang\-fr\|Pompidou}} {{IPA\|\[pɔ̃pidu]}} → {{IPA\|\[pompidoː]}}{{sfnp\|Shinohara\|2004\|p\=299}}
{{harvcoltxt\|Vance\|2008}} argues that {{IPA\|\[tɯ]}} and {{IPA\|\[dɯ]}} remain "foreignisms" in Japanese phonology;{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|pp\=84, 87}} they are less frequent than {{IPA\|\[ti di]}},{{sfnp\|Watanabe\|2009\|p\=151}} and this has been interpreted as evidence that a constraint against \*{{IPA\|\[tɯ]}} remained active in Japanese phonology for longer than the constraint against \*{{IPA\|\[ti]}}.{{sfnp\|Pintér\|2015\|pp\=121–122}}
In both old and recent loanwords, the [epenthetic vowel](/wiki/%23Epenthetic_vowels "#Epenthetic vowels") used after word\-final or pre\-consonantal {{IPA\|/t/}} or {{IPA\|/d/}} is normally {{IPA\|/o/}} rather than {{IPA\|/u/}} (there is also some use of {{IPA\|\[tsɯ]}} and {{IPA\|\[(d)zɯ]}}{{sfnp\|Watanabe\|2009\|p\=174}}). However, adapted forms show some fluctuation between {{IPA\|\[to do]}} and {{IPA\|\[tɯ dɯ]}} in this context, e.g. French {{lang\|fr\|estrade}} {{IPA\|\[estʀad]}} 'stage', in addition to being adapted as {{IPA\|/esutoraddo/}}, has a variant adaptation {{IPA\|/esuturaddu/}}.{{sfnp\|Shinohara\|2004\|p\=316}}
### Between moras
#### Special moras
If analyzed as phonemes, the [moraic consonants](/wiki/%23Moraic_consonants "#Moraic consonants") {{IPA\|/N/}} and {{IPA\|/Q/}} show a number of phonotactic restrictions (although some constraints can be violated in certain contexts, or may apply only within certain layers of Japanese vocabulary).
##### {{IPA\|/N/}}
In general, the moraic nasal {{IPA\|/N/}} can occur between a vowel and a consonant, between vowels (where it contrasts with non\-moraic nasal onsets), or at the end of a word.
In Sino\-Japanese vocabulary, {{IPA\|/N/}} can occur as the second and final mora of a Sino\-Japanese morpheme.{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|p\=291}} It may be followed by any other consonant or vowel. However, in some contexts Sino\-Japanese morpheme\-final {{IPA\|/N/}} may cause changes to the start of a closely connected following morpheme:
* Within a bimorphemic Sino\-Japanese word, {{IPA\|/h/}} is regularly replaced with {{IPA\|/p/}} after {{IPA\|/N/}}, as shown by the different pronunciation of 輩 in {{lang\-ja\|後輩\|kō'''h'''ai\|lit\=one's junior\|label\=none}} versus {{lang\-ja\|先輩\|sen'''p'''ai\|lit\=one's senior\|label\=none}}.{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|p\=301}} This does not affect {{IPA\|/Nh/}} across word boundaries or across the juncture in the middle of a "complex compound" where the first or second element is a prosodic word composed of more than one Sino\-Japanese morpheme: for example, {{IPA\|/h/}} remains unchanged in {{lang\-ja\|完全敗北\|kan\+zen\#hai\+boku\|lit\=total defeat\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|新発明\|shin\#hatsu\+mei\|lit\=new invention\|label\=none}},{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|pp\=304–305}} and {{lang\-ja\|疑問符\|gi\+mon\#fu\|lit\=question mark\|label\=none}}.{{sfnp\|Kitagawa\|Albin\|2023\|p\=56}}
* Some words where {{IPA\|/N/}} is followed by a morpheme that starts in modern Japanese with a vowel or semivowel developed a pronunciation with a geminate nasal ({{IPA\|/Nn/}} or {{IPA\|/Nm/}}) as the result of historic sound changes (see [renjō](/wiki/%23Renj%C5%8D "#Renjō")). Aside from these isolated exceptions, {{IPA\|/N/}} followed by a vowel is regularly pronounced without resyllabification in Sino\-Japanese compounds.{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|pp\=295, 297}}
* A following {{IPA\|/t k h s/}} is sometimes changed to {{IPA\|/d ɡ b z/}}; this can be interpreted as a special case of the more general sound change of [rendaku](/wiki/%23Rendaku "#Rendaku").{{sfnp\|Vance\|2015\|p\=421}}
Although usually not found at the start of a word, initial {{IPA\|/N/}} can occur in some colloquial speech forms as a result of dropping of a preceding mora.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|p\=104}} In this context, its pronunciation is invariably assimilated to the place of articulation of the following consonant:
{{IPA\|/naN bjaku neN/}} → {{IPA\|/N bjaku neN/}} {{IPA\|\[mbjakɯneɴ]}} 'several hundred years'
{{IPA\|/soNna koto/}} → {{IPA\|/Nna koto/}} {{IPA\|\[nnakoto]}} 'such thing'{{sfnp\|Kitaoka\|2017\|p\=6}}
Initial {{IPA\|/N/}} may also be used in some loanword forms:
{{IPA\|\[n.dʑa.me.na]}}\~{{IPA\|\[ɴ.dʑa.me.na]}} 'N'Djamena (proper noun)'{{sfnp\|Kitaoka\|2017\|p\=6}}
(This place name has an alternative pronunciation with an epenthetic {{IPA\|/u/}} inserted before the {{IPA\|/N/}}.{{sfnp\|Tateishi\|2017\|p\=534}})
##### {{IPA\|/Q/}}
The moraic obstruent {{IPA\|/Q/}} generally occurs only between a vowel and a consonant in the middle of a word. However, word\-initial geminates may occur in casual speech as the result of elision:
{{IPA\|/mattaku/}} ('entirely; totally', an expression of exasperation) → {{IPA\|\[ttakɯ]}}
{{IPA\|/usseena/}} ('shut up') → {{IPA\|\[sseena]}}{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2015\|p\=66}}
In native Japanese vocabulary, {{IPA\|/Q/}} is found only before {{IPA\|/p t k s/}}{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=136}} (this includes {{IPA\|\[ts]}}, {{IPA\|\[tɕ]}} and {{IPA\|\[ɕ]}}, which can be viewed as allophones of {{IPA\|/t/}} and {{IPA\|/s/}}); in other words, before voiceless obstruents other than {{IPA\|/h/}}. The same generally applies to Sino\-Japanese vocabulary. In these layers of vocabulary, {{IPA\|\[pp]}} functions as the geminate counterpart of {{IPA\|/h/}}, due to the historical development of Japanese {{IPA\|/h/}} from Old Japanese {{IPA\|\[p]}}.{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|Itô\|Mester\|2009\|pages\=955, 972}}
{{harvcoltxt\|Tamaoka\|Makioka\|2004}} found that in a Japanese newspaper corpus, {{IPA\|/Q/}} was followed over 98% of the time by one of {{IPA\|/p t k s/}}: however, there were also at least some cases where it was followed by {{IPA\|/h b d ɡ z r/}}.{{sfnp\|Tamaoka\|Makioka\|2004\|pp\=540, 542}}
Geminate {{IPA\|/h/}} is found only in recent loanwords (e.g. {{lang\-ja\|ゴッホ\|''Go'''hh'''o''\|lit\=(van) Gogh\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|バッハ\|''Ba'''hh'''a''\|lit\=Bach\|label\=none}}), and rarely in Sino\-Japanese or mixed compounds (e.g. {{lang\-ja\|十針\|''ju'''hh'''ari''\|lit\=ten stitches\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|絶不調\|''ze'''ff'''uchō''\|lit\=terrible slump\|label\=none}}).{{harvtxt\|Labrune\|2012\|pp\=70, 136}}, citing {{harvtxt\|Lawrence\|1999\|p\=18}}{{sfnp\|Lawrence\|2001\|p\=968}}
Voiced obstruents ({{IPA\|/b d ɡ z/}}) do not occur as geminates in Yamato or Sino\-Japanese words.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=104}} The avoidance of geminated voiced obstruents can be seen in certain [morphophonological](/wiki/%23Morphophonology "#Morphophonology") processes that produce voiceless but not voiced geminate obstruents: e.g. Yamato {{lang\-ja\|突っ立つ\|tsu'''tt'''atsu\|label\=none}} vs. {{lang\-ja\|突ん出す\|tsu'''nd'''asu\|label\=none}} (not {{lang\|ja\|\*tsu'''dd'''asu}}){{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|Padgett\|2001\|p\=58}} and Sino\-Japanese {{lang\-ja\|発達\|ha'''tt'''atsu\|label\=none}} vs. {{lang\-ja\|発電\|ha'''tsud'''en\|label\=none}}{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|pp\=298\-299}} (not {{lang\|ja\|\*ha'''dd'''en}}).
However, voiced geminate obstruents have been used in words adapted from foreign languages since the 19th century.{{sfnp\|Crawford\|2009\|pages\=62\-65}} These loanwords can even come from languages, such as English, that do not feature gemination in the first place. For example, when an English word features a coda consonant preceded by a [lax vowel](/wiki/Lax_vowel "Lax vowel"), it can be borrowed into Japanese with a geminate; gemination may also appear as a result of borrowing via written materials, where a word spelled with doubled letters leads to a geminated pronunciation.{{Harvcoltxt\|Kawahara\|2006\|pp\=537–538}}, citing {{Harvcoltxt\|Katayama\|1998}}. Because these loanwords can feature voiced geminates, Japanese now exhibits a voice distinction with geminates where it formerly did not:{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2006\|p\=538}}
{{lang\-ja\|スラッガー\|suraggā\|label\=none}} ('slugger') vs. *surakkā* ('slacker')
{{lang\-ja\|キッド\|kiddo\|label\=none}} ('kid') vs. *kitto* ('kit')
The most frequent geminated voiced obstruent is {{IPA\|/Qd/}}, followed by {{IPA\|/Qɡ/}}, {{IPA\|/Qz/}}, {{IPA\|/Qb/}}.{{sfnp\|Tamaoka\|Makioka\|2004\|pp\=540, 542}} In borrowed words, {{IPA\|/d/}} is the only voiced stop that is regularly adapted as a geminate when it occurs in word\-final position after a lax/short vowel; gemination of {{IPA\|/b/}} and {{IPA\|/ɡ/}} in this context is sporadic.{{sfnp\|Ito\|Kubozono\|Mester\|2017\|p\=296}}
Phonetically, voiced geminate obstruents in Japanese tend to have a 'semi\-devoiced' pronunciation where phonetic voicing stops partway through the closure of the consonant.{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2015\|page\=54}} High vowels are not [devoiced](/wiki/%23Devoicing "#Devoicing") after phonemically voiced geminates.{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2015\|page\=54}}
In some cases, voiced geminate obstruents can optionally be replaced with the corresponding voiceless geminate phonemes:{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2011\|pages\=1\-2}}{{sfnp\|Sano\|2013\|pp\=245–246}}
{{lang\-ja\|バッド\|baddo\|label\=none}} → {{lang\-ja\|バット\|batto\|lit\=bad\|label\=none}}{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2011\|pages\=1\-2}}
{{lang\-ja\|ドッグ\|doggu\|label\=none}} → {{lang\-ja\|ドック\|dokku\|lit\=dog\|label\=none}}{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2011\|pages\=1\-2}}
{{lang\-ja\|ベッド\|beddo\|label\=none}} → {{lang\-ja\|ベット\|betto\|lit\=bed\|label\=none}}{{sfnp\|Sano\|2013\|pp\=245–246}}
Phonemic devoicing like this (which may be marked in spelling) has been argued to be conditioned by the presence of another voiced obstruent.{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2011\|p\=2}}{{sfnp\|Sano\|2013\|p\=246}} Another example is *doreddo* \~ *doretto* 'dreadlocks'. {{Harvcoltxt\|Kawahara\|2006}} attributes this to a less reliable distinction between voiced and voiceless geminates compared to the same distinction in non\-geminated consonants, noting that speakers may have difficulty distinguishing them due to the partial devoicing of voiced geminates and their resistance to the [weakening process mentioned above](/wiki/%23Lenition "#Lenition"), both of which can make them sound like voiceless geminates.{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2006\|pp\=559, 561, 565}}
A small number of foreign proper names have katakana spellings that would imply a pronunciation with {{IPA\|/Qr/}}, such as {{lang\-ja\|アッラー\|arrā\|lit\=Allah\|label\=none}} and {{lang\-ja\|チェッリーニ\|Cherrīni\|lit\=Cellini\|label\=none}}.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|p\=113}} The phonetic realization of {{IPA\|/Qr/}} in such forms varies between a lengthened sonorant sound and a sequence of a glottal stop followed by a sonorant.{{sfnp\|Kitaoka\|2017\|p\=5}}
Aside from loanwords, consonants that cannot normally occur after {{IPA\|/Q/}} may be geminated in certain emphatic variants of native words.{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2015\|p\=68}} Reduplicative mimetics may be used in an intensified form where the second consonant of the first portion is geminated, and this can affect consonants that otherwise do not occur as geminates, such as {{IPA\|/r/}} (as in {{lang\-ja\|barra\-bara\|lit\=in disorder\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|borro\-boro\|lit\=worn out\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|gurra\-gura\|lit\=shaky\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|karra\-kara\|lit\=dry\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|perra\-pera\|lit\=thin\|label\=none}}) or {{IPA\|/j/}} (as in {{lang\-ja\|buyyo\-buyo\|lit\=flabby\|label\=none}}).{{sfnp\|Schourup\|Tamori\|1992\|pp\=137–138}} Adjectives may take an emphatic pronunciation where the second consonant is geminated and the following vowel is lengthened, as in {{lang\|ja\|naggaai}} \< {{lang\-ja\|nagai\|lit\=long\|label\=none}}, {{lang\|ja\|karraai}} \< {{lang\-ja\|karai\|lit\=hot\|label\=none}}, {{lang\|ja\|kowwaai}} \< {{lang\-ja\|kowai\|lit\=dreadful\|label\=none}}.{{sfnp\|Schourup\|Tamori\|1992\|pp\=137–138}} Similarly, per {{harvcoltxt\|Vance\|2008}}, {{IPA\|/Qj/}} and {{IPA\|/Qm/}} can occur in emphatic pronunciations of {{lang\-ja\|速い\|hayai\|lit\=fast\|label\=none}} and {{lang\-ja\|寒い\|samui\|lit\=cold\|label\=none}} as {{IPA\|\[haʔːjai]}} and {{IPA\|\[saʔːmɯi]}}.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|p\=110}} A 2020 study of geminate production in mimetic forms found that emphatically lengthened {{IPA\|/r/}} could be pronounced either as a lengthened sonorant with uninterrupted voicing, or with some amount of laryngealization such as glottal stop insertion.{{sfnp\|Morimoto\|2020\|pp\=46\-51}} Another noteworthy characteristic of emphatically lengthened consonants is the potential for a greater than two\-way distinction in length.{{sfnp\|Akamatsu\|1997\|p\=333}}{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2015\|p\=68}}
Atypical {{IPA\|/Q/}} \+ consonant sequences may also arise in truncated word forms (created by blending some moras from each word in a longer phrase) and in forms produced as the outcome of word games:{{sfnp\|Kitaoka\|2017\|p\=5}}
{{lang\-ja\|カットモデル\|katto moderu\|lit\=cut model\|label\=none}} {{IPA\|/kaQto moderu/}} → {{transliteration\|ja\|kadderu}} {{IPA\|/kaQderu/}} (blend){{sfnp\|Kitaoka\|2017\|p\=5}}
{{lang\-ja\|バット\|batto\|lit\=bat\|label\=none}} {{IPA\|/baQto/}} → {{transliteration\|ja\|tobba}} {{IPA\|/toQba/}} (form produced in a reversing language game){{sfnp\|Kitaoka\|2017\|p\=5}}
However, there are also reversed argot forms that show replacement of {{IPA\|/Q/}} with {{IPA\|\[tsɯ]}} (likely by influence from its spelling with a small *tsu* kana) in contexts where {{IPA\|/Q/}} would be atypical: e.g. {{transliteration\|ja\|rappa}} 'trumpet' {{IPA\|/raQpa/}} → {{transliteration\|ja\|patsura}}; {{transliteration\|ja\|wappa}} 'brat' {{IPA\|/waQpa/}} → {{transliteration\|ja\|patsuwa}}; {{transliteration\|ja\|yakko}} 'guy' {{IPA\|/jaQko/}} → {{transliteration\|ja\|kotsuya}}; {{transliteration\|ja\|batto}} 'bat' {{IPA\|/baQto/}} → {{transliteration\|ja\|totsuba}}.{{sfnp\|Itô\|Kitagawa\|Mester\|1996\|page\=229}}
#### Vowel sequences and long vowels
Vowel sequences with no intervening consonant (VV sequences) occur in many contexts:
* Any pair of vowels can occur in sequence across morpheme boundaries, or within a morpheme in foreign words.{{sfnp\|Youngberg\|2021b\|pp\=224–225}}
* The sequences {{IPA\|/ai oi ui ie ae oe ue io ao uo/}} can be found within a morpheme in indigenous or Sino\-Japanese words.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=53}} {{harvcoltxt\|Youngberg\|2021b}} also includes {{IPA\|/eo/}}, as in {{lang\-ja\|夫婦\|meoto\|lit\=husband and wife\|label\=none}}, and {{IPA\|/ia/}}, as in {{lang\-ja\|幸せ\|shiawase\|lit\=happy\|label\=none}}.{{sfnp\|Youngberg\|2021b\|p\=223}}
* Within a Sino\-Japanese morpheme, the only vowel sequences that can normally be found are {{IPA\|/ai ui/}} (as sequences of non\-identical vowels) or {{IPA\|\[eː oː ɯː]}} (as long vowels).{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|p\=292}} Sino\-Japanese {{IPA\|\[eː]}} is historically derived from {{IPA\|/ei/}} and may variably be realized phonetically as {{IPA\|\[ei]}} (possibly due to spelling pronunciation) rather than as the long vowel {{IPA\|\[eː]}}.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=40}}
When the first of two vowels in a VV sequence is [higher](/wiki/Vowel%23Height "Vowel#Height") than the second, there is often not a clear distinction between a pronunciation with hiatus and a pronunciation where a glide with the same frontness as the first vowel is inserted before the second: i.e., the VV sequences {{IPA\|/ia io ua ea oa/}} may sound like {{IPA\|/ija ijo uwa eja owa/}}.{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2003}} For example, English *gear* has been borrowed into Japanese as {{lang\-ja\|ギア\|gia\|lit\=gear\|label\=none}}, but an alternative form of this word is {{lang\-ja\|ギヤ\|giya\|label\=none}}.{{sfnp\|Vance\|2008\|p\=133}} Per {{harvcoltxt\|Kawahara\|2003}}, the sequences {{IPA\|/eo eu/}} are not pronounced like {{IPA\|\*\[ejo ejɯ]}}. The sequence {{IPA\|/iu/}} is not pronounced like {{IPA\|\*\[ijɯ]}}, but it is sometimes replaced with {{IPA\|\[jɯː]}}:{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2003}} this change is optional in loanwords.{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|2015c\|p\=334}} Kawahara states that the formation of a glide between {{IPA\|/ia io ua ea oa/}} may be blocked by a syntactic boundary or by some (though not all) morpheme boundaries (Kawahara suggests that apparent cases of glide formation across morpheme boundaries are best interpreted as evidence that the boundary is no longer transparent).{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2003}}
Many long vowels historically developed from vowel sequences by coalescence, such as {{IPA\|/au ou eu iu/}} \> {{IPA\|\[oː oː joː jɯː]}}. In addition, some vowel sequences in contemporary Japanese may optionally undergo coalescence to a long vowel in colloquial or casual speech (for some sequences, such as {{IPA\|/oi/}} and {{IPA\|/ui/}}, coalescence is not possible in all contexts, but only in adjective forms).{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|2015b\|pp\=225–228}} The monophthongization of {{IPA\|/ai/}}, {{IPA\|/ae/}} or {{IPA\|/oi/}} to {{IPA\|\[eː]}} or {{IPA\|\[ɛː]}} is a feature of colloquial male speech.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=41}}
{\| cellpadding\="5"
\| {{IPA\|/ai/}} \> {{IPA\|\[eː]}}
\| {{IPA\|/itai/}} \> {{IPA\|\[iteː]}}
\| {{lang\-ja\|痛い\|itai\|lit\=painful, ouch\|label\=none}}
\|\-
\| {{IPA\|/oi/}} \> {{IPA\|\[eː]}}
\| {{IPA\|/suɡoi/}} \> {{IPA\|\[sɯɡeː]}}
\| {{lang\-ja\|凄い\|sugoi\|lit\=great\|label\=none}}{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|2015b\|pp\=226–227}}
\|}
Within words and phrases, Japanese allows long sequences of phonetic vowels without intervening consonants.{{sfnp\|Akamatsu\|1997\|pp\=53\-54}} Sequences of two vowels within a single word are extremely common, occurring at the end of many *i*\-type adjectives, for example, and having three or more vowels in sequence within a word also occurs, as in {{lang\-ja\|あおい\|aoi\|lit\=blue/green\|label\=none}}. In phrases, sequences with multiple *o* sounds are most common, due to the direct object particle {{lang\-ja\|を\|o\|label\=none}} (which comes after a word) being realized as *o* and the honorific prefix {{lang\-ja\|お〜\|o\|label\=none}}, which can occur in sequence, and may follow a word itself terminating in an *o* sound; these may be dropped in rapid speech. A fairly common construction exhibiting these is {{lang\-ja\|「〜をお送りします」\|o o\-okuri\-shimasu\|lit\=...humbly send...\|label\=none}}. More extreme examples follow:
{\| cellpadding\="5"
\| {{IPA\|/hoː.oː.o.o.oː/}} {{IPA\|\[hoː.oː.o.o.oː]}}
\| *hōō o oō* ({{lang\-ja\|{{ruby\-ja\|鳳凰\|ほうおう}}を{{ruby\-ja\|追\|お}}おう\|label\=none}})
\| 'let's chase the [fenghuang](/wiki/Fenghuang "Fenghuang")'
\|\-
\| {{IPA\|/toː.oː.o.oː.oː/}} {{IPA\|\[toː.oː.o.oː.oː]}}
\| *tōō o ōō* ({{lang\-ja\|{{ruby\-ja\|東欧\|とうおう}}を{{ruby\-ja\|覆\|おお}}おう\|label\=none}})
\| 'let's cover Eastern Europe'
\|}
### Distribution of consonant phonemes based on word position
In Yamato vocabulary, certain consonant phonemes, such as {{IPA\|/p/}}, {{IPA\|/h/}}, {{IPA\|/r/}} and voiced obstruents, tend to be found only in certain positions in a word.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|pp\=16\-17, 60, 69, 93, 100\-102}} None of these restrictions applies to foreign vocabulary; some do not apply to mimetic or Sino\-Japanese vocabulary; and certain generalizations have exceptions even within Yamato vocabulary; nevertheless, some linguists interpret them as still playing a role in Japanese phonology, based on the model of a "stratified" lexicon where some active phonological constraints affect only certain layers of the vocabulary. The gaps in the distribution of these consonant phonemes can also be explained in terms of diachronic sound changes.
The voiced obstruents {{IPA\|/b d ɡ z/}} occur without restriction at the start of Sino\-Japanese and foreign morphemes,{{sfnp\|Nasu\|2015\|p\=257}} but usually do not occur at the start of Yamato words.{{sfnp\|Takayama\|2015\|p\=628}}{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=102}} However, suffixes or postposed particles starting with these sounds have been in use since Old Japanese, such as the case particle {{lang\|ja\|ga}},{{sfnp\|Frellesvig\|2010\|p\=43}} and morphemes that underlyingly start with a voiceless obstruent often have [allomorphs](/wiki/Allomorph "Allomorph") that start with a voiced obstruent in the context of [rendaku](/wiki/%23Rendaku "#Rendaku"). In addition, word\-initial {{IPA\|/b d ɡ z/}} occur frequently in the mimetic stratum of native Japanese vocabulary, where they often function as sound\-symbolic variants of their voiceless counterparts {{IPA\|/p h t k s/}}.{{sfnp\|Nasu\|2015\|pp\=260–261}} Furthermore, some non\-mimetic Yamato words start with voiced obstruents. In some cases, voicing seems to have had an expressive function, adding a negative or pejorative shade to a root.{{sfnp\|Nasu\|2015\|p\=284}}{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|pp\=102–103}} Initial voiced obstruents have also arisen in some Yamato words as the result of phonetic developments, such as loss of original word\-initial high vowels or alteration of words that originally started with nasal consonants.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=103}} Diachronically, the scarcity of word\-initial voiced obstruents in native Japanese words seems to be a consequence of their origin from [Proto\-Japonic](/wiki/Proto-Japonic%23Consonants "Proto-Japonic#Consonants") sequences involving a nasal phoneme followed by an obstruent phoneme, which developed to [prenasalized consonants](/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant "Prenasalized consonant") in [Old Japanese](/wiki/Old_Japanese%23Phonology "Old Japanese#Phonology").{{sfnp\|Frellesvig\|2010\|pp\=35, 42\-43}}
Yamato and mimetic words almost never start with {{IPA\|/r/}}.{{sfnp\|Nasu\|2015\|p\=276}} In contrast, word\-initial {{IPA\|/r/}} occurs without restriction in Sino\-Japanese and foreign vocabulary.{{sfnp\|Itō\|Mester\|1995\|p\=836}}
In Yamato words, {{IPA\|/p/}} occurs only as a word\-medial geminate (or equivalently, only after {{IPA\|/Q/}}) as in {{lang\-ja\|\[\[wikt:河童\|河童]]\|kappa\|label\=none}}. In Sino\-Japanese words, {{IPA\|/p/}} occurs only after {{IPA\|/Q/}} or {{IPA\|/N/}} (as in {{lang\-ja\|切腹\|seppuku\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|北方\|hoppō\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|音符\|onpu\|label\=none}}), alternating with {{IPA\|/h/}} in other positions. In contrast, mimetic words can contain singleton {{IPA\|/p/}}, either word\-initially or word\-medially.{{sfnp\|Nasu\|2015\|pp\=261, 266, 280}} Singleton {{IPA\|/p/}} also occurs freely in foreign words,{{sfnp\|Nasu\|2015\|p\=264}} such as {{lang\-ja\|パオズ\|paozu\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|ペテン\|peten\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|パーティー\|pātī\|label\=none}}. The gap in the distribution of singleton {{IPA\|\[p]}} results from the fact that original \*p developed in Japanese to {{IPA\|\[ɸ]}} at the start of a word and to {{IPA\|/w/}} between vowels, resulting in {{IPA\|\[p]}} being retained only as part of the geminate {{IPA\|\[pː]}} or after {{IPA\|/N/}}.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|pp\=60\-62, 75–76}} (The labial fricative {{IPA\|\[ɸ]}} could be found before all vowels up through [Late Middle Japanese](/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese%23/h/_and_/p/ "Late Middle Japanese#/h/ and /p/"), but was eventually debuccalized to {{IPA\|\[h]}} before any vowel other than {{IPA\|/u/}}, resulting in the modern Japanese {{IPA\|/h/}} phoneme. The glide {{IPA\|/w/}} was eventually lost before any vowel other than {{IPA\|/a/}}.) The few non\-mimetic words where {{IPA\|/p/}} occurs initially include {{lang\-ja\|\[\[wikt:風太郎\|風太郎]]\|pūtarō\|label\=none}}, although as a personal name it is still pronounced *Fūtarō*.
The phoneme {{IPA\|/h/}} is rarely found in the middle of a Yamato morpheme (a small number of exceptions exist, such as {{lang\-ja\|afureru\|lit\=overflow\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|ahiru\|lit\=duck\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|yahari\|lit\=likewise\|label\=none}}) or in the middle of a mimetic root (examples are mostly confined to mimetics that imitate "gutteral" or "laryngeal" sounds, such as {{lang\-ja\|goho\-goho\|lit\=coughing\|label\=none}} and {{lang\-ja\|ahaha\|lit\=laughing\|label\=none}}).{{sfnp\|Nasu\|2015\|p\=276}} In Yamato words, this gap results from the aforementioned change of original {{IPA\|\*p}} to {{IPA\|/w/}}, rather than {{IPA\|/h/}}, in intervocalic position.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|p\=77}} In mimetic words, intervocalic {{IPA\|/w/}} is also uncommon: therefore, {{harvcoltxt\|Hamano\|2000}} proposes that the usual outcome of original {{IPA\|\*p}} in this context was {{IPA\|/b/}}, which seems to be disproportionately common as the second consonant of a mimetic root.{{sfnp\|Hamano\|2000\|p\=213\-218}} Likewise, {{IPA\|/h/}} never occurs in the middle of a Sino\-Japanese morpheme.{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|p\=293}}
### Epenthetic vowels
{{Further\|Transcription into Japanese\|Sino\-Japanese vocabulary\#Rimes (medials and finals)}}
Words of foreign origin are systematically adapted to Japanese phonotactics by inserting an [epenthetic](/wiki/Epenthesis "Epenthesis") vowel (usually {{IPA\|/u/}}) after a word\-final consonant or between adjacent consonants. While {{IPA\|/u/}} is inserted after the majority of consonants, it is usual to use {{IPA\|/o/}} after {{IPA\|\[t, d]}} and {{IPA\|/i/}} after {{IPA\|\[tʃ, dʒ]}} (but usually not after {{IPA\|\[ʃ]}}). After {{IPA\|/hh/}} (used to adapt foreign word\-final {{IPA\|\[x]}}) the epenthetic vowel is often {{IPA\|/a/}} or {{IPA\|/o/}}, echoing the quality of the vowel before the consonant.
There are some deviations from the aforementioned patterns: for example, some older borrowings such as {{lang\-ja\|ケーキ\|kēki\|lit\=cake\|label\=none}} use {{IPA\|/i/}} after {{IPA\|\[k]}}.{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|2015c\|pp\=328\-332}} The use of epenthetic vowels in these contexts is an established convention when using kana to transcribe foreign words or names.
Historically, Sino\-Japanese morphemes developed epenthetic vowels after most syllable\-final consonants. This is usually {{IPA\|/u/}}, in some cases {{IPA\|/i/}}: the identity of the epenthetic vowel is largely, although not completely, predictable from the preceding consonant and vowel.{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|pp\=293–295}} It is debated whether these vowels should be regarded as having epenthetic status in the phonology of modern Japanese.{{sfnp\|Labrune\|2012\|pp\=30\-32}} The use of epenthetic vowels in Sino\-Japanese forms has undergone some changes over time: for example, the descriptions of Portuguese missionaries indicate that in previous stages of the language, Sino\-Japanese morphemes could end in coda {{IPA\|\[t]}} with no epenthetic vowel.{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|p\=156}}
|
[
"Phonotactics\n------------",
"{{Further\\|Hiragana\\|Katakana\\|Transcription into Japanese}}",
"### Within a mora",
"",
"| Phonotactically legal phoneme sequences, each counting as one mora",
"| {{IPA\\|/\\-a/}} | {{IPA\\|/\\-i/}} | {{IPA\\|/\\-u/}} | {{IPA\\|/\\-e/}} | {{IPA\\|/\\-o/}} | {{IPA\\|/\\-ja/}} | {{IPA\\|/\\-ju/}} | {{IPA\\|/\\-jo/}} |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{IPA\\|/\\[\\[Zero (linguistics)\\|∅]]\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/a/}} | {{IPA\\|/i/}} | {{IPA\\|/u/\\[ɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/e/}} | {{IPA\\|/o/}} | {{IPA\\|/ja/}} | {{IPA\\|/ju/\\[jɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/jo/}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/k\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/ka/}} | {{IPA\\|/ki/\\[kʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|/ku/\\[kɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/ke/}} | {{IPA\\|/ko/}} | {{IPA\\|/kja/\\[kʲa]}} | {{IPA\\|/kju/\\[kʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/kjo/\\[kʲo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/ɡ\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡa/}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡi/\\[ɡʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡu/\\[ɡɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡe/}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡo/}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡja/\\[ɡʲa]}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡju/\\[ɡʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/ɡjo/\\[ɡʲo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/s\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/sa/}} | {{IPA\\|/si/\\[ɕi]}} | {{IPA\\|/su/\\[sɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/se/}} | {{IPA\\|/so/}} | {{IPA\\|/sja/\\[ɕa]}} | {{IPA\\|/sju/\\[ɕɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/sjo/\\[ɕo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/z\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/za/\\[(d)za]}} | {{IPA\\|/zi/\\[(d)ʑi]}} | {{IPA\\|/zu/\\[(d)zɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/ze/\\[(d)ze]}} | {{IPA\\|/zo/\\[(d)zo]}} | {{IPA\\|/zja/\\[(d)ʑa]}} | {{IPA\\|/zju/\\[(d)ʑɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/zjo/\\[(d)ʑo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/t\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/ta/}} | {{IPA\\|/ti/\\[tɕi]}} | {{IPA\\|/tu/\\[tsɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/te/}} | {{IPA\\|/to/}} | {{IPA\\|/tja/\\[tɕa]}} | {{IPA\\|/tju/\\[tɕɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/tjo/\\[tɕo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/d\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/da/}} | {{IPA\\|(/di/)\\[(d)ʑi]}} | {{IPA\\|(/du/)\\[(d)zɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/de/}} | {{IPA\\|/do/}} | {{IPA\\|(/dja/)\\[(d)ʑa]}} | {{IPA\\|(/dju/)\\[(d)ʑɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|(/djo/)\\[(d)ʑo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/n\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/na/}} | {{IPA\\|/ni/\\[ɲi]}} | {{IPA\\|/nu/\\[nɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/ne/}} | {{IPA\\|/no/}} | {{IPA\\|/nja/\\[ɲa]}} | {{IPA\\|/nju/\\[ɲɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/njo/\\[ɲo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/h\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/ha/}} | {{IPA\\|/hi/\\[çi]}} | {{IPA\\|/hu/\\[ɸɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/he/}} | {{IPA\\|/ho/}} | {{IPA\\|/hja/\\[ça]}} | {{IPA\\|/hju/\\[çɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/hjo/\\[ço]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/b\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/ba/}} | {{IPA\\|/bi/\\[bʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|/bu/\\[bɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/be/}} | {{IPA\\|/bo/}} | {{IPA\\|/bja/\\[bʲa]}} | {{IPA\\|/bju/\\[bʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/bjo/\\[bʲo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/p\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/pa/}} | {{IPA\\|/pi/\\[pʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|/pu/\\[pɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/pe/}} | {{IPA\\|/po/}} | {{IPA\\|/pja/\\[pʲa]}} | {{IPA\\|/pju/\\[pʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/pjo/\\[pʲo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/m\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/ma/}} | {{IPA\\|/mi/\\[mʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|/mu/\\[mɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/me/}} | {{IPA\\|/mo/}} | {{IPA\\|/mja/\\[mʲa]}} | {{IPA\\|/mju/\\[mʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/mjo/\\[mʲo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/r\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/ra/\\[ɾa]}} | {{IPA\\|/ri/\\[ɾʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|/ru/\\[ɾɯ]}} | {{IPA\\|/re/\\[ɾe]}} | {{IPA\\|/ro/\\[ɾo]}} | {{IPA\\|/rja/\\[ɾʲa]}} | {{IPA\\|/rju/\\[ɾʲɨ]}} | {{IPA\\|/rjo/\\[ɾʲo]}} |\n| {{IPA\\|/w\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/wa/\\[β̞a]}} | | | | | | | |\n| Marginal combinations mostly found in Western loans{{sfnp\\|Irwin\\|2011\\|pp\\=75–76}} | | | | | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ɕ\\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\\|\\[ɕe]}} | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[(d)ʑ\\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\\|\\[(d)ʑe]}} | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[t\\-]}} | | {{IPA\\|\\[tʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ]}} | | | | {{IPA\\|\\[tʲɨ]}} | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[tɕ\\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\\|\\[tɕe]}} | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ts\\-]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[tsa]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[tsʲi]}} | | {{IPA\\|\\[tse]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[tso]}} | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[d\\-]}} | | {{IPA\\|\\[dʲi]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[dɯ]}} | | | | {{IPA\\|\\[dʲɨ]}} | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[ɸ\\-]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɸa]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɸʲi]}} | | {{IPA\\|\\[ɸe]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[ɸo]}} | | {{IPA\\|\\[ɸʲɨ]}} | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[j\\-]}} | | | | {{IPA\\|\\[je]}} | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|\\[β̞\\-]}} | | {{IPA\\|\\[β̞i]}} | | {{IPA\\|\\[β̞e]}} | {{IPA\\|\\[β̞o]}} | | | |\n| Special moras | | | | | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|/V\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/N/\\[ɴ, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, ɰ̃]}} | | | | | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|/V\\-C/}} | {{IPA\\|/Q/}}(geminates the following consonant) | | | | | | | | |\n| {{IPA\\|/V\\-/}} | {{IPA\\|/R/\\[ː]}} | | | | | | | | |",
"#### Palatals",
"A Japanese syllable can start with the palatal glide {{IPA\\|/j/}} or with a consonant followed by {{IPA\\|/j/}}. These onsets normally can be found only before the back vowels {{IPA\\|/a o u/}}.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=88}}",
"Before {{IPA\\|/i/}}, {{IPA\\|/j/}} never occurs.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=88}} All consonants are [phonetically palatalized](/wiki/%23Palatalized_consonants \"#Palatalized consonants\") before {{IPA\\|/i/}}, but do not contrast in this position with unpalatalized consonants: as a result, palatalization in this context can be analyzed as allophonic. In native Japanese vocabulary, coronal obstruent phones (i.e. {{IPA\\|\\[t s d (d)z]}}) do not occur before {{IPA\\|/i/}}, and in contexts where a morphological process such as verb inflection would place a coronal obstruent phoneme before {{IPA\\|/i/}}, the coronal is replaced with an [alveolo\\-palatal sibilant](/wiki/%23Alveolo-palatal_sibilants \"#Alveolo-palatal sibilants\"), resulting in alternations such as {{IPA\\|\\[matanai]}} 'wait' (negative) vs. {{IPA\\|\\[matɕimasɯ]}} 'wait' (polite) or {{IPA\\|\\[kasanai]}} 'lend' (negative) vs. {{IPA\\|\\[kaɕimasɯ]}} 'lend' (polite).{{sfnp\\|Crawford\\|2009\\|page\\=15}} Thus, {{IPA\\|\\[tɕ ɕ (d)ʑ]}} function in native vocabulary as the palatalized counterparts of coronal consonant phonemes. However, the analysis of alveolo\\-palatal sibilants as palatalized allophones of coronal consonants is complicated by loanwords. The sequences {{IPA\\|\\[ti di]}} are distinguished from {{IPA\\|\\[tɕi (d)ʑi]}} in recent loanwords (with {{IPA\\|\\[ti]}} generally preserved in words borrowed more recently than 1930{{sfnp\\|Broselow\\|Huffman\\|Hwang\\|Kao\\|2012\\|page\\=99}}) and to a lesser extent, some speakers may exhibit a contrast in loanwords between {{IPA\\|\\[tsi (d)zi si]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[tɕi (d)ʑi ɕi]}}.",
"Before {{IPA\\|/e/}}, {{IPA\\|\\[j]}} was lost in the current standard language.{{efn\\|Some \\[\\[Japanese dialects\\#Kyushu Japanese\\|dialects (such as Kyushu)]] and \\[\\[Late Middle Japanese\\#Consonants\\|pre\\-modern versions of the language]] contain {{IPA\\|\\[je]}}, as well as exhibiting {{IPA\\|\\[ɕe]}} in place of modern standard {{IPA\\|\\[se]}}.}}{{sfnp\\|Smith\\|1980\\|loc\\=§3\\.1\\.4\\.2\\.5}} The use of the mora {{IPA\\|\\[je]}} in loanwords is inconsistent: adapted pronunciations with {{IPA\\|\\[ie]}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|イエ}}), such as {{lang\\|ja\\|イエローカード}} {{transliteration\\|ja\\|ierōkādo}} from English *yellow card*,{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|p\\=90}}{{sfnp\\|Irwin\\|2011\\|p\\=93}} continue to be used even for recent borrowings. In theory, pronunciations with {{IPA\\|\\[je]}} can be represented by the spelling {{lang\\|ja\\|イェ}} (mostly used to transcribe proper nouns), although it's not clear that the use of the spelling {{lang\\|ja\\|イェ}} necessarily corresponds to how speakers phonetically realize the sequence.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|p\\=90}} Foreign {{IPA\\|\\[je]}} may alternatively be adapted as {{IPA\\|/e/}} in some cases.{{sfnp\\|Smith\\|1980\\|loc\\=§5\\.6}} For some speakers, the optional, colloquial coalescence of certain other [vowel sequences](/wiki/%23Vowel_sequences_and_long_vowels \"#Vowel sequences and long vowels\") to {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}} can produce {{IPA\\|\\[jeː]}} in native forms, such as {{IPA\\|\\[hajeː]}} (a variant pronunciation of {{IPA\\|/hajai/}} 'fast').{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|p\\=27}}",
"As discussed [above](/wiki/%23Competing_phonemic_analyses \"#Competing phonemic analyses\"), the sequences {{IPA\\|\\[tɕe (d)ʑe ɕe]}} do not occur in standard Japanese outside of foreign loanwords and a few marginal exclamations. There are no morphological alternations motivated by this gap,{{sfnp\\|Crawford\\|2009\\|page\\=69}} since no morphemes have an underlying form ending in {{IPA\\|\\[tɕ (d)ʑ ɕ]}}. In borrowed words, {{IPA\\|\\[tɕe]}} has been consistently retained at all time periods, with very few exceptions.{{efn\\|The use of {{IPA\\|\\[se]}} instead of {{IPA\\|\\[tɕe]}} in {{lang\\|ja\\|セロ}} {{transliteration\\|ja\\|sero}} from ''cello'' seems to be unique.{{sfnp\\|Crawford\\|2009\\|pages\\=71\\-72}}{{sfnp\\|Smith\\|1980\\|loc\\=§5\\.6}} Another rare exception, showing adaptation to {{IPA\\|\\[tɕi]}} (vowel raising), is {{lang\\|ja\\|チッキ}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|chikki}}) from English ''check'' (less common than {{lang\\|ja\\|チェック}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|chekku}})).{{sfnp\\|Crawford\\|2009\\|page\\=72}}}} The sequences {{IPA\\|\\[(d)ʑe]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[ɕe]}} have usually been retained in words borrowed more recently than around 1950, whereas words borrowed before that point may show depalatalization to {{IPA\\|\\[(d)ze]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[se]}} respectively,{{sfnp\\|Crawford\\|2009\\|page\\=72}} as seen in the 19th\\-century borrowed forms {{lang\\|ja\\|ゼリー}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|zerī}}) from English *jelly*, {{lang\\|ja\\|ゼントルマン}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|zentoruman}}) from English *gentleman*,{{sfnp\\|Irwin\\|2011\\|p\\=88}} and {{lang\\|ja\\|セパード}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|sepādo}}) from English *shepherd*.{{sfnp\\|Smith\\|1980\\|loc\\=§3\\.1\\.4\\.2\\.5, §5\\.6}}",
"The sequences {{IPA\\|\\[ɸʲɯ dʲɯ tʲɯ]}} occur only in recent loans, such as {{lang\\|ja\\|フュージョン}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|fyūjon}}), {{lang\\|ja\\|デュエット}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|dyuetto}}), {{lang\\|ja\\|テューバ}} ({{transliteration\\|ja\\|tyūba}}) from *fusion, duet, tuba*: they can be interpreted as {{IPA\\|/fju dju tju/}} in analyses where {{IPA\\|\\[tɕ]}} is not interpreted as {{IPA\\|/tj/}}.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|pp\\=80, 229}}",
"#### Pre\\-{{IPA\\|/u/}} consonants",
"Several Japanese consonants developed special phonetic values before {{IPA\\|/u/}}. Though originally allophonic, some of these variants have arguably attained phonemic status because of later neutralizations or the introduction of novel contrasts in loanwords.",
"In core vocabulary, {{IPA\\|\\[ɸɯ]}} can be analyzed as an allophonic realization of {{IPA\\|/hu/}}.{{sfnp\\|Itō\\|Mester\\|1995\\|p\\=825}} However, in words of foreign origin, the [voiceless bilabial fricative](/wiki/%23Voiceless_bilabial_fricative \"#Voiceless bilabial fricative\") {{IPA\\|\\[ɸ]}} can occur before vowels other than {{IPA\\|/u/}}. This introduces a distinctive contrast between {{IPA\\|\\[ɸa ɸe ɸi ɸo]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[ha he çi ho]}}; therefore, {{harvcoltxt\\|Vance\\|2008}} recognizes {{IPA\\|\\[ɸ]}} as a distinct consonant phoneme {{IPA\\|/f/}}, and interprets {{IPA\\|\\[ɸɯ]}} as phonemically {{IPA\\|/fu/}}, leaving \\*{{IPA\\|/hu/}} as a gap.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|pp\\=80, 82}} In contrast, {{harvcoltxt\\|Watanabe\\|2009}} prefers the analysis {{IPA\\|/hu/}} and argues that {{IPA\\|/h/}} in this context is distinct phonemically and sometimes phonetically from the {{IPA\\|/f/}} {{IPA\\|\\[ɸ]}} found in foreign {{IPA\\|/fa fe fi fo/}}{{sfnp\\|Watanabe\\|2009\\|p\\=90}} (which would leave \\*{{IPA\\|/fu/}} as a gap). In any case, {{IPA\\|/h/}} and {{IPA\\|/f/}} do not contrast before {{IPA\\|/u/}}.",
"Outside of loanwords, {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[dɯ]}} do not occur, because {{IPA\\|/t d/}} were affricated to {{IPA\\|\\[ts dz]}} before {{IPA\\|/u/}}.{{sfnp\\|Watanabe\\|2009\\|pp\\=163\\-176}}",
"In dialects that show neutralization of the {{IPA\\|\\[dz z]}} contrast, the merged phone {{IPA\\|\\[(d)z]}} can occur before {{IPA\\|/a, e, o/}} as well as before {{IPA\\|/u/}}. Thus, for these dialects, {{IPA\\|\\[(d)zɯ]}} can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA\\|/zu/}}, leaving {{IPA\\|/du/}} as a gap.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|pp\\=85\\-88}}",
"In core vocabulary, the [voiceless coronal affricate](/wiki/%23Voiceless_coronal_affricate \"#Voiceless coronal affricate\") {{IPA\\|\\[ts]}} occurs only before the vowel {{IPA\\|/u/}}; thus {{IPA\\|\\[tsɯ]}} can be analyzed as an allophonic realization of {{IPA\\|/tu/}}.{{sfnp\\|Itō\\|Mester\\|1995\\|p\\=825}} Verb inflection shows alternations between {{IPA\\|\\[t]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[ts]}}, as in {{IPA\\|\\[katanai]}} 'win' (negative) and {{IPA\\|\\[katsɯ]}} 'win' (present tense).{{sfnp\\|Itō\\|Mester\\|1995\\|p\\=825}} However, the interpretation of {{IPA\\|\\[tsɯ]}} as {{IPA\\|/tu/}} (with {{IPA\\|\\[ts]}} merely an allophone of {{IPA\\|/t/}}) is complicated by the occurrence of {{IPA\\|\\[ts]}} before vowels other than {{IPA\\|/u/}} in loanwords.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|p\\=84}}",
"In addition, unaffricated {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ dɯ]}} are sometimes used in recent loanwords. They can be represented in kana by {{lang\\|ja\\|トゥ}} and {{lang\\|ja\\|ドゥ}}, which received official recognition by a cabinet notice in 1991 as an alternative to the use of {{IPA\\|\\[tsɯ] \\[(d)zɯ]}} or {{IPA\\|\\[to] \\[do]}} to adapt foreign {{IPA\\|\\[tu] \\[du]}}.{{sfnp\\|Watanabe\\|2009\\|p\\=163}} Forms where {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[dɯ]}} can be found include the following:\n {{lang\\-en\\|Today}} → {{IPA\\|\\[tɯdei]}}\n {{lang\\-fr\\|toujours}} {{IPA\\|\\[tuʒuʀ]}} → {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ(d)ʑɯːɾɯ]}}\n {{lang\\-fr\\|douze}} {{IPA\\|\\[duz]}} → {{IPA\\|\\[dɯːzɯ]}}{{sfnp\\|Shinohara\\|2004\\|p\\=316}}",
"Older loanwords from French display adaptation of {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ]}} as {{IPA\\|\\[tsɯ]}} and of {{IPA\\|\\[dɯ]}} as {{IPA\\|\\[do]}}:\n {{lang\\-fr\\|Toulouse}} {{IPA\\|\\[tuluz]}} → {{IPA\\|\\[tsɯːɾɯːzɯ]}}\n {{lang\\-fr\\|Pompidou}} {{IPA\\|\\[pɔ̃pidu]}} → {{IPA\\|\\[pompidoː]}}{{sfnp\\|Shinohara\\|2004\\|p\\=299}}",
"{{harvcoltxt\\|Vance\\|2008}} argues that {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[dɯ]}} remain \"foreignisms\" in Japanese phonology;{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|pp\\=84, 87}} they are less frequent than {{IPA\\|\\[ti di]}},{{sfnp\\|Watanabe\\|2009\\|p\\=151}} and this has been interpreted as evidence that a constraint against \\*{{IPA\\|\\[tɯ]}} remained active in Japanese phonology for longer than the constraint against \\*{{IPA\\|\\[ti]}}.{{sfnp\\|Pintér\\|2015\\|pp\\=121–122}}",
"In both old and recent loanwords, the [epenthetic vowel](/wiki/%23Epenthetic_vowels \"#Epenthetic vowels\") used after word\\-final or pre\\-consonantal {{IPA\\|/t/}} or {{IPA\\|/d/}} is normally {{IPA\\|/o/}} rather than {{IPA\\|/u/}} (there is also some use of {{IPA\\|\\[tsɯ]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[(d)zɯ]}}{{sfnp\\|Watanabe\\|2009\\|p\\=174}}). However, adapted forms show some fluctuation between {{IPA\\|\\[to do]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[tɯ dɯ]}} in this context, e.g. French {{lang\\|fr\\|estrade}} {{IPA\\|\\[estʀad]}} 'stage', in addition to being adapted as {{IPA\\|/esutoraddo/}}, has a variant adaptation {{IPA\\|/esuturaddu/}}.{{sfnp\\|Shinohara\\|2004\\|p\\=316}}",
"### Between moras",
"#### Special moras",
"If analyzed as phonemes, the [moraic consonants](/wiki/%23Moraic_consonants \"#Moraic consonants\") {{IPA\\|/N/}} and {{IPA\\|/Q/}} show a number of phonotactic restrictions (although some constraints can be violated in certain contexts, or may apply only within certain layers of Japanese vocabulary).",
"##### {{IPA\\|/N/}}",
"In general, the moraic nasal {{IPA\\|/N/}} can occur between a vowel and a consonant, between vowels (where it contrasts with non\\-moraic nasal onsets), or at the end of a word.",
"In Sino\\-Japanese vocabulary, {{IPA\\|/N/}} can occur as the second and final mora of a Sino\\-Japanese morpheme.{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|p\\=291}} It may be followed by any other consonant or vowel. However, in some contexts Sino\\-Japanese morpheme\\-final {{IPA\\|/N/}} may cause changes to the start of a closely connected following morpheme:",
"* Within a bimorphemic Sino\\-Japanese word, {{IPA\\|/h/}} is regularly replaced with {{IPA\\|/p/}} after {{IPA\\|/N/}}, as shown by the different pronunciation of 輩 in {{lang\\-ja\\|後輩\\|kō'''h'''ai\\|lit\\=one's junior\\|label\\=none}} versus {{lang\\-ja\\|先輩\\|sen'''p'''ai\\|lit\\=one's senior\\|label\\=none}}.{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|p\\=301}} This does not affect {{IPA\\|/Nh/}} across word boundaries or across the juncture in the middle of a \"complex compound\" where the first or second element is a prosodic word composed of more than one Sino\\-Japanese morpheme: for example, {{IPA\\|/h/}} remains unchanged in {{lang\\-ja\\|完全敗北\\|kan\\+zen\\#hai\\+boku\\|lit\\=total defeat\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|新発明\\|shin\\#hatsu\\+mei\\|lit\\=new invention\\|label\\=none}},{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|pp\\=304–305}} and {{lang\\-ja\\|疑問符\\|gi\\+mon\\#fu\\|lit\\=question mark\\|label\\=none}}.{{sfnp\\|Kitagawa\\|Albin\\|2023\\|p\\=56}}\n* Some words where {{IPA\\|/N/}} is followed by a morpheme that starts in modern Japanese with a vowel or semivowel developed a pronunciation with a geminate nasal ({{IPA\\|/Nn/}} or {{IPA\\|/Nm/}}) as the result of historic sound changes (see [renjō](/wiki/%23Renj%C5%8D \"#Renjō\")). Aside from these isolated exceptions, {{IPA\\|/N/}} followed by a vowel is regularly pronounced without resyllabification in Sino\\-Japanese compounds.{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|pp\\=295, 297}}\n* A following {{IPA\\|/t k h s/}} is sometimes changed to {{IPA\\|/d ɡ b z/}}; this can be interpreted as a special case of the more general sound change of [rendaku](/wiki/%23Rendaku \"#Rendaku\").{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2015\\|p\\=421}}",
"Although usually not found at the start of a word, initial {{IPA\\|/N/}} can occur in some colloquial speech forms as a result of dropping of a preceding mora.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|p\\=104}} In this context, its pronunciation is invariably assimilated to the place of articulation of the following consonant:\n {{IPA\\|/naN bjaku neN/}} → {{IPA\\|/N bjaku neN/}} {{IPA\\|\\[mbjakɯneɴ]}} 'several hundred years'\n {{IPA\\|/soNna koto/}} → {{IPA\\|/Nna koto/}} {{IPA\\|\\[nnakoto]}} 'such thing'{{sfnp\\|Kitaoka\\|2017\\|p\\=6}}",
"Initial {{IPA\\|/N/}} may also be used in some loanword forms:\n {{IPA\\|\\[n.dʑa.me.na]}}\\~{{IPA\\|\\[ɴ.dʑa.me.na]}} 'N'Djamena (proper noun)'{{sfnp\\|Kitaoka\\|2017\\|p\\=6}}",
"(This place name has an alternative pronunciation with an epenthetic {{IPA\\|/u/}} inserted before the {{IPA\\|/N/}}.{{sfnp\\|Tateishi\\|2017\\|p\\=534}})",
"##### {{IPA\\|/Q/}}",
"The moraic obstruent {{IPA\\|/Q/}} generally occurs only between a vowel and a consonant in the middle of a word. However, word\\-initial geminates may occur in casual speech as the result of elision:\n {{IPA\\|/mattaku/}} ('entirely; totally', an expression of exasperation) → {{IPA\\|\\[ttakɯ]}}\n {{IPA\\|/usseena/}} ('shut up') → {{IPA\\|\\[sseena]}}{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2015\\|p\\=66}}",
"In native Japanese vocabulary, {{IPA\\|/Q/}} is found only before {{IPA\\|/p t k s/}}{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=136}} (this includes {{IPA\\|\\[ts]}}, {{IPA\\|\\[tɕ]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[ɕ]}}, which can be viewed as allophones of {{IPA\\|/t/}} and {{IPA\\|/s/}}); in other words, before voiceless obstruents other than {{IPA\\|/h/}}. The same generally applies to Sino\\-Japanese vocabulary. In these layers of vocabulary, {{IPA\\|\\[pp]}} functions as the geminate counterpart of {{IPA\\|/h/}}, due to the historical development of Japanese {{IPA\\|/h/}} from Old Japanese {{IPA\\|\\[p]}}.{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|Itô\\|Mester\\|2009\\|pages\\=955, 972}}",
"{{harvcoltxt\\|Tamaoka\\|Makioka\\|2004}} found that in a Japanese newspaper corpus, {{IPA\\|/Q/}} was followed over 98% of the time by one of {{IPA\\|/p t k s/}}: however, there were also at least some cases where it was followed by {{IPA\\|/h b d ɡ z r/}}.{{sfnp\\|Tamaoka\\|Makioka\\|2004\\|pp\\=540, 542}}",
"Geminate {{IPA\\|/h/}} is found only in recent loanwords (e.g. {{lang\\-ja\\|ゴッホ\\|''Go'''hh'''o''\\|lit\\=(van) Gogh\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|バッハ\\|''Ba'''hh'''a''\\|lit\\=Bach\\|label\\=none}}), and rarely in Sino\\-Japanese or mixed compounds (e.g. {{lang\\-ja\\|十針\\|''ju'''hh'''ari''\\|lit\\=ten stitches\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|絶不調\\|''ze'''ff'''uchō''\\|lit\\=terrible slump\\|label\\=none}}).{{harvtxt\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|pp\\=70, 136}}, citing {{harvtxt\\|Lawrence\\|1999\\|p\\=18}}{{sfnp\\|Lawrence\\|2001\\|p\\=968}}",
"Voiced obstruents ({{IPA\\|/b d ɡ z/}}) do not occur as geminates in Yamato or Sino\\-Japanese words.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=104}} The avoidance of geminated voiced obstruents can be seen in certain [morphophonological](/wiki/%23Morphophonology \"#Morphophonology\") processes that produce voiceless but not voiced geminate obstruents: e.g. Yamato {{lang\\-ja\\|突っ立つ\\|tsu'''tt'''atsu\\|label\\=none}} vs. {{lang\\-ja\\|突ん出す\\|tsu'''nd'''asu\\|label\\=none}} (not {{lang\\|ja\\|\\*tsu'''dd'''asu}}){{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|Padgett\\|2001\\|p\\=58}} and Sino\\-Japanese {{lang\\-ja\\|発達\\|ha'''tt'''atsu\\|label\\=none}} vs. {{lang\\-ja\\|発電\\|ha'''tsud'''en\\|label\\=none}}{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|pp\\=298\\-299}} (not {{lang\\|ja\\|\\*ha'''dd'''en}}).",
"However, voiced geminate obstruents have been used in words adapted from foreign languages since the 19th century.{{sfnp\\|Crawford\\|2009\\|pages\\=62\\-65}} These loanwords can even come from languages, such as English, that do not feature gemination in the first place. For example, when an English word features a coda consonant preceded by a [lax vowel](/wiki/Lax_vowel \"Lax vowel\"), it can be borrowed into Japanese with a geminate; gemination may also appear as a result of borrowing via written materials, where a word spelled with doubled letters leads to a geminated pronunciation.{{Harvcoltxt\\|Kawahara\\|2006\\|pp\\=537–538}}, citing {{Harvcoltxt\\|Katayama\\|1998}}. Because these loanwords can feature voiced geminates, Japanese now exhibits a voice distinction with geminates where it formerly did not:{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2006\\|p\\=538}}\n {{lang\\-ja\\|スラッガー\\|suraggā\\|label\\=none}} ('slugger') vs. *surakkā* ('slacker')\n {{lang\\-ja\\|キッド\\|kiddo\\|label\\=none}} ('kid') vs. *kitto* ('kit')",
"The most frequent geminated voiced obstruent is {{IPA\\|/Qd/}}, followed by {{IPA\\|/Qɡ/}}, {{IPA\\|/Qz/}}, {{IPA\\|/Qb/}}.{{sfnp\\|Tamaoka\\|Makioka\\|2004\\|pp\\=540, 542}} In borrowed words, {{IPA\\|/d/}} is the only voiced stop that is regularly adapted as a geminate when it occurs in word\\-final position after a lax/short vowel; gemination of {{IPA\\|/b/}} and {{IPA\\|/ɡ/}} in this context is sporadic.{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Kubozono\\|Mester\\|2017\\|p\\=296}}",
"Phonetically, voiced geminate obstruents in Japanese tend to have a 'semi\\-devoiced' pronunciation where phonetic voicing stops partway through the closure of the consonant.{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2015\\|page\\=54}} High vowels are not [devoiced](/wiki/%23Devoicing \"#Devoicing\") after phonemically voiced geminates.{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2015\\|page\\=54}}",
"In some cases, voiced geminate obstruents can optionally be replaced with the corresponding voiceless geminate phonemes:{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2011\\|pages\\=1\\-2}}{{sfnp\\|Sano\\|2013\\|pp\\=245–246}}\n {{lang\\-ja\\|バッド\\|baddo\\|label\\=none}} → {{lang\\-ja\\|バット\\|batto\\|lit\\=bad\\|label\\=none}}{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2011\\|pages\\=1\\-2}}\n {{lang\\-ja\\|ドッグ\\|doggu\\|label\\=none}} → {{lang\\-ja\\|ドック\\|dokku\\|lit\\=dog\\|label\\=none}}{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2011\\|pages\\=1\\-2}}\n {{lang\\-ja\\|ベッド\\|beddo\\|label\\=none}} → {{lang\\-ja\\|ベット\\|betto\\|lit\\=bed\\|label\\=none}}{{sfnp\\|Sano\\|2013\\|pp\\=245–246}}",
"Phonemic devoicing like this (which may be marked in spelling) has been argued to be conditioned by the presence of another voiced obstruent.{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2011\\|p\\=2}}{{sfnp\\|Sano\\|2013\\|p\\=246}} Another example is *doreddo* \\~ *doretto* 'dreadlocks'. {{Harvcoltxt\\|Kawahara\\|2006}} attributes this to a less reliable distinction between voiced and voiceless geminates compared to the same distinction in non\\-geminated consonants, noting that speakers may have difficulty distinguishing them due to the partial devoicing of voiced geminates and their resistance to the [weakening process mentioned above](/wiki/%23Lenition \"#Lenition\"), both of which can make them sound like voiceless geminates.{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2006\\|pp\\=559, 561, 565}}",
"A small number of foreign proper names have katakana spellings that would imply a pronunciation with {{IPA\\|/Qr/}}, such as {{lang\\-ja\\|アッラー\\|arrā\\|lit\\=Allah\\|label\\=none}} and {{lang\\-ja\\|チェッリーニ\\|Cherrīni\\|lit\\=Cellini\\|label\\=none}}.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|p\\=113}} The phonetic realization of {{IPA\\|/Qr/}} in such forms varies between a lengthened sonorant sound and a sequence of a glottal stop followed by a sonorant.{{sfnp\\|Kitaoka\\|2017\\|p\\=5}}",
"Aside from loanwords, consonants that cannot normally occur after {{IPA\\|/Q/}} may be geminated in certain emphatic variants of native words.{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2015\\|p\\=68}} Reduplicative mimetics may be used in an intensified form where the second consonant of the first portion is geminated, and this can affect consonants that otherwise do not occur as geminates, such as {{IPA\\|/r/}} (as in {{lang\\-ja\\|barra\\-bara\\|lit\\=in disorder\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|borro\\-boro\\|lit\\=worn out\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|gurra\\-gura\\|lit\\=shaky\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|karra\\-kara\\|lit\\=dry\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|perra\\-pera\\|lit\\=thin\\|label\\=none}}) or {{IPA\\|/j/}} (as in {{lang\\-ja\\|buyyo\\-buyo\\|lit\\=flabby\\|label\\=none}}).{{sfnp\\|Schourup\\|Tamori\\|1992\\|pp\\=137–138}} Adjectives may take an emphatic pronunciation where the second consonant is geminated and the following vowel is lengthened, as in {{lang\\|ja\\|naggaai}} \\< {{lang\\-ja\\|nagai\\|lit\\=long\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\|ja\\|karraai}} \\< {{lang\\-ja\\|karai\\|lit\\=hot\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\|ja\\|kowwaai}} \\< {{lang\\-ja\\|kowai\\|lit\\=dreadful\\|label\\=none}}.{{sfnp\\|Schourup\\|Tamori\\|1992\\|pp\\=137–138}} Similarly, per {{harvcoltxt\\|Vance\\|2008}}, {{IPA\\|/Qj/}} and {{IPA\\|/Qm/}} can occur in emphatic pronunciations of {{lang\\-ja\\|速い\\|hayai\\|lit\\=fast\\|label\\=none}} and {{lang\\-ja\\|寒い\\|samui\\|lit\\=cold\\|label\\=none}} as {{IPA\\|\\[haʔːjai]}} and {{IPA\\|\\[saʔːmɯi]}}.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|p\\=110}} A 2020 study of geminate production in mimetic forms found that emphatically lengthened {{IPA\\|/r/}} could be pronounced either as a lengthened sonorant with uninterrupted voicing, or with some amount of laryngealization such as glottal stop insertion.{{sfnp\\|Morimoto\\|2020\\|pp\\=46\\-51}} Another noteworthy characteristic of emphatically lengthened consonants is the potential for a greater than two\\-way distinction in length.{{sfnp\\|Akamatsu\\|1997\\|p\\=333}}{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2015\\|p\\=68}}",
"Atypical {{IPA\\|/Q/}} \\+ consonant sequences may also arise in truncated word forms (created by blending some moras from each word in a longer phrase) and in forms produced as the outcome of word games:{{sfnp\\|Kitaoka\\|2017\\|p\\=5}}\n {{lang\\-ja\\|カットモデル\\|katto moderu\\|lit\\=cut model\\|label\\=none}} {{IPA\\|/kaQto moderu/}} → {{transliteration\\|ja\\|kadderu}} {{IPA\\|/kaQderu/}} (blend){{sfnp\\|Kitaoka\\|2017\\|p\\=5}}\n {{lang\\-ja\\|バット\\|batto\\|lit\\=bat\\|label\\=none}} {{IPA\\|/baQto/}} → {{transliteration\\|ja\\|tobba}} {{IPA\\|/toQba/}} (form produced in a reversing language game){{sfnp\\|Kitaoka\\|2017\\|p\\=5}}",
"However, there are also reversed argot forms that show replacement of {{IPA\\|/Q/}} with {{IPA\\|\\[tsɯ]}} (likely by influence from its spelling with a small *tsu* kana) in contexts where {{IPA\\|/Q/}} would be atypical: e.g. {{transliteration\\|ja\\|rappa}} 'trumpet' {{IPA\\|/raQpa/}} → {{transliteration\\|ja\\|patsura}}; {{transliteration\\|ja\\|wappa}} 'brat' {{IPA\\|/waQpa/}} → {{transliteration\\|ja\\|patsuwa}}; {{transliteration\\|ja\\|yakko}} 'guy' {{IPA\\|/jaQko/}} → {{transliteration\\|ja\\|kotsuya}}; {{transliteration\\|ja\\|batto}} 'bat' {{IPA\\|/baQto/}} → {{transliteration\\|ja\\|totsuba}}.{{sfnp\\|Itô\\|Kitagawa\\|Mester\\|1996\\|page\\=229}}",
"#### Vowel sequences and long vowels",
"Vowel sequences with no intervening consonant (VV sequences) occur in many contexts:\n* Any pair of vowels can occur in sequence across morpheme boundaries, or within a morpheme in foreign words.{{sfnp\\|Youngberg\\|2021b\\|pp\\=224–225}}\n* The sequences {{IPA\\|/ai oi ui ie ae oe ue io ao uo/}} can be found within a morpheme in indigenous or Sino\\-Japanese words.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=53}} {{harvcoltxt\\|Youngberg\\|2021b}} also includes {{IPA\\|/eo/}}, as in {{lang\\-ja\\|夫婦\\|meoto\\|lit\\=husband and wife\\|label\\=none}}, and {{IPA\\|/ia/}}, as in {{lang\\-ja\\|幸せ\\|shiawase\\|lit\\=happy\\|label\\=none}}.{{sfnp\\|Youngberg\\|2021b\\|p\\=223}}\n* Within a Sino\\-Japanese morpheme, the only vowel sequences that can normally be found are {{IPA\\|/ai ui/}} (as sequences of non\\-identical vowels) or {{IPA\\|\\[eː oː ɯː]}} (as long vowels).{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|p\\=292}} Sino\\-Japanese {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}} is historically derived from {{IPA\\|/ei/}} and may variably be realized phonetically as {{IPA\\|\\[ei]}} (possibly due to spelling pronunciation) rather than as the long vowel {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}}.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=40}}",
"When the first of two vowels in a VV sequence is [higher](/wiki/Vowel%23Height \"Vowel#Height\") than the second, there is often not a clear distinction between a pronunciation with hiatus and a pronunciation where a glide with the same frontness as the first vowel is inserted before the second: i.e., the VV sequences {{IPA\\|/ia io ua ea oa/}} may sound like {{IPA\\|/ija ijo uwa eja owa/}}.{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2003}} For example, English *gear* has been borrowed into Japanese as {{lang\\-ja\\|ギア\\|gia\\|lit\\=gear\\|label\\=none}}, but an alternative form of this word is {{lang\\-ja\\|ギヤ\\|giya\\|label\\=none}}.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|2008\\|p\\=133}} Per {{harvcoltxt\\|Kawahara\\|2003}}, the sequences {{IPA\\|/eo eu/}} are not pronounced like {{IPA\\|\\*\\[ejo ejɯ]}}. The sequence {{IPA\\|/iu/}} is not pronounced like {{IPA\\|\\*\\[ijɯ]}}, but it is sometimes replaced with {{IPA\\|\\[jɯː]}}:{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2003}} this change is optional in loanwords.{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|2015c\\|p\\=334}} Kawahara states that the formation of a glide between {{IPA\\|/ia io ua ea oa/}} may be blocked by a syntactic boundary or by some (though not all) morpheme boundaries (Kawahara suggests that apparent cases of glide formation across morpheme boundaries are best interpreted as evidence that the boundary is no longer transparent).{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2003}}",
"Many long vowels historically developed from vowel sequences by coalescence, such as {{IPA\\|/au ou eu iu/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[oː oː joː jɯː]}}. In addition, some vowel sequences in contemporary Japanese may optionally undergo coalescence to a long vowel in colloquial or casual speech (for some sequences, such as {{IPA\\|/oi/}} and {{IPA\\|/ui/}}, coalescence is not possible in all contexts, but only in adjective forms).{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|2015b\\|pp\\=225–228}} The monophthongization of {{IPA\\|/ai/}}, {{IPA\\|/ae/}} or {{IPA\\|/oi/}} to {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}} or {{IPA\\|\\[ɛː]}} is a feature of colloquial male speech.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=41}}",
"{\\| cellpadding\\=\"5\"\n\\| {{IPA\\|/ai/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}}\n\\| {{IPA\\|/itai/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[iteː]}}\n\\| {{lang\\-ja\\|痛い\\|itai\\|lit\\=painful, ouch\\|label\\=none}}\n\\|\\-\n\\| {{IPA\\|/oi/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[eː]}}\n\\| {{IPA\\|/suɡoi/}} \\> {{IPA\\|\\[sɯɡeː]}}\n\\| {{lang\\-ja\\|凄い\\|sugoi\\|lit\\=great\\|label\\=none}}{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|2015b\\|pp\\=226–227}}\n\\|}\nWithin words and phrases, Japanese allows long sequences of phonetic vowels without intervening consonants.{{sfnp\\|Akamatsu\\|1997\\|pp\\=53\\-54}} Sequences of two vowels within a single word are extremely common, occurring at the end of many *i*\\-type adjectives, for example, and having three or more vowels in sequence within a word also occurs, as in {{lang\\-ja\\|あおい\\|aoi\\|lit\\=blue/green\\|label\\=none}}. In phrases, sequences with multiple *o* sounds are most common, due to the direct object particle {{lang\\-ja\\|を\\|o\\|label\\=none}} (which comes after a word) being realized as *o* and the honorific prefix {{lang\\-ja\\|お〜\\|o\\|label\\=none}}, which can occur in sequence, and may follow a word itself terminating in an *o* sound; these may be dropped in rapid speech. A fairly common construction exhibiting these is {{lang\\-ja\\|「〜をお送りします」\\|o o\\-okuri\\-shimasu\\|lit\\=...humbly send...\\|label\\=none}}. More extreme examples follow:",
"{\\| cellpadding\\=\"5\"\n\\| {{IPA\\|/hoː.oː.o.o.oː/}} {{IPA\\|\\[hoː.oː.o.o.oː]}}\n\\| *hōō o oō* ({{lang\\-ja\\|{{ruby\\-ja\\|鳳凰\\|ほうおう}}を{{ruby\\-ja\\|追\\|お}}おう\\|label\\=none}})\n\\| 'let's chase the [fenghuang](/wiki/Fenghuang \"Fenghuang\")'\n\\|\\-\n\\| {{IPA\\|/toː.oː.o.oː.oː/}} {{IPA\\|\\[toː.oː.o.oː.oː]}}\n\\| *tōō o ōō* ({{lang\\-ja\\|{{ruby\\-ja\\|東欧\\|とうおう}}を{{ruby\\-ja\\|覆\\|おお}}おう\\|label\\=none}})\n\\| 'let's cover Eastern Europe'\n\\|}\n### Distribution of consonant phonemes based on word position",
"In Yamato vocabulary, certain consonant phonemes, such as {{IPA\\|/p/}}, {{IPA\\|/h/}}, {{IPA\\|/r/}} and voiced obstruents, tend to be found only in certain positions in a word.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|pp\\=16\\-17, 60, 69, 93, 100\\-102}} None of these restrictions applies to foreign vocabulary; some do not apply to mimetic or Sino\\-Japanese vocabulary; and certain generalizations have exceptions even within Yamato vocabulary; nevertheless, some linguists interpret them as still playing a role in Japanese phonology, based on the model of a \"stratified\" lexicon where some active phonological constraints affect only certain layers of the vocabulary. The gaps in the distribution of these consonant phonemes can also be explained in terms of diachronic sound changes.",
"The voiced obstruents {{IPA\\|/b d ɡ z/}} occur without restriction at the start of Sino\\-Japanese and foreign morphemes,{{sfnp\\|Nasu\\|2015\\|p\\=257}} but usually do not occur at the start of Yamato words.{{sfnp\\|Takayama\\|2015\\|p\\=628}}{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=102}} However, suffixes or postposed particles starting with these sounds have been in use since Old Japanese, such as the case particle {{lang\\|ja\\|ga}},{{sfnp\\|Frellesvig\\|2010\\|p\\=43}} and morphemes that underlyingly start with a voiceless obstruent often have [allomorphs](/wiki/Allomorph \"Allomorph\") that start with a voiced obstruent in the context of [rendaku](/wiki/%23Rendaku \"#Rendaku\"). In addition, word\\-initial {{IPA\\|/b d ɡ z/}} occur frequently in the mimetic stratum of native Japanese vocabulary, where they often function as sound\\-symbolic variants of their voiceless counterparts {{IPA\\|/p h t k s/}}.{{sfnp\\|Nasu\\|2015\\|pp\\=260–261}} Furthermore, some non\\-mimetic Yamato words start with voiced obstruents. In some cases, voicing seems to have had an expressive function, adding a negative or pejorative shade to a root.{{sfnp\\|Nasu\\|2015\\|p\\=284}}{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|pp\\=102–103}} Initial voiced obstruents have also arisen in some Yamato words as the result of phonetic developments, such as loss of original word\\-initial high vowels or alteration of words that originally started with nasal consonants.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=103}} Diachronically, the scarcity of word\\-initial voiced obstruents in native Japanese words seems to be a consequence of their origin from [Proto\\-Japonic](/wiki/Proto-Japonic%23Consonants \"Proto-Japonic#Consonants\") sequences involving a nasal phoneme followed by an obstruent phoneme, which developed to [prenasalized consonants](/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant \"Prenasalized consonant\") in [Old Japanese](/wiki/Old_Japanese%23Phonology \"Old Japanese#Phonology\").{{sfnp\\|Frellesvig\\|2010\\|pp\\=35, 42\\-43}}",
"Yamato and mimetic words almost never start with {{IPA\\|/r/}}.{{sfnp\\|Nasu\\|2015\\|p\\=276}} In contrast, word\\-initial {{IPA\\|/r/}} occurs without restriction in Sino\\-Japanese and foreign vocabulary.{{sfnp\\|Itō\\|Mester\\|1995\\|p\\=836}}",
"In Yamato words, {{IPA\\|/p/}} occurs only as a word\\-medial geminate (or equivalently, only after {{IPA\\|/Q/}}) as in {{lang\\-ja\\|\\[\\[wikt:河童\\|河童]]\\|kappa\\|label\\=none}}. In Sino\\-Japanese words, {{IPA\\|/p/}} occurs only after {{IPA\\|/Q/}} or {{IPA\\|/N/}} (as in {{lang\\-ja\\|切腹\\|seppuku\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|北方\\|hoppō\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|音符\\|onpu\\|label\\=none}}), alternating with {{IPA\\|/h/}} in other positions. In contrast, mimetic words can contain singleton {{IPA\\|/p/}}, either word\\-initially or word\\-medially.{{sfnp\\|Nasu\\|2015\\|pp\\=261, 266, 280}} Singleton {{IPA\\|/p/}} also occurs freely in foreign words,{{sfnp\\|Nasu\\|2015\\|p\\=264}} such as {{lang\\-ja\\|パオズ\\|paozu\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|ペテン\\|peten\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|パーティー\\|pātī\\|label\\=none}}. The gap in the distribution of singleton {{IPA\\|\\[p]}} results from the fact that original \\*p developed in Japanese to {{IPA\\|\\[ɸ]}} at the start of a word and to {{IPA\\|/w/}} between vowels, resulting in {{IPA\\|\\[p]}} being retained only as part of the geminate {{IPA\\|\\[pː]}} or after {{IPA\\|/N/}}.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|pp\\=60\\-62, 75–76}} (The labial fricative {{IPA\\|\\[ɸ]}} could be found before all vowels up through [Late Middle Japanese](/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese%23/h/_and_/p/ \"Late Middle Japanese#/h/ and /p/\"), but was eventually debuccalized to {{IPA\\|\\[h]}} before any vowel other than {{IPA\\|/u/}}, resulting in the modern Japanese {{IPA\\|/h/}} phoneme. The glide {{IPA\\|/w/}} was eventually lost before any vowel other than {{IPA\\|/a/}}.) The few non\\-mimetic words where {{IPA\\|/p/}} occurs initially include {{lang\\-ja\\|\\[\\[wikt:風太郎\\|風太郎]]\\|pūtarō\\|label\\=none}}, although as a personal name it is still pronounced *Fūtarō*.",
"The phoneme {{IPA\\|/h/}} is rarely found in the middle of a Yamato morpheme (a small number of exceptions exist, such as {{lang\\-ja\\|afureru\\|lit\\=overflow\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|ahiru\\|lit\\=duck\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|yahari\\|lit\\=likewise\\|label\\=none}}) or in the middle of a mimetic root (examples are mostly confined to mimetics that imitate \"gutteral\" or \"laryngeal\" sounds, such as {{lang\\-ja\\|goho\\-goho\\|lit\\=coughing\\|label\\=none}} and {{lang\\-ja\\|ahaha\\|lit\\=laughing\\|label\\=none}}).{{sfnp\\|Nasu\\|2015\\|p\\=276}} In Yamato words, this gap results from the aforementioned change of original {{IPA\\|\\*p}} to {{IPA\\|/w/}}, rather than {{IPA\\|/h/}}, in intervocalic position.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|p\\=77}} In mimetic words, intervocalic {{IPA\\|/w/}} is also uncommon: therefore, {{harvcoltxt\\|Hamano\\|2000}} proposes that the usual outcome of original {{IPA\\|\\*p}} in this context was {{IPA\\|/b/}}, which seems to be disproportionately common as the second consonant of a mimetic root.{{sfnp\\|Hamano\\|2000\\|p\\=213\\-218}} Likewise, {{IPA\\|/h/}} never occurs in the middle of a Sino\\-Japanese morpheme.{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|p\\=293}}",
"### Epenthetic vowels",
"{{Further\\|Transcription into Japanese\\|Sino\\-Japanese vocabulary\\#Rimes (medials and finals)}}",
"Words of foreign origin are systematically adapted to Japanese phonotactics by inserting an [epenthetic](/wiki/Epenthesis \"Epenthesis\") vowel (usually {{IPA\\|/u/}}) after a word\\-final consonant or between adjacent consonants. While {{IPA\\|/u/}} is inserted after the majority of consonants, it is usual to use {{IPA\\|/o/}} after {{IPA\\|\\[t, d]}} and {{IPA\\|/i/}} after {{IPA\\|\\[tʃ, dʒ]}} (but usually not after {{IPA\\|\\[ʃ]}}). After {{IPA\\|/hh/}} (used to adapt foreign word\\-final {{IPA\\|\\[x]}}) the epenthetic vowel is often {{IPA\\|/a/}} or {{IPA\\|/o/}}, echoing the quality of the vowel before the consonant.\nThere are some deviations from the aforementioned patterns: for example, some older borrowings such as {{lang\\-ja\\|ケーキ\\|kēki\\|lit\\=cake\\|label\\=none}} use {{IPA\\|/i/}} after {{IPA\\|\\[k]}}.{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|2015c\\|pp\\=328\\-332}} The use of epenthetic vowels in these contexts is an established convention when using kana to transcribe foreign words or names.",
"Historically, Sino\\-Japanese morphemes developed epenthetic vowels after most syllable\\-final consonants. This is usually {{IPA\\|/u/}}, in some cases {{IPA\\|/i/}}: the identity of the epenthetic vowel is largely, although not completely, predictable from the preceding consonant and vowel.{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|pp\\=293–295}} It is debated whether these vowels should be regarded as having epenthetic status in the phonology of modern Japanese.{{sfnp\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|pp\\=30\\-32}} The use of epenthetic vowels in Sino\\-Japanese forms has undergone some changes over time: for example, the descriptions of Portuguese missionaries indicate that in previous stages of the language, Sino\\-Japanese morphemes could end in coda {{IPA\\|\\[t]}} with no epenthetic vowel.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|p\\=156}}",
""
] |
Morphophonology
---------------
Japanese morphology is generally [agglutinative](/wiki/Agglutinative_language "Agglutinative language") rather than [fusional](/wiki/Fusional_language "Fusional language"). Nevertheless, Japanese exhibits a number of [morphophonological](/wiki/Morphophonology "Morphophonology") processes that can change the shape of morphemes when they are combined in compounds, derived words, or inflected forms of verbs or adjectives. Various forms of [sandhi](/wiki/Sandhi "Sandhi") exist; the Japanese term for sandhi generally is {{Nihongo\|\|連音\|ren'on}}.
### Rendaku
{{main\|Rendaku}}
In Japanese, [sandhi](/wiki/Sandhi "Sandhi") is prominently exhibited in [rendaku](/wiki/Rendaku "Rendaku") – [consonant mutation](/wiki/Consonant_mutation "Consonant mutation") of the initial consonant of a morpheme from unvoiced to voiced in some contexts when it occurs in the middle of a word. This phonetic difference is marked in the kana spelling of a word via the addition of [dakuten](/wiki/Dakuten "Dakuten"), as in {{nihongo\|\|か／が\|ka, ga}}. In cases where this combines with the [yotsugana](/wiki/Yotsugana "Yotsugana") mergers, notably {{Nihongo\|\|じ／ぢ\|ji}} and {{Nihongo\|\|ず／づ\|zu}} in standard Japanese, the resulting spelling is [morphophonemic](/wiki/Morphophonemic "Morphophonemic") rather than purely phonemic.
### Yamato gemination or prenasalization
Certain processes, such as [onbin](/wiki/%23Onbin "#Onbin") sound changes, have acted to produce voiceless geminates in Yamato words (often across morpheme boundaries, but sometimes even within a morpheme). Gemination can arise as the result of emphasis, compounding, or [verb conjugation](/wiki/Japanese_grammar%23Verb_conjugations "Japanese grammar#Verb conjugations"). In this context, sequences of a moraic nasal {{IPA\|/N/}} and a voiced consonant are found in place of voiced geminate obstruents, which do not occur in native Standard Japanese words (other than marginally as [emphatically lengthened variants](/wiki/%23/Q/ "#/Q/") of single voiced obstruents).
For example, adverbs built from a mimetic root and the suffix {{lang\|ja\|\-ri}} may display root\-internal gemination,{{sfnp\|Kawahara\|2006\|pp\=549\-550}} as in {{lang\|ja\|nikkori}} (alongside {{lang\|ja\|nikori}}) from {{lang\|ja\|niko}} 'smiling'. Adverbs derived from roots with voiced medial consonants exhibit forms with a moraic nasal in place of gemination, such as {{lang\|ja\|shonbori}} from {{lang\|ja\|shobo}} 'lonely', {{lang\|ja\|unzari}} from {{lang\|ja\|uza}} 'bored, disappointed', {{lang\|ja\|bon'yari}} from {{lang\|ja\|boya}} 'vague', and {{lang\|ja\|funwari}} from {{lang\|ja\|fuwa}} 'light' ({{IPA\|/r/}} does not undergo either gemination or {{IPA\|/N/}}\-insertion in this context).{{sfnp\|Mester\|Itô\|1989\|p\=275}} Likewise, a moraic consonant often occurs between the emphatic prefix {{IPA\|/ma/}} and a following consonant: its allomorphs {{IPA\|/maQ/}} and {{IPA\|/maN/}} are in complementary distribution, with {{IPA\|/maQ/}} used before voiceless consonants and {{IPA\|/maN/}} used elsewhere.{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|2015a\|p\=10}}
Another example where either a voiceless geminate or {{IPA\|/N/}} is formed depending on the voicing of the following consonant is the derivation of reduced, i.e. contracted, compound verbs. Japanese has a type of compound verb formed by placing the stem of one verb before another. If the first verb has a stem that ends in a consonant, the vowel {{IPA\|/i/}} is usually placed between the first and second verb stem. But in some compounds, this vowel can be omitted, resulting in the final consonant of the first verb stem being placed directly before the initial consonant of the second verb stem.{{sfnp\|Poser\|1986\|pp\=171\-173}} When this happens, the first consonant assimilates to the second, producing a voiceless geminate if the second is voiceless, and a sequence starting with {{IPA\|/N/}} if the second is a voiced obstruent or nasal (e.g. hik\- 'pull' \+ tate\- 'stand' \> {{lang\|ja\|hikitateru}}\~{{lang\|ja\|hittateru}} 'support', tsuk\- 'stab' \+ das\- 'put out' \> {{lang\|ja\|tsukidasu}}\~{{lang\|ja\|tsundasu}} 'thrust out'{{sfnp\|Poser\|1986\|p\=173}}).{{harvcoltxt\|Labrune\|2012\|pp\=104–105}} points out that the "intensive" prefix \|{{IPA\|bu}}\| has the same effect on a following consonant; etymologically, this prefix is the assimilated form of the stem {{IPA\|/but/}} of the verb {{lang\-ja\|ぶつ\|butsu\|lit\=hit, beat, strike\|label\=none}}.
In verb conjugation, the voiceless geminate {{IPA\|/Qt/}} is produced when a verb root that underlyingly ends in {{IPA\|/r/}}, {{IPA\|/t/}}, or {{IPA\|/w/}} is followed by a suffix starting with {{IPA\|/t/}} (namely, *\-te, \-ta, \-tari, \-tara, \-tatte*{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015b\|pp\=367, 370}}), whereas {{IPA\|/Nd/}} is produced when a verb root that underlyingly ends in {{IPA\|/m/}}, {{IPA\|/n/}}, or {{IPA\|/b/}} is followed by a suffix starting with {{IPA\|/t/}}.{{sfnp\|Poser\|1986\|pp\=170\-171}} (At the end of a verb stem, {{IPA\|/w/}} descends from original \**p*; some [generative](/wiki/Generative_grammar "Generative grammar") analyses interpret this as the synchronic underlying form of the consonant.{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|pp\=58, 189\-190}})
### Sino\-Japanese gemination
When the second mora of a Sino\-Japanese morpheme is {{lang\-ja\|つ\|tsu\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|く\|ku\|label\=none}}, {{lang\-ja\|ち\|chi\|label\=none}} or {{lang\-ja\|き\|ki\|label\=none}} and it is followed by a voiceless consonant, this mora is sometimes replaced by the [sokuon](/wiki/Sokuon "Sokuon") {{lang\|ja\|っ}} (whose spelling as a small {{lang\|ja\|つ}} is based on the frequent alternation of these sounds in this context), forming a [geminate consonant](/wiki/Geminate_consonant "Geminate consonant"):
* {{lang\|ja\|一}} ({{lang\|ja\|い'''つ'''}} *itsu*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|緒}} ({{lang\|ja\|しょ}} *sho*) \= {{lang\|ja\|一緒\|label\=none}} ({{lang\|ja\|い'''っ'''しょ}} *issho*)
* {{lang\|ja\|学}} ({{lang\|ja\|が'''く'''}} *gaku*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|校}} ({{lang\|ja\|こう}} *kō*) \= {{lang\|ja\|学校\|gakkō\|label\=none}} ({{lang\|ja\|が'''っ'''こう}} *gakkō*)
Sino\-Japanese morphemes ending in these moras remain unchanged when followed by a voiced consonant, and are usually unchanged when followed by a vowel (but see [renjō](/wiki/%23Renj%C5%8D "#Renjō") for exceptional examples of geminate formation before a vowel).
* {{lang\|ja\|学}} ({{lang\|ja\|が'''く'''}} *gaku*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|外}} ({{lang\|ja\|がい}} *\-gai*) \= {{lang\-ja\|学外\|gakugai\|lit\=outside of school campus\|label\=none}}
* {{lang\|ja\|別}} ({{lang\|ja\|べ'''つ'''}} *betsu*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|宴}} ({{lang\|ja\|えん}} *en*) \= {{lang\-ja\|別宴\|betsuen\|lit\=farewell dinner\|label\=none}}
* {{lang\|ja\|学}} ({{lang\|ja\|が'''く'''}} *gaku*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|位}} ({{lang\|ja\|い}} *i*) \= {{lang\-ja\|学位\|gakui\|lit\=academic degree\|label\=none}}{{sfnp\|Ito\|Mester\|2015a\|pp\=298}}
Gemination can also affect Sino\-Japanese morphemes that historically ended in {{lang\-ja\|ふ\|fu\|label\=none}} and that now end in long vowels:
* {{lang\|ja\|法}} (*hafu* {{lang\|ja\|はふ}} \> *hō* {{lang\|ja\|ほう}}) \+ {{lang\|ja\|被}} (*hi* {{lang\|ja\|ひ}}) \= {{lang\|ja\|法被}} (*happi* {{lang\|ja\|はっぴ}}), instead of *hōhi* {{lang\|ja\|ほうひ}}
* {{lang\|ja\|合}} (*kafu* {{lang\|ja\|かふ}} \> *gō* {{lang\|ja\|ごう}}) \+ {{lang\|ja\|戦}} (*sen* {{lang\|ja\|せん}}) \= {{lang\|ja\|合戦}} (*kassen*), instead of *gōsen*
* {{lang\|ja\|入}} (*nifu* \> *nyū*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|声}} (*shō*) \= {{lang\|ja\|入声}} (*nisshō*), instead of *nyūshō*
* {{lang\|ja\|十}} (*jifu* \> *jū*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|戒}} (*kai*) \= {{lang\|ja\|十戒}} (*jikkai*) instead of *jūkai*
Most morphemes exhibiting this change derive from [Middle Chinese](/wiki/Middle_Chinese "Middle Chinese") morphemes ending in {{IPA\|/t̚/}}, {{IPA\|/k̚/}} or {{IPA\|/p̚/}}, which developed a [prop vowel](/wiki/Prop_vowel "Prop vowel") after them when pronounced in isolation (e.g., {{lang\|ja\|日}} MC \*{{IPA\|/nit̚/}} \> Japanese {{IPA\|/niti/}} {{IPA\|\[ɲitɕi]}}) but were assimilated to the following consonant in compounds (e.g. {{lang\|ja\|日本}} MC \*{{IPA\|/nit̚.pu̯ən/}} \> Japanese {{IPA\|/niQ.poN/}} {{IPA\|\[ɲip̚.poɴ]}}).
Gemination occurs regularly in words consisting of two Sino\-Japanese morphemes, but tends not to occur across the major boundary of a complex compound (where one of the components is formed of more than one Sino\-Japanese morpheme). However, there are some cases of gemination in this context.{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|p\=161}}
The formation of a geminate also depends on the identity of the first and second consonant:
{\| cellpadding\="5"
\| {{IPA\|/tu/}} {{lang\-ja\|つ\|tsu\|label\=none}}
\| Systematically becomes {{lang\|ja\|っ}} {{IPA\|/Q/}} before any voiceless obstruent ({{IPA\|/p\~h t k s/}}).{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|p\=158}}
\|\-
\| {{IPA\|/ku/}} {{lang\-ja\|く\|ku\|label\=none}}
\| Systematically becomes {{lang\|ja\|っ}} {{IPA\|/Q/}} before {{IPA\|/k/}}. The numeral {{IPA\|/roku/}} also becomes {{IPA\|/roQ/}} before {{IPA\|/p\~h/}}. Otherwise, remains {{IPA\|/ku/}}.{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|p\=159}}
\|\-
\| {{IPA\|/ti/}} {{lang\-ja\|ち\|chi\|label\=none}}
\| May become {{lang\|ja\|っ}} {{IPA\|/Q/}} before any voiceless obstruent, but some morphemes, such as the numerals {{IPA\|/siti/}} and {{IPA\|/hati/}}, do not consistently undergo this change.{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|p\=159}} Only a small number of Sino\-Japanese characters have a reading with {{IPA\|/ti/}} that is in common use.
\|\-
\| {{IPA\|/ki/}} {{lang\-ja\|き\|ki\|label\=none}}
\| May become {{lang\|ja\|っ}} {{IPA\|/Q/}} before {{IPA\|/k/}}, but this is not systematic; many words show variation between {{IPA\|/ki/}} and {{IPA\|/Q/}}.{{sfnp\|Vance\|1987\|p\=160}} The form {{IPA\|/seki/}}\~{{IPA\|/seQ/}} (which occurs as a reading of various etymologically unrelated morphemes) shows a higher tendency to undergo gemination than other Sino\-Japanese forms ending in {{IPA\|/ki/}}.{{sfnp\|Irwin\|2008}}
\|}
### Renjō
{{further\-text\|{{lang\|ja\|\[\[:ja:連声\|連声]]}}\|{{section link\|Late Middle Japanese\#Medial gemination}}}}
Sandhi also occurs much less often in {{Nihongo\|\|連声\|renjō}}, where, most commonly, a terminal {{IPA\|/N/}} or {{IPA\|/Q/}} on one morpheme results in {{IPA\|/n/}} (or {{IPA\|/m/}} when derived from historical *m*) or {{IPA\|/t̚/}} respectively being added to the start of a following morpheme beginning with a vowel or [semivowel](/wiki/Semivowel "Semivowel"), as in {{nihongo\|\|天皇: てん \+ おう → てんのう\|ten \+ ō → tennō}}. Examples:
First syllable ending with {{IPA\|/N/}}
* {{lang\|ja\|銀杏}} (*ginnan*): {{lang\|ja\|ぎん}} (*gin*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|あん}} (*an*) → {{lang\|ja\|ぎん'''な'''ん}} (*gin**n**an*)
* {{lang\|ja\|観音}} (*kannon*): {{lang\|ja\|くゎん}} (*kwan*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|おむ}} (*om*) → {{lang\|ja\|くゎん'''の'''む}} (*kwan**n**om*) → {{lang\|ja\|かん'''の'''ん}} (*kan**n**on*)
* {{lang\|ja\|天皇}} (*tennō*): {{lang\|ja\|てん}} (*ten*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|わう}} (*wau*) → {{lang\|ja\|てん'''な'''う}} (*ten**n**au*) → {{lang\|ja\|てん'''の'''う}} (*ten**n**ō*)
First syllable ending with {{IPA\|/N/}} from original {{IPA\|/m/}}
* {{lang\|ja\|三位}} (*sanmi*): {{lang\|ja\|さむ}} (*sam*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|ゐ}} (*wi*) → {{lang\|ja\|さむ'''み'''}} (*sam**m**i*) → {{lang\|ja\|さん'''み'''}} (*san**m**i*)
* {{lang\|ja\|陰陽}} (*onmyō*): {{lang\|ja\|おむ}} (*om*) \+ {{lang\|ja\|やう}} (*yau*) → {{lang\|ja\|おむ'''み'''ゃう}} (*om**m**yau*) → {{lang\|ja\|おん'''み'''ょう}} (*on**m**yō*)
First syllable ending with {{IPA\|/Q/}}
* {{lang\|ja\|雪隠}} (*setchin*): {{lang\|ja\|せつ}} (setsu) \+ {{lang\|ja\|いん}} (*in*) → {{lang\|ja\|せっ'''ち'''ん}} (*set**ch**in*)
* {{lang\|ja\|屈惑}} (*kuttaku*): {{lang\|ja\|くつ}} (kutsu) \+ {{lang\|ja\|わく}} (*waku*) → {{lang\|ja\|くっ'''た'''く}} (*kut**t**aku*)
### Vowel fusion
| \+ Spelling changes | Archaic | Modern |
| --- | --- | --- |
| {{nihongo krt\|\|あ＋う\|a \+ u}}{{nihongo krt\|\|あ＋ふ\|a \+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|おう\|ō}} |
| {{nihongo krt\|\|い＋う\|i \+ u}}{{nihongo krt\|\|い＋ふ\|i \+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|ゆう\|yū}}1 |
| {{nihongo krt\|\|う＋ふ\|u \+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|うう\|ū}} |
| {{nihongo krt\|\|え＋う\|e \+ u}}{{nihongo krt\|\|え＋ふ\|e \+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|よう\|yō}} |
| {{nihongo krt\|\|お＋ふ\|o \+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|おう\|ō}} |
| {{nihongo krt\|\|お＋ほ\|o \+ ho}}{{nihongo krt\|\|お＋を\|o \+ wo}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|おお\|ō}} |
| auxiliary verb {{nihongo krt\|\|む\|mu}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|ん\|n}} |
| medial or final {{nihongo krt\|\|は\|ha}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|わ\|wa}} |
| medial or final {{nihongo krt\|\|ひ\|hi}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|へ\|he}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|ほ\|ho}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|い\|i}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|え\|e}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|お\|o}}(via {{transl\|ja\|wi}}, {{transl\|ja\|we}}, {{transl\|ja\|wo}}, see below) |
| any {{nihongo krt\|\|ゐ\|wi}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|ゑ\|we}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|を\|wo}} | {{nihongo krt\|\|い\|i}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|え\|e}}, {{nihongo krt\|\|お\|o}}1 |
1\. usually not reflected in spelling
During [Late Middle Japanese](/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese "Late Middle Japanese"), multiple vowel changes took place. Notably, the vowel {{IPA\|/u/}} tended to [fuse](/wiki/Fusion_%28phonetics%29 "Fusion (phonetics)") with another vowel that preceded it, creating a long vowel. These vowel fusions are not reflected in [historical kana usage](/wiki/Historical_kana_usage "Historical kana usage"), particularly that for [classical Japanese](/wiki/Classical_Japanese "Classical Japanese").
* {{IPA\|ou → oː}}
* {{IPA\|au → ɔː → oː}}
* {{IPA\|jeu → joː}}
* {{IPA\|iu → juː}}
These historical changes are still germane to modern grammatical analysis and education. For example, the "tentative" auxiliary {{nihongo\|\|う\|u}} (historically {{nihongo\|\|む\|mu}}) notably fused with the last vowel of a {{nihongo\|\|未然形\|mizenkei}} (see [Japanese conjugation\#Verb bases](/wiki/Japanese_conjugation%23Verb_bases "Japanese conjugation#Verb bases")):
* {{nihongo\|\|五段\|\[\[Japanese godan and ichidan verbs\|godan]]}}:
+ {{IPA\|kaka \+ mu → kakamu → kakau → kakɔː → kakoː}}（書かむ → 書かう → 書こう）
+ {{IPA\|ʷaɾapa \+ mu → ʷaɾapamu → ʷaɾaɸamu → ʷaɾaʷau → ʷaɾaʷɔː → ʷaɾaʷoː → ʷaɾaoː}}（笑はむ → 笑わう → 笑おう）
* {{nihongo\|\|一段\|\[\[Japanese godan and ichidan verbs\|''ichidan'']]}}:
+ {{IPA\|je \+ mu → jemu → jeu → joː → ejoː}}（{{ruby\-ja\|得\|え}}む → {{ruby\-ja\|得\|え}}う → {{ruby\-ja\|得\|よ}}う → {{ruby\-ja\|得\|え}}よう）
+ {{IPA\|mi \+ mu → mimu → miu → mjoː → mijoː}}（{{ruby\-ja\|見\|み}}む → {{ruby\-ja\|見\|み}}う → {{ruby\-ja\|見\|みょ}}う → {{ruby\-ja\|見\|み}}よう）
* {{nihongo\|\|サ変\|\[\[Japanese irregular verbs\|sa\-hen]]}}:
+ {{IPA\|sje \+ mu → sjemu → sjeu → sjoː → sijoː}}（せむ → せう → しょう → しよう）
* The {{nihongo\|\|ラ変\|\[\[Japanese irregular verbs\|ra\-hen]]}} verb {{nihongo\|\|あり・ある\|ari/aru}} and its derivations:
+ {{IPA\|aɾa \+ mu → aɾamu → aɾau → aɾɔː → aɾoː}}（あらむ → あらう → あろう）
+ {{IPA\|naɾa \+ mu → naɾamu → naɾau → naɾɔː → naɾoː}}（ならむ → ならう → なろう）
+ {{IPA\|daɾa \+ mu → daɾamu → daɾau → daɾɔː → daɾoː}}（だらむ → だらう → だろう）
+ {{IPA\|taɾa \+ mu → taɾamu → taɾau → taɾɔː → taɾoː}}（たらむ → たらう → たろう）
+ {{IPA\|nakaɾa \+ mu → nakaɾamu → nakaɾau → nakaɾɔː → nakaɾoː}}（なからむ → なからう → なかろう）
* Other {{nihongo\|\|助動詞\|jodōshi}}:
+ {{IPA\|desje \+ mu → desjemu → desjeu → desjoː}}（でせむ → でせう → でしょう）
+ {{IPA\|masje \+ mu → masjemu → masjeu → masjoː}}（ませむ → ませう → ましょう）
Thus, while the *mizenkei* is listed in inflection tables, a combination of it and the auxiliary *u*, dubbed {{nihongo\|\|意志形\|ishikei}}, must still be learnt separately. Furthermore, results of the above fusions caused some *mizenkei* to disappear entirely. Dictionaries and grammar guides no longer list たら, だら, でせ and なから as, respectively, the *mizenkei* of た, だ, です and ない. Instead, たろ, だろ, でしょ and なかろ are perfunctorily used. This perfunctory listing may also extend to *godan* verbs as well, for example 書く may have "two" *mizenkei*, 書か and 書こ, so that it has enough vowels to justify the term *godan* (see [Japanese godan and ichidan verbs\#Godan vs yodan](/wiki/Japanese_godan_and_ichidan_verbs%23Godan_vs_yodan "Japanese godan and ichidan verbs#Godan vs yodan")).
### Onbin
{{Main\|Onbin}}
{{Further\|Japanese grammar\#Euphonic changes (音便, onbin)\|Japanese grammar\#Verb conjugations\|label2\=Onbin in verb conjugations}}
Another prominent feature is {{Nihongo\|\|音便\|onbin\|euphonic sound change}}. This refers to various historical sound changes that can be loosely described as showing reduction, lenition or coalescence. Alternations resulting from onbin continue to be seen in some areas of Japanese morphology, such as the conjugation of certain verb forms or the form of certain compound verbs.
In some cases, onbin changes occurred within a morpheme, as in {{Nihongo\|\|箒 (ほうき)\|hōki\|broom}}, which underwent two sound changes from earlier {{Nihongo\|\|ははき\|hahaki}} → {{Nihongo\|\|はうき\|hauki}} (onbin) → {{Nihongo\|\|ほうき\|houki}} (historical vowel change) → {{Nihongo\|\|ほうき\|hōki}} (long vowel, sound change not reflected in kana spelling).
One type of onbin caused certain onset consonants to be deleted, mainly before {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/u/}},{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|2015b\|p\=226}} which created [vowel sequences, or long vowels](/wiki/%23Vowel_sequences_and_long_vowels "#Vowel sequences and long vowels") by coalescence of {{IPA\|/u/}} with the preceding vowel.
Another type of onbin resulted in the development of moraic consonants {{IPA\|/Q/}} or {{IPA\|/N/}} in certain circumstances in native Japanese words.
#### Types
Types of *onbin* are named after their resulting mora. If the resulting mora is {{IPA\|/i/}}, the *onbin* is called {{nihongo\|\|イ音便\|i\-onbin}}; if {{IPA\|/u/}}, {{nihongo\|\|ウ音便\|u\-onbin}}; if {{nihongo\|{{IPA\|/Q/}}\|促音\|\[\[sokuon]]}}, {{nihongo\|\|促音便\|sokuonbin}}; and if {{nihongo\|{{IPA\|/N/}}\|撥音\|hatsuon}}, {{nihongo\|\|撥音便\|hatsuonbin}}.*[Daijirin](/wiki/Daijirin "Daijirin")*
Historically, *sokuonbin* was triggered in verb conjugation when any of the morae {{IPA\|/ti, ɾi, si, pi/}} in a {{nihongo\|\|連体形\|ren'yōkei}} (see [Japanese conjugation\#Verb bases](/wiki/Japanese_conjugation%23Verb_bases "Japanese conjugation#Verb bases")) was followed by the consonant {{IPA\|/t/}} (for example in the auxiliary {{nihongo\|\|た\|ta}} or the particle {{nihongo\|\|て\|te}}). In such an environment, the [high vowel](/wiki/Vowel%23Height "Vowel#Height") {{IPA\|/i/}} was [reduced](/wiki/Vowel_reduction "Vowel reduction"), and the remaining consonant eventually [assimilated](/wiki/Assimilation_%28phonology%29 "Assimilation (phonology)") with {{IPA\|/t/}}:{{cite book\|title\=日本語文法大辞典\|last\=Yamaguchi\|first\=Akiho\|last2\=秋山\|first2\=守英\|publisher\=Meiji Shoin\|date\=1 March 2001}}
* {{IPA\|toɾi \+ te → toɾite → toɾte → totte}}（取って）
* {{IPA\|kapi \+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaʷte → katte}}（買って）
* {{IPA\|ipi \+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iʷte → itte}}（言って）
Grammatical *sokuonbin* is found predominantly in eastern dialects (including the standard [Tokyo dialect](/wiki/Tokyo_dialect "Tokyo dialect") taught to foreigners), while western ones (including the [Kansai dialect](/wiki/Kansai_dialect "Kansai dialect")) favor *u\-onbin* triggered by the historical mora {{IPA\|/pi/}}:
* {{IPA\|kapi \+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaute → kɔːte → koːte}}（買うて）
* {{IPA\|ipi \+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iute → juːte}}（言うて）
On the other hand, *hatsuonbin* was triggered when any of the morae {{IPA\|/mi, bi, ni/}} in a *ren'yōkei* was followed by the consonant {{IPA\|/t/}}. Similar vowel reduction and consonant assimilation occurred:
* {{IPA\|pumi \+ te → pumite → pumute → punde → ɸunde}}（踏んで）
* {{IPA\|jobi \+ te → jobite → jomute → jonde}}（呼んで）
* {{IPA\|sini \+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）
In general, *onbin* can occur in the following historical environments:*[Nihon Kokugo Daijiten](/wiki/Nihon_Kokugo_Daijiten "Nihon Kokugo Daijiten")**[Daijisen](/wiki/Daijisen "Daijisen")**[Kōjien](/wiki/K%C5%8Djien "Kōjien")*
* *i\-onbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/ki/}}, {{IPA\|/ɡi/}}, or rarely {{IPA\|/si/}}, was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|kaki \+ te → kakite → kaite}}（書いて）
- {{IPA\|ojoɡi \+ te → ojoɡite → ojoide}}（泳いで）
- {{IPA\|sasi \+ te → sasite → saite}}（指いて）
+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\|\|行く\|yuku\|"to go"}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:{{efn\|Compare {{nihongo\|\|行く\|iku\|"to go"}} below which undergoes ''sokuonbin''.}}
- {{IPA\|juki \+ te → jukite → juite}}（行いて）
+ When the mora {{IPA\|/ɾi/}} in *ren'yōkei* and {{nihongo\|\|命令形\|meireikei}} lost the consonant {{IPA\|/ɾ/}} in certain honorific verbs:
- {{IPA\|ossjaɾi → ossjai}}（仰い）
+ When the historical {{nihongo\|\|連体形\|rentaikei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\|/k/}}. This particular type of *i\-onbin* resulted in what is now known to foreign learners as "*\-i* adjectives":
- {{IPA\|atuki → atui}}（熱い）
- {{IPA\|utukusiki → utukusii}}（美しい）
+ In certain verbs:
- {{IPA\|tate \+ maturu → tatematuru → taimaturu}}（{{ruby\-ja\|奉\|たいまつ}}る）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|kisaki → kisai}}（{{ruby\-ja\|后\|きさい}}）
* *u\-onbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/pi/}}, {{IPA\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\|/mi/}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|omopi \+ te → omopite → omoute → omoːte}}（思うて）
- {{IPA\|jobi \+ te → jobite → joude → joːde}}（呼うで）
- {{IPA\|jami \+ te → yamite → jaude → jɔːde → joːde}}（病うで）
- {{IPA\|tanomi \+ taru → tanomitaru → tanoudaru → tanoːdaru}}（頼うだる）
+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verbs {{nihongo\|\|問う\|tou\|"to ask"}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gavo.t.u\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:問う\|title\=問う\|website\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} and {{nihongo\|\|請う\|kou\|"to request"}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gavo.t.u\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:請う\|title\=請う\|website\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} were followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}, even in eastern dialects:
- {{IPA\|topi \+ te → topite → toute → toːte}}（問うて）
- {{IPA\|kopi \+ te → kopite → koute → koːte}}（請うて）
+ When the {{nihongo\|\|未然形\|\|mizenkei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\|/k/}}:
- {{IPA\|joku → jou → joː}}（良う）
- {{IPA\|aɾiɡataku → aɾiɡatau → aɾiɡatɔː → aɾiɡatoː}}（有り難う）
- {{IPA\|pajaku → pajaku → ɸajau → hajɔː → hajoː}}（早う）
- {{IPA\|utukusiku → utukusiu → utukusjuː}}（美しゅう）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|ʷo \+ pito → ʷopito → ʷouto → oːto}}（{{ruby\-ja\|夫\|おうと}}）
- {{IPA\|opi \+ te → opite → opute → oute → oːte}}（{{ruby\-ja\|追手\|おうて}}）
- {{IPA\|oto \+ pito → otopito → otouto → otoːto}}（{{ruby\-ja\|弟\|おとうと}}）and in many other [compounds of Old Japanese pi₁to₂](/wiki/Onbin%23From_-hito "Onbin#From -hito")
- {{IPA\|kaɡapuɾi → kaubuɾi → kɔːbuɾi → koːbuɾi}}（{{ruby\-ja\|冠\|こうぶり}}）
* *Sokuonbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/ti/}}, {{IPA\|/ɾi/}} or {{IPA\|/pi/}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|kati \+ te → katite → katte}}（勝って）
- {{IPA\|aɾi \+ te → aɾite → atte}}（有って）
- {{IPA\|kupi \+ te → kupite → kutte}}（食って）
+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\|\|行く\|iku\|"to go"}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:{{efn\|Compare {{nihongo\|\|行く\|yuku\|"to go"}} above which undergoes ''i\-onbin''. Early {{nihongo\|Christian\|キリシタン\|Kirishitan}} writings recorded the ''i\-onbin'' form {{IPA\|/iite/}} as well.}}
- {{IPA\|iki \+ te → ikite → iite → itte}}（行って）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|ʷo \+ pito → ʷopito → ʷotto → otto}}（{{ruby\-ja\|夫\|おっと}}）
- {{IPA\|opi \+ te → opite → otte}}（追っ手）
- {{IPA\|sau \+ soku → sausoku → sassoku}}（{{ruby\-ja\|早速\|さっそく}}）
- {{IPA\|japaɾi → jappaɾi}}（矢っ張り）
- {{IPA\|ma \+ siɾo → masiɾo → massiɾo}}（真っ白）
* *Hatsuonbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/mi/}}, {{IPA\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\|/ni/}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|jomi \+ te → jomite → jonde}}（読んで）
- {{IPA\|tobi \+ te → tobite → tonde}}（飛んで）
- {{IPA\|sini \+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）
+ In certain expressions formed with the particles {{nihongo\|\|に\|ni}} and {{nihongo\|\|の\|no}}:
- {{IPA\|sakaɾi \+ ni → sakaɾini → sakanni}}（盛んに）
- {{IPA\|nokoɾi \+ no \+ juki → nokoɾinojuki → nokonnojuki}}（残んの雪）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|kami \+ na \+ tuki → kaminaduki → kannaduki → kannazuki}}（{{ruby\-ja\|神無月\|かんなづき}}）
- {{IPA\|kami \+ sasi → kamisasi → kanzasi}}（{{ruby\-ja\|簪\|かんざし}}）
- {{IPA\|ma \+ naka → manaka → mannaka}}（真ん中）
#### Polite adjective forms
{{Further\|Japanese grammar\#Polite forms of adjectives}}
The [polite adjective forms](/wiki/Japanese_grammar%23Polite_forms_of_adjectives "Japanese grammar#Polite forms of adjectives") (used before the polite copula {{nihongo\|\|ござる\|gozaru\|be}} and verb {{nihongo\|\|存じる\|zonjiru\|think, know}}) exhibit a one\-step or two\-step sound change. Firstly, these use the continuative form, {{Nihongo\|\|\-く\|\-ku}}, which exhibits *onbin*, dropping the *k* as {{Nihongo\|\|\-く\|\-ku}} → {{Nihongo\|\|\-う\|\-u}}. Secondly, the vowel may combine with the preceding vowel, according to historical sound changes; if the resulting new sound is palatalized, meaning {{nihongo\|\|ゆ、よ\|yu, yo}}, this combines with the preceding consonant, yielding a palatalized syllable.
This is most prominent in certain everyday terms that derive from an *i*\-adjective ending in *\-ai* changing to *\-ō* (*\-ou*), which is because these terms are abbreviations of polite phrases ending in *gozaimasu*, sometimes with a polite *o\-* prefix. The terms are also used in their full form, with notable examples being:
* {{nihongo\|\|有り難う、ありがとう\|arigatō\|Thank you}}, from {{nihongo\|\|有り難い、ありがたい\|arigatai\|(I am) grateful}}.
* {{nihongo\|\|お早う、おはよう\|ohayō\|Good morning}}, from {{nihongo\|\|早い、はやい\|hayai\|(It is) early}}.
* {{nihongo\|\|お目出度う、おめでとう\|omedetō\|Congratulations}}, from {{nihongo\|\|目出度い、めでたい\|medetai\|(It is) auspicious}}.
Other forms like this are found in polite speech, such as {{Nihongo\|\|美味しく\|oishiku}} → {{Nihongo\|\|美味しゅう\|oishū}} and {{Nihongo\|\|大きく\|ōkiku}} → {{Nihongo\|\|大きゅう\|ōkyū}}.
|
[
"Morphophonology\n---------------",
"Japanese morphology is generally [agglutinative](/wiki/Agglutinative_language \"Agglutinative language\") rather than [fusional](/wiki/Fusional_language \"Fusional language\"). Nevertheless, Japanese exhibits a number of [morphophonological](/wiki/Morphophonology \"Morphophonology\") processes that can change the shape of morphemes when they are combined in compounds, derived words, or inflected forms of verbs or adjectives. Various forms of [sandhi](/wiki/Sandhi \"Sandhi\") exist; the Japanese term for sandhi generally is {{Nihongo\\|\\|連音\\|ren'on}}.",
"### Rendaku",
"{{main\\|Rendaku}}\nIn Japanese, [sandhi](/wiki/Sandhi \"Sandhi\") is prominently exhibited in [rendaku](/wiki/Rendaku \"Rendaku\") – [consonant mutation](/wiki/Consonant_mutation \"Consonant mutation\") of the initial consonant of a morpheme from unvoiced to voiced in some contexts when it occurs in the middle of a word. This phonetic difference is marked in the kana spelling of a word via the addition of [dakuten](/wiki/Dakuten \"Dakuten\"), as in {{nihongo\\|\\|か／が\\|ka, ga}}. In cases where this combines with the [yotsugana](/wiki/Yotsugana \"Yotsugana\") mergers, notably {{Nihongo\\|\\|じ／ぢ\\|ji}} and {{Nihongo\\|\\|ず／づ\\|zu}} in standard Japanese, the resulting spelling is [morphophonemic](/wiki/Morphophonemic \"Morphophonemic\") rather than purely phonemic.",
"### Yamato gemination or prenasalization",
"Certain processes, such as [onbin](/wiki/%23Onbin \"#Onbin\") sound changes, have acted to produce voiceless geminates in Yamato words (often across morpheme boundaries, but sometimes even within a morpheme). Gemination can arise as the result of emphasis, compounding, or [verb conjugation](/wiki/Japanese_grammar%23Verb_conjugations \"Japanese grammar#Verb conjugations\"). In this context, sequences of a moraic nasal {{IPA\\|/N/}} and a voiced consonant are found in place of voiced geminate obstruents, which do not occur in native Standard Japanese words (other than marginally as [emphatically lengthened variants](/wiki/%23/Q/ \"#/Q/\") of single voiced obstruents).",
"For example, adverbs built from a mimetic root and the suffix {{lang\\|ja\\|\\-ri}} may display root\\-internal gemination,{{sfnp\\|Kawahara\\|2006\\|pp\\=549\\-550}} as in {{lang\\|ja\\|nikkori}} (alongside {{lang\\|ja\\|nikori}}) from {{lang\\|ja\\|niko}} 'smiling'. Adverbs derived from roots with voiced medial consonants exhibit forms with a moraic nasal in place of gemination, such as {{lang\\|ja\\|shonbori}} from {{lang\\|ja\\|shobo}} 'lonely', {{lang\\|ja\\|unzari}} from {{lang\\|ja\\|uza}} 'bored, disappointed', {{lang\\|ja\\|bon'yari}} from {{lang\\|ja\\|boya}} 'vague', and {{lang\\|ja\\|funwari}} from {{lang\\|ja\\|fuwa}} 'light' ({{IPA\\|/r/}} does not undergo either gemination or {{IPA\\|/N/}}\\-insertion in this context).{{sfnp\\|Mester\\|Itô\\|1989\\|p\\=275}} Likewise, a moraic consonant often occurs between the emphatic prefix {{IPA\\|/ma/}} and a following consonant: its allomorphs {{IPA\\|/maQ/}} and {{IPA\\|/maN/}} are in complementary distribution, with {{IPA\\|/maQ/}} used before voiceless consonants and {{IPA\\|/maN/}} used elsewhere.{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|2015a\\|p\\=10}}",
"Another example where either a voiceless geminate or {{IPA\\|/N/}} is formed depending on the voicing of the following consonant is the derivation of reduced, i.e. contracted, compound verbs. Japanese has a type of compound verb formed by placing the stem of one verb before another. If the first verb has a stem that ends in a consonant, the vowel {{IPA\\|/i/}} is usually placed between the first and second verb stem. But in some compounds, this vowel can be omitted, resulting in the final consonant of the first verb stem being placed directly before the initial consonant of the second verb stem.{{sfnp\\|Poser\\|1986\\|pp\\=171\\-173}} When this happens, the first consonant assimilates to the second, producing a voiceless geminate if the second is voiceless, and a sequence starting with {{IPA\\|/N/}} if the second is a voiced obstruent or nasal (e.g. hik\\- 'pull' \\+ tate\\- 'stand' \\> {{lang\\|ja\\|hikitateru}}\\~{{lang\\|ja\\|hittateru}} 'support', tsuk\\- 'stab' \\+ das\\- 'put out' \\> {{lang\\|ja\\|tsukidasu}}\\~{{lang\\|ja\\|tsundasu}} 'thrust out'{{sfnp\\|Poser\\|1986\\|p\\=173}}).{{harvcoltxt\\|Labrune\\|2012\\|pp\\=104–105}} points out that the \"intensive\" prefix \\|{{IPA\\|bu}}\\| has the same effect on a following consonant; etymologically, this prefix is the assimilated form of the stem {{IPA\\|/but/}} of the verb {{lang\\-ja\\|ぶつ\\|butsu\\|lit\\=hit, beat, strike\\|label\\=none}}.",
"In verb conjugation, the voiceless geminate {{IPA\\|/Qt/}} is produced when a verb root that underlyingly ends in {{IPA\\|/r/}}, {{IPA\\|/t/}}, or {{IPA\\|/w/}} is followed by a suffix starting with {{IPA\\|/t/}} (namely, *\\-te, \\-ta, \\-tari, \\-tara, \\-tatte*{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015b\\|pp\\=367, 370}}), whereas {{IPA\\|/Nd/}} is produced when a verb root that underlyingly ends in {{IPA\\|/m/}}, {{IPA\\|/n/}}, or {{IPA\\|/b/}} is followed by a suffix starting with {{IPA\\|/t/}}.{{sfnp\\|Poser\\|1986\\|pp\\=170\\-171}} (At the end of a verb stem, {{IPA\\|/w/}} descends from original \\**p*; some [generative](/wiki/Generative_grammar \"Generative grammar\") analyses interpret this as the synchronic underlying form of the consonant.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|pp\\=58, 189\\-190}})",
"### Sino\\-Japanese gemination",
"When the second mora of a Sino\\-Japanese morpheme is {{lang\\-ja\\|つ\\|tsu\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|く\\|ku\\|label\\=none}}, {{lang\\-ja\\|ち\\|chi\\|label\\=none}} or {{lang\\-ja\\|き\\|ki\\|label\\=none}} and it is followed by a voiceless consonant, this mora is sometimes replaced by the [sokuon](/wiki/Sokuon \"Sokuon\") {{lang\\|ja\\|っ}} (whose spelling as a small {{lang\\|ja\\|つ}} is based on the frequent alternation of these sounds in this context), forming a [geminate consonant](/wiki/Geminate_consonant \"Geminate consonant\"):\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|一}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|い'''つ'''}} *itsu*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|緒}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|しょ}} *sho*) \\= {{lang\\|ja\\|一緒\\|label\\=none}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|い'''っ'''しょ}} *issho*)\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|学}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|が'''く'''}} *gaku*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|校}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|こう}} *kō*) \\= {{lang\\|ja\\|学校\\|gakkō\\|label\\=none}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|が'''っ'''こう}} *gakkō*)",
"Sino\\-Japanese morphemes ending in these moras remain unchanged when followed by a voiced consonant, and are usually unchanged when followed by a vowel (but see [renjō](/wiki/%23Renj%C5%8D \"#Renjō\") for exceptional examples of geminate formation before a vowel). \n* {{lang\\|ja\\|学}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|が'''く'''}} *gaku*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|外}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|がい}} *\\-gai*) \\= {{lang\\-ja\\|学外\\|gakugai\\|lit\\=outside of school campus\\|label\\=none}}\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|別}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|べ'''つ'''}} *betsu*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|宴}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|えん}} *en*) \\= {{lang\\-ja\\|別宴\\|betsuen\\|lit\\=farewell dinner\\|label\\=none}}\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|学}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|が'''く'''}} *gaku*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|位}} ({{lang\\|ja\\|い}} *i*) \\= {{lang\\-ja\\|学位\\|gakui\\|lit\\=academic degree\\|label\\=none}}{{sfnp\\|Ito\\|Mester\\|2015a\\|pp\\=298}}",
"Gemination can also affect Sino\\-Japanese morphemes that historically ended in {{lang\\-ja\\|ふ\\|fu\\|label\\=none}} and that now end in long vowels:\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|法}} (*hafu* {{lang\\|ja\\|はふ}} \\> *hō* {{lang\\|ja\\|ほう}}) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|被}} (*hi* {{lang\\|ja\\|ひ}}) \\= {{lang\\|ja\\|法被}} (*happi* {{lang\\|ja\\|はっぴ}}), instead of *hōhi* {{lang\\|ja\\|ほうひ}}\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|合}} (*kafu* {{lang\\|ja\\|かふ}} \\> *gō* {{lang\\|ja\\|ごう}}) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|戦}} (*sen* {{lang\\|ja\\|せん}}) \\= {{lang\\|ja\\|合戦}} (*kassen*), instead of *gōsen*\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|入}} (*nifu* \\> *nyū*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|声}} (*shō*) \\= {{lang\\|ja\\|入声}} (*nisshō*), instead of *nyūshō*\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|十}} (*jifu* \\> *jū*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|戒}} (*kai*) \\= {{lang\\|ja\\|十戒}} (*jikkai*) instead of *jūkai*",
"Most morphemes exhibiting this change derive from [Middle Chinese](/wiki/Middle_Chinese \"Middle Chinese\") morphemes ending in {{IPA\\|/t̚/}}, {{IPA\\|/k̚/}} or {{IPA\\|/p̚/}}, which developed a [prop vowel](/wiki/Prop_vowel \"Prop vowel\") after them when pronounced in isolation (e.g., {{lang\\|ja\\|日}} MC \\*{{IPA\\|/nit̚/}} \\> Japanese {{IPA\\|/niti/}} {{IPA\\|\\[ɲitɕi]}}) but were assimilated to the following consonant in compounds (e.g. {{lang\\|ja\\|日本}} MC \\*{{IPA\\|/nit̚.pu̯ən/}} \\> Japanese {{IPA\\|/niQ.poN/}} {{IPA\\|\\[ɲip̚.poɴ]}}).",
"Gemination occurs regularly in words consisting of two Sino\\-Japanese morphemes, but tends not to occur across the major boundary of a complex compound (where one of the components is formed of more than one Sino\\-Japanese morpheme). However, there are some cases of gemination in this context.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|p\\=161}}",
"The formation of a geminate also depends on the identity of the first and second consonant:",
"{\\| cellpadding\\=\"5\"\n\\| {{IPA\\|/tu/}} {{lang\\-ja\\|つ\\|tsu\\|label\\=none}}\n\\| Systematically becomes {{lang\\|ja\\|っ}} {{IPA\\|/Q/}} before any voiceless obstruent ({{IPA\\|/p\\~h t k s/}}).{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|p\\=158}}\n\\|\\-\n\\| {{IPA\\|/ku/}} {{lang\\-ja\\|く\\|ku\\|label\\=none}}\n\\| Systematically becomes {{lang\\|ja\\|っ}} {{IPA\\|/Q/}} before {{IPA\\|/k/}}. The numeral {{IPA\\|/roku/}} also becomes {{IPA\\|/roQ/}} before {{IPA\\|/p\\~h/}}. Otherwise, remains {{IPA\\|/ku/}}.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|p\\=159}}\n\\|\\-\n\\| {{IPA\\|/ti/}} {{lang\\-ja\\|ち\\|chi\\|label\\=none}}\n\\| May become {{lang\\|ja\\|っ}} {{IPA\\|/Q/}} before any voiceless obstruent, but some morphemes, such as the numerals {{IPA\\|/siti/}} and {{IPA\\|/hati/}}, do not consistently undergo this change.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|p\\=159}} Only a small number of Sino\\-Japanese characters have a reading with {{IPA\\|/ti/}} that is in common use.\n\\|\\-\n\\| {{IPA\\|/ki/}} {{lang\\-ja\\|き\\|ki\\|label\\=none}}\n\\| May become {{lang\\|ja\\|っ}} {{IPA\\|/Q/}} before {{IPA\\|/k/}}, but this is not systematic; many words show variation between {{IPA\\|/ki/}} and {{IPA\\|/Q/}}.{{sfnp\\|Vance\\|1987\\|p\\=160}} The form {{IPA\\|/seki/}}\\~{{IPA\\|/seQ/}} (which occurs as a reading of various etymologically unrelated morphemes) shows a higher tendency to undergo gemination than other Sino\\-Japanese forms ending in {{IPA\\|/ki/}}.{{sfnp\\|Irwin\\|2008}}\n\\|}\n### Renjō",
"{{further\\-text\\|{{lang\\|ja\\|\\[\\[:ja:連声\\|連声]]}}\\|{{section link\\|Late Middle Japanese\\#Medial gemination}}}}\nSandhi also occurs much less often in {{Nihongo\\|\\|連声\\|renjō}}, where, most commonly, a terminal {{IPA\\|/N/}} or {{IPA\\|/Q/}} on one morpheme results in {{IPA\\|/n/}} (or {{IPA\\|/m/}} when derived from historical *m*) or {{IPA\\|/t̚/}} respectively being added to the start of a following morpheme beginning with a vowel or [semivowel](/wiki/Semivowel \"Semivowel\"), as in {{nihongo\\|\\|天皇: てん \\+ おう → てんのう\\|ten \\+ ō → tennō}}. Examples:",
"First syllable ending with {{IPA\\|/N/}}\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|銀杏}} (*ginnan*): {{lang\\|ja\\|ぎん}} (*gin*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|あん}} (*an*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|ぎん'''な'''ん}} (*gin**n**an*)\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|観音}} (*kannon*): {{lang\\|ja\\|くゎん}} (*kwan*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|おむ}} (*om*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|くゎん'''の'''む}} (*kwan**n**om*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|かん'''の'''ん}} (*kan**n**on*)\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|天皇}} (*tennō*): {{lang\\|ja\\|てん}} (*ten*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|わう}} (*wau*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|てん'''な'''う}} (*ten**n**au*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|てん'''の'''う}} (*ten**n**ō*)",
"First syllable ending with {{IPA\\|/N/}} from original {{IPA\\|/m/}}\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|三位}} (*sanmi*): {{lang\\|ja\\|さむ}} (*sam*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|ゐ}} (*wi*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|さむ'''み'''}} (*sam**m**i*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|さん'''み'''}} (*san**m**i*)\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|陰陽}} (*onmyō*): {{lang\\|ja\\|おむ}} (*om*) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|やう}} (*yau*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|おむ'''み'''ゃう}} (*om**m**yau*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|おん'''み'''ょう}} (*on**m**yō*)",
"First syllable ending with {{IPA\\|/Q/}}\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|雪隠}} (*setchin*): {{lang\\|ja\\|せつ}} (setsu) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|いん}} (*in*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|せっ'''ち'''ん}} (*set**ch**in*)\n* {{lang\\|ja\\|屈惑}} (*kuttaku*): {{lang\\|ja\\|くつ}} (kutsu) \\+ {{lang\\|ja\\|わく}} (*waku*) → {{lang\\|ja\\|くっ'''た'''く}} (*kut**t**aku*)",
"### Vowel fusion",
"",
"",
"| \\+ Spelling changes | Archaic | Modern |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| {{nihongo krt\\|\\|あ＋う\\|a \\+ u}}{{nihongo krt\\|\\|あ＋ふ\\|a \\+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|おう\\|ō}} |\n| {{nihongo krt\\|\\|い＋う\\|i \\+ u}}{{nihongo krt\\|\\|い＋ふ\\|i \\+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|ゆう\\|yū}}1 |\n| {{nihongo krt\\|\\|う＋ふ\\|u \\+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|うう\\|ū}} |\n| {{nihongo krt\\|\\|え＋う\\|e \\+ u}}{{nihongo krt\\|\\|え＋ふ\\|e \\+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|よう\\|yō}} |\n| {{nihongo krt\\|\\|お＋ふ\\|o \\+ fu}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|おう\\|ō}} |\n| {{nihongo krt\\|\\|お＋ほ\\|o \\+ ho}}{{nihongo krt\\|\\|お＋を\\|o \\+ wo}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|おお\\|ō}} |\n| auxiliary verb {{nihongo krt\\|\\|む\\|mu}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|ん\\|n}} |\n| medial or final {{nihongo krt\\|\\|は\\|ha}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|わ\\|wa}} |\n| medial or final {{nihongo krt\\|\\|ひ\\|hi}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|へ\\|he}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|ほ\\|ho}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|い\\|i}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|え\\|e}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|お\\|o}}(via {{transl\\|ja\\|wi}}, {{transl\\|ja\\|we}}, {{transl\\|ja\\|wo}}, see below) |\n| any {{nihongo krt\\|\\|ゐ\\|wi}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|ゑ\\|we}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|を\\|wo}} | {{nihongo krt\\|\\|い\\|i}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|え\\|e}}, {{nihongo krt\\|\\|お\\|o}}1 |",
"1\\. usually not reflected in spelling",
"During [Late Middle Japanese](/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese \"Late Middle Japanese\"), multiple vowel changes took place. Notably, the vowel {{IPA\\|/u/}} tended to [fuse](/wiki/Fusion_%28phonetics%29 \"Fusion (phonetics)\") with another vowel that preceded it, creating a long vowel. These vowel fusions are not reflected in [historical kana usage](/wiki/Historical_kana_usage \"Historical kana usage\"), particularly that for [classical Japanese](/wiki/Classical_Japanese \"Classical Japanese\").\n* {{IPA\\|ou → oː}}\n* {{IPA\\|au → ɔː → oː}}\n* {{IPA\\|jeu → joː}}\n* {{IPA\\|iu → juː}}",
"These historical changes are still germane to modern grammatical analysis and education. For example, the \"tentative\" auxiliary {{nihongo\\|\\|う\\|u}} (historically {{nihongo\\|\\|む\\|mu}}) notably fused with the last vowel of a {{nihongo\\|\\|未然形\\|mizenkei}} (see [Japanese conjugation\\#Verb bases](/wiki/Japanese_conjugation%23Verb_bases \"Japanese conjugation#Verb bases\")):\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|五段\\|\\[\\[Japanese godan and ichidan verbs\\|godan]]}}:\n\t+ {{IPA\\|kaka \\+ mu → kakamu → kakau → kakɔː → kakoː}}（書かむ → 書かう → 書こう）\n\t+ {{IPA\\|ʷaɾapa \\+ mu → ʷaɾapamu → ʷaɾaɸamu → ʷaɾaʷau → ʷaɾaʷɔː → ʷaɾaʷoː → ʷaɾaoː}}（笑はむ → 笑わう → 笑おう）\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|一段\\|\\[\\[Japanese godan and ichidan verbs\\|''ichidan'']]}}:\n\t+ {{IPA\\|je \\+ mu → jemu → jeu → joː → ejoː}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|得\\|え}}む → {{ruby\\-ja\\|得\\|え}}う → {{ruby\\-ja\\|得\\|よ}}う → {{ruby\\-ja\\|得\\|え}}よう）\n\t+ {{IPA\\|mi \\+ mu → mimu → miu → mjoː → mijoː}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|見\\|み}}む → {{ruby\\-ja\\|見\\|み}}う → {{ruby\\-ja\\|見\\|みょ}}う → {{ruby\\-ja\\|見\\|み}}よう）\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|サ変\\|\\[\\[Japanese irregular verbs\\|sa\\-hen]]}}:\n\t+ {{IPA\\|sje \\+ mu → sjemu → sjeu → sjoː → sijoː}}（せむ → せう → しょう → しよう）\n* The {{nihongo\\|\\|ラ変\\|\\[\\[Japanese irregular verbs\\|ra\\-hen]]}} verb {{nihongo\\|\\|あり・ある\\|ari/aru}} and its derivations:\n\t+ {{IPA\\|aɾa \\+ mu → aɾamu → aɾau → aɾɔː → aɾoː}}（あらむ → あらう → あろう）\n\t+ {{IPA\\|naɾa \\+ mu → naɾamu → naɾau → naɾɔː → naɾoː}}（ならむ → ならう → なろう）\n\t+ {{IPA\\|daɾa \\+ mu → daɾamu → daɾau → daɾɔː → daɾoː}}（だらむ → だらう → だろう）\n\t+ {{IPA\\|taɾa \\+ mu → taɾamu → taɾau → taɾɔː → taɾoː}}（たらむ → たらう → たろう）\n\t+ {{IPA\\|nakaɾa \\+ mu → nakaɾamu → nakaɾau → nakaɾɔː → nakaɾoː}}（なからむ → なからう → なかろう）\n* Other {{nihongo\\|\\|助動詞\\|jodōshi}}:\n\t+ {{IPA\\|desje \\+ mu → desjemu → desjeu → desjoː}}（でせむ → でせう → でしょう）\n\t+ {{IPA\\|masje \\+ mu → masjemu → masjeu → masjoː}}（ませむ → ませう → ましょう）",
"Thus, while the *mizenkei* is listed in inflection tables, a combination of it and the auxiliary *u*, dubbed {{nihongo\\|\\|意志形\\|ishikei}}, must still be learnt separately. Furthermore, results of the above fusions caused some *mizenkei* to disappear entirely. Dictionaries and grammar guides no longer list たら, だら, でせ and なから as, respectively, the *mizenkei* of た, だ, です and ない. Instead, たろ, だろ, でしょ and なかろ are perfunctorily used. This perfunctory listing may also extend to *godan* verbs as well, for example 書く may have \"two\" *mizenkei*, 書か and 書こ, so that it has enough vowels to justify the term *godan* (see [Japanese godan and ichidan verbs\\#Godan vs yodan](/wiki/Japanese_godan_and_ichidan_verbs%23Godan_vs_yodan \"Japanese godan and ichidan verbs#Godan vs yodan\")).",
"### Onbin",
"{{Main\\|Onbin}}\n{{Further\\|Japanese grammar\\#Euphonic changes (音便, onbin)\\|Japanese grammar\\#Verb conjugations\\|label2\\=Onbin in verb conjugations}}\nAnother prominent feature is {{Nihongo\\|\\|音便\\|onbin\\|euphonic sound change}}. This refers to various historical sound changes that can be loosely described as showing reduction, lenition or coalescence. Alternations resulting from onbin continue to be seen in some areas of Japanese morphology, such as the conjugation of certain verb forms or the form of certain compound verbs.",
"In some cases, onbin changes occurred within a morpheme, as in {{Nihongo\\|\\|箒 (ほうき)\\|hōki\\|broom}}, which underwent two sound changes from earlier {{Nihongo\\|\\|ははき\\|hahaki}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|はうき\\|hauki}} (onbin) → {{Nihongo\\|\\|ほうき\\|houki}} (historical vowel change) → {{Nihongo\\|\\|ほうき\\|hōki}} (long vowel, sound change not reflected in kana spelling).",
"One type of onbin caused certain onset consonants to be deleted, mainly before {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/u/}},{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|2015b\\|p\\=226}} which created [vowel sequences, or long vowels](/wiki/%23Vowel_sequences_and_long_vowels \"#Vowel sequences and long vowels\") by coalescence of {{IPA\\|/u/}} with the preceding vowel.",
"Another type of onbin resulted in the development of moraic consonants {{IPA\\|/Q/}} or {{IPA\\|/N/}} in certain circumstances in native Japanese words.",
"#### Types",
"Types of *onbin* are named after their resulting mora. If the resulting mora is {{IPA\\|/i/}}, the *onbin* is called {{nihongo\\|\\|イ音便\\|i\\-onbin}}; if {{IPA\\|/u/}}, {{nihongo\\|\\|ウ音便\\|u\\-onbin}}; if {{nihongo\\|{{IPA\\|/Q/}}\\|促音\\|\\[\\[sokuon]]}}, {{nihongo\\|\\|促音便\\|sokuonbin}}; and if {{nihongo\\|{{IPA\\|/N/}}\\|撥音\\|hatsuon}}, {{nihongo\\|\\|撥音便\\|hatsuonbin}}.*[Daijirin](/wiki/Daijirin \"Daijirin\")*",
"Historically, *sokuonbin* was triggered in verb conjugation when any of the morae {{IPA\\|/ti, ɾi, si, pi/}} in a {{nihongo\\|\\|連体形\\|ren'yōkei}} (see [Japanese conjugation\\#Verb bases](/wiki/Japanese_conjugation%23Verb_bases \"Japanese conjugation#Verb bases\")) was followed by the consonant {{IPA\\|/t/}} (for example in the auxiliary {{nihongo\\|\\|た\\|ta}} or the particle {{nihongo\\|\\|て\\|te}}). In such an environment, the [high vowel](/wiki/Vowel%23Height \"Vowel#Height\") {{IPA\\|/i/}} was [reduced](/wiki/Vowel_reduction \"Vowel reduction\"), and the remaining consonant eventually [assimilated](/wiki/Assimilation_%28phonology%29 \"Assimilation (phonology)\") with {{IPA\\|/t/}}:{{cite book\\|title\\=日本語文法大辞典\\|last\\=Yamaguchi\\|first\\=Akiho\\|last2\\=秋山\\|first2\\=守英\\|publisher\\=Meiji Shoin\\|date\\=1 March 2001}}\n* {{IPA\\|toɾi \\+ te → toɾite → toɾte → totte}}（取って）\n* {{IPA\\|kapi \\+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaʷte → katte}}（買って）\n* {{IPA\\|ipi \\+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iʷte → itte}}（言って）",
"Grammatical *sokuonbin* is found predominantly in eastern dialects (including the standard [Tokyo dialect](/wiki/Tokyo_dialect \"Tokyo dialect\") taught to foreigners), while western ones (including the [Kansai dialect](/wiki/Kansai_dialect \"Kansai dialect\")) favor *u\\-onbin* triggered by the historical mora {{IPA\\|/pi/}}:\n* {{IPA\\|kapi \\+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaute → kɔːte → koːte}}（買うて）\n* {{IPA\\|ipi \\+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iute → juːte}}（言うて）",
"On the other hand, *hatsuonbin* was triggered when any of the morae {{IPA\\|/mi, bi, ni/}} in a *ren'yōkei* was followed by the consonant {{IPA\\|/t/}}. Similar vowel reduction and consonant assimilation occurred:\n* {{IPA\\|pumi \\+ te → pumite → pumute → punde → ɸunde}}（踏んで）\n* {{IPA\\|jobi \\+ te → jobite → jomute → jonde}}（呼んで）\n* {{IPA\\|sini \\+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）",
"In general, *onbin* can occur in the following historical environments:*[Nihon Kokugo Daijiten](/wiki/Nihon_Kokugo_Daijiten \"Nihon Kokugo Daijiten\")**[Daijisen](/wiki/Daijisen \"Daijisen\")**[Kōjien](/wiki/K%C5%8Djien \"Kōjien\")*\n* *i\\-onbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/ki/}}, {{IPA\\|/ɡi/}}, or rarely {{IPA\\|/si/}}, was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kaki \\+ te → kakite → kaite}}（書いて）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ojoɡi \\+ te → ojoɡite → ojoide}}（泳いで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sasi \\+ te → sasite → saite}}（指いて）\n\t+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|yuku\\|\"to go\"}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:{{efn\\|Compare {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|iku\\|\"to go\"}} below which undergoes ''sokuonbin''.}}\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|juki \\+ te → jukite → juite}}（行いて）\n\t+ When the mora {{IPA\\|/ɾi/}} in *ren'yōkei* and {{nihongo\\|\\|命令形\\|meireikei}} lost the consonant {{IPA\\|/ɾ/}} in certain honorific verbs:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ossjaɾi → ossjai}}（仰い）\n\t+ When the historical {{nihongo\\|\\|連体形\\|rentaikei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\\|/k/}}. This particular type of *i\\-onbin* resulted in what is now known to foreign learners as \"*\\-i* adjectives\":\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|atuki → atui}}（熱い）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|utukusiki → utukusii}}（美しい）\n\t+ In certain verbs:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|tate \\+ maturu → tatematuru → taimaturu}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|奉\\|たいまつ}}る）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kisaki → kisai}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|后\\|きさい}}）\n* *u\\-onbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/pi/}}, {{IPA\\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\\|/mi/}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|omopi \\+ te → omopite → omoute → omoːte}}（思うて）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|jobi \\+ te → jobite → joude → joːde}}（呼うで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|jami \\+ te → yamite → jaude → jɔːde → joːde}}（病うで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|tanomi \\+ taru → tanomitaru → tanoudaru → tanoːdaru}}（頼うだる）\n\t+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verbs {{nihongo\\|\\|問う\\|tou\\|\"to ask\"}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gavo.t.u\\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:問う\\|title\\=問う\\|website\\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} and {{nihongo\\|\\|請う\\|kou\\|\"to request\"}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gavo.t.u\\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:請う\\|title\\=請う\\|website\\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} were followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}, even in eastern dialects:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|topi \\+ te → topite → toute → toːte}}（問うて）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kopi \\+ te → kopite → koute → koːte}}（請うて）\n\t+ When the {{nihongo\\|\\|未然形\\|\\|mizenkei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\\|/k/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|joku → jou → joː}}（良う）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|aɾiɡataku → aɾiɡatau → aɾiɡatɔː → aɾiɡatoː}}（有り難う）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|pajaku → pajaku → ɸajau → hajɔː → hajoː}}（早う）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|utukusiku → utukusiu → utukusjuː}}（美しゅう）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ʷo \\+ pito → ʷopito → ʷouto → oːto}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|夫\\|おうと}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|opi \\+ te → opite → opute → oute → oːte}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|追手\\|おうて}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|oto \\+ pito → otopito → otouto → otoːto}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|弟\\|おとうと}}）and in many other [compounds of Old Japanese pi₁to₂](/wiki/Onbin%23From_-hito \"Onbin#From -hito\")\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kaɡapuɾi → kaubuɾi → kɔːbuɾi → koːbuɾi}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|冠\\|こうぶり}}）\n* *Sokuonbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/ti/}}, {{IPA\\|/ɾi/}} or {{IPA\\|/pi/}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kati \\+ te → katite → katte}}（勝って）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|aɾi \\+ te → aɾite → atte}}（有って）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kupi \\+ te → kupite → kutte}}（食って）\n\t+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|iku\\|\"to go\"}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:{{efn\\|Compare {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|yuku\\|\"to go\"}} above which undergoes ''i\\-onbin''. Early {{nihongo\\|Christian\\|キリシタン\\|Kirishitan}} writings recorded the ''i\\-onbin'' form {{IPA\\|/iite/}} as well.}}\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|iki \\+ te → ikite → iite → itte}}（行って）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ʷo \\+ pito → ʷopito → ʷotto → otto}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|夫\\|おっと}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|opi \\+ te → opite → otte}}（追っ手）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sau \\+ soku → sausoku → sassoku}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|早速\\|さっそく}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|japaɾi → jappaɾi}}（矢っ張り）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ma \\+ siɾo → masiɾo → massiɾo}}（真っ白）\n* *Hatsuonbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/mi/}}, {{IPA\\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\\|/ni/}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|jomi \\+ te → jomite → jonde}}（読んで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|tobi \\+ te → tobite → tonde}}（飛んで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sini \\+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）\n\t+ In certain expressions formed with the particles {{nihongo\\|\\|に\\|ni}} and {{nihongo\\|\\|の\\|no}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sakaɾi \\+ ni → sakaɾini → sakanni}}（盛んに）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|nokoɾi \\+ no \\+ juki → nokoɾinojuki → nokonnojuki}}（残んの雪）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kami \\+ na \\+ tuki → kaminaduki → kannaduki → kannazuki}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|神無月\\|かんなづき}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kami \\+ sasi → kamisasi → kanzasi}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|簪\\|かんざし}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ma \\+ naka → manaka → mannaka}}（真ん中）",
"#### Polite adjective forms",
"{{Further\\|Japanese grammar\\#Polite forms of adjectives}}",
"The [polite adjective forms](/wiki/Japanese_grammar%23Polite_forms_of_adjectives \"Japanese grammar#Polite forms of adjectives\") (used before the polite copula {{nihongo\\|\\|ござる\\|gozaru\\|be}} and verb {{nihongo\\|\\|存じる\\|zonjiru\\|think, know}}) exhibit a one\\-step or two\\-step sound change. Firstly, these use the continuative form, {{Nihongo\\|\\|\\-く\\|\\-ku}}, which exhibits *onbin*, dropping the *k* as {{Nihongo\\|\\|\\-く\\|\\-ku}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|\\-う\\|\\-u}}. Secondly, the vowel may combine with the preceding vowel, according to historical sound changes; if the resulting new sound is palatalized, meaning {{nihongo\\|\\|ゆ、よ\\|yu, yo}}, this combines with the preceding consonant, yielding a palatalized syllable.",
"This is most prominent in certain everyday terms that derive from an *i*\\-adjective ending in *\\-ai* changing to *\\-ō* (*\\-ou*), which is because these terms are abbreviations of polite phrases ending in *gozaimasu*, sometimes with a polite *o\\-* prefix. The terms are also used in their full form, with notable examples being:\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|有り難う、ありがとう\\|arigatō\\|Thank you}}, from {{nihongo\\|\\|有り難い、ありがたい\\|arigatai\\|(I am) grateful}}.\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|お早う、おはよう\\|ohayō\\|Good morning}}, from {{nihongo\\|\\|早い、はやい\\|hayai\\|(It is) early}}.\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|お目出度う、おめでとう\\|omedetō\\|Congratulations}}, from {{nihongo\\|\\|目出度い、めでたい\\|medetai\\|(It is) auspicious}}.",
"Other forms like this are found in polite speech, such as {{Nihongo\\|\\|美味しく\\|oishiku}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|美味しゅう\\|oishū}} and {{Nihongo\\|\\|大きく\\|ōkiku}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|大きゅう\\|ōkyū}}.",
""
] |
### Onbin
{{Main\|Onbin}}
{{Further\|Japanese grammar\#Euphonic changes (音便, onbin)\|Japanese grammar\#Verb conjugations\|label2\=Onbin in verb conjugations}}
Another prominent feature is {{Nihongo\|\|音便\|onbin\|euphonic sound change}}. This refers to various historical sound changes that can be loosely described as showing reduction, lenition or coalescence. Alternations resulting from onbin continue to be seen in some areas of Japanese morphology, such as the conjugation of certain verb forms or the form of certain compound verbs.
In some cases, onbin changes occurred within a morpheme, as in {{Nihongo\|\|箒 (ほうき)\|hōki\|broom}}, which underwent two sound changes from earlier {{Nihongo\|\|ははき\|hahaki}} → {{Nihongo\|\|はうき\|hauki}} (onbin) → {{Nihongo\|\|ほうき\|houki}} (historical vowel change) → {{Nihongo\|\|ほうき\|hōki}} (long vowel, sound change not reflected in kana spelling).
One type of onbin caused certain onset consonants to be deleted, mainly before {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/u/}},{{sfnp\|Kubozono\|2015b\|p\=226}} which created [vowel sequences, or long vowels](/wiki/%23Vowel_sequences_and_long_vowels "#Vowel sequences and long vowels") by coalescence of {{IPA\|/u/}} with the preceding vowel.
Another type of onbin resulted in the development of moraic consonants {{IPA\|/Q/}} or {{IPA\|/N/}} in certain circumstances in native Japanese words.
#### Types
Types of *onbin* are named after their resulting mora. If the resulting mora is {{IPA\|/i/}}, the *onbin* is called {{nihongo\|\|イ音便\|i\-onbin}}; if {{IPA\|/u/}}, {{nihongo\|\|ウ音便\|u\-onbin}}; if {{nihongo\|{{IPA\|/Q/}}\|促音\|\[\[sokuon]]}}, {{nihongo\|\|促音便\|sokuonbin}}; and if {{nihongo\|{{IPA\|/N/}}\|撥音\|hatsuon}}, {{nihongo\|\|撥音便\|hatsuonbin}}.*[Daijirin](/wiki/Daijirin "Daijirin")*
Historically, *sokuonbin* was triggered in verb conjugation when any of the morae {{IPA\|/ti, ɾi, si, pi/}} in a {{nihongo\|\|連体形\|ren'yōkei}} (see [Japanese conjugation\#Verb bases](/wiki/Japanese_conjugation%23Verb_bases "Japanese conjugation#Verb bases")) was followed by the consonant {{IPA\|/t/}} (for example in the auxiliary {{nihongo\|\|た\|ta}} or the particle {{nihongo\|\|て\|te}}). In such an environment, the [high vowel](/wiki/Vowel%23Height "Vowel#Height") {{IPA\|/i/}} was [reduced](/wiki/Vowel_reduction "Vowel reduction"), and the remaining consonant eventually [assimilated](/wiki/Assimilation_%28phonology%29 "Assimilation (phonology)") with {{IPA\|/t/}}:{{cite book\|title\=日本語文法大辞典\|last\=Yamaguchi\|first\=Akiho\|last2\=秋山\|first2\=守英\|publisher\=Meiji Shoin\|date\=1 March 2001}}
* {{IPA\|toɾi \+ te → toɾite → toɾte → totte}}（取って）
* {{IPA\|kapi \+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaʷte → katte}}（買って）
* {{IPA\|ipi \+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iʷte → itte}}（言って）
Grammatical *sokuonbin* is found predominantly in eastern dialects (including the standard [Tokyo dialect](/wiki/Tokyo_dialect "Tokyo dialect") taught to foreigners), while western ones (including the [Kansai dialect](/wiki/Kansai_dialect "Kansai dialect")) favor *u\-onbin* triggered by the historical mora {{IPA\|/pi/}}:
* {{IPA\|kapi \+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaute → kɔːte → koːte}}（買うて）
* {{IPA\|ipi \+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iute → juːte}}（言うて）
On the other hand, *hatsuonbin* was triggered when any of the morae {{IPA\|/mi, bi, ni/}} in a *ren'yōkei* was followed by the consonant {{IPA\|/t/}}. Similar vowel reduction and consonant assimilation occurred:
* {{IPA\|pumi \+ te → pumite → pumute → punde → ɸunde}}（踏んで）
* {{IPA\|jobi \+ te → jobite → jomute → jonde}}（呼んで）
* {{IPA\|sini \+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）
In general, *onbin* can occur in the following historical environments:*[Nihon Kokugo Daijiten](/wiki/Nihon_Kokugo_Daijiten "Nihon Kokugo Daijiten")**[Daijisen](/wiki/Daijisen "Daijisen")**[Kōjien](/wiki/K%C5%8Djien "Kōjien")*
* *i\-onbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/ki/}}, {{IPA\|/ɡi/}}, or rarely {{IPA\|/si/}}, was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|kaki \+ te → kakite → kaite}}（書いて）
- {{IPA\|ojoɡi \+ te → ojoɡite → ojoide}}（泳いで）
- {{IPA\|sasi \+ te → sasite → saite}}（指いて）
+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\|\|行く\|yuku\|"to go"}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:{{efn\|Compare {{nihongo\|\|行く\|iku\|"to go"}} below which undergoes ''sokuonbin''.}}
- {{IPA\|juki \+ te → jukite → juite}}（行いて）
+ When the mora {{IPA\|/ɾi/}} in *ren'yōkei* and {{nihongo\|\|命令形\|meireikei}} lost the consonant {{IPA\|/ɾ/}} in certain honorific verbs:
- {{IPA\|ossjaɾi → ossjai}}（仰い）
+ When the historical {{nihongo\|\|連体形\|rentaikei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\|/k/}}. This particular type of *i\-onbin* resulted in what is now known to foreign learners as "*\-i* adjectives":
- {{IPA\|atuki → atui}}（熱い）
- {{IPA\|utukusiki → utukusii}}（美しい）
+ In certain verbs:
- {{IPA\|tate \+ maturu → tatematuru → taimaturu}}（{{ruby\-ja\|奉\|たいまつ}}る）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|kisaki → kisai}}（{{ruby\-ja\|后\|きさい}}）
* *u\-onbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/pi/}}, {{IPA\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\|/mi/}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|omopi \+ te → omopite → omoute → omoːte}}（思うて）
- {{IPA\|jobi \+ te → jobite → joude → joːde}}（呼うで）
- {{IPA\|jami \+ te → yamite → jaude → jɔːde → joːde}}（病うで）
- {{IPA\|tanomi \+ taru → tanomitaru → tanoudaru → tanoːdaru}}（頼うだる）
+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verbs {{nihongo\|\|問う\|tou\|"to ask"}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gavo.t.u\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:問う\|title\=問う\|website\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} and {{nihongo\|\|請う\|kou\|"to request"}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gavo.t.u\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:請う\|title\=請う\|website\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} were followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}, even in eastern dialects:
- {{IPA\|topi \+ te → topite → toute → toːte}}（問うて）
- {{IPA\|kopi \+ te → kopite → koute → koːte}}（請うて）
+ When the {{nihongo\|\|未然形\|\|mizenkei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\|/k/}}:
- {{IPA\|joku → jou → joː}}（良う）
- {{IPA\|aɾiɡataku → aɾiɡatau → aɾiɡatɔː → aɾiɡatoː}}（有り難う）
- {{IPA\|pajaku → pajaku → ɸajau → hajɔː → hajoː}}（早う）
- {{IPA\|utukusiku → utukusiu → utukusjuː}}（美しゅう）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|ʷo \+ pito → ʷopito → ʷouto → oːto}}（{{ruby\-ja\|夫\|おうと}}）
- {{IPA\|opi \+ te → opite → opute → oute → oːte}}（{{ruby\-ja\|追手\|おうて}}）
- {{IPA\|oto \+ pito → otopito → otouto → otoːto}}（{{ruby\-ja\|弟\|おとうと}}）and in many other [compounds of Old Japanese pi₁to₂](/wiki/Onbin%23From_-hito "Onbin#From -hito")
- {{IPA\|kaɡapuɾi → kaubuɾi → kɔːbuɾi → koːbuɾi}}（{{ruby\-ja\|冠\|こうぶり}}）
* *Sokuonbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/ti/}}, {{IPA\|/ɾi/}} or {{IPA\|/pi/}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|kati \+ te → katite → katte}}（勝って）
- {{IPA\|aɾi \+ te → aɾite → atte}}（有って）
- {{IPA\|kupi \+ te → kupite → kutte}}（食って）
+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\|\|行く\|iku\|"to go"}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:{{efn\|Compare {{nihongo\|\|行く\|yuku\|"to go"}} above which undergoes ''i\-onbin''. Early {{nihongo\|Christian\|キリシタン\|Kirishitan}} writings recorded the ''i\-onbin'' form {{IPA\|/iite/}} as well.}}
- {{IPA\|iki \+ te → ikite → iite → itte}}（行って）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|ʷo \+ pito → ʷopito → ʷotto → otto}}（{{ruby\-ja\|夫\|おっと}}）
- {{IPA\|opi \+ te → opite → otte}}（追っ手）
- {{IPA\|sau \+ soku → sausoku → sassoku}}（{{ruby\-ja\|早速\|さっそく}}）
- {{IPA\|japaɾi → jappaɾi}}（矢っ張り）
- {{IPA\|ma \+ siɾo → masiɾo → massiɾo}}（真っ白）
* *Hatsuonbin*:
+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\|/mi/}}, {{IPA\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\|/ni/}} was followed by {{IPA\|/t/}}:
- {{IPA\|jomi \+ te → jomite → jonde}}（読んで）
- {{IPA\|tobi \+ te → tobite → tonde}}（飛んで）
- {{IPA\|sini \+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）
+ In certain expressions formed with the particles {{nihongo\|\|に\|ni}} and {{nihongo\|\|の\|no}}:
- {{IPA\|sakaɾi \+ ni → sakaɾini → sakanni}}（盛んに）
- {{IPA\|nokoɾi \+ no \+ juki → nokoɾinojuki → nokonnojuki}}（残んの雪）
+ In certain nouns:
- {{IPA\|kami \+ na \+ tuki → kaminaduki → kannaduki → kannazuki}}（{{ruby\-ja\|神無月\|かんなづき}}）
- {{IPA\|kami \+ sasi → kamisasi → kanzasi}}（{{ruby\-ja\|簪\|かんざし}}）
- {{IPA\|ma \+ naka → manaka → mannaka}}（真ん中）
#### Polite adjective forms
{{Further\|Japanese grammar\#Polite forms of adjectives}}
The [polite adjective forms](/wiki/Japanese_grammar%23Polite_forms_of_adjectives "Japanese grammar#Polite forms of adjectives") (used before the polite copula {{nihongo\|\|ござる\|gozaru\|be}} and verb {{nihongo\|\|存じる\|zonjiru\|think, know}}) exhibit a one\-step or two\-step sound change. Firstly, these use the continuative form, {{Nihongo\|\|\-く\|\-ku}}, which exhibits *onbin*, dropping the *k* as {{Nihongo\|\|\-く\|\-ku}} → {{Nihongo\|\|\-う\|\-u}}. Secondly, the vowel may combine with the preceding vowel, according to historical sound changes; if the resulting new sound is palatalized, meaning {{nihongo\|\|ゆ、よ\|yu, yo}}, this combines with the preceding consonant, yielding a palatalized syllable.
This is most prominent in certain everyday terms that derive from an *i*\-adjective ending in *\-ai* changing to *\-ō* (*\-ou*), which is because these terms are abbreviations of polite phrases ending in *gozaimasu*, sometimes with a polite *o\-* prefix. The terms are also used in their full form, with notable examples being:
* {{nihongo\|\|有り難う、ありがとう\|arigatō\|Thank you}}, from {{nihongo\|\|有り難い、ありがたい\|arigatai\|(I am) grateful}}.
* {{nihongo\|\|お早う、おはよう\|ohayō\|Good morning}}, from {{nihongo\|\|早い、はやい\|hayai\|(It is) early}}.
* {{nihongo\|\|お目出度う、おめでとう\|omedetō\|Congratulations}}, from {{nihongo\|\|目出度い、めでたい\|medetai\|(It is) auspicious}}.
Other forms like this are found in polite speech, such as {{Nihongo\|\|美味しく\|oishiku}} → {{Nihongo\|\|美味しゅう\|oishū}} and {{Nihongo\|\|大きく\|ōkiku}} → {{Nihongo\|\|大きゅう\|ōkyū}}.
|
[
"### Onbin",
"{{Main\\|Onbin}}\n{{Further\\|Japanese grammar\\#Euphonic changes (音便, onbin)\\|Japanese grammar\\#Verb conjugations\\|label2\\=Onbin in verb conjugations}}\nAnother prominent feature is {{Nihongo\\|\\|音便\\|onbin\\|euphonic sound change}}. This refers to various historical sound changes that can be loosely described as showing reduction, lenition or coalescence. Alternations resulting from onbin continue to be seen in some areas of Japanese morphology, such as the conjugation of certain verb forms or the form of certain compound verbs.",
"In some cases, onbin changes occurred within a morpheme, as in {{Nihongo\\|\\|箒 (ほうき)\\|hōki\\|broom}}, which underwent two sound changes from earlier {{Nihongo\\|\\|ははき\\|hahaki}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|はうき\\|hauki}} (onbin) → {{Nihongo\\|\\|ほうき\\|houki}} (historical vowel change) → {{Nihongo\\|\\|ほうき\\|hōki}} (long vowel, sound change not reflected in kana spelling).",
"One type of onbin caused certain onset consonants to be deleted, mainly before {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/u/}},{{sfnp\\|Kubozono\\|2015b\\|p\\=226}} which created [vowel sequences, or long vowels](/wiki/%23Vowel_sequences_and_long_vowels \"#Vowel sequences and long vowels\") by coalescence of {{IPA\\|/u/}} with the preceding vowel.",
"Another type of onbin resulted in the development of moraic consonants {{IPA\\|/Q/}} or {{IPA\\|/N/}} in certain circumstances in native Japanese words.",
"#### Types",
"Types of *onbin* are named after their resulting mora. If the resulting mora is {{IPA\\|/i/}}, the *onbin* is called {{nihongo\\|\\|イ音便\\|i\\-onbin}}; if {{IPA\\|/u/}}, {{nihongo\\|\\|ウ音便\\|u\\-onbin}}; if {{nihongo\\|{{IPA\\|/Q/}}\\|促音\\|\\[\\[sokuon]]}}, {{nihongo\\|\\|促音便\\|sokuonbin}}; and if {{nihongo\\|{{IPA\\|/N/}}\\|撥音\\|hatsuon}}, {{nihongo\\|\\|撥音便\\|hatsuonbin}}.*[Daijirin](/wiki/Daijirin \"Daijirin\")*",
"Historically, *sokuonbin* was triggered in verb conjugation when any of the morae {{IPA\\|/ti, ɾi, si, pi/}} in a {{nihongo\\|\\|連体形\\|ren'yōkei}} (see [Japanese conjugation\\#Verb bases](/wiki/Japanese_conjugation%23Verb_bases \"Japanese conjugation#Verb bases\")) was followed by the consonant {{IPA\\|/t/}} (for example in the auxiliary {{nihongo\\|\\|た\\|ta}} or the particle {{nihongo\\|\\|て\\|te}}). In such an environment, the [high vowel](/wiki/Vowel%23Height \"Vowel#Height\") {{IPA\\|/i/}} was [reduced](/wiki/Vowel_reduction \"Vowel reduction\"), and the remaining consonant eventually [assimilated](/wiki/Assimilation_%28phonology%29 \"Assimilation (phonology)\") with {{IPA\\|/t/}}:{{cite book\\|title\\=日本語文法大辞典\\|last\\=Yamaguchi\\|first\\=Akiho\\|last2\\=秋山\\|first2\\=守英\\|publisher\\=Meiji Shoin\\|date\\=1 March 2001}}\n* {{IPA\\|toɾi \\+ te → toɾite → toɾte → totte}}（取って）\n* {{IPA\\|kapi \\+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaʷte → katte}}（買って）\n* {{IPA\\|ipi \\+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iʷte → itte}}（言って）",
"Grammatical *sokuonbin* is found predominantly in eastern dialects (including the standard [Tokyo dialect](/wiki/Tokyo_dialect \"Tokyo dialect\") taught to foreigners), while western ones (including the [Kansai dialect](/wiki/Kansai_dialect \"Kansai dialect\")) favor *u\\-onbin* triggered by the historical mora {{IPA\\|/pi/}}:\n* {{IPA\\|kapi \\+ te → kapite → kaɸite → kaʷite → kaute → kɔːte → koːte}}（買うて）\n* {{IPA\\|ipi \\+ te → ipite → iɸite → iʷite → iute → juːte}}（言うて）",
"On the other hand, *hatsuonbin* was triggered when any of the morae {{IPA\\|/mi, bi, ni/}} in a *ren'yōkei* was followed by the consonant {{IPA\\|/t/}}. Similar vowel reduction and consonant assimilation occurred:\n* {{IPA\\|pumi \\+ te → pumite → pumute → punde → ɸunde}}（踏んで）\n* {{IPA\\|jobi \\+ te → jobite → jomute → jonde}}（呼んで）\n* {{IPA\\|sini \\+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）",
"In general, *onbin* can occur in the following historical environments:*[Nihon Kokugo Daijiten](/wiki/Nihon_Kokugo_Daijiten \"Nihon Kokugo Daijiten\")**[Daijisen](/wiki/Daijisen \"Daijisen\")**[Kōjien](/wiki/K%C5%8Djien \"Kōjien\")*\n* *i\\-onbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/ki/}}, {{IPA\\|/ɡi/}}, or rarely {{IPA\\|/si/}}, was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kaki \\+ te → kakite → kaite}}（書いて）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ojoɡi \\+ te → ojoɡite → ojoide}}（泳いで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sasi \\+ te → sasite → saite}}（指いて）\n\t+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|yuku\\|\"to go\"}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:{{efn\\|Compare {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|iku\\|\"to go\"}} below which undergoes ''sokuonbin''.}}\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|juki \\+ te → jukite → juite}}（行いて）\n\t+ When the mora {{IPA\\|/ɾi/}} in *ren'yōkei* and {{nihongo\\|\\|命令形\\|meireikei}} lost the consonant {{IPA\\|/ɾ/}} in certain honorific verbs:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ossjaɾi → ossjai}}（仰い）\n\t+ When the historical {{nihongo\\|\\|連体形\\|rentaikei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\\|/k/}}. This particular type of *i\\-onbin* resulted in what is now known to foreign learners as \"*\\-i* adjectives\":\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|atuki → atui}}（熱い）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|utukusiki → utukusii}}（美しい）\n\t+ In certain verbs:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|tate \\+ maturu → tatematuru → taimaturu}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|奉\\|たいまつ}}る）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kisaki → kisai}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|后\\|きさい}}）\n* *u\\-onbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/pi/}}, {{IPA\\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\\|/mi/}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|omopi \\+ te → omopite → omoute → omoːte}}（思うて）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|jobi \\+ te → jobite → joude → joːde}}（呼うで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|jami \\+ te → yamite → jaude → jɔːde → joːde}}（病うで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|tanomi \\+ taru → tanomitaru → tanoudaru → tanoːdaru}}（頼うだる）\n\t+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verbs {{nihongo\\|\\|問う\\|tou\\|\"to ask\"}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gavo.t.u\\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:問う\\|title\\=問う\\|website\\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} and {{nihongo\\|\\|請う\\|kou\\|\"to request\"}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gavo.t.u\\-tokyo.ac.jp/ojad/search/index/word:請う\\|title\\=請う\\|website\\=Online Japanese Accent Dictionary}} were followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}, even in eastern dialects:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|topi \\+ te → topite → toute → toːte}}（問うて）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kopi \\+ te → kopite → koute → koːte}}（請うて）\n\t+ When the {{nihongo\\|\\|未然形\\|\\|mizenkei}} of an adjective lost the consonant {{IPA\\|/k/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|joku → jou → joː}}（良う）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|aɾiɡataku → aɾiɡatau → aɾiɡatɔː → aɾiɡatoː}}（有り難う）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|pajaku → pajaku → ɸajau → hajɔː → hajoː}}（早う）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|utukusiku → utukusiu → utukusjuː}}（美しゅう）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ʷo \\+ pito → ʷopito → ʷouto → oːto}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|夫\\|おうと}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|opi \\+ te → opite → opute → oute → oːte}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|追手\\|おうて}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|oto \\+ pito → otopito → otouto → otoːto}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|弟\\|おとうと}}）and in many other [compounds of Old Japanese pi₁to₂](/wiki/Onbin%23From_-hito \"Onbin#From -hito\")\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kaɡapuɾi → kaubuɾi → kɔːbuɾi → koːbuɾi}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|冠\\|こうぶり}}）\n* *Sokuonbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/ti/}}, {{IPA\\|/ɾi/}} or {{IPA\\|/pi/}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kati \\+ te → katite → katte}}（勝って）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|aɾi \\+ te → aɾite → atte}}（有って）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kupi \\+ te → kupite → kutte}}（食って）\n\t+ When the *ren'yōkei* of the verb {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|iku\\|\"to go\"}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:{{efn\\|Compare {{nihongo\\|\\|行く\\|yuku\\|\"to go\"}} above which undergoes ''i\\-onbin''. Early {{nihongo\\|Christian\\|キリシタン\\|Kirishitan}} writings recorded the ''i\\-onbin'' form {{IPA\\|/iite/}} as well.}}\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|iki \\+ te → ikite → iite → itte}}（行って）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ʷo \\+ pito → ʷopito → ʷotto → otto}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|夫\\|おっと}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|opi \\+ te → opite → otte}}（追っ手）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sau \\+ soku → sausoku → sassoku}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|早速\\|さっそく}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|japaɾi → jappaɾi}}（矢っ張り）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ma \\+ siɾo → masiɾo → massiɾo}}（真っ白）\n* *Hatsuonbin*:\n\t+ When a *ren'yōkei* with the mora {{IPA\\|/mi/}}, {{IPA\\|/bi/}} or {{IPA\\|/ni/}} was followed by {{IPA\\|/t/}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|jomi \\+ te → jomite → jonde}}（読んで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|tobi \\+ te → tobite → tonde}}（飛んで）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sini \\+ te → sinite → sinde}}（死んで）\n\t+ In certain expressions formed with the particles {{nihongo\\|\\|に\\|ni}} and {{nihongo\\|\\|の\\|no}}:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|sakaɾi \\+ ni → sakaɾini → sakanni}}（盛んに）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|nokoɾi \\+ no \\+ juki → nokoɾinojuki → nokonnojuki}}（残んの雪）\n\t+ In certain nouns:\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kami \\+ na \\+ tuki → kaminaduki → kannaduki → kannazuki}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|神無月\\|かんなづき}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|kami \\+ sasi → kamisasi → kanzasi}}（{{ruby\\-ja\\|簪\\|かんざし}}）\n\t\t- {{IPA\\|ma \\+ naka → manaka → mannaka}}（真ん中）",
"#### Polite adjective forms",
"{{Further\\|Japanese grammar\\#Polite forms of adjectives}}",
"The [polite adjective forms](/wiki/Japanese_grammar%23Polite_forms_of_adjectives \"Japanese grammar#Polite forms of adjectives\") (used before the polite copula {{nihongo\\|\\|ござる\\|gozaru\\|be}} and verb {{nihongo\\|\\|存じる\\|zonjiru\\|think, know}}) exhibit a one\\-step or two\\-step sound change. Firstly, these use the continuative form, {{Nihongo\\|\\|\\-く\\|\\-ku}}, which exhibits *onbin*, dropping the *k* as {{Nihongo\\|\\|\\-く\\|\\-ku}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|\\-う\\|\\-u}}. Secondly, the vowel may combine with the preceding vowel, according to historical sound changes; if the resulting new sound is palatalized, meaning {{nihongo\\|\\|ゆ、よ\\|yu, yo}}, this combines with the preceding consonant, yielding a palatalized syllable.",
"This is most prominent in certain everyday terms that derive from an *i*\\-adjective ending in *\\-ai* changing to *\\-ō* (*\\-ou*), which is because these terms are abbreviations of polite phrases ending in *gozaimasu*, sometimes with a polite *o\\-* prefix. The terms are also used in their full form, with notable examples being:\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|有り難う、ありがとう\\|arigatō\\|Thank you}}, from {{nihongo\\|\\|有り難い、ありがたい\\|arigatai\\|(I am) grateful}}.\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|お早う、おはよう\\|ohayō\\|Good morning}}, from {{nihongo\\|\\|早い、はやい\\|hayai\\|(It is) early}}.\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|お目出度う、おめでとう\\|omedetō\\|Congratulations}}, from {{nihongo\\|\\|目出度い、めでたい\\|medetai\\|(It is) auspicious}}.",
"Other forms like this are found in polite speech, such as {{Nihongo\\|\\|美味しく\\|oishiku}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|美味しゅう\\|oishū}} and {{Nihongo\\|\\|大きく\\|ōkiku}} → {{Nihongo\\|\\|大きゅう\\|ōkyū}}.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1993–1998
On September 1, 1993, [Nickelodeon UK](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28British_and_Irish_TV_channel%29 "Nickelodeon (British and Irish TV channel)") began broadcasting in Europe and the western part of Russia from the Astra 1C and Astra 1B satellites. Broadcasting was from 9:00 to 22:00 MSK. Since 1996, Nickelodeon UK has broadcast from the Sirius satellite for the western and north\-western part of Russia.{{cite web\|url\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/18/article/24\.html\|title\="До 16 и старше..."\|publisher\=old.telesputnik.ru\|date\= 4 April 2007}}[Презентация](https://media-sputnik.net/guides/channels/child/nickelodeon/) //
### 1998–2022
On September 16, 1998[NICKELODEON INKS DEAL WITH METROMEDIA TO LAUNCH IN THE CIS AND B](https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/1998-09-16/nickelodeon-inks-deal-with-metromedia-to-launch-in-the-cis-and-b) // 16 сентября 1998 г. Nickelodeon International signed an agreement with Metromedia International Group.[Русский проект Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/43/article/30.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 5(43\) Май 1999 г. MIG was engaged in localization of the channel into Russian, the editorial office was located on 2nd Brestskaya Street, in house No. 43 ([Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow")). The presentation of the channel in the newspaper media and some Moscow schools also began.{{cite web\|url\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/44/article/26\.html\|title\=Кабельная сеть Архангельска и MMDS\-система Северодвинска\|publisher\=old.telesputnik.ru\|date\=}}
On November 15, 1998, Nickelodeon Russia began broadcasting around the clock in the CIS and Baltic countries, having two audio tracks broadcasting languages (Russian and English). Dubbing is done in Moscow. Initially, cassettes with recordings were sent to Moscow, after which the material was dubbed, and the cassettes were returned to London, from there broadcasting is still going on.[Телеканал вещает полностью на русском языке с ноября 1998 года](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 9(131\) Сентябрь 2006 г. In the same year, three thematic blocks appeared: "Nicktoons",{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=H3Hw8bzPjiE\|title\=NickМультTV\- Лучшие мультики собранные на одном канале!\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ooIgSaukq3Y\|title\=NickToons Русское Промо\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=34hofBrVUqA\|title\=Промо\-ролик NickToons \+ заставка "понимаешь, о чем я?" (2004\)\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} "Nick at Nite"{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/video?q\=приключение%20пита%20и%20пита\&z\=video11195640\_155473463\|title\="Приключения Пита и Пита"\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=20 November 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=OGKlGu2vBRU\|title\=Промо Nick at Nite на Nickelodeon\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} and "Nick Jr". According to statistics from June 1999, the channel was already received by 30,000 households in the cable networks of Arkhangelsk.
In 2000, the educational program "ME TV" was presented, which told about the cultural and national traditions of the CIS and Baltic countries. The Moscow office also developed a program for Poland.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=r1KirmTUi1I\&feature\=youtu.be\|title\=Nickelodeon Russia / Poland ME \-TV Spots(Time 5:10\)\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}}
In 2001, a website was launched \- Nickelodeon.ru.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\|title\=Сайт на реконструкции\|publisher\=nickelodeon.ru\|date\=\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020119190906/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\|archive\-date\=2002\-01\-19}}{{cite web\|url\=https://whois.ru/nickelodeon.ru\|title\=Информация о домене: nickelodeon.ru\|publisher\=whois.ru\|date\=}} In 2002, 2 more new blocks appeared: "Nick Films"{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=BrwASzdGnkY\|title\=Анонс на Nickelodeon: НИК ФИЛЬМЫ\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} and "Toons on toast".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=b6YGM\-mR7UU\|title\=Промо на Nickelodeon: Поджаренные мультики\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} In 2003, the channel began broadcasting on the territory of Ukraine.[NICKELODEON ДОБРАЛСЯ ДО УКРАИНЫ](https://tv-digest.ru/archive/id/3711/) // 05\.11\.2003 In September 2003, MTV Networks International signed an agreement with EMC, the new distributor continued to localize and adapt the channel.{{cite web\|url\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/news/1825\|title\=Никелодеон выходит на канале ТНТ\-Телесеть\|publisher\=\|date\=}}
In May 2004, the channel was delocalized and replaced by Nickelodeon Europe. Now broadcasting was carried out throughout [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe "Eastern Europe"), and a Hungarian soundtrack was also added.[Nickelodeon — Дубляж](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/103/article/36.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 5(103\) Май 2004 г.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sat\-expert.com/news/p2\_articleid/12597\|title\=Nickelodeon Europe представил новый логотип и визуальную идентичность\|publisher\=sat\-expert.com\|date\=14 February 2010}} In 2006, Media Broadcasting Group became the distributor of the channel in the CIS.[Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 9(131\) Сентябрь 2006 г.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/547872\|title\=Metromedia ушла из России\|publisher\=\[\[Коммерсантъ]]\|date\=16 February 2005}}{{cite news \|title\=ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี \|url\=https://www.123\-hd.me/category/ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี}} In the same year, 2 new blocks "Nick Zone" and "Nick Double" appeared, which offered additional series of animated series.
From 2008 to 2012, the channel periodically experienced failures on the air, including with a sound track, as a result of which animated series in Polish and English were released for some time period.
On March 1, 2010, a new corporate identity and logo were introduced, as well as a new design. In the same year, the broadcasting center moved from Warsaw, London to Prague, but Warsaw and London was responsible for programming and controlling the channel.[Контакты](https://web.archive.org/web/20110704074732/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/kontaktyi/) //[«Именно лондонский офис отвечает за вещание и лицензирование всех каналов по территории Восточной Европы и Азии…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_14297?reply=14358) //
At the beginning of 2011, a representative office of [Viacom](/wiki/Viacom_%282005%E2%80%932019%29 "Viacom (2005–2019)") opened in Russia, which began distributing the local version of the channel. On September 17, 2011, Nickelodeon switched to widescreen broadcasting (16:9\). On October 4, 2011, Nickelodeon Europe switched to HD format. This TV channel in some countries, including the CIS, is referred to as Nickelodeon HD. After that, it began broadcasting as the main channel of [Nickelodeon Poland](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Polish_TV_channel%29 "Nickelodeon (Polish TV channel)") with a Russian soundtrack, this version was also delocalized for international broadcasting,{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_1596\|title\="Дорогие друзья, мы получили ответы на вопросы Почему..."\|publisher\=\|date\=29 November 2011}} Amsterdam took over programming of the channel.{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_25403?reply\=25618\|title\="мы передали ваше пожелание показывать больше клипов вещателям из Амстердама..."\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_60811?reply\=61046\|title\="нам пришлось закрыть голосование чуть раньше, т.к.нам необходимо срочно передать итоги зрительского голосования программной команде, находящейся в Европе, у которой завтра выходной день."\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=}}
In October 2012, the channel separated from the Polish version and was localized again, and its own program of programs also appeared. For some time, the broadcast continued to go from Warsaw and Prague, later moved to London.[«Мы передадим ваши пожелания коллегам\-вещателям из Лондона…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_15793?reply=15832) //{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_21147?reply\=21184\|title\="Наш Nickelodeon отделился от Польского уже как месяц..."\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\|title\=Kontakt(добавил этот сайт, т.к SMMщик вк перепутал. Вещание было не с Польши, а с Чехии)\|date\=\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701105358/http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-01}}
In 2013, the blocks "Family Friday" and "Old School" appeared,{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/video\-27078945\_167517816\|title\=Олдскул\-сериалы на Nickelodeon!\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=13 December 2013}} consisting of classic animated series of the TV channel.
In 2014, Nickelodeon and the Aeroplane production company signed a license agreement for the animated series The Fixies, under which the TV channel has broadcast an animated series for preschoolers for two years since January 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://toys.segment.ru/news/news\_company/animatsionnyy\_serial\_fiksiki\_poyavitsya\_v\_efire\_nickelodeon\_v\_yanvare/\|title\=The animated series "Fixies" will air on Nickelodeon in January\|publisher\=toys.segment.ru\|date\=}}
Since January 1, 2015, the channel has been broadcasting without advertising. In the summer of 2015, the updated website of the TV channel was presented, the audience of the site exceeded 650,000 unique users for the second quarter of 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cableman.ru/channel/news/telekanal\-nickelodeon\-zapuskaet\-obnovlennyi\-sait\-kotoryi\-predostavit\-reklamodatelyam\-no\|title\=Nickelodeon TV channel launches an updated website that will provide advertisers with new opportunities to interact with the children's audience\|publisher\=cableman.ru\|date\=}} In 2016, the block "Sunday Block Premier" appeared.
In 2017, Moscow took over programming of the TV channel,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/mikhail\-obukhov\-329866108\|title\=Mikhail Obukhov. Executive, Planning \& Content (MTV, Paramount Channel, Spike) at ViacomCBS Networks International\|publisher\=\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/alexandr\-malygin\|title\=Alexander Malygin\|publisher\=\|date\=}} but broadcasting continues from Warsaw and London.[Welcome to Viacom International Media Networks (management of European and Asian channels)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYZuKGEMezs&feature=youtu.be&t=20) // February 6\. twothousandseventeen[Nickelodeon broadcasts officially on this platform, it is indicated that the channel broadcasts from the Poland and UK](https://megogo.ru/ru/tv/channels/2682051-nickelodeon-online.html) // October 23, 2020 Also, audio tracks in Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian were added for the Baltic countries.{{cite web\|url\=https://viacbs.ru/content/nickelodeon/\|title\=NICKELODEON\|publisher\=\|date\=}} Since June 1, 2017, the channel has been called abbreviated ("Nick").
At the beginning of 2020, Okko and [ViacomCBS Networks Russia](/wiki/Paramount_International_Networks "Paramount International Networks") signed a deal under which the online cinema received the rights to the content of the Nickelodeon, Nick Jr, Comedy Central, Channel 5 and MTV brands. On June 1, 2020, Paramount\+ was launched in the Okko service.{{cite web\|url\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\-plus/\|title\=Paramount\+\|publisher\=\|date\=}} On June 1, 2021, a similar service was launched in ivi, but under the name Paramount Play.{{cite web\|url\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\-play/\|title\=Paramount Play\|publisher\=\|date\=}}
On April 1, 2022, the Nickelodeon Ukraine TV channel began broadcasting in Poland and Germany, previously this TV channel broadcast on the streaming service [Pluto TV](/wiki/Pluto_TV "Pluto TV").[Nickelodeon Ukraine \- LyngSat](https://www.lyngsat.com/tvchannels/us/Nickelodeon-Ukraine.html)[/ New FTA channel Nick Ukraine started broadcasting on 19\.2°E \- News of TV channels \- Gomel\-Sat.bz \- Forum about satellite TV](https://gomel-sat.bz/topic/100664-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9-fta-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB-nick-ukraine-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB-%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BD%D0%B0-192%C2%B0e)[TRANSPONDER NEWS OF RUSSIAN\-LANGUAGE CHANNELS \- Page 389 \- Sat\-Port Forum.Info \- The world of satellite TV](https://sat-port.info/forum/showthread.php?p=473112) On the territory of Ukraine, at the same time, the Russian\-language version of the TV channel continued to broadcast on cable and satellite networks. The channel closed in Russia on April 28 of that year while airing an episode of [Rugrats](/wiki/Rugrats_%282021_TV_series%29 "Rugrats (2021 TV series)"){{Citation \|title\=Viacom channels in Russia \- Closedown \- 28\.04\.2022 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=692tHoIja7E \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-17}} due to Paramount pausing operations in that country in response to the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine").{{Cite web \| url\=https://variety.com/2022/film/global/paramount\-russia\-operations\-donation\-1235205339/ \| title\=Paramount Pauses Russian Operations, Makes $1 Million Donation for Humanitarian Relief \| date\=15 March 2022 }} In the [Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States"), as well as Georgia, Ukraine the broadcasting of Russian\-language versions of MTV and other Paramount channels continued until December 14\.
From December 14, 2022, the broadcasting of Nickelodeon and affiliated TV channels in Belarus was stopped.{{Cite news\|url\=https://tvnews.by/tb/18494\-telekanaly\-mtv\-nickelodeon\-i\-paramount\-prekraschajut\-veschanie\-v\-belarusi.html\|title\=Телеканалы MTV, Nickelodeon и Paramount прекращают вещание в Беларуси\|newspaper\=Tvnews.by \| Новости Тв, It И Коммуникаций \|date\=4 December 2022}} And on the same day, the channel was closed and replaced by [Nickelodeon CEE](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Central_and_Eastern_European_TV_channel%29 "Nickelodeon (Central and Eastern European TV channel)") (except Belarus).
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1993–1998",
"On September 1, 1993, [Nickelodeon UK](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28British_and_Irish_TV_channel%29 \"Nickelodeon (British and Irish TV channel)\") began broadcasting in Europe and the western part of Russia from the Astra 1C and Astra 1B satellites. Broadcasting was from 9:00 to 22:00 MSK. Since 1996, Nickelodeon UK has broadcast from the Sirius satellite for the western and north\\-western part of Russia.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/18/article/24\\.html\\|title\\=\"До 16 и старше...\"\\|publisher\\=old.telesputnik.ru\\|date\\= 4 April 2007}}[Презентация](https://media-sputnik.net/guides/channels/child/nickelodeon/) //",
"### 1998–2022",
"On September 16, 1998[NICKELODEON INKS DEAL WITH METROMEDIA TO LAUNCH IN THE CIS AND B](https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/1998-09-16/nickelodeon-inks-deal-with-metromedia-to-launch-in-the-cis-and-b) // 16 сентября 1998 г. Nickelodeon International signed an agreement with Metromedia International Group.[Русский проект Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/43/article/30.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 5(43\\) Май 1999 г. MIG was engaged in localization of the channel into Russian, the editorial office was located on 2nd Brestskaya Street, in house No. 43 ([Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\")). The presentation of the channel in the newspaper media and some Moscow schools also began.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/44/article/26\\.html\\|title\\=Кабельная сеть Архангельска и MMDS\\-система Северодвинска\\|publisher\\=old.telesputnik.ru\\|date\\=}}",
"On November 15, 1998, Nickelodeon Russia began broadcasting around the clock in the CIS and Baltic countries, having two audio tracks broadcasting languages (Russian and English). Dubbing is done in Moscow. Initially, cassettes with recordings were sent to Moscow, after which the material was dubbed, and the cassettes were returned to London, from there broadcasting is still going on.[Телеканал вещает полностью на русском языке с ноября 1998 года](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 9(131\\) Сентябрь 2006 г. In the same year, three thematic blocks appeared: \"Nicktoons\",{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=H3Hw8bzPjiE\\|title\\=NickМультTV\\- Лучшие мультики собранные на одном канале!\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ooIgSaukq3Y\\|title\\=NickToons Русское Промо\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=34hofBrVUqA\\|title\\=Промо\\-ролик NickToons \\+ заставка \"понимаешь, о чем я?\" (2004\\)\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} \"Nick at Nite\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/video?q\\=приключение%20пита%20и%20пита\\&z\\=video11195640\\_155473463\\|title\\=\"Приключения Пита и Пита\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=20 November 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=OGKlGu2vBRU\\|title\\=Промо Nick at Nite на Nickelodeon\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} and \"Nick Jr\". According to statistics from June 1999, the channel was already received by 30,000 households in the cable networks of Arkhangelsk.",
"In 2000, the educational program \"ME TV\" was presented, which told about the cultural and national traditions of the CIS and Baltic countries. The Moscow office also developed a program for Poland.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=r1KirmTUi1I\\&feature\\=youtu.be\\|title\\=Nickelodeon Russia / Poland ME \\-TV Spots(Time 5:10\\)\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}}",
"In 2001, a website was launched \\- Nickelodeon.ru.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\\|title\\=Сайт на реконструкции\\|publisher\\=nickelodeon.ru\\|date\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020119190906/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-01\\-19}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://whois.ru/nickelodeon.ru\\|title\\=Информация о домене: nickelodeon.ru\\|publisher\\=whois.ru\\|date\\=}} In 2002, 2 more new blocks appeared: \"Nick Films\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=BrwASzdGnkY\\|title\\=Анонс на Nickelodeon: НИК ФИЛЬМЫ\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} and \"Toons on toast\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=b6YGM\\-mR7UU\\|title\\=Промо на Nickelodeon: Поджаренные мультики\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} In 2003, the channel began broadcasting on the territory of Ukraine.[NICKELODEON ДОБРАЛСЯ ДО УКРАИНЫ](https://tv-digest.ru/archive/id/3711/) // 05\\.11\\.2003 In September 2003, MTV Networks International signed an agreement with EMC, the new distributor continued to localize and adapt the channel.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/news/1825\\|title\\=Никелодеон выходит на канале ТНТ\\-Телесеть\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}}",
"In May 2004, the channel was delocalized and replaced by Nickelodeon Europe. Now broadcasting was carried out throughout [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe \"Eastern Europe\"), and a Hungarian soundtrack was also added.[Nickelodeon — Дубляж](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/103/article/36.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 5(103\\) Май 2004 г.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sat\\-expert.com/news/p2\\_articleid/12597\\|title\\=Nickelodeon Europe представил новый логотип и визуальную идентичность\\|publisher\\=sat\\-expert.com\\|date\\=14 February 2010}} In 2006, Media Broadcasting Group became the distributor of the channel in the CIS.[Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 9(131\\) Сентябрь 2006 г.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/547872\\|title\\=Metromedia ушла из России\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Коммерсантъ]]\\|date\\=16 February 2005}}{{cite news \\|title\\=ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี \\|url\\=https://www.123\\-hd.me/category/ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี}} In the same year, 2 new blocks \"Nick Zone\" and \"Nick Double\" appeared, which offered additional series of animated series.",
"From 2008 to 2012, the channel periodically experienced failures on the air, including with a sound track, as a result of which animated series in Polish and English were released for some time period.",
"On March 1, 2010, a new corporate identity and logo were introduced, as well as a new design. In the same year, the broadcasting center moved from Warsaw, London to Prague, but Warsaw and London was responsible for programming and controlling the channel.[Контакты](https://web.archive.org/web/20110704074732/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/kontaktyi/) //[«Именно лондонский офис отвечает за вещание и лицензирование всех каналов по территории Восточной Европы и Азии…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_14297?reply=14358) //",
"At the beginning of 2011, a representative office of [Viacom](/wiki/Viacom_%282005%E2%80%932019%29 \"Viacom (2005–2019)\") opened in Russia, which began distributing the local version of the channel. On September 17, 2011, Nickelodeon switched to widescreen broadcasting (16:9\\). On October 4, 2011, Nickelodeon Europe switched to HD format. This TV channel in some countries, including the CIS, is referred to as Nickelodeon HD. After that, it began broadcasting as the main channel of [Nickelodeon Poland](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Polish_TV_channel%29 \"Nickelodeon (Polish TV channel)\") with a Russian soundtrack, this version was also delocalized for international broadcasting,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_1596\\|title\\=\"Дорогие друзья, мы получили ответы на вопросы Почему...\"\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=29 November 2011}} Amsterdam took over programming of the channel.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_25403?reply\\=25618\\|title\\=\"мы передали ваше пожелание показывать больше клипов вещателям из Амстердама...\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_60811?reply\\=61046\\|title\\=\"нам пришлось закрыть голосование чуть раньше, т.к.нам необходимо срочно передать итоги зрительского голосования программной команде, находящейся в Европе, у которой завтра выходной день.\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=}}",
"In October 2012, the channel separated from the Polish version and was localized again, and its own program of programs also appeared. For some time, the broadcast continued to go from Warsaw and Prague, later moved to London.[«Мы передадим ваши пожелания коллегам\\-вещателям из Лондона…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_15793?reply=15832) //{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_21147?reply\\=21184\\|title\\=\"Наш Nickelodeon отделился от Польского уже как месяц...\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\\|title\\=Kontakt(добавил этот сайт, т.к SMMщик вк перепутал. Вещание было не с Польши, а с Чехии)\\|date\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701105358/http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-01}}",
"In 2013, the blocks \"Family Friday\" and \"Old School\" appeared,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/video\\-27078945\\_167517816\\|title\\=Олдскул\\-сериалы на Nickelodeon!\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=13 December 2013}} consisting of classic animated series of the TV channel.",
"In 2014, Nickelodeon and the Aeroplane production company signed a license agreement for the animated series The Fixies, under which the TV channel has broadcast an animated series for preschoolers for two years since January 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://toys.segment.ru/news/news\\_company/animatsionnyy\\_serial\\_fiksiki\\_poyavitsya\\_v\\_efire\\_nickelodeon\\_v\\_yanvare/\\|title\\=The animated series \"Fixies\" will air on Nickelodeon in January\\|publisher\\=toys.segment.ru\\|date\\=}}",
"Since January 1, 2015, the channel has been broadcasting without advertising. In the summer of 2015, the updated website of the TV channel was presented, the audience of the site exceeded 650,000 unique users for the second quarter of 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cableman.ru/channel/news/telekanal\\-nickelodeon\\-zapuskaet\\-obnovlennyi\\-sait\\-kotoryi\\-predostavit\\-reklamodatelyam\\-no\\|title\\=Nickelodeon TV channel launches an updated website that will provide advertisers with new opportunities to interact with the children's audience\\|publisher\\=cableman.ru\\|date\\=}} In 2016, the block \"Sunday Block Premier\" appeared.",
"In 2017, Moscow took over programming of the TV channel,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/mikhail\\-obukhov\\-329866108\\|title\\=Mikhail Obukhov. Executive, Planning \\& Content (MTV, Paramount Channel, Spike) at ViacomCBS Networks International\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/alexandr\\-malygin\\|title\\=Alexander Malygin\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}} but broadcasting continues from Warsaw and London.[Welcome to Viacom International Media Networks (management of European and Asian channels)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYZuKGEMezs&feature=youtu.be&t=20) // February 6\\. twothousandseventeen[Nickelodeon broadcasts officially on this platform, it is indicated that the channel broadcasts from the Poland and UK](https://megogo.ru/ru/tv/channels/2682051-nickelodeon-online.html) // October 23, 2020 Also, audio tracks in Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian were added for the Baltic countries.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://viacbs.ru/content/nickelodeon/\\|title\\=NICKELODEON\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}} Since June 1, 2017, the channel has been called abbreviated (\"Nick\").",
"At the beginning of 2020, Okko and [ViacomCBS Networks Russia](/wiki/Paramount_International_Networks \"Paramount International Networks\") signed a deal under which the online cinema received the rights to the content of the Nickelodeon, Nick Jr, Comedy Central, Channel 5 and MTV brands. On June 1, 2020, Paramount\\+ was launched in the Okko service.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\\-plus/\\|title\\=Paramount\\+\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}} On June 1, 2021, a similar service was launched in ivi, but under the name Paramount Play.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\\-play/\\|title\\=Paramount Play\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}}",
"On April 1, 2022, the Nickelodeon Ukraine TV channel began broadcasting in Poland and Germany, previously this TV channel broadcast on the streaming service [Pluto TV](/wiki/Pluto_TV \"Pluto TV\").[Nickelodeon Ukraine \\- LyngSat](https://www.lyngsat.com/tvchannels/us/Nickelodeon-Ukraine.html)[/ New FTA channel Nick Ukraine started broadcasting on 19\\.2°E \\- News of TV channels \\- Gomel\\-Sat.bz \\- Forum about satellite TV](https://gomel-sat.bz/topic/100664-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9-fta-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB-nick-ukraine-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB-%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BD%D0%B0-192%C2%B0e)[TRANSPONDER NEWS OF RUSSIAN\\-LANGUAGE CHANNELS \\- Page 389 \\- Sat\\-Port Forum.Info \\- The world of satellite TV](https://sat-port.info/forum/showthread.php?p=473112) On the territory of Ukraine, at the same time, the Russian\\-language version of the TV channel continued to broadcast on cable and satellite networks. The channel closed in Russia on April 28 of that year while airing an episode of [Rugrats](/wiki/Rugrats_%282021_TV_series%29 \"Rugrats (2021 TV series)\"){{Citation \\|title\\=Viacom channels in Russia \\- Closedown \\- 28\\.04\\.2022 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=692tHoIja7E \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-17}} due to Paramount pausing operations in that country in response to the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\").{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://variety.com/2022/film/global/paramount\\-russia\\-operations\\-donation\\-1235205339/ \\| title\\=Paramount Pauses Russian Operations, Makes $1 Million Donation for Humanitarian Relief \\| date\\=15 March 2022 }} In the [Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\"), as well as Georgia, Ukraine the broadcasting of Russian\\-language versions of MTV and other Paramount channels continued until December 14\\.",
"From December 14, 2022, the broadcasting of Nickelodeon and affiliated TV channels in Belarus was stopped.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://tvnews.by/tb/18494\\-telekanaly\\-mtv\\-nickelodeon\\-i\\-paramount\\-prekraschajut\\-veschanie\\-v\\-belarusi.html\\|title\\=Телеканалы MTV, Nickelodeon и Paramount прекращают вещание в Беларуси\\|newspaper\\=Tvnews.by \\| Новости Тв, It И Коммуникаций \\|date\\=4 December 2022}} And on the same day, the channel was closed and replaced by [Nickelodeon CEE](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Central_and_Eastern_European_TV_channel%29 \"Nickelodeon (Central and Eastern European TV channel)\") (except Belarus).",
""
] |
### 1998–2022
On September 16, 1998[NICKELODEON INKS DEAL WITH METROMEDIA TO LAUNCH IN THE CIS AND B](https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/1998-09-16/nickelodeon-inks-deal-with-metromedia-to-launch-in-the-cis-and-b) // 16 сентября 1998 г. Nickelodeon International signed an agreement with Metromedia International Group.[Русский проект Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/43/article/30.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 5(43\) Май 1999 г. MIG was engaged in localization of the channel into Russian, the editorial office was located on 2nd Brestskaya Street, in house No. 43 ([Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow")). The presentation of the channel in the newspaper media and some Moscow schools also began.{{cite web\|url\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/44/article/26\.html\|title\=Кабельная сеть Архангельска и MMDS\-система Северодвинска\|publisher\=old.telesputnik.ru\|date\=}}
On November 15, 1998, Nickelodeon Russia began broadcasting around the clock in the CIS and Baltic countries, having two audio tracks broadcasting languages (Russian and English). Dubbing is done in Moscow. Initially, cassettes with recordings were sent to Moscow, after which the material was dubbed, and the cassettes were returned to London, from there broadcasting is still going on.[Телеканал вещает полностью на русском языке с ноября 1998 года](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 9(131\) Сентябрь 2006 г. In the same year, three thematic blocks appeared: "Nicktoons",{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=H3Hw8bzPjiE\|title\=NickМультTV\- Лучшие мультики собранные на одном канале!\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ooIgSaukq3Y\|title\=NickToons Русское Промо\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=34hofBrVUqA\|title\=Промо\-ролик NickToons \+ заставка "понимаешь, о чем я?" (2004\)\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} "Nick at Nite"{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/video?q\=приключение%20пита%20и%20пита\&z\=video11195640\_155473463\|title\="Приключения Пита и Пита"\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=20 November 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=OGKlGu2vBRU\|title\=Промо Nick at Nite на Nickelodeon\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} and "Nick Jr". According to statistics from June 1999, the channel was already received by 30,000 households in the cable networks of Arkhangelsk.
In 2000, the educational program "ME TV" was presented, which told about the cultural and national traditions of the CIS and Baltic countries. The Moscow office also developed a program for Poland.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=r1KirmTUi1I\&feature\=youtu.be\|title\=Nickelodeon Russia / Poland ME \-TV Spots(Time 5:10\)\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}}
In 2001, a website was launched \- Nickelodeon.ru.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\|title\=Сайт на реконструкции\|publisher\=nickelodeon.ru\|date\=\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020119190906/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\|archive\-date\=2002\-01\-19}}{{cite web\|url\=https://whois.ru/nickelodeon.ru\|title\=Информация о домене: nickelodeon.ru\|publisher\=whois.ru\|date\=}} In 2002, 2 more new blocks appeared: "Nick Films"{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=BrwASzdGnkY\|title\=Анонс на Nickelodeon: НИК ФИЛЬМЫ\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} and "Toons on toast".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=b6YGM\-mR7UU\|title\=Промо на Nickelodeon: Поджаренные мультики\|publisher\=youtube.com\|date\=}} In 2003, the channel began broadcasting on the territory of Ukraine.[NICKELODEON ДОБРАЛСЯ ДО УКРАИНЫ](https://tv-digest.ru/archive/id/3711/) // 05\.11\.2003 In September 2003, MTV Networks International signed an agreement with EMC, the new distributor continued to localize and adapt the channel.{{cite web\|url\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/news/1825\|title\=Никелодеон выходит на канале ТНТ\-Телесеть\|publisher\=\|date\=}}
In May 2004, the channel was delocalized and replaced by Nickelodeon Europe. Now broadcasting was carried out throughout [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe "Eastern Europe"), and a Hungarian soundtrack was also added.[Nickelodeon — Дубляж](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/103/article/36.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 5(103\) Май 2004 г.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sat\-expert.com/news/p2\_articleid/12597\|title\=Nickelodeon Europe представил новый логотип и визуальную идентичность\|publisher\=sat\-expert.com\|date\=14 February 2010}} In 2006, Media Broadcasting Group became the distributor of the channel in the CIS.[Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\-Спутник — 9(131\) Сентябрь 2006 г.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/547872\|title\=Metromedia ушла из России\|publisher\=\[\[Коммерсантъ]]\|date\=16 February 2005}}{{cite news \|title\=ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี \|url\=https://www.123\-hd.me/category/ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี}} In the same year, 2 new blocks "Nick Zone" and "Nick Double" appeared, which offered additional series of animated series.
From 2008 to 2012, the channel periodically experienced failures on the air, including with a sound track, as a result of which animated series in Polish and English were released for some time period.
On March 1, 2010, a new corporate identity and logo were introduced, as well as a new design. In the same year, the broadcasting center moved from Warsaw, London to Prague, but Warsaw and London was responsible for programming and controlling the channel.[Контакты](https://web.archive.org/web/20110704074732/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/kontaktyi/) //[«Именно лондонский офис отвечает за вещание и лицензирование всех каналов по территории Восточной Европы и Азии…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_14297?reply=14358) //
At the beginning of 2011, a representative office of [Viacom](/wiki/Viacom_%282005%E2%80%932019%29 "Viacom (2005–2019)") opened in Russia, which began distributing the local version of the channel. On September 17, 2011, Nickelodeon switched to widescreen broadcasting (16:9\). On October 4, 2011, Nickelodeon Europe switched to HD format. This TV channel in some countries, including the CIS, is referred to as Nickelodeon HD. After that, it began broadcasting as the main channel of [Nickelodeon Poland](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Polish_TV_channel%29 "Nickelodeon (Polish TV channel)") with a Russian soundtrack, this version was also delocalized for international broadcasting,{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_1596\|title\="Дорогие друзья, мы получили ответы на вопросы Почему..."\|publisher\=\|date\=29 November 2011}} Amsterdam took over programming of the channel.{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_25403?reply\=25618\|title\="мы передали ваше пожелание показывать больше клипов вещателям из Амстердама..."\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_60811?reply\=61046\|title\="нам пришлось закрыть голосование чуть раньше, т.к.нам необходимо срочно передать итоги зрительского голосования программной команде, находящейся в Европе, у которой завтра выходной день."\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=}}
In October 2012, the channel separated from the Polish version and was localized again, and its own program of programs also appeared. For some time, the broadcast continued to go from Warsaw and Prague, later moved to London.[«Мы передадим ваши пожелания коллегам\-вещателям из Лондона…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_15793?reply=15832) //{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/wall\-27078945\_21147?reply\=21184\|title\="Наш Nickelodeon отделился от Польского уже как месяц..."\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\|title\=Kontakt(добавил этот сайт, т.к SMMщик вк перепутал. Вещание было не с Польши, а с Чехии)\|date\=\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701105358/http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-01}}
In 2013, the blocks "Family Friday" and "Old School" appeared,{{cite web\|url\=https://vk.com/video\-27078945\_167517816\|title\=Олдскул\-сериалы на Nickelodeon!\|publisher\=vk.com\|date\=13 December 2013}} consisting of classic animated series of the TV channel.
In 2014, Nickelodeon and the Aeroplane production company signed a license agreement for the animated series The Fixies, under which the TV channel has broadcast an animated series for preschoolers for two years since January 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://toys.segment.ru/news/news\_company/animatsionnyy\_serial\_fiksiki\_poyavitsya\_v\_efire\_nickelodeon\_v\_yanvare/\|title\=The animated series "Fixies" will air on Nickelodeon in January\|publisher\=toys.segment.ru\|date\=}}
Since January 1, 2015, the channel has been broadcasting without advertising. In the summer of 2015, the updated website of the TV channel was presented, the audience of the site exceeded 650,000 unique users for the second quarter of 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cableman.ru/channel/news/telekanal\-nickelodeon\-zapuskaet\-obnovlennyi\-sait\-kotoryi\-predostavit\-reklamodatelyam\-no\|title\=Nickelodeon TV channel launches an updated website that will provide advertisers with new opportunities to interact with the children's audience\|publisher\=cableman.ru\|date\=}} In 2016, the block "Sunday Block Premier" appeared.
In 2017, Moscow took over programming of the TV channel,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/mikhail\-obukhov\-329866108\|title\=Mikhail Obukhov. Executive, Planning \& Content (MTV, Paramount Channel, Spike) at ViacomCBS Networks International\|publisher\=\|date\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/alexandr\-malygin\|title\=Alexander Malygin\|publisher\=\|date\=}} but broadcasting continues from Warsaw and London.[Welcome to Viacom International Media Networks (management of European and Asian channels)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYZuKGEMezs&feature=youtu.be&t=20) // February 6\. twothousandseventeen[Nickelodeon broadcasts officially on this platform, it is indicated that the channel broadcasts from the Poland and UK](https://megogo.ru/ru/tv/channels/2682051-nickelodeon-online.html) // October 23, 2020 Also, audio tracks in Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian were added for the Baltic countries.{{cite web\|url\=https://viacbs.ru/content/nickelodeon/\|title\=NICKELODEON\|publisher\=\|date\=}} Since June 1, 2017, the channel has been called abbreviated ("Nick").
At the beginning of 2020, Okko and [ViacomCBS Networks Russia](/wiki/Paramount_International_Networks "Paramount International Networks") signed a deal under which the online cinema received the rights to the content of the Nickelodeon, Nick Jr, Comedy Central, Channel 5 and MTV brands. On June 1, 2020, Paramount\+ was launched in the Okko service.{{cite web\|url\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\-plus/\|title\=Paramount\+\|publisher\=\|date\=}} On June 1, 2021, a similar service was launched in ivi, but under the name Paramount Play.{{cite web\|url\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\-play/\|title\=Paramount Play\|publisher\=\|date\=}}
On April 1, 2022, the Nickelodeon Ukraine TV channel began broadcasting in Poland and Germany, previously this TV channel broadcast on the streaming service [Pluto TV](/wiki/Pluto_TV "Pluto TV").[Nickelodeon Ukraine \- LyngSat](https://www.lyngsat.com/tvchannels/us/Nickelodeon-Ukraine.html)[/ New FTA channel Nick Ukraine started broadcasting on 19\.2°E \- News of TV channels \- Gomel\-Sat.bz \- Forum about satellite TV](https://gomel-sat.bz/topic/100664-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9-fta-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB-nick-ukraine-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB-%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BD%D0%B0-192%C2%B0e)[TRANSPONDER NEWS OF RUSSIAN\-LANGUAGE CHANNELS \- Page 389 \- Sat\-Port Forum.Info \- The world of satellite TV](https://sat-port.info/forum/showthread.php?p=473112) On the territory of Ukraine, at the same time, the Russian\-language version of the TV channel continued to broadcast on cable and satellite networks. The channel closed in Russia on April 28 of that year while airing an episode of [Rugrats](/wiki/Rugrats_%282021_TV_series%29 "Rugrats (2021 TV series)"){{Citation \|title\=Viacom channels in Russia \- Closedown \- 28\.04\.2022 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=692tHoIja7E \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-17}} due to Paramount pausing operations in that country in response to the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine").{{Cite web \| url\=https://variety.com/2022/film/global/paramount\-russia\-operations\-donation\-1235205339/ \| title\=Paramount Pauses Russian Operations, Makes $1 Million Donation for Humanitarian Relief \| date\=15 March 2022 }} In the [Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States"), as well as Georgia, Ukraine the broadcasting of Russian\-language versions of MTV and other Paramount channels continued until December 14\.
From December 14, 2022, the broadcasting of Nickelodeon and affiliated TV channels in Belarus was stopped.{{Cite news\|url\=https://tvnews.by/tb/18494\-telekanaly\-mtv\-nickelodeon\-i\-paramount\-prekraschajut\-veschanie\-v\-belarusi.html\|title\=Телеканалы MTV, Nickelodeon и Paramount прекращают вещание в Беларуси\|newspaper\=Tvnews.by \| Новости Тв, It И Коммуникаций \|date\=4 December 2022}} And on the same day, the channel was closed and replaced by [Nickelodeon CEE](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Central_and_Eastern_European_TV_channel%29 "Nickelodeon (Central and Eastern European TV channel)") (except Belarus).
|
[
"### 1998–2022",
"On September 16, 1998[NICKELODEON INKS DEAL WITH METROMEDIA TO LAUNCH IN THE CIS AND B](https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/1998-09-16/nickelodeon-inks-deal-with-metromedia-to-launch-in-the-cis-and-b) // 16 сентября 1998 г. Nickelodeon International signed an agreement with Metromedia International Group.[Русский проект Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/43/article/30.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 5(43\\) Май 1999 г. MIG was engaged in localization of the channel into Russian, the editorial office was located on 2nd Brestskaya Street, in house No. 43 ([Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\")). The presentation of the channel in the newspaper media and some Moscow schools also began.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/44/article/26\\.html\\|title\\=Кабельная сеть Архангельска и MMDS\\-система Северодвинска\\|publisher\\=old.telesputnik.ru\\|date\\=}}",
"On November 15, 1998, Nickelodeon Russia began broadcasting around the clock in the CIS and Baltic countries, having two audio tracks broadcasting languages (Russian and English). Dubbing is done in Moscow. Initially, cassettes with recordings were sent to Moscow, after which the material was dubbed, and the cassettes were returned to London, from there broadcasting is still going on.[Телеканал вещает полностью на русском языке с ноября 1998 года](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 9(131\\) Сентябрь 2006 г. In the same year, three thematic blocks appeared: \"Nicktoons\",{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=H3Hw8bzPjiE\\|title\\=NickМультTV\\- Лучшие мультики собранные на одном канале!\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ooIgSaukq3Y\\|title\\=NickToons Русское Промо\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=34hofBrVUqA\\|title\\=Промо\\-ролик NickToons \\+ заставка \"понимаешь, о чем я?\" (2004\\)\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} \"Nick at Nite\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/video?q\\=приключение%20пита%20и%20пита\\&z\\=video11195640\\_155473463\\|title\\=\"Приключения Пита и Пита\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=20 November 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=OGKlGu2vBRU\\|title\\=Промо Nick at Nite на Nickelodeon\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} and \"Nick Jr\". According to statistics from June 1999, the channel was already received by 30,000 households in the cable networks of Arkhangelsk.",
"In 2000, the educational program \"ME TV\" was presented, which told about the cultural and national traditions of the CIS and Baltic countries. The Moscow office also developed a program for Poland.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=r1KirmTUi1I\\&feature\\=youtu.be\\|title\\=Nickelodeon Russia / Poland ME \\-TV Spots(Time 5:10\\)\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}}",
"In 2001, a website was launched \\- Nickelodeon.ru.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\\|title\\=Сайт на реконструкции\\|publisher\\=nickelodeon.ru\\|date\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020119190906/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/\\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-01\\-19}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://whois.ru/nickelodeon.ru\\|title\\=Информация о домене: nickelodeon.ru\\|publisher\\=whois.ru\\|date\\=}} In 2002, 2 more new blocks appeared: \"Nick Films\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=BrwASzdGnkY\\|title\\=Анонс на Nickelodeon: НИК ФИЛЬМЫ\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} and \"Toons on toast\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=b6YGM\\-mR7UU\\|title\\=Промо на Nickelodeon: Поджаренные мультики\\|publisher\\=youtube.com\\|date\\=}} In 2003, the channel began broadcasting on the territory of Ukraine.[NICKELODEON ДОБРАЛСЯ ДО УКРАИНЫ](https://tv-digest.ru/archive/id/3711/) // 05\\.11\\.2003 In September 2003, MTV Networks International signed an agreement with EMC, the new distributor continued to localize and adapt the channel.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://old.telesputnik.ru/news/1825\\|title\\=Никелодеон выходит на канале ТНТ\\-Телесеть\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}}",
"In May 2004, the channel was delocalized and replaced by Nickelodeon Europe. Now broadcasting was carried out throughout [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe \"Eastern Europe\"), and a Hungarian soundtrack was also added.[Nickelodeon — Дубляж](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/103/article/36.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 5(103\\) Май 2004 г.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sat\\-expert.com/news/p2\\_articleid/12597\\|title\\=Nickelodeon Europe представил новый логотип и визуальную идентичность\\|publisher\\=sat\\-expert.com\\|date\\=14 February 2010}} In 2006, Media Broadcasting Group became the distributor of the channel in the CIS.[Nickelodeon](https://old.telesputnik.ru/archive/131/article/28.html) // Теле\\-Спутник — 9(131\\) Сентябрь 2006 г.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/547872\\|title\\=Metromedia ушла из России\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Коммерсантъ]]\\|date\\=16 February 2005}}{{cite news \\|title\\=ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี \\|url\\=https://www.123\\-hd.me/category/ซีรี่ย์เกาหลี}} In the same year, 2 new blocks \"Nick Zone\" and \"Nick Double\" appeared, which offered additional series of animated series.",
"From 2008 to 2012, the channel periodically experienced failures on the air, including with a sound track, as a result of which animated series in Polish and English were released for some time period.",
"On March 1, 2010, a new corporate identity and logo were introduced, as well as a new design. In the same year, the broadcasting center moved from Warsaw, London to Prague, but Warsaw and London was responsible for programming and controlling the channel.[Контакты](https://web.archive.org/web/20110704074732/http://www.nickelodeon.ru/kontaktyi/) //[«Именно лондонский офис отвечает за вещание и лицензирование всех каналов по территории Восточной Европы и Азии…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_14297?reply=14358) //",
"At the beginning of 2011, a representative office of [Viacom](/wiki/Viacom_%282005%E2%80%932019%29 \"Viacom (2005–2019)\") opened in Russia, which began distributing the local version of the channel. On September 17, 2011, Nickelodeon switched to widescreen broadcasting (16:9\\). On October 4, 2011, Nickelodeon Europe switched to HD format. This TV channel in some countries, including the CIS, is referred to as Nickelodeon HD. After that, it began broadcasting as the main channel of [Nickelodeon Poland](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Polish_TV_channel%29 \"Nickelodeon (Polish TV channel)\") with a Russian soundtrack, this version was also delocalized for international broadcasting,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_1596\\|title\\=\"Дорогие друзья, мы получили ответы на вопросы Почему...\"\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=29 November 2011}} Amsterdam took over programming of the channel.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_25403?reply\\=25618\\|title\\=\"мы передали ваше пожелание показывать больше клипов вещателям из Амстердама...\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_60811?reply\\=61046\\|title\\=\"нам пришлось закрыть голосование чуть раньше, т.к.нам необходимо срочно передать итоги зрительского голосования программной команде, находящейся в Европе, у которой завтра выходной день.\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=}}",
"In October 2012, the channel separated from the Polish version and was localized again, and its own program of programs also appeared. For some time, the broadcast continued to go from Warsaw and Prague, later moved to London.[«Мы передадим ваши пожелания коллегам\\-вещателям из Лондона…»](https://vk.com/wall-27078945_15793?reply=15832) //{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/wall\\-27078945\\_21147?reply\\=21184\\|title\\=\"Наш Nickelodeon отделился от Польского уже как месяц...\"\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\\|title\\=Kontakt(добавил этот сайт, т.к SMMщик вк перепутал. Вещание было не с Польши, а с Чехии)\\|date\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701105358/http://www.nick.com.pl/kontakt.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-01}}",
"In 2013, the blocks \"Family Friday\" and \"Old School\" appeared,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vk.com/video\\-27078945\\_167517816\\|title\\=Олдскул\\-сериалы на Nickelodeon!\\|publisher\\=vk.com\\|date\\=13 December 2013}} consisting of classic animated series of the TV channel.",
"In 2014, Nickelodeon and the Aeroplane production company signed a license agreement for the animated series The Fixies, under which the TV channel has broadcast an animated series for preschoolers for two years since January 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://toys.segment.ru/news/news\\_company/animatsionnyy\\_serial\\_fiksiki\\_poyavitsya\\_v\\_efire\\_nickelodeon\\_v\\_yanvare/\\|title\\=The animated series \"Fixies\" will air on Nickelodeon in January\\|publisher\\=toys.segment.ru\\|date\\=}}",
"Since January 1, 2015, the channel has been broadcasting without advertising. In the summer of 2015, the updated website of the TV channel was presented, the audience of the site exceeded 650,000 unique users for the second quarter of 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cableman.ru/channel/news/telekanal\\-nickelodeon\\-zapuskaet\\-obnovlennyi\\-sait\\-kotoryi\\-predostavit\\-reklamodatelyam\\-no\\|title\\=Nickelodeon TV channel launches an updated website that will provide advertisers with new opportunities to interact with the children's audience\\|publisher\\=cableman.ru\\|date\\=}} In 2016, the block \"Sunday Block Premier\" appeared.",
"In 2017, Moscow took over programming of the TV channel,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/mikhail\\-obukhov\\-329866108\\|title\\=Mikhail Obukhov. Executive, Planning \\& Content (MTV, Paramount Channel, Spike) at ViacomCBS Networks International\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.linkedin.com/mwlite/in/alexandr\\-malygin\\|title\\=Alexander Malygin\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}} but broadcasting continues from Warsaw and London.[Welcome to Viacom International Media Networks (management of European and Asian channels)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYZuKGEMezs&feature=youtu.be&t=20) // February 6\\. twothousandseventeen[Nickelodeon broadcasts officially on this platform, it is indicated that the channel broadcasts from the Poland and UK](https://megogo.ru/ru/tv/channels/2682051-nickelodeon-online.html) // October 23, 2020 Also, audio tracks in Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian were added for the Baltic countries.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://viacbs.ru/content/nickelodeon/\\|title\\=NICKELODEON\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}} Since June 1, 2017, the channel has been called abbreviated (\"Nick\").",
"At the beginning of 2020, Okko and [ViacomCBS Networks Russia](/wiki/Paramount_International_Networks \"Paramount International Networks\") signed a deal under which the online cinema received the rights to the content of the Nickelodeon, Nick Jr, Comedy Central, Channel 5 and MTV brands. On June 1, 2020, Paramount\\+ was launched in the Okko service.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\\-plus/\\|title\\=Paramount\\+\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}} On June 1, 2021, a similar service was launched in ivi, but under the name Paramount Play.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://viacbs.ru/content/paramount\\-play/\\|title\\=Paramount Play\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=}}",
"On April 1, 2022, the Nickelodeon Ukraine TV channel began broadcasting in Poland and Germany, previously this TV channel broadcast on the streaming service [Pluto TV](/wiki/Pluto_TV \"Pluto TV\").[Nickelodeon Ukraine \\- LyngSat](https://www.lyngsat.com/tvchannels/us/Nickelodeon-Ukraine.html)[/ New FTA channel Nick Ukraine started broadcasting on 19\\.2°E \\- News of TV channels \\- Gomel\\-Sat.bz \\- Forum about satellite TV](https://gomel-sat.bz/topic/100664-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9-fta-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB-nick-ukraine-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB-%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BD%D0%B0-192%C2%B0e)[TRANSPONDER NEWS OF RUSSIAN\\-LANGUAGE CHANNELS \\- Page 389 \\- Sat\\-Port Forum.Info \\- The world of satellite TV](https://sat-port.info/forum/showthread.php?p=473112) On the territory of Ukraine, at the same time, the Russian\\-language version of the TV channel continued to broadcast on cable and satellite networks. The channel closed in Russia on April 28 of that year while airing an episode of [Rugrats](/wiki/Rugrats_%282021_TV_series%29 \"Rugrats (2021 TV series)\"){{Citation \\|title\\=Viacom channels in Russia \\- Closedown \\- 28\\.04\\.2022 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=692tHoIja7E \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-17}} due to Paramount pausing operations in that country in response to the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\").{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://variety.com/2022/film/global/paramount\\-russia\\-operations\\-donation\\-1235205339/ \\| title\\=Paramount Pauses Russian Operations, Makes $1 Million Donation for Humanitarian Relief \\| date\\=15 March 2022 }} In the [Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\"), as well as Georgia, Ukraine the broadcasting of Russian\\-language versions of MTV and other Paramount channels continued until December 14\\.",
"From December 14, 2022, the broadcasting of Nickelodeon and affiliated TV channels in Belarus was stopped.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://tvnews.by/tb/18494\\-telekanaly\\-mtv\\-nickelodeon\\-i\\-paramount\\-prekraschajut\\-veschanie\\-v\\-belarusi.html\\|title\\=Телеканалы MTV, Nickelodeon и Paramount прекращают вещание в Беларуси\\|newspaper\\=Tvnews.by \\| Новости Тв, It И Коммуникаций \\|date\\=4 December 2022}} And on the same day, the channel was closed and replaced by [Nickelodeon CEE](/wiki/Nickelodeon_%28Central_and_Eastern_European_TV_channel%29 \"Nickelodeon (Central and Eastern European TV channel)\") (except Belarus).",
""
] |
History
-------
The *fib* was created in 1998 via the merger of the CEB and the FIP.
### FIP
Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte \- International Federation for Prestressing was inaugurated in 1952 at an international meeting in Cambridge, United Kingdom.
### CEB
The Comité européen du béton \- European Committee for Concrete (later: Comité euro\-international du béton) was established in 1953\.
In 1962 a common initiative by the FIP and CEB led to the creation of the 'Mixed CEB\-FIP Committee for Drafting of Recommendations for Prestressed Concrete'.
In 1983 the [Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne](/wiki/Ecole_polytechnique_f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rale_de_Lausanne "Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne") (EPFL) in Switzerland invited the CEB to open an office on its campus. Today this office is the headquarters of the *fib*.
The CEB and the FIP merged in 1998 during the last FIP Congress to form the "fib". The *fib* continues the work of its founding associations by providing technical reports, state\-of\-the\-art reports, manuals, textbooks, guides, recommendations and model codes.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The *fib* was created in 1998 via the merger of the CEB and the FIP.",
"### FIP",
"Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte \\- International Federation for Prestressing was inaugurated in 1952 at an international meeting in Cambridge, United Kingdom.",
"### CEB",
"The Comité européen du béton \\- European Committee for Concrete (later: Comité euro\\-international du béton) was established in 1953\\.",
"In 1962 a common initiative by the FIP and CEB led to the creation of the 'Mixed CEB\\-FIP Committee for Drafting of Recommendations for Prestressed Concrete'.",
"In 1983 the [Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne](/wiki/Ecole_polytechnique_f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rale_de_Lausanne \"Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne\") (EPFL) in Switzerland invited the CEB to open an office on its campus. Today this office is the headquarters of the *fib*.",
"The CEB and the FIP merged in 1998 during the last FIP Congress to form the \"fib\". The *fib* continues the work of its founding associations by providing technical reports, state\\-of\\-the\\-art reports, manuals, textbooks, guides, recommendations and model codes.",
""
] |
Career
------
A talented actor, Heege often took the leading role in his productions. Although his output was varied, he is largely remembered for the [Swedish immigrant](/wiki/Swedish_American "Swedish American") trilogy, *Ole Olson* (1889\), *Yon Yonson* (1890\) and *Yenuine Yentleman* (1895\). These plays established the character of the comic [Swedish immigrant](/wiki/Swedish_American "Swedish American") in [American](/wiki/United_States "United States") theater.
Heege, who was of [German ancestry](/wiki/German-American "German-American"), maintained that careful observation of the newcomers had enabled him to faithfully portray them on stage. A newspaper account told of his field research in the "Little Scandinavia" of northern [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin "Wisconsin"), where large numbers of [Swedes](/wiki/Swedes "Swedes"), [Norwegians](/wiki/Norwegians "Norwegians") and [Danes](/wiki/Danes "Danes") had settled.*New York Times* January 28, 1895\.
Not everyone found his characters believable. In reviewing *Yon Yonson* a critic wrote: "The hero is a [Swede](/wiki/Swedes "Swedes") who speaks [English](/wiki/English_language "English language") with [Scandinavian](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages "North Germanic languages") dialect, the accuracy of which is vouched for by Mr. William M. Dunlevy, the enterprising manager of the Park Theatre, and Mr. Jacob Litt, the manager of this particular play, who are old log\-rollers themselves. We are quite willing to accept their word for it, especially as no man would be likely to invent such a dialect. But the [Swedes](/wiki/Swedes "Swedes") and [Norwegians](/wiki/Norwegians "Norwegians") we have in the [East](/wiki/Eastern_United_States "Eastern United States") do not speak [English](/wiki/English_language "English language") in the Yon Yonson way."*New York Times* December 29, 1891\.
The author [Willa Cather](/wiki/Willa_Cather "Willa Cather") gave a decidedly negative review to Heege's *Rush City* in the [*Nebraska State Journal*](/wiki/Lincoln_Journal_Star "Lincoln Journal Star") while conceding that *Yon Yonson* had been a "very good comedy".[The Willa Cather Archive](http://cather.unl.edu/j00076.html) *cather.unl.edu*. Retrieved June 06, 2015\. In 1931 Cather wrote that before 1913, when her novel [O Pioneers!](/wiki/O_Pioneers%21 "O Pioneers!") was published, "the [Swede](/wiki/Swedes "Swedes") had never appeared on the printed page in this country except in broadly humorous sketches; and the humor was based on two peculiarities: his physical strength and his inability to pronounce the letter 'J'".*Willa Cather on writing: critical studies on writing as an art* by Willa Cather, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988\).
Ben Hendricks (1868\-1930\) was the actor most associated with Heege's [Scandinavian](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages "North Germanic languages") dialect plays. He starred in all three of them and toured with revivals of *Ole Olson* until 1912, over twenty years after the play's opening.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"A talented actor, Heege often took the leading role in his productions. Although his output was varied, he is largely remembered for the [Swedish immigrant](/wiki/Swedish_American \"Swedish American\") trilogy, *Ole Olson* (1889\\), *Yon Yonson* (1890\\) and *Yenuine Yentleman* (1895\\). These plays established the character of the comic [Swedish immigrant](/wiki/Swedish_American \"Swedish American\") in [American](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") theater.",
"Heege, who was of [German ancestry](/wiki/German-American \"German-American\"), maintained that careful observation of the newcomers had enabled him to faithfully portray them on stage. A newspaper account told of his field research in the \"Little Scandinavia\" of northern [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin \"Wisconsin\"), where large numbers of [Swedes](/wiki/Swedes \"Swedes\"), [Norwegians](/wiki/Norwegians \"Norwegians\") and [Danes](/wiki/Danes \"Danes\") had settled.*New York Times* January 28, 1895\\.",
"Not everyone found his characters believable. In reviewing *Yon Yonson* a critic wrote: \"The hero is a [Swede](/wiki/Swedes \"Swedes\") who speaks [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") with [Scandinavian](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages \"North Germanic languages\") dialect, the accuracy of which is vouched for by Mr. William M. Dunlevy, the enterprising manager of the Park Theatre, and Mr. Jacob Litt, the manager of this particular play, who are old log\\-rollers themselves. We are quite willing to accept their word for it, especially as no man would be likely to invent such a dialect. But the [Swedes](/wiki/Swedes \"Swedes\") and [Norwegians](/wiki/Norwegians \"Norwegians\") we have in the [East](/wiki/Eastern_United_States \"Eastern United States\") do not speak [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") in the Yon Yonson way.\"*New York Times* December 29, 1891\\.",
"The author [Willa Cather](/wiki/Willa_Cather \"Willa Cather\") gave a decidedly negative review to Heege's *Rush City* in the [*Nebraska State Journal*](/wiki/Lincoln_Journal_Star \"Lincoln Journal Star\") while conceding that *Yon Yonson* had been a \"very good comedy\".[The Willa Cather Archive](http://cather.unl.edu/j00076.html) *cather.unl.edu*. Retrieved June 06, 2015\\. In 1931 Cather wrote that before 1913, when her novel [O Pioneers!](/wiki/O_Pioneers%21 \"O Pioneers!\") was published, \"the [Swede](/wiki/Swedes \"Swedes\") had never appeared on the printed page in this country except in broadly humorous sketches; and the humor was based on two peculiarities: his physical strength and his inability to pronounce the letter 'J'\".*Willa Cather on writing: critical studies on writing as an art* by Willa Cather, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988\\).",
"Ben Hendricks (1868\\-1930\\) was the actor most associated with Heege's [Scandinavian](/wiki/North_Germanic_languages \"North Germanic languages\") dialect plays. He starred in all three of them and toured with revivals of *Ole Olson* until 1912, over twenty years after the play's opening.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and education
Jaroševičius was born in the village of {{ill\|Skrebotiškis\|lt}} into a family of a blacksmith. After the [Uprising of 1863](/wiki/Uprising_of_1863 "Uprising of 1863"), the family acquired land and began farming. The family was large – three daughters and six sons. The parents intended to educate Jaroševičius so that he would become a Catholic priest. He received some education at home and at a Russian primary school before attending the [Mitau Gymnasium](/wiki/Mitau_Gymnasium "Mitau Gymnasium"). However, in 1893, Jaroševičius defied his parents and enrolled into the [Baron Stieglitz Academy of Art and Design](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Stieglitz_State_Academy_of_Art_and_Design "Saint Petersburg Stieglitz State Academy of Art and Design") in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"). His parents refused to support him financially. For the first year, he received some support from his neighbor [Petras Vileišis](/wiki/Petras_Vilei%C5%A1is "Petras Vileišis") and later had to make his own living by tutoring, painting decorations, and taking other assorted jobs. In Saint Petersburg, he met [Povilas Višinskis](/wiki/Povilas_Vi%C5%A1inskis "Povilas Višinskis") who encouraged Jaroševičius to joint the [Lithuanian National Revival](/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Revival "Lithuanian National Revival") and start contributing to the [illegal Lithuanian press](/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban "Lithuanian press ban"), including *[Varpas](/wiki/Varpas "Varpas")* and *[Lietuvos ūkininkas](/wiki/Lietuvos_%C5%ABkininkas "Lietuvos ūkininkas")*. Despite difficulties, Jaroševičius graduated with a distinction in 1899 as an art teacher.
### In Kazan
For a year, Jaroševičius worked at the Zimin Furniture Factory as a designer. His designs were exhibited by the firm at the [Paris Exhibition of 1900](/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_%281900%29 "Exposition Universelle (1900)") and were awarded a silver medal. He worked as a teacher at a girls' gymnasium in [Orlov](/wiki/Orlov%2C_Kirov_Oblast "Orlov, Kirov Oblast"), [Vyatka Governorate](/wiki/Vyatka_Governorate "Vyatka Governorate") in 1902–1905 and lectured at Kazan schools and the [Kazan Polytechnic Institute](/wiki/Kazan_National_Research_Technological_University "Kazan National Research Technological University") in 1905–1920\. Despite the long distance, Jaroševičius continued to be involved in Lithuanian cultural life. He continued to write to the Lithuanian press mostly on topics of art and Lithuanian folk art. His articles were published in *[Lietuvių laikraštis](/wiki/Lietuvi%C5%B3_laikra%C5%A1tis "Lietuvių laikraštis")*, *[Vilniaus žinios](/wiki/Vilniaus_%C5%BEinios "Vilniaus žinios")*, *[Lietuvos ūkininkas](/wiki/Lietuvos_%C5%ABkininkas "Lietuvos ūkininkas")*, *[Viltis](/wiki/Viltis_%28newspaper%29 "Viltis (newspaper)")*, *[Aušrinė](/wiki/Au%C5%A1rininkai "Aušrininkai")*, and others. His writings inspired other Lithuanian artists, including [Petras Rimša](/wiki/Petras_Rim%C5%A1a "Petras Rimša") and [Adomas Varnas](/wiki/Adomas_Varnas "Adomas Varnas"), to study Lithuanian folk art. He also published two Lithuanian\-language booklets, *Kam aš reikalingas?* (Who needs me?) in 1905 which expressed his nostalgia for the homeland and *Darbininkų rūpesniai ir vargai. (Brolių laiškai)* \[Workers' Worries and Hardships. (Letters from the Brothers)] in 1913\. He supported the idea of the [First Exhibition of Lithuanian Art](/wiki/First_Exhibition_of_Lithuanian_Art "First Exhibition of Lithuanian Art") in 1907 and exhibited 19 of his works. He later participated in each annual exhibition of the [Lithuanian Art Society](/wiki/Lithuanian_Art_Society "Lithuanian Art Society"). He illustrated books for children, including a [primer](/wiki/Primer_%28textbook%29 "Primer (textbook)") by {{ill\|Klemensas Skabeika\|lt}} and a book of tales by [Matas Šalčius](/wiki/Matas_%C5%A0al%C4%8Dius "Matas Šalčius"). He also created [vignettes](/wiki/Vignette_%28graphic_design%29 "Vignette (graphic design)") and [initials](/wiki/Initial "Initial") for the *[Vairas](/wiki/Vairas "Vairas")* journal and created some of the first Lithuanian postcards.
### Return to Lithuania
[thumb\|Monument in Giedraičiai to fallen Lithuanian soldiers designed by Jaroševičius](/wiki/File:Giedrai%C4%8Diai3.JPG "Giedraičiai3.JPG")
During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), he was a representative of the [Lithuanian Society for the Relief of War Sufferers](/wiki/Lithuanian_Society_for_the_Relief_of_War_Sufferers "Lithuanian Society for the Relief of War Sufferers") in Kazan and assisted Lithuanian war refugees. In 1921, Jaroševičius returned to Lithuania and settled in {{ill\|Karklynė (Molėtai)\|lt\|Karklynė (Molėtai)\|lt\=Karklynė}} near [Giedraičiai](/wiki/Giedrai%C4%8Diai "Giedraičiai"). He bought a farm and taught art and crafts at the Giedraičiai Progymnasium until 1935\. He was invited to teach at the [University of Lithuania](/wiki/University_of_Lithuania "University of Lithuania"), but he refused. In 1927, he designed a monument to Lithuanian soldiers who died in the Battle of Giedraičiai during the [Żeligowski's Mutiny](/wiki/%C5%BBeligowski%27s_Mutiny "Żeligowski's Mutiny") in 1920\. The monument was built in 1928 and was one of the very few Lithuanian monuments that were not destroyed during the [Soviet era](/wiki/Lithuanian_SSR "Lithuanian SSR").
He continued to care about the Lithuanian folk art and publish articles on the topic. He lamented the decline of traditional arts as people purchased more and more of the mass\-produced products and tried to encourage his students and all young people to continue the traditions. In 1939, he published a booklet *Dailieji medžio darbeliai* (Fine Woodwork) with examples of small folk\-inspired projects (e.g. hangers for towels, calendars, or thermometers). His two other works on Lithuanian folk ornaments and Lithuanian exiles in Kazan remained unpublished.
### Later life
During [the Holocaust in Lithuania](/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania "The Holocaust in Lithuania"), Jaroševičius hid Esfira Gutmanaitė, a young Jewish woman, on his farm from fall 1941 to fall 1943\. For this, he was posthumously awarded the {{ill\|Life Saving Cross\|lt\|Žūvančiųjų gelbėjimo kryžius}} by the [President of Lithuania](/wiki/President_of_Lithuania "President of Lithuania") in 2016\. His son and adopted son died serving in the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") in 1945\. Jaroševičius traveled on foot to Latvia and paid large sums of money to have his son's grave exhumed so he could see for himself that it was indeed his son buried there. His farm was nationalized by a Soviet [kolkhoz](/wiki/Kolkhoz "Kolkhoz") leaving the elderly artist with an orchard and a small plot of arable land. Affected by [glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma "Glaucoma"), Jaroševičius died in poverty and obscurity in 1956\.
His widow donated his archives to the [Lithuanian National Museum of Art](/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Museum_of_Art "Lithuanian National Museum of Art") which organized exhibitions dedicated to Jaroševičius in 1970 and 1990 and published a catalog of his works in 1990\. The Lithuanian National Museum of Art has about 200 of his works. His other works are held by the [M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum](/wiki/M._K._%C4%8Ciurlionis_National_Art_Museum "M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum"). The gymnasium in Giedraičiai was renamed in his honor in 1990\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and education",
"Jaroševičius was born in the village of {{ill\\|Skrebotiškis\\|lt}} into a family of a blacksmith. After the [Uprising of 1863](/wiki/Uprising_of_1863 \"Uprising of 1863\"), the family acquired land and began farming. The family was large – three daughters and six sons. The parents intended to educate Jaroševičius so that he would become a Catholic priest. He received some education at home and at a Russian primary school before attending the [Mitau Gymnasium](/wiki/Mitau_Gymnasium \"Mitau Gymnasium\"). However, in 1893, Jaroševičius defied his parents and enrolled into the [Baron Stieglitz Academy of Art and Design](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Stieglitz_State_Academy_of_Art_and_Design \"Saint Petersburg Stieglitz State Academy of Art and Design\") in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"). His parents refused to support him financially. For the first year, he received some support from his neighbor [Petras Vileišis](/wiki/Petras_Vilei%C5%A1is \"Petras Vileišis\") and later had to make his own living by tutoring, painting decorations, and taking other assorted jobs. In Saint Petersburg, he met [Povilas Višinskis](/wiki/Povilas_Vi%C5%A1inskis \"Povilas Višinskis\") who encouraged Jaroševičius to joint the [Lithuanian National Revival](/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Revival \"Lithuanian National Revival\") and start contributing to the [illegal Lithuanian press](/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban \"Lithuanian press ban\"), including *[Varpas](/wiki/Varpas \"Varpas\")* and *[Lietuvos ūkininkas](/wiki/Lietuvos_%C5%ABkininkas \"Lietuvos ūkininkas\")*. Despite difficulties, Jaroševičius graduated with a distinction in 1899 as an art teacher.",
"### In Kazan",
"For a year, Jaroševičius worked at the Zimin Furniture Factory as a designer. His designs were exhibited by the firm at the [Paris Exhibition of 1900](/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_%281900%29 \"Exposition Universelle (1900)\") and were awarded a silver medal. He worked as a teacher at a girls' gymnasium in [Orlov](/wiki/Orlov%2C_Kirov_Oblast \"Orlov, Kirov Oblast\"), [Vyatka Governorate](/wiki/Vyatka_Governorate \"Vyatka Governorate\") in 1902–1905 and lectured at Kazan schools and the [Kazan Polytechnic Institute](/wiki/Kazan_National_Research_Technological_University \"Kazan National Research Technological University\") in 1905–1920\\. Despite the long distance, Jaroševičius continued to be involved in Lithuanian cultural life. He continued to write to the Lithuanian press mostly on topics of art and Lithuanian folk art. His articles were published in *[Lietuvių laikraštis](/wiki/Lietuvi%C5%B3_laikra%C5%A1tis \"Lietuvių laikraštis\")*, *[Vilniaus žinios](/wiki/Vilniaus_%C5%BEinios \"Vilniaus žinios\")*, *[Lietuvos ūkininkas](/wiki/Lietuvos_%C5%ABkininkas \"Lietuvos ūkininkas\")*, *[Viltis](/wiki/Viltis_%28newspaper%29 \"Viltis (newspaper)\")*, *[Aušrinė](/wiki/Au%C5%A1rininkai \"Aušrininkai\")*, and others. His writings inspired other Lithuanian artists, including [Petras Rimša](/wiki/Petras_Rim%C5%A1a \"Petras Rimša\") and [Adomas Varnas](/wiki/Adomas_Varnas \"Adomas Varnas\"), to study Lithuanian folk art. He also published two Lithuanian\\-language booklets, *Kam aš reikalingas?* (Who needs me?) in 1905 which expressed his nostalgia for the homeland and *Darbininkų rūpesniai ir vargai. (Brolių laiškai)* \\[Workers' Worries and Hardships. (Letters from the Brothers)] in 1913\\. He supported the idea of the [First Exhibition of Lithuanian Art](/wiki/First_Exhibition_of_Lithuanian_Art \"First Exhibition of Lithuanian Art\") in 1907 and exhibited 19 of his works. He later participated in each annual exhibition of the [Lithuanian Art Society](/wiki/Lithuanian_Art_Society \"Lithuanian Art Society\"). He illustrated books for children, including a [primer](/wiki/Primer_%28textbook%29 \"Primer (textbook)\") by {{ill\\|Klemensas Skabeika\\|lt}} and a book of tales by [Matas Šalčius](/wiki/Matas_%C5%A0al%C4%8Dius \"Matas Šalčius\"). He also created [vignettes](/wiki/Vignette_%28graphic_design%29 \"Vignette (graphic design)\") and [initials](/wiki/Initial \"Initial\") for the *[Vairas](/wiki/Vairas \"Vairas\")* journal and created some of the first Lithuanian postcards.",
"### Return to Lithuania",
"[thumb\\|Monument in Giedraičiai to fallen Lithuanian soldiers designed by Jaroševičius](/wiki/File:Giedrai%C4%8Diai3.JPG \"Giedraičiai3.JPG\")\nDuring [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), he was a representative of the [Lithuanian Society for the Relief of War Sufferers](/wiki/Lithuanian_Society_for_the_Relief_of_War_Sufferers \"Lithuanian Society for the Relief of War Sufferers\") in Kazan and assisted Lithuanian war refugees. In 1921, Jaroševičius returned to Lithuania and settled in {{ill\\|Karklynė (Molėtai)\\|lt\\|Karklynė (Molėtai)\\|lt\\=Karklynė}} near [Giedraičiai](/wiki/Giedrai%C4%8Diai \"Giedraičiai\"). He bought a farm and taught art and crafts at the Giedraičiai Progymnasium until 1935\\. He was invited to teach at the [University of Lithuania](/wiki/University_of_Lithuania \"University of Lithuania\"), but he refused. In 1927, he designed a monument to Lithuanian soldiers who died in the Battle of Giedraičiai during the [Żeligowski's Mutiny](/wiki/%C5%BBeligowski%27s_Mutiny \"Żeligowski's Mutiny\") in 1920\\. The monument was built in 1928 and was one of the very few Lithuanian monuments that were not destroyed during the [Soviet era](/wiki/Lithuanian_SSR \"Lithuanian SSR\").",
"He continued to care about the Lithuanian folk art and publish articles on the topic. He lamented the decline of traditional arts as people purchased more and more of the mass\\-produced products and tried to encourage his students and all young people to continue the traditions. In 1939, he published a booklet *Dailieji medžio darbeliai* (Fine Woodwork) with examples of small folk\\-inspired projects (e.g. hangers for towels, calendars, or thermometers). His two other works on Lithuanian folk ornaments and Lithuanian exiles in Kazan remained unpublished.",
"### Later life",
"During [the Holocaust in Lithuania](/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania \"The Holocaust in Lithuania\"), Jaroševičius hid Esfira Gutmanaitė, a young Jewish woman, on his farm from fall 1941 to fall 1943\\. For this, he was posthumously awarded the {{ill\\|Life Saving Cross\\|lt\\|Žūvančiųjų gelbėjimo kryžius}} by the [President of Lithuania](/wiki/President_of_Lithuania \"President of Lithuania\") in 2016\\. His son and adopted son died serving in the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") in 1945\\. Jaroševičius traveled on foot to Latvia and paid large sums of money to have his son's grave exhumed so he could see for himself that it was indeed his son buried there. His farm was nationalized by a Soviet [kolkhoz](/wiki/Kolkhoz \"Kolkhoz\") leaving the elderly artist with an orchard and a small plot of arable land. Affected by [glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma \"Glaucoma\"), Jaroševičius died in poverty and obscurity in 1956\\.",
"His widow donated his archives to the [Lithuanian National Museum of Art](/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Museum_of_Art \"Lithuanian National Museum of Art\") which organized exhibitions dedicated to Jaroševičius in 1970 and 1990 and published a catalog of his works in 1990\\. The Lithuanian National Museum of Art has about 200 of his works. His other works are held by the [M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum](/wiki/M._K._%C4%8Ciurlionis_National_Art_Museum \"M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum\"). The gymnasium in Giedraičiai was renamed in his honor in 1990\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
[left\|thumb\|upright\|Singer [Beyoncé](/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9 "Beyoncé") wears a sparkly leotard with fishnet tights during her performance in London, July 2016\.](/wiki/Image:Beyonce_-_The_Formation_World_Tour%2C_at_Wembley_Stadium_in_London%2C_England.jpg "Beyonce - The Formation World Tour, at Wembley Stadium in London, England.jpg")
The first known use of the name *leotard* came only in 1886, years after [Jules Léotard](/wiki/Jules_L%C3%A9otard "Jules Léotard")'s death. Léotard called the garment a *[maillot](/wiki/wiktionary:Maillot%23French "Maillot#French")*, a general French word for different types of tight\-fitting shirts or sports shirts. In the early 20th century, leotards were mainly confined to [circus](/wiki/Circus "Circus") and [acrobatic](/wiki/Acrobatic "Acrobatic") shows, worn by the specialists who performed these acts.
Leotards influenced the style of [swimsuit](/wiki/Swimsuit "Swimsuit") in the 1920s and 1930s, and women's [one\-piece swimsuit](/wiki/One-piece_swimsuit "One-piece swimsuit") today still resemble leotards in appearance.
Leotards are worn by professional dancers such as the [showgirls](/wiki/Showgirl "Showgirl") of [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre"). Stage use of the leotard typically coordinates the garment with [stockings](/wiki/Stockings "Stockings") or tights.
In the 1950s, traditionally\-styled leotards continued to be worn mainly by stage performers and circus actors, but leotards began to be used as simple and functional exercise garments, often in institutional settings like schools and fitness training. These were almost always black and worn together with thick tights. Between 1950 and 1970, leotards remained as such in appearance until a style change in the 1970s, with more colorful leotards appearing on the scene, most often in ballet and exercise.
Leotards were a staple in [aerobic exercise](/wiki/Aerobic_exercise "Aerobic exercise") attire during the 1970s and 1980s, but their popularity waned in the 1990s as they were largely replaced by Lycra pants, similar to those worn by cyclists. By the 2000s, they had given way to trousers and [leggings](/wiki/Leggings "Leggings"), which offered a more modern and flexible alternative. Nevertheless, leotards continue to be worn by female [cyclists](/wiki/Cycling "Cycling") and athletes in competitive events, where their functionality and comfort remain valued.
In the late 2010s, leotards began to be frequently worn by pop stars in their performances, such as [Beyonce](/wiki/Beyonce "Beyonce"), [Little Mix](/wiki/Little_Mix "Little Mix"), and [Taylor Swift](/wiki/Taylor_Swift "Taylor Swift").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|upright\\|Singer [Beyoncé](/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9 \"Beyoncé\") wears a sparkly leotard with fishnet tights during her performance in London, July 2016\\.](/wiki/Image:Beyonce_-_The_Formation_World_Tour%2C_at_Wembley_Stadium_in_London%2C_England.jpg \"Beyonce - The Formation World Tour, at Wembley Stadium in London, England.jpg\")",
"The first known use of the name *leotard* came only in 1886, years after [Jules Léotard](/wiki/Jules_L%C3%A9otard \"Jules Léotard\")'s death. Léotard called the garment a *[maillot](/wiki/wiktionary:Maillot%23French \"Maillot#French\")*, a general French word for different types of tight\\-fitting shirts or sports shirts. In the early 20th century, leotards were mainly confined to [circus](/wiki/Circus \"Circus\") and [acrobatic](/wiki/Acrobatic \"Acrobatic\") shows, worn by the specialists who performed these acts.",
"Leotards influenced the style of [swimsuit](/wiki/Swimsuit \"Swimsuit\") in the 1920s and 1930s, and women's [one\\-piece swimsuit](/wiki/One-piece_swimsuit \"One-piece swimsuit\") today still resemble leotards in appearance.",
"Leotards are worn by professional dancers such as the [showgirls](/wiki/Showgirl \"Showgirl\") of [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\"). Stage use of the leotard typically coordinates the garment with [stockings](/wiki/Stockings \"Stockings\") or tights.",
"In the 1950s, traditionally\\-styled leotards continued to be worn mainly by stage performers and circus actors, but leotards began to be used as simple and functional exercise garments, often in institutional settings like schools and fitness training. These were almost always black and worn together with thick tights. Between 1950 and 1970, leotards remained as such in appearance until a style change in the 1970s, with more colorful leotards appearing on the scene, most often in ballet and exercise.",
"Leotards were a staple in [aerobic exercise](/wiki/Aerobic_exercise \"Aerobic exercise\") attire during the 1970s and 1980s, but their popularity waned in the 1990s as they were largely replaced by Lycra pants, similar to those worn by cyclists. By the 2000s, they had given way to trousers and [leggings](/wiki/Leggings \"Leggings\"), which offered a more modern and flexible alternative. Nevertheless, leotards continue to be worn by female [cyclists](/wiki/Cycling \"Cycling\") and athletes in competitive events, where their functionality and comfort remain valued.",
"In the late 2010s, leotards began to be frequently worn by pop stars in their performances, such as [Beyonce](/wiki/Beyonce \"Beyonce\"), [Little Mix](/wiki/Little_Mix \"Little Mix\"), and [Taylor Swift](/wiki/Taylor_Swift \"Taylor Swift\").",
""
] |
History
-------
### Archeological sites
* [Al\-Dana](/wiki/Al-Dana%2C_Syria "Al-Dana, Syria") \- site of ancient Adennu
* [Bara](/wiki/Bara%2C_Syria "Bara, Syria") \- ancient site
* [Ebla](/wiki/Ebla "Ebla") \- Bronze Age site
* [Serjilla](/wiki/Serjilla "Serjilla") \- ancient site
* [Tell Touqan](/wiki/Tell_Touqan "Tell Touqan") \- ancient site
### Modern Syria (1946–2011\)
Idlib Governorate was separated from the neighboring [Aleppo Governorate](/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate "Aleppo Governorate") on 17 November 1957, during the reign of President [Shukri al\-Quwatli](/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli "Shukri al-Quwatli").{{cite web\|url\=https://orient\-news.net/ar/news\_show/176139/0/%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9\-%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9\-%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%81\-%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A8\-%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84\-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1\|title\=وثيقة رسمية تكشف: إدلب قبل عبد الناصر\|website\=Orient News\|language\=ar\|date\=14 January 2020\|access\-date\=9 March 2020\|archive\-date\=25 September 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925105216/https://orient\-news.net/ar/news\_show/176139/0/%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9\-%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9\-%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%81\-%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A8\-%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84\-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1\|url\-status\=live}} In the early 1980s, the Idlib Governorate was one of the focal points of the [Islamist uprising in Syria](/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria "Islamist uprising in Syria"). [Jisr ash\-Shugur](/wiki/Jisr_ash-Shugur "Jisr ash-Shugur") was the scene of [a mass killing by Syrian security forces in 1980](/wiki/Jisr_al-Shughour_massacre_%281980%29 "Jisr al-Shughour massacre (1980)").{{cite book\|last\=Seale\|first\=Patrick\|title\=Asad of Syria : the struggle for the Middle East\|year\=1990\|publisher\=University of California Press\|location\=Berkeley\|isbn\=0\-520\-06976\-5\|pages\=327\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6D9EiJKRTHcC\&q\=jisr\&pg\=PA3\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-05\|archive\-date\=2023\-09\-23\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923082807/https://books.google.com/books?id\=6D9EiJKRTHcC\&q\=jisr\&pg\=PA3\|url\-status\=live}} On 9 March 1980, against a background of anti\-government protests across Syria, inhabitants of Jisr ash\-Shugur marched on the local [Ba'ath Party](/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party "Ba'ath Party") headquarters and set it on fire. The police were unable to restore order and fled. Some demonstrators seized weapons and ammunition from a nearby army barracks. Later that day, units of the [Syrian Army](/wiki/Syrian_Army "Syrian Army") Special Forces were helicoptered in from Aleppo to regain control, which they did after pounding the town with rockets and mortars, destroying homes and shops and killing and wounding dozens of people. At least 200 people were arrested. The following day a military tribunal ordered the execution of more than a hundred of the detainees. In all, about 150–200 people were said to have been killed.{{cite book\|title\=Human rights in Syria\|url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_N\-xjxWYWnlwC\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_N\-xjxWYWnlwC/page/n19 16]–17\|publisher\=Human Rights Watch\|year\=1990\|isbn\=0\-929692\-69\-1}}
### Syrian Civil War (2011–present)
{{Main\|Syrian civil war}}
#### Idlib contested by Syrian government and rebels (2011–17\)
The [Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28September_2011_%E2%80%93_March_2012%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012)") were violent incidents involving the newly formed [Free Syrian Army](/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army") (FSA) and government\-loyal forces, during which the FSA took control of [Saraqib](/wiki/Saraqib "Saraqib"), [Binnish](/wiki/Binnish "Binnish"), [Sarmin](/wiki/Sarmin "Sarmin"), [Ariha](/wiki/Ariha%2C_Syria "Ariha, Syria"), [Zardana](/wiki/Zardana "Zardana"), [al\-Bara](/wiki/Al-Bara "Al-Bara") and [Taftanaz](/wiki/Taftanaz "Taftanaz"). This included the 10 March [Battle of Idlib (2012\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282012%29 "Battle of Idlib (2012)"), a government victory. This led to the [April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation](/wiki/April_2012_Idlib_Governorate_Operation "April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation") in which the government unsuccessfully sought to regain control. A consequent cease\-fire attempt lasted from 14 April to 2 June 2012\. This was followed by the [Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28June_2012%E2%80%93April_2013%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013)"), in which the FSA took or regained control of [Salqin](/wiki/Salqin "Salqin"), [Armanaz](/wiki/Armanaz "Armanaz"), [Harem](/wiki/Harem%2C_Syria "Harem, Syria"), Sarmin, [Darkush](/wiki/Darkush "Darkush"), [Kafr Nabl](/wiki/Kafr_Nabl "Kafr Nabl"), [Maarrat al\-Nu'man](/wiki/Maarrat_al-Nu%27man "Maarrat al-Nu'man") and Taftanaz, while government forces maintained control over [Jisr ash\-Shugur](/wiki/Jisr_ash-Shugur "Jisr ash-Shugur"), [Fu'ah](/wiki/Fu%27ah "Fu'ah"), [Idlib](/wiki/Idlib "Idlib") city, [Abu al\-Duhur](/wiki/Abu_al-Thuhur "Abu al-Thuhur") airbase and [Khan Shaykhun](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun "Khan Shaykhun") and recaptured Ariha. The [Siege of Wadi Deif](/wiki/Siege_of_Wadi_Deif "Siege of Wadi Deif") military base from October 2012 through April 2013 was also broken.
The [2014 Idlib offensive](/wiki/2014_Idlib_offensive "2014 Idlib offensive") was a series of operations conducted by the rebels against the Syrian Government. The clashes were mostly concentrated around Khan Shaykhun and on the highway towards Maarrat al\-Nu'man, and resulted in rebel victory. In the March [Battle of Idlib (2015\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282015%29 "Battle of Idlib (2015)"), [al\-Nusra Front](/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front "Al-Nusra Front")/[Army of Conquest](/wiki/Army_of_Conquest "Army of Conquest")\-led rebels retook Idlib city from government and [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah") forces.{{cite news \|url\=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\.aspx \|title\=Gulf allies and 'Army of Conquest \|newspaper\=\[\[Al\-Ahram Weekly]] \|date\=28 May 2015 \|access\-date\=4 September 2018 \|archive\-date\=17 April 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417102743/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\.aspx \|url\-status\=live }}
In the [Battle of Maarrat al\-Nu'man (2016\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Maarrat_al-Nu%27man_%282016%29 "Battle of Maarrat al-Nu'man (2016)") on 13 March 2016, fighters from the [Salafist jihadist](/wiki/Salafist_jihadist "Salafist jihadist") groups al\-Nusra Front and [Jund al\-Aqsa](/wiki/Jund_al-Aqsa "Jund al-Aqsa") launched an overnight attack against the FSA's [13th Division](/wiki/13th_Division_%28Syrian_rebel_group%29 "13th Division (Syrian rebel group)") headquarters in the town of Maarrat al\-Nu'man to crush local protesters and demonstrations.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\=45026\|title\=Division 13 evacuate most of its headquarters in the southern countryside of Idlib and clashes between them against Jabhat Al\-Nusra and Jund al\-Aqsa in Maarrat al\-Nu'man area and tension prevails in the area\|publisher\=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-14\|date\=2016\-03\-13\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-28\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328175047/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\=45026\|url\-status\=live}} The battle resulted in a victory for the jihadis. The [October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes](/wiki/October_2016_Idlib_Governorate_clashes "October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes") were violent confrontations between Jund al\-Aqsa and the [Syrian rebel](/wiki/Syrian_rebel "Syrian rebel") group the [Ahrar al\-Sham](/wiki/Ahrar_al-Sham "Ahrar al-Sham"), the latter supported by several other rebel groups.
The [Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28January%E2%80%93March_2017%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017)") were military confrontations between Syrian rebel factions led by Ahrar al\-Sham and their allies on one side and the [Jabhat Fatah al\-Sham](/wiki/Jabhat_Fatah_al-Sham "Jabhat Fatah al-Sham") (later as [Hayat Tahrir al\-Sham](/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hayat Tahrir al-Sham")) and their allies on the other. After 7 February, the clashes also included Jund al\-Aqsa as a third belligerent, which had re\-branded itself as *Liwa al\-Aqsa* and was attacking the other combatants. The battles were fought in the Idlib Governorate and the western countryside of the [Aleppo Governorate](/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate "Aleppo Governorate").
The [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack "Khan Shaykhun chemical attack") took place on 4 April 2017, on the town of Khan Shaykhun, then under the control of Hayat Tahrir al\-Sham (HTS).{{cite news\|url\=http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%d8%a7%d8%b4%d8%aa%d8%a8%d8%a7%d9%83%d8%a7%d8%aa\-%d9%87%d9%8a%d8%a6%d8%a9\-%d8%aa%d8%ad%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%b1\-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b4%d8%a7%d9%85\-%d9%88%d8%aa%d9%86%d8%b8%d9%8a%d9%85\-%d8%ac%d9%86%d8%af\-%d8%a7/\|title\=اشتباكات هيئة تحرير الشام وتنظيم جند الأقصى تخلف نحو 70 قتيل بين الطرفين... والأخير يخسر 9 بلدات وقرى خلال الـ 48 ساعة الفائتة\|last\=SOHRkhan\|date\=14 February 2017\|publisher\=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights\|access\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-date\=21 May 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521150144/http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA\-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9\-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85\-%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85\-%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AF\-%D8%A7/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=http://syriadirect.org/news/search\-for\-the\-dead\-begins\-in\-idlib\-after\-islamic\-state\-linked\-brigade\-leaves\-for\-raqqa/ \|title\=Search for the dead begins in Idlib after Islamic State\-linked brigade leaves for Raqqa \|date\=22 February 2017 \|publisher\=Syria Direct \|access\-date\=5 April 2017 \|archive\-date\=19 April 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419043650/http://syriadirect.org/news/search\-for\-the\-dead\-begins\-in\-idlib\-after\-islamic\-state\-linked\-brigade\-leaves\-for\-raqqa/ \|url\-status\=live }} The town was struck by an [airstrike](/wiki/Airstrike "Airstrike") by [government forces](/wiki/Assad_government "Assad government"), which was followed by massive civilian chemical poisoning.{{cite news \|date\=6 April 2017 \|title\=Witness of Syria chemical attack gives graphic account as death toll climbs \|website\=www.thenational.ae \|url\=http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\-east/witness\-of\-syria\-chemical\-attack\-gives\-graphic\-account\-as\-death\-toll\-climbs \|access\-date\=10 April 2017 \|quote\=The warplane dropped three conventional explosive bombs – and a fourth that made little sound on impact but produced a cloud of smoke. \|archive\-date\=10 April 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410095010/http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\-east/witness\-of\-syria\-chemical\-attack\-gives\-graphic\-account\-as\-death\-toll\-climbs \|url\-status\=live }} The release of a toxic gas, which included [sarin](/wiki/Sarin "Sarin"), or a similar substance,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39648503\|title\=Syria war: Sarin used in Khan Sheikhoun attack, OPCW says\|date\=2017\-04\-20\|publisher\=BBC News\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-20\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=2018\-07\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717002728/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39648503\|url\-status\=live}} killed at least 74 people and injured more than 557, according to the Idlib health authority.{{cite web \|url\=http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\-town\-reels\-following\-major\-chemical\-attack\-%E2%80%98no\-rebel\-positions\-just\-people%E2%80%99/ \|title\=Idlib town reels following major chemical attack: 'No rebel positions, just people' \|work\=Syria:direct \|date\=5 April 2017 \|access\-date\=24 November 2017 \|archive\-date\=27 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827170757/http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\-town\-reels\-following\-major\-chemical\-attack\-%E2%80%98no\-rebel\-positions\-just\-people%E2%80%99/ \|url\-status\=live }} The attack was the deadliest [use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war") since the [Ghouta chemical attack](/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack") in 2013\.{{cite web\|url\=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\-toxic\-gas\-attack\-kills\-civilians\-in\-Idlib\-province.html\|title\=Syria 'toxic gas' attack kills 100 in Idlib province\|publisher\=Al\-Arabiya \& AFP\|date\=4 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019104520/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\-toxic\-gas\-attack\-kills\-civilians\-in\-Idlib\-province.html\|url\-status\=live}} The [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"), the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Turkey, [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia"), France, and Israel, as well as [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch") have attributed the attack to the forces of [Syrian President](/wiki/Syrian_President "Syrian President") [Bashar al\-Assad](/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\-syria\-comments\-response/index.html\|title\=Trump: 'I now have responsibility' when it comes to Syria\|author\=Theodore Schleifer and Dan Merica\|publisher\=CNN\|access\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405174137/http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\-syria\-comments\-response/index.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39500319\|title\=Syria chemical 'attack': Russia faces fury at UN Security Council\|date\=5 April 2017\|access\-date\=5 April 2017\|publisher\=BBC\|archive\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405122300/http://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39500319\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\-attack\-on\-syria\-world\-leaders\-react\-1\.3040251\|title\=US attack on Syria: world leaders react\|newspaper\=The Irish Times\|date\=12 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=9 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409195806/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\-attack\-on\-syria\-world\-leaders\-react\-1\.3040251\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\=en\&newsid\=1612692\|title\=An official source at Foreign Affairs Ministry expresses Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's strong support for US military operations on military targets in Syria\|date\=12 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=27 August 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827173248/http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\=en\&newsid\=1612692\|url\-status\=live}} The [Assad government](/wiki/Assad_government "Assad government") denied using any chemical weapons in the air strike.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\-assad\-says\-chemical\-attack\-100\-percent\-fabrication\|title\=Syria's Assad says chemical attack '100 percent fabrication'\|agency\=Agence France Presse\|date\=13 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=13 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413215513/https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\-assad\-says\-chemical\-attack\-100\-percent\-fabrication\|url\-status\=live}}
#### Predominance of rebels like HTS (2017–18\)
The [Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)") were a series of military confrontations between Ahrar al\-Sham and Hay'at Tahrir al\-Sham. During the clashes, Tahrir al\-Sham attempted to capture the [Bab al\-Hawa Border Crossing](/wiki/Bab_al-Hawa_Border_Crossing "Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\-in\-syria\-s\-idlib\-province\-spreads\-to\-turkey\-border\-crossing\-1\.612890\|title\=Fighting in Syria's Idlib province spreads to Turkey border crossing\|work\=The National\|date\=21 July 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=27 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027152405/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\-in\-syria\-s\-idlib\-province\-spreads\-to\-turkey\-border\-crossing\-1\.612890\|url\-status\=live}} As a result of the clashes, HTS took control of Idlib city, the border crossing, and most of the areas along the Turkish border in the Idlib Province. Clashes resumed in [July 2017](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)"). In September 2017, the Syrian government and its Russian allies intensified bombing raids against rebel\-held towns in Idlib, with multiple casualties.Suleiman Al\-Khalidi [Russia, Syria intensify bombing of rebel\-held Idlib, witnesses say](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idlib/russia-syria-intensify-bombing-of-rebel-held-idlib-witnesses-say-idUSKCN1BZ0NX) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727010227/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-mideast\-crisis\-syria\-idlib/russia\-syria\-intensify\-bombing\-of\-rebel\-held\-idlib\-witnesses\-say\-idUSKCN1BZ0NX \|date\=2018\-07\-27 }}, Reuters, 24 September 2017 Officially, the [campaign](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_campaign_%28October_2017%E2%80%93February_2018%29 "Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017–February 2018)") to capture areas held by ISIL and the rebels began in October. A [Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate](/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate "Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate") took place in October/November 2017\.
As of August 2018, following the end of the [Siege of al\-Fu'ah and Kafriya](/wiki/Siege_of_al-Fu%27ah_and_Kafriya "Siege of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya"), which had been government\-held until July 2018, the governorate is almost entirely under the control of the [Syrian rebels](/wiki/Syrian_opposition "Syrian opposition") (primarily the [National Front for Liberation](/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation "National Front for Liberation"), which has over 50,000 fighters) along with Hayat Tahrir al\-Sham, with estimated numbers of fighters between 12,000 and 30,000\.{{cite web \| title\=Syria: Who's in control of Idlib? \| website\=BBC News \| date\=7 September 2018 \| url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-45401474 \| access\-date\=22 October 2018 \| archive\-date\=27 July 2019 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727020858/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-45401474 \| url\-status\=live }}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\-idlib\-remains\-inevitable\-181017083159556\.html\|title\=A confrontation in Idlib remains inevitable\|author\=Joe Macaron\|publisher\=Al\-Jazeera\|date\=17 October 2018\|access\-date\=27 October 2018\|archive\-date\=27 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027004204/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\-idlib\-remains\-inevitable\-181017083159556\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\-09\-15/jihadist\-breakup\-syria\|title\=A Jihadist Breakup in Syria\|date\=2017\-09\-15\|work\=Foreign Affairs\|access\-date\=2017\-09\-25\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0015\-7120\|archive\-date\=2017\-09\-26\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926075033/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\-09\-15/jihadist\-breakup\-syria\|url\-status\=live}} In September 2018, [a demilitarization zone](/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_%282018%E2%80%93present%29 "Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)") was created on the front between the government and the Turkish\-backed opposition, temporarily freezing the conflict.
#### Government on the rebound (2019–present)
On October 26, 2019, U.S. [Joint Special Operations Command](/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Command "Joint Special Operations Command") (JSOC) conducted [a raid](/wiki/Barisha_raid "Barisha raid") in the Idlib province of Syria, on the border with Turkey, that resulted in the death of ISIS leader [Abū Bakr al\-Baghdadi](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi "Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\-house\-trump\-announcement\-sunday/index.html \|title\=ISIS leader al\-Baghdadi believed to have been killed in a US military raid, sources say \| CNN Politics \|website\=\[\[CNN]] \|date\=27 October 2019 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027153058/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\-house\-trump\-announcement\-sunday/index.html \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }} The raid was launched after a [CIA](/wiki/CIA "CIA") intelligence effort located him, and conducted during the withdrawal of U.S. forces in northeast Syria, further complicating the operation{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-dead\-after\-us\-special\-forces\-raid\-hideout\-syria\-sources\-2854504 \|title\=Isis Leader al Baghdadi Dead After US Special Forces Raid Hideout in Syria: Sources \|website\=\[\[International Business Times]] \|date\=27 October 2019 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121035/https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-dead\-after\-us\-special\-forces\-raid\-hideout\-syria\-sources\-2854504 \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\-security/us\-forces\-launch\-operation\-in\-syria\-targeting\-isis\-leader\-baghdadi\-officials\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\-adf1\-4db6\-9a6a\-9b820dd9e32d\_story.html \|title\=Trump says Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al\-Baghdadi blew himself up as U.S. Troops closed in \- the Washington Post \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027142956/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\-security/us\-forces\-launch\-operation\-in\-syria\-targeting\-isis\-leader\-baghdadi\-officials\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\-adf1\-4db6\-9a6a\-9b820dd9e32d\_story.html \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }} The Syrian Democratic Forces and Iraqi military also supported the operation; Turkey said it coordinated with the US prior to the mission.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\-military/2019/10/27/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-believed\-killed\-in\-us\-commando\-raid/ \|title\=Trump: ISIS leader al\-Baghdadi killed in US commando raid \|date\=27 October 2019 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121033/https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\-military/2019/10/27/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-believed\-killed\-in\-us\-commando\-raid/ \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }}
A large portion of the governorate was retaken by government forces during the course of the [2019 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28April%E2%80%93August_2019%29 "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)"), which caused the displacement of nearly a million civilians, and subsequent [2020 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28December_2019%E2%80%93March_2020%29 "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–March 2020)"), which caused the death of over 1,000 more, often in aerial bombardments.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2021}} As of March 2020 – if not sooner – rebel control over Idlib Governorate was considered a matter of political survival of the Turkish President [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan"). If Idlib falls back into the hands of the Syrian government, the next targets would be the Turkish\-controlled zones in northern Syria, and their fall would signal the failings of Erdogan's war against the [PKK](/wiki/Kurdistan_Workers%27_Party "Kurdistan Workers' Party").{{in lang\|nl}} ['For Erdogan, Idlib is kill or cure'](https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor-erdogan-is-idlib-erop-of-eronder-a3992582#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/#118) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416003428/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor\-erdogan\-is\-idlib\-erop\-of\-eronder\-a3992582\#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/ \|date\=2021\-04\-16 }}. *[NRC Handelsblad](/wiki/NRC_Handelsblad "NRC Handelsblad")*, 4 March 2020\. Retrieved 7 March 2020\.
After the value of [Syrian currency](/wiki/Syrian_pound "Syrian pound") plummeted, the [Turkish lira](/wiki/Turkish_lira "Turkish lira") was adopted as legal tender in the governorate on 15 June 2020\.{{Cite web\|last\=AGENCIES\|first\=DAILY SABAH WITH\|date\=2020\-06\-16\|title\=Idlib follows suit in adopting Turkish lira to shield region from plummeting Syrian pound\|url\=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\-follows\-suit\-in\-adopting\-turkish\-lira\-to\-shield\-region\-from\-plummeting\-syrian\-pound\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-16\|website\=Daily Sabah\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=2020\-06\-16\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616113726/https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\-follows\-suit\-in\-adopting\-turkish\-lira\-to\-shield\-region\-from\-plummeting\-syrian\-pound\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Archeological sites",
"* [Al\\-Dana](/wiki/Al-Dana%2C_Syria \"Al-Dana, Syria\") \\- site of ancient Adennu\n* [Bara](/wiki/Bara%2C_Syria \"Bara, Syria\") \\- ancient site\n* [Ebla](/wiki/Ebla \"Ebla\") \\- Bronze Age site\n* [Serjilla](/wiki/Serjilla \"Serjilla\") \\- ancient site\n* [Tell Touqan](/wiki/Tell_Touqan \"Tell Touqan\") \\- ancient site",
"### Modern Syria (1946–2011\\)",
"Idlib Governorate was separated from the neighboring [Aleppo Governorate](/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate \"Aleppo Governorate\") on 17 November 1957, during the reign of President [Shukri al\\-Quwatli](/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli \"Shukri al-Quwatli\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://orient\\-news.net/ar/news\\_show/176139/0/%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9\\-%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9\\-%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%81\\-%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A8\\-%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84\\-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1\\|title\\=وثيقة رسمية تكشف: إدلب قبل عبد الناصر\\|website\\=Orient News\\|language\\=ar\\|date\\=14 January 2020\\|access\\-date\\=9 March 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925105216/https://orient\\-news.net/ar/news\\_show/176139/0/%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9\\-%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9\\-%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%81\\-%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A8\\-%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84\\-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the early 1980s, the Idlib Governorate was one of the focal points of the [Islamist uprising in Syria](/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria \"Islamist uprising in Syria\"). [Jisr ash\\-Shugur](/wiki/Jisr_ash-Shugur \"Jisr ash-Shugur\") was the scene of [a mass killing by Syrian security forces in 1980](/wiki/Jisr_al-Shughour_massacre_%281980%29 \"Jisr al-Shughour massacre (1980)\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Seale\\|first\\=Patrick\\|title\\=Asad of Syria : the struggle for the Middle East\\|year\\=1990\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|location\\=Berkeley\\|isbn\\=0\\-520\\-06976\\-5\\|pages\\=327\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6D9EiJKRTHcC\\&q\\=jisr\\&pg\\=PA3\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-23\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923082807/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6D9EiJKRTHcC\\&q\\=jisr\\&pg\\=PA3\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On 9 March 1980, against a background of anti\\-government protests across Syria, inhabitants of Jisr ash\\-Shugur marched on the local [Ba'ath Party](/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party \"Ba'ath Party\") headquarters and set it on fire. The police were unable to restore order and fled. Some demonstrators seized weapons and ammunition from a nearby army barracks. Later that day, units of the [Syrian Army](/wiki/Syrian_Army \"Syrian Army\") Special Forces were helicoptered in from Aleppo to regain control, which they did after pounding the town with rockets and mortars, destroying homes and shops and killing and wounding dozens of people. At least 200 people were arrested. The following day a military tribunal ordered the execution of more than a hundred of the detainees. In all, about 150–200 people were said to have been killed.{{cite book\\|title\\=Human rights in Syria\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_N\\-xjxWYWnlwC\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_N\\-xjxWYWnlwC/page/n19 16]–17\\|publisher\\=Human Rights Watch\\|year\\=1990\\|isbn\\=0\\-929692\\-69\\-1}}",
"### Syrian Civil War (2011–present)",
"{{Main\\|Syrian civil war}}\n#### Idlib contested by Syrian government and rebels (2011–17\\)",
"The [Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28September_2011_%E2%80%93_March_2012%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012)\") were violent incidents involving the newly formed [Free Syrian Army](/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army \"Free Syrian Army\") (FSA) and government\\-loyal forces, during which the FSA took control of [Saraqib](/wiki/Saraqib \"Saraqib\"), [Binnish](/wiki/Binnish \"Binnish\"), [Sarmin](/wiki/Sarmin \"Sarmin\"), [Ariha](/wiki/Ariha%2C_Syria \"Ariha, Syria\"), [Zardana](/wiki/Zardana \"Zardana\"), [al\\-Bara](/wiki/Al-Bara \"Al-Bara\") and [Taftanaz](/wiki/Taftanaz \"Taftanaz\"). This included the 10 March [Battle of Idlib (2012\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282012%29 \"Battle of Idlib (2012)\"), a government victory. This led to the [April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation](/wiki/April_2012_Idlib_Governorate_Operation \"April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation\") in which the government unsuccessfully sought to regain control. A consequent cease\\-fire attempt lasted from 14 April to 2 June 2012\\. This was followed by the [Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28June_2012%E2%80%93April_2013%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013)\"), in which the FSA took or regained control of [Salqin](/wiki/Salqin \"Salqin\"), [Armanaz](/wiki/Armanaz \"Armanaz\"), [Harem](/wiki/Harem%2C_Syria \"Harem, Syria\"), Sarmin, [Darkush](/wiki/Darkush \"Darkush\"), [Kafr Nabl](/wiki/Kafr_Nabl \"Kafr Nabl\"), [Maarrat al\\-Nu'man](/wiki/Maarrat_al-Nu%27man \"Maarrat al-Nu'man\") and Taftanaz, while government forces maintained control over [Jisr ash\\-Shugur](/wiki/Jisr_ash-Shugur \"Jisr ash-Shugur\"), [Fu'ah](/wiki/Fu%27ah \"Fu'ah\"), [Idlib](/wiki/Idlib \"Idlib\") city, [Abu al\\-Duhur](/wiki/Abu_al-Thuhur \"Abu al-Thuhur\") airbase and [Khan Shaykhun](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun \"Khan Shaykhun\") and recaptured Ariha. The [Siege of Wadi Deif](/wiki/Siege_of_Wadi_Deif \"Siege of Wadi Deif\") military base from October 2012 through April 2013 was also broken.",
"The [2014 Idlib offensive](/wiki/2014_Idlib_offensive \"2014 Idlib offensive\") was a series of operations conducted by the rebels against the Syrian Government. The clashes were mostly concentrated around Khan Shaykhun and on the highway towards Maarrat al\\-Nu'man, and resulted in rebel victory. In the March [Battle of Idlib (2015\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282015%29 \"Battle of Idlib (2015)\"), [al\\-Nusra Front](/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front \"Al-Nusra Front\")/[Army of Conquest](/wiki/Army_of_Conquest \"Army of Conquest\")\\-led rebels retook Idlib city from government and [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah \"Hezbollah\") forces.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\\.aspx \\|title\\=Gulf allies and 'Army of Conquest \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Al\\-Ahram Weekly]] \\|date\\=28 May 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=4 September 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417102743/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the [Battle of Maarrat al\\-Nu'man (2016\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Maarrat_al-Nu%27man_%282016%29 \"Battle of Maarrat al-Nu'man (2016)\") on 13 March 2016, fighters from the [Salafist jihadist](/wiki/Salafist_jihadist \"Salafist jihadist\") groups al\\-Nusra Front and [Jund al\\-Aqsa](/wiki/Jund_al-Aqsa \"Jund al-Aqsa\") launched an overnight attack against the FSA's [13th Division](/wiki/13th_Division_%28Syrian_rebel_group%29 \"13th Division (Syrian rebel group)\") headquarters in the town of Maarrat al\\-Nu'man to crush local protesters and demonstrations.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\\=45026\\|title\\=Division 13 evacuate most of its headquarters in the southern countryside of Idlib and clashes between them against Jabhat Al\\-Nusra and Jund al\\-Aqsa in Maarrat al\\-Nu'man area and tension prevails in the area\\|publisher\\=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-14\\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-28\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328175047/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\\=45026\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The battle resulted in a victory for the jihadis. The [October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes](/wiki/October_2016_Idlib_Governorate_clashes \"October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes\") were violent confrontations between Jund al\\-Aqsa and the [Syrian rebel](/wiki/Syrian_rebel \"Syrian rebel\") group the [Ahrar al\\-Sham](/wiki/Ahrar_al-Sham \"Ahrar al-Sham\"), the latter supported by several other rebel groups.",
"The [Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28January%E2%80%93March_2017%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017)\") were military confrontations between Syrian rebel factions led by Ahrar al\\-Sham and their allies on one side and the [Jabhat Fatah al\\-Sham](/wiki/Jabhat_Fatah_al-Sham \"Jabhat Fatah al-Sham\") (later as [Hayat Tahrir al\\-Sham](/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham \"Hayat Tahrir al-Sham\")) and their allies on the other. After 7 February, the clashes also included Jund al\\-Aqsa as a third belligerent, which had re\\-branded itself as *Liwa al\\-Aqsa* and was attacking the other combatants. The battles were fought in the Idlib Governorate and the western countryside of the [Aleppo Governorate](/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate \"Aleppo Governorate\").",
"The [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack \"Khan Shaykhun chemical attack\") took place on 4 April 2017, on the town of Khan Shaykhun, then under the control of Hayat Tahrir al\\-Sham (HTS).{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%d8%a7%d8%b4%d8%aa%d8%a8%d8%a7%d9%83%d8%a7%d8%aa\\-%d9%87%d9%8a%d8%a6%d8%a9\\-%d8%aa%d8%ad%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%b1\\-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b4%d8%a7%d9%85\\-%d9%88%d8%aa%d9%86%d8%b8%d9%8a%d9%85\\-%d8%ac%d9%86%d8%af\\-%d8%a7/\\|title\\=اشتباكات هيئة تحرير الشام وتنظيم جند الأقصى تخلف نحو 70 قتيل بين الطرفين... والأخير يخسر 9 بلدات وقرى خلال الـ 48 ساعة الفائتة\\|last\\=SOHRkhan\\|date\\=14 February 2017\\|publisher\\=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521150144/http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA\\-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9\\-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85\\-%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85\\-%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AF\\-%D8%A7/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://syriadirect.org/news/search\\-for\\-the\\-dead\\-begins\\-in\\-idlib\\-after\\-islamic\\-state\\-linked\\-brigade\\-leaves\\-for\\-raqqa/ \\|title\\=Search for the dead begins in Idlib after Islamic State\\-linked brigade leaves for Raqqa \\|date\\=22 February 2017 \\|publisher\\=Syria Direct \\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 April 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419043650/http://syriadirect.org/news/search\\-for\\-the\\-dead\\-begins\\-in\\-idlib\\-after\\-islamic\\-state\\-linked\\-brigade\\-leaves\\-for\\-raqqa/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The town was struck by an [airstrike](/wiki/Airstrike \"Airstrike\") by [government forces](/wiki/Assad_government \"Assad government\"), which was followed by massive civilian chemical poisoning.{{cite news \\|date\\=6 April 2017 \\|title\\=Witness of Syria chemical attack gives graphic account as death toll climbs \\|website\\=www.thenational.ae \\|url\\=http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\\-east/witness\\-of\\-syria\\-chemical\\-attack\\-gives\\-graphic\\-account\\-as\\-death\\-toll\\-climbs \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2017 \\|quote\\=The warplane dropped three conventional explosive bombs – and a fourth that made little sound on impact but produced a cloud of smoke. \\|archive\\-date\\=10 April 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410095010/http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\\-east/witness\\-of\\-syria\\-chemical\\-attack\\-gives\\-graphic\\-account\\-as\\-death\\-toll\\-climbs \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The release of a toxic gas, which included [sarin](/wiki/Sarin \"Sarin\"), or a similar substance,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39648503\\|title\\=Syria war: Sarin used in Khan Sheikhoun attack, OPCW says\\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-20\\|publisher\\=BBC News\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-20\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717002728/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39648503\\|url\\-status\\=live}} killed at least 74 people and injured more than 557, according to the Idlib health authority.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\\-town\\-reels\\-following\\-major\\-chemical\\-attack\\-%E2%80%98no\\-rebel\\-positions\\-just\\-people%E2%80%99/ \\|title\\=Idlib town reels following major chemical attack: 'No rebel positions, just people' \\|work\\=Syria:direct \\|date\\=5 April 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827170757/http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\\-town\\-reels\\-following\\-major\\-chemical\\-attack\\-%E2%80%98no\\-rebel\\-positions\\-just\\-people%E2%80%99/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The attack was the deadliest [use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war \"Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war\") since the [Ghouta chemical attack](/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack \"Ghouta chemical attack\") in 2013\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\\-toxic\\-gas\\-attack\\-kills\\-civilians\\-in\\-Idlib\\-province.html\\|title\\=Syria 'toxic gas' attack kills 100 in Idlib province\\|publisher\\=Al\\-Arabiya \\& AFP\\|date\\=4 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019104520/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\\-toxic\\-gas\\-attack\\-kills\\-civilians\\-in\\-Idlib\\-province.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\"), the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Turkey, [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\"), France, and Israel, as well as [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\") have attributed the attack to the forces of [Syrian President](/wiki/Syrian_President \"Syrian President\") [Bashar al\\-Assad](/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad \"Bashar al-Assad\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\\-syria\\-comments\\-response/index.html\\|title\\=Trump: 'I now have responsibility' when it comes to Syria\\|author\\=Theodore Schleifer and Dan Merica\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405174137/http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\\-syria\\-comments\\-response/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39500319\\|title\\=Syria chemical 'attack': Russia faces fury at UN Security Council\\|date\\=5 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405122300/http://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39500319\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\\-attack\\-on\\-syria\\-world\\-leaders\\-react\\-1\\.3040251\\|title\\=US attack on Syria: world leaders react\\|newspaper\\=The Irish Times\\|date\\=12 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=9 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409195806/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\\-attack\\-on\\-syria\\-world\\-leaders\\-react\\-1\\.3040251\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\\=en\\&newsid\\=1612692\\|title\\=An official source at Foreign Affairs Ministry expresses Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's strong support for US military operations on military targets in Syria\\|date\\=12 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827173248/http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\\=en\\&newsid\\=1612692\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [Assad government](/wiki/Assad_government \"Assad government\") denied using any chemical weapons in the air strike.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\\-assad\\-says\\-chemical\\-attack\\-100\\-percent\\-fabrication\\|title\\=Syria's Assad says chemical attack '100 percent fabrication'\\|agency\\=Agence France Presse\\|date\\=13 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413215513/https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\\-assad\\-says\\-chemical\\-attack\\-100\\-percent\\-fabrication\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### Predominance of rebels like HTS (2017–18\\)",
"The [Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)\") were a series of military confrontations between Ahrar al\\-Sham and Hay'at Tahrir al\\-Sham. During the clashes, Tahrir al\\-Sham attempted to capture the [Bab al\\-Hawa Border Crossing](/wiki/Bab_al-Hawa_Border_Crossing \"Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\\-in\\-syria\\-s\\-idlib\\-province\\-spreads\\-to\\-turkey\\-border\\-crossing\\-1\\.612890\\|title\\=Fighting in Syria's Idlib province spreads to Turkey border crossing\\|work\\=The National\\|date\\=21 July 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027152405/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\\-in\\-syria\\-s\\-idlib\\-province\\-spreads\\-to\\-turkey\\-border\\-crossing\\-1\\.612890\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As a result of the clashes, HTS took control of Idlib city, the border crossing, and most of the areas along the Turkish border in the Idlib Province. Clashes resumed in [July 2017](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)\"). In September 2017, the Syrian government and its Russian allies intensified bombing raids against rebel\\-held towns in Idlib, with multiple casualties.Suleiman Al\\-Khalidi [Russia, Syria intensify bombing of rebel\\-held Idlib, witnesses say](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idlib/russia-syria-intensify-bombing-of-rebel-held-idlib-witnesses-say-idUSKCN1BZ0NX) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727010227/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-mideast\\-crisis\\-syria\\-idlib/russia\\-syria\\-intensify\\-bombing\\-of\\-rebel\\-held\\-idlib\\-witnesses\\-say\\-idUSKCN1BZ0NX \\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-27 }}, Reuters, 24 September 2017 Officially, the [campaign](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_campaign_%28October_2017%E2%80%93February_2018%29 \"Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017–February 2018)\") to capture areas held by ISIL and the rebels began in October. A [Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate](/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate \"Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate\") took place in October/November 2017\\.",
"As of August 2018, following the end of the [Siege of al\\-Fu'ah and Kafriya](/wiki/Siege_of_al-Fu%27ah_and_Kafriya \"Siege of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya\"), which had been government\\-held until July 2018, the governorate is almost entirely under the control of the [Syrian rebels](/wiki/Syrian_opposition \"Syrian opposition\") (primarily the [National Front for Liberation](/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation \"National Front for Liberation\"), which has over 50,000 fighters) along with Hayat Tahrir al\\-Sham, with estimated numbers of fighters between 12,000 and 30,000\\.{{cite web \\| title\\=Syria: Who's in control of Idlib? \\| website\\=BBC News \\| date\\=7 September 2018 \\| url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-45401474 \\| access\\-date\\=22 October 2018 \\| archive\\-date\\=27 July 2019 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727020858/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-45401474 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\\-idlib\\-remains\\-inevitable\\-181017083159556\\.html\\|title\\=A confrontation in Idlib remains inevitable\\|author\\=Joe Macaron\\|publisher\\=Al\\-Jazeera\\|date\\=17 October 2018\\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027004204/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\\-idlib\\-remains\\-inevitable\\-181017083159556\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\\-09\\-15/jihadist\\-breakup\\-syria\\|title\\=A Jihadist Breakup in Syria\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-15\\|work\\=Foreign Affairs\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-25\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0015\\-7120\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-26\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926075033/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\\-09\\-15/jihadist\\-breakup\\-syria\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In September 2018, [a demilitarization zone](/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_%282018%E2%80%93present%29 \"Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)\") was created on the front between the government and the Turkish\\-backed opposition, temporarily freezing the conflict.",
"#### Government on the rebound (2019–present)",
"On October 26, 2019, U.S. [Joint Special Operations Command](/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Command \"Joint Special Operations Command\") (JSOC) conducted [a raid](/wiki/Barisha_raid \"Barisha raid\") in the Idlib province of Syria, on the border with Turkey, that resulted in the death of ISIS leader [Abū Bakr al\\-Baghdadi](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi \"Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\\-house\\-trump\\-announcement\\-sunday/index.html \\|title\\=ISIS leader al\\-Baghdadi believed to have been killed in a US military raid, sources say \\| CNN Politics \\|website\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|date\\=27 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027153058/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\\-house\\-trump\\-announcement\\-sunday/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The raid was launched after a [CIA](/wiki/CIA \"CIA\") intelligence effort located him, and conducted during the withdrawal of U.S. forces in northeast Syria, further complicating the operation{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-dead\\-after\\-us\\-special\\-forces\\-raid\\-hideout\\-syria\\-sources\\-2854504 \\|title\\=Isis Leader al Baghdadi Dead After US Special Forces Raid Hideout in Syria: Sources \\|website\\=\\[\\[International Business Times]] \\|date\\=27 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121035/https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-dead\\-after\\-us\\-special\\-forces\\-raid\\-hideout\\-syria\\-sources\\-2854504 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\\-security/us\\-forces\\-launch\\-operation\\-in\\-syria\\-targeting\\-isis\\-leader\\-baghdadi\\-officials\\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\\-adf1\\-4db6\\-9a6a\\-9b820dd9e32d\\_story.html \\|title\\=Trump says Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al\\-Baghdadi blew himself up as U.S. Troops closed in \\- the Washington Post \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027142956/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\\-security/us\\-forces\\-launch\\-operation\\-in\\-syria\\-targeting\\-isis\\-leader\\-baghdadi\\-officials\\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\\-adf1\\-4db6\\-9a6a\\-9b820dd9e32d\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Syrian Democratic Forces and Iraqi military also supported the operation; Turkey said it coordinated with the US prior to the mission.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\\-military/2019/10/27/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-believed\\-killed\\-in\\-us\\-commando\\-raid/ \\|title\\=Trump: ISIS leader al\\-Baghdadi killed in US commando raid \\|date\\=27 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121033/https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\\-military/2019/10/27/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-believed\\-killed\\-in\\-us\\-commando\\-raid/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"A large portion of the governorate was retaken by government forces during the course of the [2019 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28April%E2%80%93August_2019%29 \"Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)\"), which caused the displacement of nearly a million civilians, and subsequent [2020 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28December_2019%E2%80%93March_2020%29 \"Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–March 2020)\"), which caused the death of over 1,000 more, often in aerial bombardments.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2021}} As of March 2020 – if not sooner – rebel control over Idlib Governorate was considered a matter of political survival of the Turkish President [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\"). If Idlib falls back into the hands of the Syrian government, the next targets would be the Turkish\\-controlled zones in northern Syria, and their fall would signal the failings of Erdogan's war against the [PKK](/wiki/Kurdistan_Workers%27_Party \"Kurdistan Workers' Party\").{{in lang\\|nl}} ['For Erdogan, Idlib is kill or cure'](https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor-erdogan-is-idlib-erop-of-eronder-a3992582#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/#118) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416003428/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor\\-erdogan\\-is\\-idlib\\-erop\\-of\\-eronder\\-a3992582\\#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/ \\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-16 }}. *[NRC Handelsblad](/wiki/NRC_Handelsblad \"NRC Handelsblad\")*, 4 March 2020\\. Retrieved 7 March 2020\\.",
"After the value of [Syrian currency](/wiki/Syrian_pound \"Syrian pound\") plummeted, the [Turkish lira](/wiki/Turkish_lira \"Turkish lira\") was adopted as legal tender in the governorate on 15 June 2020\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=AGENCIES\\|first\\=DAILY SABAH WITH\\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-16\\|title\\=Idlib follows suit in adopting Turkish lira to shield region from plummeting Syrian pound\\|url\\=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\\-follows\\-suit\\-in\\-adopting\\-turkish\\-lira\\-to\\-shield\\-region\\-from\\-plummeting\\-syrian\\-pound\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-16\\|website\\=Daily Sabah\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-16\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616113726/https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\\-follows\\-suit\\-in\\-adopting\\-turkish\\-lira\\-to\\-shield\\-region\\-from\\-plummeting\\-syrian\\-pound\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
### Syrian Civil War (2011–present)
{{Main\|Syrian civil war}}
#### Idlib contested by Syrian government and rebels (2011–17\)
The [Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28September_2011_%E2%80%93_March_2012%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012)") were violent incidents involving the newly formed [Free Syrian Army](/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army") (FSA) and government\-loyal forces, during which the FSA took control of [Saraqib](/wiki/Saraqib "Saraqib"), [Binnish](/wiki/Binnish "Binnish"), [Sarmin](/wiki/Sarmin "Sarmin"), [Ariha](/wiki/Ariha%2C_Syria "Ariha, Syria"), [Zardana](/wiki/Zardana "Zardana"), [al\-Bara](/wiki/Al-Bara "Al-Bara") and [Taftanaz](/wiki/Taftanaz "Taftanaz"). This included the 10 March [Battle of Idlib (2012\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282012%29 "Battle of Idlib (2012)"), a government victory. This led to the [April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation](/wiki/April_2012_Idlib_Governorate_Operation "April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation") in which the government unsuccessfully sought to regain control. A consequent cease\-fire attempt lasted from 14 April to 2 June 2012\. This was followed by the [Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28June_2012%E2%80%93April_2013%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013)"), in which the FSA took or regained control of [Salqin](/wiki/Salqin "Salqin"), [Armanaz](/wiki/Armanaz "Armanaz"), [Harem](/wiki/Harem%2C_Syria "Harem, Syria"), Sarmin, [Darkush](/wiki/Darkush "Darkush"), [Kafr Nabl](/wiki/Kafr_Nabl "Kafr Nabl"), [Maarrat al\-Nu'man](/wiki/Maarrat_al-Nu%27man "Maarrat al-Nu'man") and Taftanaz, while government forces maintained control over [Jisr ash\-Shugur](/wiki/Jisr_ash-Shugur "Jisr ash-Shugur"), [Fu'ah](/wiki/Fu%27ah "Fu'ah"), [Idlib](/wiki/Idlib "Idlib") city, [Abu al\-Duhur](/wiki/Abu_al-Thuhur "Abu al-Thuhur") airbase and [Khan Shaykhun](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun "Khan Shaykhun") and recaptured Ariha. The [Siege of Wadi Deif](/wiki/Siege_of_Wadi_Deif "Siege of Wadi Deif") military base from October 2012 through April 2013 was also broken.
The [2014 Idlib offensive](/wiki/2014_Idlib_offensive "2014 Idlib offensive") was a series of operations conducted by the rebels against the Syrian Government. The clashes were mostly concentrated around Khan Shaykhun and on the highway towards Maarrat al\-Nu'man, and resulted in rebel victory. In the March [Battle of Idlib (2015\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282015%29 "Battle of Idlib (2015)"), [al\-Nusra Front](/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front "Al-Nusra Front")/[Army of Conquest](/wiki/Army_of_Conquest "Army of Conquest")\-led rebels retook Idlib city from government and [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah") forces.{{cite news \|url\=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\.aspx \|title\=Gulf allies and 'Army of Conquest \|newspaper\=\[\[Al\-Ahram Weekly]] \|date\=28 May 2015 \|access\-date\=4 September 2018 \|archive\-date\=17 April 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417102743/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\.aspx \|url\-status\=live }}
In the [Battle of Maarrat al\-Nu'man (2016\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Maarrat_al-Nu%27man_%282016%29 "Battle of Maarrat al-Nu'man (2016)") on 13 March 2016, fighters from the [Salafist jihadist](/wiki/Salafist_jihadist "Salafist jihadist") groups al\-Nusra Front and [Jund al\-Aqsa](/wiki/Jund_al-Aqsa "Jund al-Aqsa") launched an overnight attack against the FSA's [13th Division](/wiki/13th_Division_%28Syrian_rebel_group%29 "13th Division (Syrian rebel group)") headquarters in the town of Maarrat al\-Nu'man to crush local protesters and demonstrations.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\=45026\|title\=Division 13 evacuate most of its headquarters in the southern countryside of Idlib and clashes between them against Jabhat Al\-Nusra and Jund al\-Aqsa in Maarrat al\-Nu'man area and tension prevails in the area\|publisher\=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-14\|date\=2016\-03\-13\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-28\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328175047/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\=45026\|url\-status\=live}} The battle resulted in a victory for the jihadis. The [October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes](/wiki/October_2016_Idlib_Governorate_clashes "October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes") were violent confrontations between Jund al\-Aqsa and the [Syrian rebel](/wiki/Syrian_rebel "Syrian rebel") group the [Ahrar al\-Sham](/wiki/Ahrar_al-Sham "Ahrar al-Sham"), the latter supported by several other rebel groups.
The [Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28January%E2%80%93March_2017%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017)") were military confrontations between Syrian rebel factions led by Ahrar al\-Sham and their allies on one side and the [Jabhat Fatah al\-Sham](/wiki/Jabhat_Fatah_al-Sham "Jabhat Fatah al-Sham") (later as [Hayat Tahrir al\-Sham](/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hayat Tahrir al-Sham")) and their allies on the other. After 7 February, the clashes also included Jund al\-Aqsa as a third belligerent, which had re\-branded itself as *Liwa al\-Aqsa* and was attacking the other combatants. The battles were fought in the Idlib Governorate and the western countryside of the [Aleppo Governorate](/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate "Aleppo Governorate").
The [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack "Khan Shaykhun chemical attack") took place on 4 April 2017, on the town of Khan Shaykhun, then under the control of Hayat Tahrir al\-Sham (HTS).{{cite news\|url\=http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%d8%a7%d8%b4%d8%aa%d8%a8%d8%a7%d9%83%d8%a7%d8%aa\-%d9%87%d9%8a%d8%a6%d8%a9\-%d8%aa%d8%ad%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%b1\-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b4%d8%a7%d9%85\-%d9%88%d8%aa%d9%86%d8%b8%d9%8a%d9%85\-%d8%ac%d9%86%d8%af\-%d8%a7/\|title\=اشتباكات هيئة تحرير الشام وتنظيم جند الأقصى تخلف نحو 70 قتيل بين الطرفين... والأخير يخسر 9 بلدات وقرى خلال الـ 48 ساعة الفائتة\|last\=SOHRkhan\|date\=14 February 2017\|publisher\=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights\|access\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-date\=21 May 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521150144/http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA\-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9\-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85\-%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85\-%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AF\-%D8%A7/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=http://syriadirect.org/news/search\-for\-the\-dead\-begins\-in\-idlib\-after\-islamic\-state\-linked\-brigade\-leaves\-for\-raqqa/ \|title\=Search for the dead begins in Idlib after Islamic State\-linked brigade leaves for Raqqa \|date\=22 February 2017 \|publisher\=Syria Direct \|access\-date\=5 April 2017 \|archive\-date\=19 April 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419043650/http://syriadirect.org/news/search\-for\-the\-dead\-begins\-in\-idlib\-after\-islamic\-state\-linked\-brigade\-leaves\-for\-raqqa/ \|url\-status\=live }} The town was struck by an [airstrike](/wiki/Airstrike "Airstrike") by [government forces](/wiki/Assad_government "Assad government"), which was followed by massive civilian chemical poisoning.{{cite news \|date\=6 April 2017 \|title\=Witness of Syria chemical attack gives graphic account as death toll climbs \|website\=www.thenational.ae \|url\=http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\-east/witness\-of\-syria\-chemical\-attack\-gives\-graphic\-account\-as\-death\-toll\-climbs \|access\-date\=10 April 2017 \|quote\=The warplane dropped three conventional explosive bombs – and a fourth that made little sound on impact but produced a cloud of smoke. \|archive\-date\=10 April 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410095010/http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\-east/witness\-of\-syria\-chemical\-attack\-gives\-graphic\-account\-as\-death\-toll\-climbs \|url\-status\=live }} The release of a toxic gas, which included [sarin](/wiki/Sarin "Sarin"), or a similar substance,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39648503\|title\=Syria war: Sarin used in Khan Sheikhoun attack, OPCW says\|date\=2017\-04\-20\|publisher\=BBC News\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-20\|language\=en\-GB\|archive\-date\=2018\-07\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717002728/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39648503\|url\-status\=live}} killed at least 74 people and injured more than 557, according to the Idlib health authority.{{cite web \|url\=http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\-town\-reels\-following\-major\-chemical\-attack\-%E2%80%98no\-rebel\-positions\-just\-people%E2%80%99/ \|title\=Idlib town reels following major chemical attack: 'No rebel positions, just people' \|work\=Syria:direct \|date\=5 April 2017 \|access\-date\=24 November 2017 \|archive\-date\=27 August 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827170757/http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\-town\-reels\-following\-major\-chemical\-attack\-%E2%80%98no\-rebel\-positions\-just\-people%E2%80%99/ \|url\-status\=live }} The attack was the deadliest [use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war") since the [Ghouta chemical attack](/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack") in 2013\.{{cite web\|url\=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\-toxic\-gas\-attack\-kills\-civilians\-in\-Idlib\-province.html\|title\=Syria 'toxic gas' attack kills 100 in Idlib province\|publisher\=Al\-Arabiya \& AFP\|date\=4 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=19 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019104520/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\-toxic\-gas\-attack\-kills\-civilians\-in\-Idlib\-province.html\|url\-status\=live}} The [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"), the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Turkey, [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia"), France, and Israel, as well as [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch") have attributed the attack to the forces of [Syrian President](/wiki/Syrian_President "Syrian President") [Bashar al\-Assad](/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\-syria\-comments\-response/index.html\|title\=Trump: 'I now have responsibility' when it comes to Syria\|author\=Theodore Schleifer and Dan Merica\|publisher\=CNN\|access\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405174137/http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\-syria\-comments\-response/index.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39500319\|title\=Syria chemical 'attack': Russia faces fury at UN Security Council\|date\=5 April 2017\|access\-date\=5 April 2017\|publisher\=BBC\|archive\-date\=5 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405122300/http://www.bbc.com/news/world\-middle\-east\-39500319\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\-attack\-on\-syria\-world\-leaders\-react\-1\.3040251\|title\=US attack on Syria: world leaders react\|newspaper\=The Irish Times\|date\=12 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=9 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409195806/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\-attack\-on\-syria\-world\-leaders\-react\-1\.3040251\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\=en\&newsid\=1612692\|title\=An official source at Foreign Affairs Ministry expresses Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's strong support for US military operations on military targets in Syria\|date\=12 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=27 August 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827173248/http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\=en\&newsid\=1612692\|url\-status\=live}} The [Assad government](/wiki/Assad_government "Assad government") denied using any chemical weapons in the air strike.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\-assad\-says\-chemical\-attack\-100\-percent\-fabrication\|title\=Syria's Assad says chemical attack '100 percent fabrication'\|agency\=Agence France Presse\|date\=13 April 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=13 April 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413215513/https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\-assad\-says\-chemical\-attack\-100\-percent\-fabrication\|url\-status\=live}}
#### Predominance of rebels like HTS (2017–18\)
The [Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)") were a series of military confrontations between Ahrar al\-Sham and Hay'at Tahrir al\-Sham. During the clashes, Tahrir al\-Sham attempted to capture the [Bab al\-Hawa Border Crossing](/wiki/Bab_al-Hawa_Border_Crossing "Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\-in\-syria\-s\-idlib\-province\-spreads\-to\-turkey\-border\-crossing\-1\.612890\|title\=Fighting in Syria's Idlib province spreads to Turkey border crossing\|work\=The National\|date\=21 July 2017\|access\-date\=24 November 2017\|archive\-date\=27 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027152405/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\-in\-syria\-s\-idlib\-province\-spreads\-to\-turkey\-border\-crossing\-1\.612890\|url\-status\=live}} As a result of the clashes, HTS took control of Idlib city, the border crossing, and most of the areas along the Turkish border in the Idlib Province. Clashes resumed in [July 2017](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 "Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)"). In September 2017, the Syrian government and its Russian allies intensified bombing raids against rebel\-held towns in Idlib, with multiple casualties.Suleiman Al\-Khalidi [Russia, Syria intensify bombing of rebel\-held Idlib, witnesses say](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idlib/russia-syria-intensify-bombing-of-rebel-held-idlib-witnesses-say-idUSKCN1BZ0NX) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727010227/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-mideast\-crisis\-syria\-idlib/russia\-syria\-intensify\-bombing\-of\-rebel\-held\-idlib\-witnesses\-say\-idUSKCN1BZ0NX \|date\=2018\-07\-27 }}, Reuters, 24 September 2017 Officially, the [campaign](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_campaign_%28October_2017%E2%80%93February_2018%29 "Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017–February 2018)") to capture areas held by ISIL and the rebels began in October. A [Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate](/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate "Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate") took place in October/November 2017\.
As of August 2018, following the end of the [Siege of al\-Fu'ah and Kafriya](/wiki/Siege_of_al-Fu%27ah_and_Kafriya "Siege of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya"), which had been government\-held until July 2018, the governorate is almost entirely under the control of the [Syrian rebels](/wiki/Syrian_opposition "Syrian opposition") (primarily the [National Front for Liberation](/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation "National Front for Liberation"), which has over 50,000 fighters) along with Hayat Tahrir al\-Sham, with estimated numbers of fighters between 12,000 and 30,000\.{{cite web \| title\=Syria: Who's in control of Idlib? \| website\=BBC News \| date\=7 September 2018 \| url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-45401474 \| access\-date\=22 October 2018 \| archive\-date\=27 July 2019 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727020858/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-45401474 \| url\-status\=live }}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\-idlib\-remains\-inevitable\-181017083159556\.html\|title\=A confrontation in Idlib remains inevitable\|author\=Joe Macaron\|publisher\=Al\-Jazeera\|date\=17 October 2018\|access\-date\=27 October 2018\|archive\-date\=27 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027004204/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\-idlib\-remains\-inevitable\-181017083159556\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\-09\-15/jihadist\-breakup\-syria\|title\=A Jihadist Breakup in Syria\|date\=2017\-09\-15\|work\=Foreign Affairs\|access\-date\=2017\-09\-25\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0015\-7120\|archive\-date\=2017\-09\-26\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926075033/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\-09\-15/jihadist\-breakup\-syria\|url\-status\=live}} In September 2018, [a demilitarization zone](/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_%282018%E2%80%93present%29 "Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)") was created on the front between the government and the Turkish\-backed opposition, temporarily freezing the conflict.
#### Government on the rebound (2019–present)
On October 26, 2019, U.S. [Joint Special Operations Command](/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Command "Joint Special Operations Command") (JSOC) conducted [a raid](/wiki/Barisha_raid "Barisha raid") in the Idlib province of Syria, on the border with Turkey, that resulted in the death of ISIS leader [Abū Bakr al\-Baghdadi](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi "Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\-house\-trump\-announcement\-sunday/index.html \|title\=ISIS leader al\-Baghdadi believed to have been killed in a US military raid, sources say \| CNN Politics \|website\=\[\[CNN]] \|date\=27 October 2019 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027153058/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\-house\-trump\-announcement\-sunday/index.html \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }} The raid was launched after a [CIA](/wiki/CIA "CIA") intelligence effort located him, and conducted during the withdrawal of U.S. forces in northeast Syria, further complicating the operation{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-dead\-after\-us\-special\-forces\-raid\-hideout\-syria\-sources\-2854504 \|title\=Isis Leader al Baghdadi Dead After US Special Forces Raid Hideout in Syria: Sources \|website\=\[\[International Business Times]] \|date\=27 October 2019 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121035/https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-dead\-after\-us\-special\-forces\-raid\-hideout\-syria\-sources\-2854504 \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\-security/us\-forces\-launch\-operation\-in\-syria\-targeting\-isis\-leader\-baghdadi\-officials\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\-adf1\-4db6\-9a6a\-9b820dd9e32d\_story.html \|title\=Trump says Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al\-Baghdadi blew himself up as U.S. Troops closed in \- the Washington Post \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027142956/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\-security/us\-forces\-launch\-operation\-in\-syria\-targeting\-isis\-leader\-baghdadi\-officials\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\-adf1\-4db6\-9a6a\-9b820dd9e32d\_story.html \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }} The Syrian Democratic Forces and Iraqi military also supported the operation; Turkey said it coordinated with the US prior to the mission.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\-military/2019/10/27/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-believed\-killed\-in\-us\-commando\-raid/ \|title\=Trump: ISIS leader al\-Baghdadi killed in US commando raid \|date\=27 October 2019 \|access\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121033/https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\-military/2019/10/27/isis\-leader\-al\-baghdadi\-believed\-killed\-in\-us\-commando\-raid/ \|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-27 \|url\-status\=live }}
A large portion of the governorate was retaken by government forces during the course of the [2019 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28April%E2%80%93August_2019%29 "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)"), which caused the displacement of nearly a million civilians, and subsequent [2020 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28December_2019%E2%80%93March_2020%29 "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–March 2020)"), which caused the death of over 1,000 more, often in aerial bombardments.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2021}} As of March 2020 – if not sooner – rebel control over Idlib Governorate was considered a matter of political survival of the Turkish President [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan"). If Idlib falls back into the hands of the Syrian government, the next targets would be the Turkish\-controlled zones in northern Syria, and their fall would signal the failings of Erdogan's war against the [PKK](/wiki/Kurdistan_Workers%27_Party "Kurdistan Workers' Party").{{in lang\|nl}} ['For Erdogan, Idlib is kill or cure'](https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor-erdogan-is-idlib-erop-of-eronder-a3992582#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/#118) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416003428/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor\-erdogan\-is\-idlib\-erop\-of\-eronder\-a3992582\#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/ \|date\=2021\-04\-16 }}. *[NRC Handelsblad](/wiki/NRC_Handelsblad "NRC Handelsblad")*, 4 March 2020\. Retrieved 7 March 2020\.
After the value of [Syrian currency](/wiki/Syrian_pound "Syrian pound") plummeted, the [Turkish lira](/wiki/Turkish_lira "Turkish lira") was adopted as legal tender in the governorate on 15 June 2020\.{{Cite web\|last\=AGENCIES\|first\=DAILY SABAH WITH\|date\=2020\-06\-16\|title\=Idlib follows suit in adopting Turkish lira to shield region from plummeting Syrian pound\|url\=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\-follows\-suit\-in\-adopting\-turkish\-lira\-to\-shield\-region\-from\-plummeting\-syrian\-pound\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-16\|website\=Daily Sabah\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=2020\-06\-16\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616113726/https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\-follows\-suit\-in\-adopting\-turkish\-lira\-to\-shield\-region\-from\-plummeting\-syrian\-pound\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"### Syrian Civil War (2011–present)",
"{{Main\\|Syrian civil war}}\n#### Idlib contested by Syrian government and rebels (2011–17\\)",
"The [Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28September_2011_%E2%80%93_March_2012%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012)\") were violent incidents involving the newly formed [Free Syrian Army](/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army \"Free Syrian Army\") (FSA) and government\\-loyal forces, during which the FSA took control of [Saraqib](/wiki/Saraqib \"Saraqib\"), [Binnish](/wiki/Binnish \"Binnish\"), [Sarmin](/wiki/Sarmin \"Sarmin\"), [Ariha](/wiki/Ariha%2C_Syria \"Ariha, Syria\"), [Zardana](/wiki/Zardana \"Zardana\"), [al\\-Bara](/wiki/Al-Bara \"Al-Bara\") and [Taftanaz](/wiki/Taftanaz \"Taftanaz\"). This included the 10 March [Battle of Idlib (2012\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282012%29 \"Battle of Idlib (2012)\"), a government victory. This led to the [April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation](/wiki/April_2012_Idlib_Governorate_Operation \"April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation\") in which the government unsuccessfully sought to regain control. A consequent cease\\-fire attempt lasted from 14 April to 2 June 2012\\. This was followed by the [Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28June_2012%E2%80%93April_2013%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013)\"), in which the FSA took or regained control of [Salqin](/wiki/Salqin \"Salqin\"), [Armanaz](/wiki/Armanaz \"Armanaz\"), [Harem](/wiki/Harem%2C_Syria \"Harem, Syria\"), Sarmin, [Darkush](/wiki/Darkush \"Darkush\"), [Kafr Nabl](/wiki/Kafr_Nabl \"Kafr Nabl\"), [Maarrat al\\-Nu'man](/wiki/Maarrat_al-Nu%27man \"Maarrat al-Nu'man\") and Taftanaz, while government forces maintained control over [Jisr ash\\-Shugur](/wiki/Jisr_ash-Shugur \"Jisr ash-Shugur\"), [Fu'ah](/wiki/Fu%27ah \"Fu'ah\"), [Idlib](/wiki/Idlib \"Idlib\") city, [Abu al\\-Duhur](/wiki/Abu_al-Thuhur \"Abu al-Thuhur\") airbase and [Khan Shaykhun](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun \"Khan Shaykhun\") and recaptured Ariha. The [Siege of Wadi Deif](/wiki/Siege_of_Wadi_Deif \"Siege of Wadi Deif\") military base from October 2012 through April 2013 was also broken.",
"The [2014 Idlib offensive](/wiki/2014_Idlib_offensive \"2014 Idlib offensive\") was a series of operations conducted by the rebels against the Syrian Government. The clashes were mostly concentrated around Khan Shaykhun and on the highway towards Maarrat al\\-Nu'man, and resulted in rebel victory. In the March [Battle of Idlib (2015\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_%282015%29 \"Battle of Idlib (2015)\"), [al\\-Nusra Front](/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front \"Al-Nusra Front\")/[Army of Conquest](/wiki/Army_of_Conquest \"Army of Conquest\")\\-led rebels retook Idlib city from government and [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah \"Hezbollah\") forces.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\\.aspx \\|title\\=Gulf allies and 'Army of Conquest \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Al\\-Ahram Weekly]] \\|date\\=28 May 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=4 September 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417102743/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12392\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the [Battle of Maarrat al\\-Nu'man (2016\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Maarrat_al-Nu%27man_%282016%29 \"Battle of Maarrat al-Nu'man (2016)\") on 13 March 2016, fighters from the [Salafist jihadist](/wiki/Salafist_jihadist \"Salafist jihadist\") groups al\\-Nusra Front and [Jund al\\-Aqsa](/wiki/Jund_al-Aqsa \"Jund al-Aqsa\") launched an overnight attack against the FSA's [13th Division](/wiki/13th_Division_%28Syrian_rebel_group%29 \"13th Division (Syrian rebel group)\") headquarters in the town of Maarrat al\\-Nu'man to crush local protesters and demonstrations.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\\=45026\\|title\\=Division 13 evacuate most of its headquarters in the southern countryside of Idlib and clashes between them against Jabhat Al\\-Nusra and Jund al\\-Aqsa in Maarrat al\\-Nu'man area and tension prevails in the area\\|publisher\\=Syrian Observatory For Human Rights\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-14\\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-28\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328175047/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p\\=45026\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The battle resulted in a victory for the jihadis. The [October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes](/wiki/October_2016_Idlib_Governorate_clashes \"October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes\") were violent confrontations between Jund al\\-Aqsa and the [Syrian rebel](/wiki/Syrian_rebel \"Syrian rebel\") group the [Ahrar al\\-Sham](/wiki/Ahrar_al-Sham \"Ahrar al-Sham\"), the latter supported by several other rebel groups.",
"The [Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28January%E2%80%93March_2017%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017)\") were military confrontations between Syrian rebel factions led by Ahrar al\\-Sham and their allies on one side and the [Jabhat Fatah al\\-Sham](/wiki/Jabhat_Fatah_al-Sham \"Jabhat Fatah al-Sham\") (later as [Hayat Tahrir al\\-Sham](/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham \"Hayat Tahrir al-Sham\")) and their allies on the other. After 7 February, the clashes also included Jund al\\-Aqsa as a third belligerent, which had re\\-branded itself as *Liwa al\\-Aqsa* and was attacking the other combatants. The battles were fought in the Idlib Governorate and the western countryside of the [Aleppo Governorate](/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate \"Aleppo Governorate\").",
"The [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack \"Khan Shaykhun chemical attack\") took place on 4 April 2017, on the town of Khan Shaykhun, then under the control of Hayat Tahrir al\\-Sham (HTS).{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%d8%a7%d8%b4%d8%aa%d8%a8%d8%a7%d9%83%d8%a7%d8%aa\\-%d9%87%d9%8a%d8%a6%d8%a9\\-%d8%aa%d8%ad%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%b1\\-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b4%d8%a7%d9%85\\-%d9%88%d8%aa%d9%86%d8%b8%d9%8a%d9%85\\-%d8%ac%d9%86%d8%af\\-%d8%a7/\\|title\\=اشتباكات هيئة تحرير الشام وتنظيم جند الأقصى تخلف نحو 70 قتيل بين الطرفين... والأخير يخسر 9 بلدات وقرى خلال الـ 48 ساعة الفائتة\\|last\\=SOHRkhan\\|date\\=14 February 2017\\|publisher\\=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521150144/http://www.syriahr.com/2017/02/14/%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA\\-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9\\-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85\\-%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85\\-%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AF\\-%D8%A7/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://syriadirect.org/news/search\\-for\\-the\\-dead\\-begins\\-in\\-idlib\\-after\\-islamic\\-state\\-linked\\-brigade\\-leaves\\-for\\-raqqa/ \\|title\\=Search for the dead begins in Idlib after Islamic State\\-linked brigade leaves for Raqqa \\|date\\=22 February 2017 \\|publisher\\=Syria Direct \\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 April 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419043650/http://syriadirect.org/news/search\\-for\\-the\\-dead\\-begins\\-in\\-idlib\\-after\\-islamic\\-state\\-linked\\-brigade\\-leaves\\-for\\-raqqa/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The town was struck by an [airstrike](/wiki/Airstrike \"Airstrike\") by [government forces](/wiki/Assad_government \"Assad government\"), which was followed by massive civilian chemical poisoning.{{cite news \\|date\\=6 April 2017 \\|title\\=Witness of Syria chemical attack gives graphic account as death toll climbs \\|website\\=www.thenational.ae \\|url\\=http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\\-east/witness\\-of\\-syria\\-chemical\\-attack\\-gives\\-graphic\\-account\\-as\\-death\\-toll\\-climbs \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2017 \\|quote\\=The warplane dropped three conventional explosive bombs – and a fourth that made little sound on impact but produced a cloud of smoke. \\|archive\\-date\\=10 April 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410095010/http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle\\-east/witness\\-of\\-syria\\-chemical\\-attack\\-gives\\-graphic\\-account\\-as\\-death\\-toll\\-climbs \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The release of a toxic gas, which included [sarin](/wiki/Sarin \"Sarin\"), or a similar substance,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39648503\\|title\\=Syria war: Sarin used in Khan Sheikhoun attack, OPCW says\\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-20\\|publisher\\=BBC News\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-20\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717002728/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39648503\\|url\\-status\\=live}} killed at least 74 people and injured more than 557, according to the Idlib health authority.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\\-town\\-reels\\-following\\-major\\-chemical\\-attack\\-%E2%80%98no\\-rebel\\-positions\\-just\\-people%E2%80%99/ \\|title\\=Idlib town reels following major chemical attack: 'No rebel positions, just people' \\|work\\=Syria:direct \\|date\\=5 April 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827170757/http://syriadirect.org/news/idlib\\-town\\-reels\\-following\\-major\\-chemical\\-attack\\-%E2%80%98no\\-rebel\\-positions\\-just\\-people%E2%80%99/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The attack was the deadliest [use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war \"Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war\") since the [Ghouta chemical attack](/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack \"Ghouta chemical attack\") in 2013\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\\-toxic\\-gas\\-attack\\-kills\\-civilians\\-in\\-Idlib\\-province.html\\|title\\=Syria 'toxic gas' attack kills 100 in Idlib province\\|publisher\\=Al\\-Arabiya \\& AFP\\|date\\=4 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019104520/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle\\-east/2017/04/04/Syria\\-toxic\\-gas\\-attack\\-kills\\-civilians\\-in\\-Idlib\\-province.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\"), the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Turkey, [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\"), France, and Israel, as well as [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\") have attributed the attack to the forces of [Syrian President](/wiki/Syrian_President \"Syrian President\") [Bashar al\\-Assad](/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad \"Bashar al-Assad\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\\-syria\\-comments\\-response/index.html\\|title\\=Trump: 'I now have responsibility' when it comes to Syria\\|author\\=Theodore Schleifer and Dan Merica\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405174137/http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/05/politics/trump\\-syria\\-comments\\-response/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39500319\\|title\\=Syria chemical 'attack': Russia faces fury at UN Security Council\\|date\\=5 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|archive\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405122300/http://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-middle\\-east\\-39500319\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\\-attack\\-on\\-syria\\-world\\-leaders\\-react\\-1\\.3040251\\|title\\=US attack on Syria: world leaders react\\|newspaper\\=The Irish Times\\|date\\=12 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=9 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409195806/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/us\\-attack\\-on\\-syria\\-world\\-leaders\\-react\\-1\\.3040251\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\\=en\\&newsid\\=1612692\\|title\\=An official source at Foreign Affairs Ministry expresses Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's strong support for US military operations on military targets in Syria\\|date\\=12 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 August 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827173248/http://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang\\=en\\&newsid\\=1612692\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [Assad government](/wiki/Assad_government \"Assad government\") denied using any chemical weapons in the air strike.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\\-assad\\-says\\-chemical\\-attack\\-100\\-percent\\-fabrication\\|title\\=Syria's Assad says chemical attack '100 percent fabrication'\\|agency\\=Agence France Presse\\|date\\=13 April 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413215513/https://www.afp.com/en/news/23/syrias\\-assad\\-says\\-chemical\\-attack\\-100\\-percent\\-fabrication\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### Predominance of rebels like HTS (2017–18\\)",
"The [Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017\\)](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)\") were a series of military confrontations between Ahrar al\\-Sham and Hay'at Tahrir al\\-Sham. During the clashes, Tahrir al\\-Sham attempted to capture the [Bab al\\-Hawa Border Crossing](/wiki/Bab_al-Hawa_Border_Crossing \"Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\\-in\\-syria\\-s\\-idlib\\-province\\-spreads\\-to\\-turkey\\-border\\-crossing\\-1\\.612890\\|title\\=Fighting in Syria's Idlib province spreads to Turkey border crossing\\|work\\=The National\\|date\\=21 July 2017\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027152405/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/fighting\\-in\\-syria\\-s\\-idlib\\-province\\-spreads\\-to\\-turkey\\-border\\-crossing\\-1\\.612890\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As a result of the clashes, HTS took control of Idlib city, the border crossing, and most of the areas along the Turkish border in the Idlib Province. Clashes resumed in [July 2017](/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_%28July_2017%29 \"Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)\"). In September 2017, the Syrian government and its Russian allies intensified bombing raids against rebel\\-held towns in Idlib, with multiple casualties.Suleiman Al\\-Khalidi [Russia, Syria intensify bombing of rebel\\-held Idlib, witnesses say](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idlib/russia-syria-intensify-bombing-of-rebel-held-idlib-witnesses-say-idUSKCN1BZ0NX) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727010227/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-mideast\\-crisis\\-syria\\-idlib/russia\\-syria\\-intensify\\-bombing\\-of\\-rebel\\-held\\-idlib\\-witnesses\\-say\\-idUSKCN1BZ0NX \\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-27 }}, Reuters, 24 September 2017 Officially, the [campaign](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_campaign_%28October_2017%E2%80%93February_2018%29 \"Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017–February 2018)\") to capture areas held by ISIL and the rebels began in October. A [Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate](/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate \"Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate\") took place in October/November 2017\\.",
"As of August 2018, following the end of the [Siege of al\\-Fu'ah and Kafriya](/wiki/Siege_of_al-Fu%27ah_and_Kafriya \"Siege of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya\"), which had been government\\-held until July 2018, the governorate is almost entirely under the control of the [Syrian rebels](/wiki/Syrian_opposition \"Syrian opposition\") (primarily the [National Front for Liberation](/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation \"National Front for Liberation\"), which has over 50,000 fighters) along with Hayat Tahrir al\\-Sham, with estimated numbers of fighters between 12,000 and 30,000\\.{{cite web \\| title\\=Syria: Who's in control of Idlib? \\| website\\=BBC News \\| date\\=7 September 2018 \\| url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-45401474 \\| access\\-date\\=22 October 2018 \\| archive\\-date\\=27 July 2019 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727020858/https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-45401474 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\\-idlib\\-remains\\-inevitable\\-181017083159556\\.html\\|title\\=A confrontation in Idlib remains inevitable\\|author\\=Joe Macaron\\|publisher\\=Al\\-Jazeera\\|date\\=17 October 2018\\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027004204/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/confrontation\\-idlib\\-remains\\-inevitable\\-181017083159556\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\\-09\\-15/jihadist\\-breakup\\-syria\\|title\\=A Jihadist Breakup in Syria\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-15\\|work\\=Foreign Affairs\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-25\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0015\\-7120\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-09\\-26\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926075033/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017\\-09\\-15/jihadist\\-breakup\\-syria\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In September 2018, [a demilitarization zone](/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_%282018%E2%80%93present%29 \"Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)\") was created on the front between the government and the Turkish\\-backed opposition, temporarily freezing the conflict.",
"#### Government on the rebound (2019–present)",
"On October 26, 2019, U.S. [Joint Special Operations Command](/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Command \"Joint Special Operations Command\") (JSOC) conducted [a raid](/wiki/Barisha_raid \"Barisha raid\") in the Idlib province of Syria, on the border with Turkey, that resulted in the death of ISIS leader [Abū Bakr al\\-Baghdadi](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi \"Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\\-house\\-trump\\-announcement\\-sunday/index.html \\|title\\=ISIS leader al\\-Baghdadi believed to have been killed in a US military raid, sources say \\| CNN Politics \\|website\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|date\\=27 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027153058/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/26/politics/white\\-house\\-trump\\-announcement\\-sunday/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The raid was launched after a [CIA](/wiki/CIA \"CIA\") intelligence effort located him, and conducted during the withdrawal of U.S. forces in northeast Syria, further complicating the operation{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-dead\\-after\\-us\\-special\\-forces\\-raid\\-hideout\\-syria\\-sources\\-2854504 \\|title\\=Isis Leader al Baghdadi Dead After US Special Forces Raid Hideout in Syria: Sources \\|website\\=\\[\\[International Business Times]] \\|date\\=27 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121035/https://www.ibtimes.com/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-dead\\-after\\-us\\-special\\-forces\\-raid\\-hideout\\-syria\\-sources\\-2854504 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\\-security/us\\-forces\\-launch\\-operation\\-in\\-syria\\-targeting\\-isis\\-leader\\-baghdadi\\-officials\\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\\-adf1\\-4db6\\-9a6a\\-9b820dd9e32d\\_story.html \\|title\\=Trump says Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al\\-Baghdadi blew himself up as U.S. Troops closed in \\- the Washington Post \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027142956/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national\\-security/us\\-forces\\-launch\\-operation\\-in\\-syria\\-targeting\\-isis\\-leader\\-baghdadi\\-officials\\-say/2019/10/27/081bc257\\-adf1\\-4db6\\-9a6a\\-9b820dd9e32d\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Syrian Democratic Forces and Iraqi military also supported the operation; Turkey said it coordinated with the US prior to the mission.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\\-military/2019/10/27/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-believed\\-killed\\-in\\-us\\-commando\\-raid/ \\|title\\=Trump: ISIS leader al\\-Baghdadi killed in US commando raid \\|date\\=27 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027121033/https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your\\-military/2019/10/27/isis\\-leader\\-al\\-baghdadi\\-believed\\-killed\\-in\\-us\\-commando\\-raid/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"A large portion of the governorate was retaken by government forces during the course of the [2019 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28April%E2%80%93August_2019%29 \"Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)\"), which caused the displacement of nearly a million civilians, and subsequent [2020 offensive](/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_%28December_2019%E2%80%93March_2020%29 \"Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–March 2020)\"), which caused the death of over 1,000 more, often in aerial bombardments.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2021}} As of March 2020 – if not sooner – rebel control over Idlib Governorate was considered a matter of political survival of the Turkish President [Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\"). If Idlib falls back into the hands of the Syrian government, the next targets would be the Turkish\\-controlled zones in northern Syria, and their fall would signal the failings of Erdogan's war against the [PKK](/wiki/Kurdistan_Workers%27_Party \"Kurdistan Workers' Party\").{{in lang\\|nl}} ['For Erdogan, Idlib is kill or cure'](https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor-erdogan-is-idlib-erop-of-eronder-a3992582#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/#118) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416003428/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2020/03/04/voor\\-erdogan\\-is\\-idlib\\-erop\\-of\\-eronder\\-a3992582\\#/handelsblad/2020/03/05/ \\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-16 }}. *[NRC Handelsblad](/wiki/NRC_Handelsblad \"NRC Handelsblad\")*, 4 March 2020\\. Retrieved 7 March 2020\\.",
"After the value of [Syrian currency](/wiki/Syrian_pound \"Syrian pound\") plummeted, the [Turkish lira](/wiki/Turkish_lira \"Turkish lira\") was adopted as legal tender in the governorate on 15 June 2020\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=AGENCIES\\|first\\=DAILY SABAH WITH\\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-16\\|title\\=Idlib follows suit in adopting Turkish lira to shield region from plummeting Syrian pound\\|url\\=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\\-follows\\-suit\\-in\\-adopting\\-turkish\\-lira\\-to\\-shield\\-region\\-from\\-plummeting\\-syrian\\-pound\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-16\\|website\\=Daily Sabah\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-16\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616113726/https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/idlib\\-follows\\-suit\\-in\\-adopting\\-turkish\\-lira\\-to\\-shield\\-region\\-from\\-plummeting\\-syrian\\-pound\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Early modern and contemporary usage
-----------------------------------
### Belgium
In Belgium a few families{{cn\|reason\=families or people?\|date\=July 2024}} are recognised as Viscounts:
* [Viscount of Audenaerde](/wiki/Viscount_of_Audenaerde "Viscount of Audenaerde")
* [Viscount of Hombeke](/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Locquet%2C_1st_Viscount_of_Hombeke "Jean-Antoine Locquet, 1st Viscount of Hombeke")
* [Viscount de Spoelberch](/wiki/Spoelberch "Spoelberch")
* [Viscount Eyskens](/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens "Gaston Eyskens")
* Viscount Savoir
* [Viscount Poullet](/wiki/Prosper_Poullet "Prosper Poullet")
* [Viscount Frimout](/wiki/Dirk_Frimout "Dirk Frimout")
* [Viscount De Winne](/wiki/Frank_De_Winne "Frank De Winne")
### United Kingdom
{{Peerage \|Ranks\=expanded}}
Viscounts are the fourth rank in the [British peerage](/wiki/Peerages_in_the_United_Kingdom "Peerages in the United Kingdom"), standing directly below an [earl](/wiki/Earl "Earl") and above a [baron](/wiki/Baron "Baron") ([Lord of Parliament](/wiki/Lord_of_Parliament "Lord of Parliament") in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland")). There are approximately 270 viscountcies extant in the peerages of the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles"), though most are [secondary titles](/wiki/Subsidiary_title "Subsidiary title").{{cite web\|title\=The Roll of the Peerage\|last1\=Denyer\|first1\=Ian\|last2\=Bavister\|first2\=Grant\|publisher\=\[\[College of Arms]]\|url\=http://www.college\-of\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|orig\-year\=2004\|year\=2014\|archive\-date\=17 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717034647/http://www.college\-of\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}
In British practice, the title of a viscount may be a place name, a surname, or a combination: examples include the [Viscount Falmouth](/wiki/Viscount_Falmouth "Viscount Falmouth"), the [Viscount Hardinge](/wiki/Viscount_Hardinge "Viscount Hardinge") and the [Viscount Colville of Culross](/wiki/Viscount_Colville_of_Culross "Viscount Colville of Culross"). Some viscounts in the peerage of Scotland were traditionally styled "The Viscount *of* \[X]", such as the [Viscount of Arbuthnott](/wiki/Viscount_of_Arbuthnott "Viscount of Arbuthnott"). In practice, however, very few maintain this style, instead using the more common version "The Viscount \[X]" in general parlance, for example [Viscount of Falkland](/wiki/Viscount_of_Falkland "Viscount of Falkland") who is referred to as Viscount Falkland.
A British viscount is addressed in speech as *Lord \[X]*, while his wife is *Lady \[X]*, and he is formally styled "[The Right Honourable](/wiki/The_Right_Honourable "The Right Honourable") The Viscount \[X]". The children of a viscount are known as *[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable "The Honourable") \[Forename] \[Surname]*, with the exception of a Scottish viscount, whose eldest child may be styled as "[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable "The Honourable") [Master](/wiki/Master_%28Peerage_of_Scotland%29 "Master (Peerage of Scotland)") of \[X]".{{cite web\|title\=Viscount and Viscountess\|url\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\-address/titles/viscount\-and\-viscountess\|date\=n.d.\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|publisher\=\[\[Debretts]]}}
#### Ireland
The title of viscount ({{Lang\-ga\|bíocunta}}) was introduced to the [Peerage of Ireland](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland "Peerage of Ireland") in 1478 with the creation of the title of [Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Viscount_Gormanston "Viscount Gormanston"), the premier viscountcy of Britain and Ireland, held today by [Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Nicholas_Preston%2C_17th_Viscount_Gormanston "Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston"). Other early Irish viscountcies were [Viscount Baltinglass](/wiki/Viscount_Baltinglass "Viscount Baltinglass") (1541\), [Viscount Clontarf](/wiki/John_Rawson%2C_1st_Viscount_Clontarf "John Rawson, 1st Viscount Clontarf") (1541\), [Viscount Mountgarret](/wiki/Viscount_Mountgarret "Viscount Mountgarret") (1550\) and [Viscount Decies](/wiki/Viscount_Decies "Viscount Decies") (1569\).
#### Use as a courtesy title
A specifically British custom is the use of viscount as a [courtesy title](/wiki/Courtesy_title "Courtesy title") for the heir of an earl or [marquess](/wiki/Marquess "Marquess"). The peer's [heir apparent](/wiki/Heir_apparent "Heir apparent") will sometimes be referred to as a viscount, if the second most senior title held by the head of the family is a viscountcy. For example, the eldest son of the [Earl Howe](/wiki/Earl_Howe "Earl Howe") is [Viscount Curzon](/wiki/Viscount_Curzon "Viscount Curzon"), because this is the second most senior title held by the Earl.{{cite web\|title\=Courtesy Titles\|url\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\-address/titles/courtesy\-titles\|date\=n.d.\|publisher\=\[\[Debretts]]\|access\-date\=18 June 2014}}
However, the son of a marquess or an earl can be referred to as a viscount when the title of viscount is not the second most senior if those above it share their name with the [substantive title](/wiki/Substantive_title "Substantive title"). For example, the second most senior title of the [Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Marquess_of_Salisbury "Marquess of Salisbury") is the [Earl of Salisbury](/wiki/Earl_of_Salisbury "Earl of Salisbury"), so his heir uses the lower title of [Viscount Cranborne](/wiki/Viscount_Cranborne "Viscount Cranborne").
Sometimes, the son of a peer is referred to as a viscount even when he could use a more senior courtesy title which differs in name from the substantive title. Family tradition plays a role in this. For example, the eldest son of the [Marquess of Londonderry](/wiki/Marquess_of_Londonderry "Marquess of Londonderry") is Viscount Castlereagh, even though the Marquess is also the Earl Vane.
On occasion, the title of viscount may be the courtesy title used for the grandson of a duke, provided that he is the eldest son of the duke's eldest son. This is because the eldest son of the duke will be given the second\-highest title of his father (marquess or earl), and so the third\-highest is left for his eldest son. It is possible for the great\-grandson of a duke to hold the courtesy title of viscount if the duke's eldest son has the courtesy title marquess and his eldest son, in turn, uses the title of earl.
#### Coronet
[right\|thumb\|150px\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet "Coronet") of a British viscount.](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.svg "Coronet of a British Viscount.svg")
[right\|thumb\|150px\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet "Coronet") of the 6th [Viscount Clifden](/wiki/Viscount_Clifden "Viscount Clifden").](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.jpg "Coronet of a British Viscount.jpg")
A viscount's [coronet](/wiki/Coronet "Coronet") of rank bears 16 silver balls around the rim. Like all heraldic coronets, it is mostly worn at the [Coronation of the British monarch](/wiki/Coronation_of_the_British_monarch "Coronation of the British monarch"), but a viscount has the right to bear his coronet of rank on his [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms"), above the shield. In this guise, the coronet is shown face\-on, featuring 9 silver balls.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.debretts.com/people/essential\-guide\-peerage/ceremonial\-robes\|publisher\=\[\[Debretts]]\|date\=n.d.\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|title\=Ceremonial Robes}}
### Jersey
The island of [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey "Jersey") (a British [Crown Dependency](/wiki/Crown_Dependencies "Crown Dependencies")) still retains an officer whose function is purely to administer orders of the island's judiciary, and whose position remains non\-hereditary. The role of the [Viscount of Jersey](/wiki/Viscount_of_Jersey "Viscount of Jersey") ([French](/wiki/French_language "French language"): *Vicomte de Jersey*) involves managing fines, bail monies, seizures, confiscations, evictions, service of process, arrests for non\-appearance in court and other enforcement procedures, as well acting as [coroner](/wiki/Coroner "Coroner") for sudden or unexpected deaths and managing [jury selection](/wiki/Jury_selection "Jury selection").{{cite web\|title\=Functions of the Viscount's Department\|publisher\=States of Jersey\|url\=http://www.gov.je/Government/NonexecLegal/Viscount/Pages/Functions.aspx\|date\=n.d.\|access\-date\=17 June 2014}}
### France
In France until the end of the [Second French Empire](/wiki/Second_French_Empire "Second French Empire"), the title of *vicomte* was below *comte* and above *baron* in precedence.{{cite book \|last1\=Saillens \|first1\=Émile \|title\=Facts about France: Brief Answers to Recurring Questions \|date\=1918 \|publisher\=\[\[Hachette (publisher)\|Librairie Hachette]] \|location\=Paris \|page\=166 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zbRBAAAAYAAJ\&dq\=duc\+marquis\+comte\+vicomte\+baron\&pg\=PA166 \|access\-date\=30 June 2021}}
### Portugal
In the former kingdom of [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") a *visconde* ranks above a *barão* (baron) and below a *conde* (count). The first Portuguese viscountcy, that of D. Leonel de Lima, visconde de Vila Nova de Cerveira, dates from the reign of [Afonso V](/wiki/Alfonso_V_of_Portugal "Alfonso V of Portugal"). A flood of viscountcies, some 86 new titles, were awarded in Portugal between 1848 and 1880\.
### Spain
{{main\|List of viscounts in the peerage of Spain}}
The Spanish title of *vizconde* is ranked between the title *conde* (count/earl) and the relatively rare title of *barón*.
In Spain, nobles are classified as either Grandee of Spain (Grandes de España), as titled nobles, or as untitled nobles. A grandee of any rank outranks a non\-grandee, even if that non\-grandee's title is of a higher degree, thus, a viscount\-grandee enjoys higher precedence than a marquis who is not a grandee.
In the kingdom of Spain the title was awarded from the reign of [Felipe IV](/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain "Philip IV of Spain") (1621–65; Habsburg dynasty) until 1846\.
|
[
"Early modern and contemporary usage\n-----------------------------------",
"### Belgium",
"In Belgium a few families{{cn\\|reason\\=families or people?\\|date\\=July 2024}} are recognised as Viscounts:\n* [Viscount of Audenaerde](/wiki/Viscount_of_Audenaerde \"Viscount of Audenaerde\")\n* [Viscount of Hombeke](/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Locquet%2C_1st_Viscount_of_Hombeke \"Jean-Antoine Locquet, 1st Viscount of Hombeke\")\n* [Viscount de Spoelberch](/wiki/Spoelberch \"Spoelberch\")\n* [Viscount Eyskens](/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens \"Gaston Eyskens\")\n* Viscount Savoir\n* [Viscount Poullet](/wiki/Prosper_Poullet \"Prosper Poullet\")\n* [Viscount Frimout](/wiki/Dirk_Frimout \"Dirk Frimout\")\n* [Viscount De Winne](/wiki/Frank_De_Winne \"Frank De Winne\")",
"### United Kingdom",
"{{Peerage \\|Ranks\\=expanded}}\nViscounts are the fourth rank in the [British peerage](/wiki/Peerages_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Peerages in the United Kingdom\"), standing directly below an [earl](/wiki/Earl \"Earl\") and above a [baron](/wiki/Baron \"Baron\") ([Lord of Parliament](/wiki/Lord_of_Parliament \"Lord of Parliament\") in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\")). There are approximately 270 viscountcies extant in the peerages of the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles \"British Isles\"), though most are [secondary titles](/wiki/Subsidiary_title \"Subsidiary title\").{{cite web\\|title\\=The Roll of the Peerage\\|last1\\=Denyer\\|first1\\=Ian\\|last2\\=Bavister\\|first2\\=Grant\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[College of Arms]]\\|url\\=http://www.college\\-of\\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|orig\\-year\\=2004\\|year\\=2014\\|archive\\-date\\=17 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717034647/http://www.college\\-of\\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In British practice, the title of a viscount may be a place name, a surname, or a combination: examples include the [Viscount Falmouth](/wiki/Viscount_Falmouth \"Viscount Falmouth\"), the [Viscount Hardinge](/wiki/Viscount_Hardinge \"Viscount Hardinge\") and the [Viscount Colville of Culross](/wiki/Viscount_Colville_of_Culross \"Viscount Colville of Culross\"). Some viscounts in the peerage of Scotland were traditionally styled \"The Viscount *of* \\[X]\", such as the [Viscount of Arbuthnott](/wiki/Viscount_of_Arbuthnott \"Viscount of Arbuthnott\"). In practice, however, very few maintain this style, instead using the more common version \"The Viscount \\[X]\" in general parlance, for example [Viscount of Falkland](/wiki/Viscount_of_Falkland \"Viscount of Falkland\") who is referred to as Viscount Falkland.",
"A British viscount is addressed in speech as *Lord \\[X]*, while his wife is *Lady \\[X]*, and he is formally styled \"[The Right Honourable](/wiki/The_Right_Honourable \"The Right Honourable\") The Viscount \\[X]\". The children of a viscount are known as *[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable \"The Honourable\") \\[Forename] \\[Surname]*, with the exception of a Scottish viscount, whose eldest child may be styled as \"[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable \"The Honourable\") [Master](/wiki/Master_%28Peerage_of_Scotland%29 \"Master (Peerage of Scotland)\") of \\[X]\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Viscount and Viscountess\\|url\\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\\-address/titles/viscount\\-and\\-viscountess\\|date\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Debretts]]}}",
"#### Ireland",
"The title of viscount ({{Lang\\-ga\\|bíocunta}}) was introduced to the [Peerage of Ireland](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland \"Peerage of Ireland\") in 1478 with the creation of the title of [Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Viscount_Gormanston \"Viscount Gormanston\"), the premier viscountcy of Britain and Ireland, held today by [Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Nicholas_Preston%2C_17th_Viscount_Gormanston \"Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston\"). Other early Irish viscountcies were [Viscount Baltinglass](/wiki/Viscount_Baltinglass \"Viscount Baltinglass\") (1541\\), [Viscount Clontarf](/wiki/John_Rawson%2C_1st_Viscount_Clontarf \"John Rawson, 1st Viscount Clontarf\") (1541\\), [Viscount Mountgarret](/wiki/Viscount_Mountgarret \"Viscount Mountgarret\") (1550\\) and [Viscount Decies](/wiki/Viscount_Decies \"Viscount Decies\") (1569\\).",
"#### Use as a courtesy title",
"A specifically British custom is the use of viscount as a [courtesy title](/wiki/Courtesy_title \"Courtesy title\") for the heir of an earl or [marquess](/wiki/Marquess \"Marquess\"). The peer's [heir apparent](/wiki/Heir_apparent \"Heir apparent\") will sometimes be referred to as a viscount, if the second most senior title held by the head of the family is a viscountcy. For example, the eldest son of the [Earl Howe](/wiki/Earl_Howe \"Earl Howe\") is [Viscount Curzon](/wiki/Viscount_Curzon \"Viscount Curzon\"), because this is the second most senior title held by the Earl.{{cite web\\|title\\=Courtesy Titles\\|url\\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\\-address/titles/courtesy\\-titles\\|date\\=n.d.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Debretts]]\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014}}",
"However, the son of a marquess or an earl can be referred to as a viscount when the title of viscount is not the second most senior if those above it share their name with the [substantive title](/wiki/Substantive_title \"Substantive title\"). For example, the second most senior title of the [Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Marquess_of_Salisbury \"Marquess of Salisbury\") is the [Earl of Salisbury](/wiki/Earl_of_Salisbury \"Earl of Salisbury\"), so his heir uses the lower title of [Viscount Cranborne](/wiki/Viscount_Cranborne \"Viscount Cranborne\").",
"Sometimes, the son of a peer is referred to as a viscount even when he could use a more senior courtesy title which differs in name from the substantive title. Family tradition plays a role in this. For example, the eldest son of the [Marquess of Londonderry](/wiki/Marquess_of_Londonderry \"Marquess of Londonderry\") is Viscount Castlereagh, even though the Marquess is also the Earl Vane.",
"On occasion, the title of viscount may be the courtesy title used for the grandson of a duke, provided that he is the eldest son of the duke's eldest son. This is because the eldest son of the duke will be given the second\\-highest title of his father (marquess or earl), and so the third\\-highest is left for his eldest son. It is possible for the great\\-grandson of a duke to hold the courtesy title of viscount if the duke's eldest son has the courtesy title marquess and his eldest son, in turn, uses the title of earl.",
"#### Coronet",
"[right\\|thumb\\|150px\\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet \"Coronet\") of a British viscount.](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.svg \"Coronet of a British Viscount.svg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|150px\\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet \"Coronet\") of the 6th [Viscount Clifden](/wiki/Viscount_Clifden \"Viscount Clifden\").](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.jpg \"Coronet of a British Viscount.jpg\")\nA viscount's [coronet](/wiki/Coronet \"Coronet\") of rank bears 16 silver balls around the rim. Like all heraldic coronets, it is mostly worn at the [Coronation of the British monarch](/wiki/Coronation_of_the_British_monarch \"Coronation of the British monarch\"), but a viscount has the right to bear his coronet of rank on his [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\"), above the shield. In this guise, the coronet is shown face\\-on, featuring 9 silver balls.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.debretts.com/people/essential\\-guide\\-peerage/ceremonial\\-robes\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Debretts]]\\|date\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|title\\=Ceremonial Robes}}",
"### Jersey",
"The island of [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey \"Jersey\") (a British [Crown Dependency](/wiki/Crown_Dependencies \"Crown Dependencies\")) still retains an officer whose function is purely to administer orders of the island's judiciary, and whose position remains non\\-hereditary. The role of the [Viscount of Jersey](/wiki/Viscount_of_Jersey \"Viscount of Jersey\") ([French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\"): *Vicomte de Jersey*) involves managing fines, bail monies, seizures, confiscations, evictions, service of process, arrests for non\\-appearance in court and other enforcement procedures, as well acting as [coroner](/wiki/Coroner \"Coroner\") for sudden or unexpected deaths and managing [jury selection](/wiki/Jury_selection \"Jury selection\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Functions of the Viscount's Department\\|publisher\\=States of Jersey\\|url\\=http://www.gov.je/Government/NonexecLegal/Viscount/Pages/Functions.aspx\\|date\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2014}}",
"### France",
"In France until the end of the [Second French Empire](/wiki/Second_French_Empire \"Second French Empire\"), the title of *vicomte* was below *comte* and above *baron* in precedence.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Saillens \\|first1\\=Émile \\|title\\=Facts about France: Brief Answers to Recurring Questions \\|date\\=1918 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hachette (publisher)\\|Librairie Hachette]] \\|location\\=Paris \\|page\\=166 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zbRBAAAAYAAJ\\&dq\\=duc\\+marquis\\+comte\\+vicomte\\+baron\\&pg\\=PA166 \\|access\\-date\\=30 June 2021}}",
"### Portugal",
"In the former kingdom of [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") a *visconde* ranks above a *barão* (baron) and below a *conde* (count). The first Portuguese viscountcy, that of D. Leonel de Lima, visconde de Vila Nova de Cerveira, dates from the reign of [Afonso V](/wiki/Alfonso_V_of_Portugal \"Alfonso V of Portugal\"). A flood of viscountcies, some 86 new titles, were awarded in Portugal between 1848 and 1880\\.",
"### Spain",
"{{main\\|List of viscounts in the peerage of Spain}}\nThe Spanish title of *vizconde* is ranked between the title *conde* (count/earl) and the relatively rare title of *barón*.",
"In Spain, nobles are classified as either Grandee of Spain (Grandes de España), as titled nobles, or as untitled nobles. A grandee of any rank outranks a non\\-grandee, even if that non\\-grandee's title is of a higher degree, thus, a viscount\\-grandee enjoys higher precedence than a marquis who is not a grandee.",
"In the kingdom of Spain the title was awarded from the reign of [Felipe IV](/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain \"Philip IV of Spain\") (1621–65; Habsburg dynasty) until 1846\\.",
""
] |
### United Kingdom
{{Peerage \|Ranks\=expanded}}
Viscounts are the fourth rank in the [British peerage](/wiki/Peerages_in_the_United_Kingdom "Peerages in the United Kingdom"), standing directly below an [earl](/wiki/Earl "Earl") and above a [baron](/wiki/Baron "Baron") ([Lord of Parliament](/wiki/Lord_of_Parliament "Lord of Parliament") in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland")). There are approximately 270 viscountcies extant in the peerages of the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles"), though most are [secondary titles](/wiki/Subsidiary_title "Subsidiary title").{{cite web\|title\=The Roll of the Peerage\|last1\=Denyer\|first1\=Ian\|last2\=Bavister\|first2\=Grant\|publisher\=\[\[College of Arms]]\|url\=http://www.college\-of\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|orig\-year\=2004\|year\=2014\|archive\-date\=17 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717034647/http://www.college\-of\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}
In British practice, the title of a viscount may be a place name, a surname, or a combination: examples include the [Viscount Falmouth](/wiki/Viscount_Falmouth "Viscount Falmouth"), the [Viscount Hardinge](/wiki/Viscount_Hardinge "Viscount Hardinge") and the [Viscount Colville of Culross](/wiki/Viscount_Colville_of_Culross "Viscount Colville of Culross"). Some viscounts in the peerage of Scotland were traditionally styled "The Viscount *of* \[X]", such as the [Viscount of Arbuthnott](/wiki/Viscount_of_Arbuthnott "Viscount of Arbuthnott"). In practice, however, very few maintain this style, instead using the more common version "The Viscount \[X]" in general parlance, for example [Viscount of Falkland](/wiki/Viscount_of_Falkland "Viscount of Falkland") who is referred to as Viscount Falkland.
A British viscount is addressed in speech as *Lord \[X]*, while his wife is *Lady \[X]*, and he is formally styled "[The Right Honourable](/wiki/The_Right_Honourable "The Right Honourable") The Viscount \[X]". The children of a viscount are known as *[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable "The Honourable") \[Forename] \[Surname]*, with the exception of a Scottish viscount, whose eldest child may be styled as "[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable "The Honourable") [Master](/wiki/Master_%28Peerage_of_Scotland%29 "Master (Peerage of Scotland)") of \[X]".{{cite web\|title\=Viscount and Viscountess\|url\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\-address/titles/viscount\-and\-viscountess\|date\=n.d.\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|publisher\=\[\[Debretts]]}}
#### Ireland
The title of viscount ({{Lang\-ga\|bíocunta}}) was introduced to the [Peerage of Ireland](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland "Peerage of Ireland") in 1478 with the creation of the title of [Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Viscount_Gormanston "Viscount Gormanston"), the premier viscountcy of Britain and Ireland, held today by [Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Nicholas_Preston%2C_17th_Viscount_Gormanston "Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston"). Other early Irish viscountcies were [Viscount Baltinglass](/wiki/Viscount_Baltinglass "Viscount Baltinglass") (1541\), [Viscount Clontarf](/wiki/John_Rawson%2C_1st_Viscount_Clontarf "John Rawson, 1st Viscount Clontarf") (1541\), [Viscount Mountgarret](/wiki/Viscount_Mountgarret "Viscount Mountgarret") (1550\) and [Viscount Decies](/wiki/Viscount_Decies "Viscount Decies") (1569\).
#### Use as a courtesy title
A specifically British custom is the use of viscount as a [courtesy title](/wiki/Courtesy_title "Courtesy title") for the heir of an earl or [marquess](/wiki/Marquess "Marquess"). The peer's [heir apparent](/wiki/Heir_apparent "Heir apparent") will sometimes be referred to as a viscount, if the second most senior title held by the head of the family is a viscountcy. For example, the eldest son of the [Earl Howe](/wiki/Earl_Howe "Earl Howe") is [Viscount Curzon](/wiki/Viscount_Curzon "Viscount Curzon"), because this is the second most senior title held by the Earl.{{cite web\|title\=Courtesy Titles\|url\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\-address/titles/courtesy\-titles\|date\=n.d.\|publisher\=\[\[Debretts]]\|access\-date\=18 June 2014}}
However, the son of a marquess or an earl can be referred to as a viscount when the title of viscount is not the second most senior if those above it share their name with the [substantive title](/wiki/Substantive_title "Substantive title"). For example, the second most senior title of the [Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Marquess_of_Salisbury "Marquess of Salisbury") is the [Earl of Salisbury](/wiki/Earl_of_Salisbury "Earl of Salisbury"), so his heir uses the lower title of [Viscount Cranborne](/wiki/Viscount_Cranborne "Viscount Cranborne").
Sometimes, the son of a peer is referred to as a viscount even when he could use a more senior courtesy title which differs in name from the substantive title. Family tradition plays a role in this. For example, the eldest son of the [Marquess of Londonderry](/wiki/Marquess_of_Londonderry "Marquess of Londonderry") is Viscount Castlereagh, even though the Marquess is also the Earl Vane.
On occasion, the title of viscount may be the courtesy title used for the grandson of a duke, provided that he is the eldest son of the duke's eldest son. This is because the eldest son of the duke will be given the second\-highest title of his father (marquess or earl), and so the third\-highest is left for his eldest son. It is possible for the great\-grandson of a duke to hold the courtesy title of viscount if the duke's eldest son has the courtesy title marquess and his eldest son, in turn, uses the title of earl.
#### Coronet
[right\|thumb\|150px\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet "Coronet") of a British viscount.](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.svg "Coronet of a British Viscount.svg")
[right\|thumb\|150px\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet "Coronet") of the 6th [Viscount Clifden](/wiki/Viscount_Clifden "Viscount Clifden").](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.jpg "Coronet of a British Viscount.jpg")
A viscount's [coronet](/wiki/Coronet "Coronet") of rank bears 16 silver balls around the rim. Like all heraldic coronets, it is mostly worn at the [Coronation of the British monarch](/wiki/Coronation_of_the_British_monarch "Coronation of the British monarch"), but a viscount has the right to bear his coronet of rank on his [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms"), above the shield. In this guise, the coronet is shown face\-on, featuring 9 silver balls.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.debretts.com/people/essential\-guide\-peerage/ceremonial\-robes\|publisher\=\[\[Debretts]]\|date\=n.d.\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|title\=Ceremonial Robes}}
|
[
"### United Kingdom",
"{{Peerage \\|Ranks\\=expanded}}\nViscounts are the fourth rank in the [British peerage](/wiki/Peerages_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Peerages in the United Kingdom\"), standing directly below an [earl](/wiki/Earl \"Earl\") and above a [baron](/wiki/Baron \"Baron\") ([Lord of Parliament](/wiki/Lord_of_Parliament \"Lord of Parliament\") in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\")). There are approximately 270 viscountcies extant in the peerages of the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles \"British Isles\"), though most are [secondary titles](/wiki/Subsidiary_title \"Subsidiary title\").{{cite web\\|title\\=The Roll of the Peerage\\|last1\\=Denyer\\|first1\\=Ian\\|last2\\=Bavister\\|first2\\=Grant\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[College of Arms]]\\|url\\=http://www.college\\-of\\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|orig\\-year\\=2004\\|year\\=2014\\|archive\\-date\\=17 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717034647/http://www.college\\-of\\-arms.gov.uk/images/downloads/Roll%20of%20the%20Peerage.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In British practice, the title of a viscount may be a place name, a surname, or a combination: examples include the [Viscount Falmouth](/wiki/Viscount_Falmouth \"Viscount Falmouth\"), the [Viscount Hardinge](/wiki/Viscount_Hardinge \"Viscount Hardinge\") and the [Viscount Colville of Culross](/wiki/Viscount_Colville_of_Culross \"Viscount Colville of Culross\"). Some viscounts in the peerage of Scotland were traditionally styled \"The Viscount *of* \\[X]\", such as the [Viscount of Arbuthnott](/wiki/Viscount_of_Arbuthnott \"Viscount of Arbuthnott\"). In practice, however, very few maintain this style, instead using the more common version \"The Viscount \\[X]\" in general parlance, for example [Viscount of Falkland](/wiki/Viscount_of_Falkland \"Viscount of Falkland\") who is referred to as Viscount Falkland.",
"A British viscount is addressed in speech as *Lord \\[X]*, while his wife is *Lady \\[X]*, and he is formally styled \"[The Right Honourable](/wiki/The_Right_Honourable \"The Right Honourable\") The Viscount \\[X]\". The children of a viscount are known as *[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable \"The Honourable\") \\[Forename] \\[Surname]*, with the exception of a Scottish viscount, whose eldest child may be styled as \"[The Honourable](/wiki/The_Honourable \"The Honourable\") [Master](/wiki/Master_%28Peerage_of_Scotland%29 \"Master (Peerage of Scotland)\") of \\[X]\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Viscount and Viscountess\\|url\\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\\-address/titles/viscount\\-and\\-viscountess\\|date\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Debretts]]}}",
"#### Ireland",
"The title of viscount ({{Lang\\-ga\\|bíocunta}}) was introduced to the [Peerage of Ireland](/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland \"Peerage of Ireland\") in 1478 with the creation of the title of [Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Viscount_Gormanston \"Viscount Gormanston\"), the premier viscountcy of Britain and Ireland, held today by [Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston](/wiki/Nicholas_Preston%2C_17th_Viscount_Gormanston \"Nicholas Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston\"). Other early Irish viscountcies were [Viscount Baltinglass](/wiki/Viscount_Baltinglass \"Viscount Baltinglass\") (1541\\), [Viscount Clontarf](/wiki/John_Rawson%2C_1st_Viscount_Clontarf \"John Rawson, 1st Viscount Clontarf\") (1541\\), [Viscount Mountgarret](/wiki/Viscount_Mountgarret \"Viscount Mountgarret\") (1550\\) and [Viscount Decies](/wiki/Viscount_Decies \"Viscount Decies\") (1569\\).",
"#### Use as a courtesy title",
"A specifically British custom is the use of viscount as a [courtesy title](/wiki/Courtesy_title \"Courtesy title\") for the heir of an earl or [marquess](/wiki/Marquess \"Marquess\"). The peer's [heir apparent](/wiki/Heir_apparent \"Heir apparent\") will sometimes be referred to as a viscount, if the second most senior title held by the head of the family is a viscountcy. For example, the eldest son of the [Earl Howe](/wiki/Earl_Howe \"Earl Howe\") is [Viscount Curzon](/wiki/Viscount_Curzon \"Viscount Curzon\"), because this is the second most senior title held by the Earl.{{cite web\\|title\\=Courtesy Titles\\|url\\=http://www.debretts.com/forms\\-address/titles/courtesy\\-titles\\|date\\=n.d.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Debretts]]\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014}}",
"However, the son of a marquess or an earl can be referred to as a viscount when the title of viscount is not the second most senior if those above it share their name with the [substantive title](/wiki/Substantive_title \"Substantive title\"). For example, the second most senior title of the [Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Marquess_of_Salisbury \"Marquess of Salisbury\") is the [Earl of Salisbury](/wiki/Earl_of_Salisbury \"Earl of Salisbury\"), so his heir uses the lower title of [Viscount Cranborne](/wiki/Viscount_Cranborne \"Viscount Cranborne\").",
"Sometimes, the son of a peer is referred to as a viscount even when he could use a more senior courtesy title which differs in name from the substantive title. Family tradition plays a role in this. For example, the eldest son of the [Marquess of Londonderry](/wiki/Marquess_of_Londonderry \"Marquess of Londonderry\") is Viscount Castlereagh, even though the Marquess is also the Earl Vane.",
"On occasion, the title of viscount may be the courtesy title used for the grandson of a duke, provided that he is the eldest son of the duke's eldest son. This is because the eldest son of the duke will be given the second\\-highest title of his father (marquess or earl), and so the third\\-highest is left for his eldest son. It is possible for the great\\-grandson of a duke to hold the courtesy title of viscount if the duke's eldest son has the courtesy title marquess and his eldest son, in turn, uses the title of earl.",
"#### Coronet",
"[right\\|thumb\\|150px\\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet \"Coronet\") of a British viscount.](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.svg \"Coronet of a British Viscount.svg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|150px\\|[Coronet](/wiki/Coronet \"Coronet\") of the 6th [Viscount Clifden](/wiki/Viscount_Clifden \"Viscount Clifden\").](/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Viscount.jpg \"Coronet of a British Viscount.jpg\")\nA viscount's [coronet](/wiki/Coronet \"Coronet\") of rank bears 16 silver balls around the rim. Like all heraldic coronets, it is mostly worn at the [Coronation of the British monarch](/wiki/Coronation_of_the_British_monarch \"Coronation of the British monarch\"), but a viscount has the right to bear his coronet of rank on his [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\"), above the shield. In this guise, the coronet is shown face\\-on, featuring 9 silver balls.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.debretts.com/people/essential\\-guide\\-peerage/ceremonial\\-robes\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Debretts]]\\|date\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|title\\=Ceremonial Robes}}",
""
] |
Fictional character biography
-----------------------------
Herman Schultz was born in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). He was a [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school") [dropout](/wiki/wikt:Dropout "Dropout") who had brilliant talents as both an inventor and an engineer. Instead of using such talents to gain legitimate employment, he became a successful burglar and the world's best [safe\-cracker](/wiki/Safe-cracking "Safe-cracking") (according to him in later stories). After finally being caught and incarcerated for his crimes, he developed a pair of gauntlets designed to shoot air blasts, vibrating at high frequency.{{cite book \|last\=Rovin \|first\=Jeff \|title\=\[\[The Encyclopedia of Super\-Villains]] \|date\=1987 \|publisher\=Facts on File \|isbn\=0\-8160\-1356\-X \|location\=New York \|page\=315\-316 \|authorlink\=Jeff Rovin}}<https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsu0000rovi_h5r9/page/314/mode/2up> Schultz uses his gauntlets to escape from prison and becomes the supervillain known as "the Shocker".{{cite book \|last1\=Brevoort \|first1\=Tom \|last2\=DeFalco \|first2\=Tom \|last3\=Manning \|first3\=Matthew K. \|last4\=Sanderson \|first4\=Peter \|last5\=Wiacek \|first5\=Win \|title\=Marvel Year By Year: A Visual History \|date\=2017 \|publisher\=DK Publishing \|isbn\=978\-1465455505 \|page\=121}} He defeats [Spider\-Man](/wiki/Spider-Man "Spider-Man") in their first confrontation (Spider\-Man was at a disadvantage due to having a bad left arm sprain from an earlier battle with the [Lizard](/wiki/Lizard_%28comics%29 "Lizard (comics)")*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#44–45\. Marvel Comics.) during a robbery. While robbing a bank, he was later beaten and sent back to prison after Spider\-Man pinned Schultz's thumbs away from the gauntlets' triggers with his webbing and then knocked him out.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#46\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker later stole an ancient stone tablet with an inscription for a formula that could restore youth, that had been earlier stolen by the [Kingpin](/wiki/Kingpin_%28comics%29 "Kingpin (comics)").*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#72\. Marvel Comics. Likely Schultz's most ambitious solo exploit was his attempt to hold New York City for ransom by blacking out various electrical grids to spell out his name, and extort one million dollars from the city.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#151–152\. Marvel Comics. He then made one million dollars by harassing a stock broker.*The Defenders* \#64\. Marvel Comics. Shocker later joined [Egghead](/wiki/Egghead_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Egghead (Marvel Comics)")'s [Masters of Evil](/wiki/Masters_of_Evil "Masters of Evil") (with [Radioactive Man](/wiki/Radioactive_Man_%28comics%29 "Radioactive Man (comics)"), [Tiger Shark](/wiki/Tiger_Shark_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Tiger Shark (Marvel Comics)"), [Moonstone](/wiki/Karla_Sofen "Karla Sofen"), and [Beetle](/wiki/Abner_Jenkins "Abner Jenkins")) to incriminate [Dr. Henry Pym](/wiki/Hank_Pym "Hank Pym"), then on trial for treason. The Masters battled the [Avengers](/wiki/Avengers_%28comics%29 "Avengers (comics)") in this encounter; Shocker was brainwashed and purposely abandoned by Egghead to deliver a false testimony,*Avengers* \#228\. Marvel Comics. and subsequently cooperated with the authorities in exonerating the ex\-Avenger.*The Avengers* \#229\. Marvel Comics. Shocker was later hired by the Nazi war criminal Baron Von Lundt to kill [Dominic Fortune](/wiki/Dominic_Fortune "Dominic Fortune"), and built the vibro\-shock units into his entire uniform to do so.*Web of Spider\-Man* \#10\. Marvel Comics. Shocker was hired by the [Chameleon](/wiki/Chameleon_%28comics%29 "Chameleon (comics)") and [Hammerhead](/wiki/Hammerhead_%28comics%29 "Hammerhead (comics)") to induce [Electro](/wiki/Electro_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Electro (Marvel Comics)") to join their organization.*The Spectacular Spider\-Man* \#157\. Marvel Comics. Shocker later attempted to steal thousands of charity dollars at the celebrity fund raiser for the New York City Library.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#335\. Marvel Comics. He's captured by Spider\-Man and sent to prison. He later escapes with the help of fellow inmate [Boomerang](/wiki/Boomerang_%28comics%29 "Boomerang (comics)"). By this time, he's developed severe confidence issues and has become terrified that the [Scourge of the Underworld](/wiki/Scourge_of_the_Underworld "Scourge of the Underworld") is going to kill him. A tipping point occurs when Spider\-Man apprehends him and seems to not take him seriously. Enraged, Shocker defeats Spider\-Man and is about to finish him off when a Scourge imposter intervenes, causing Shocker to flee.*The Deadly Foes of Spider\-Man* \#1–3\. Marvel Comics. When he next appeared his confidence issues are gone. He aims to hunt down Scourge himself and kill him first.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#364\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker has proven to be a constant presence among Spider\-Man's gallery of enemies. He often works as a member of a team (including [Hobgoblin](/wiki/Hobgoblin_%28comics%29 "Hobgoblin (comics)")'s [Sinister Seven](/wiki/Sinister_Six%23Sinister_Seven "Sinister Six#Sinister Seven"), [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn "Norman Osborn")'s [Sinister Twelve](/wiki/Sinister_Six%23Sinister_Twelve "Sinister Six#Sinister Twelve"), [Doctor Octopus](/wiki/Doctor_Octopus "Doctor Octopus")'s most recent [Sinister Six](/wiki/Sinister_Six%23Civil_War%27s_Sinister_Six "Sinister Six#Civil War's Sinister Six"), and the Masters of Evil) or in partnership with at least one other villain. Previous alliances include Boomerang, the Beetle, [Rhino](/wiki/Rhino_%28comics%29 "Rhino (comics)"), [Leila Davis](/wiki/Leila_Davis "Leila Davis"), [Hydro\-Man](/wiki/Hydro-Man "Hydro-Man"), and [Speed Demon](/wiki/Speed_Demon_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Speed Demon (Marvel Comics)") (all of which made up the [Sinister Syndicate](/wiki/Sinister_Syndicate "Sinister Syndicate")), and the [Trapster](/wiki/Trapster "Trapster"), [Constrictor](/wiki/Constrictor_%28comics%29 "Constrictor (comics)") and [Jack O'Lantern](/wiki/Jack_O%27Lantern_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Jack O'Lantern (Marvel Comics)"). He also teamed up with a large group of villains during the [Acts of Vengeance](/wiki/Acts_of_Vengeance "Acts of Vengeance"), when he helped them unsuccessfully attack the [Fantastic Four](/wiki/Fantastic_Four "Fantastic Four").*Fantastic Four* \#334\. Marvel Comics. During one of his team\-ups with Doctor Octopus, he participated in a raid on [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion "Avengers Mansion"), hoping to help conquer it as the heroes were distracted by the events of [the Infinity War](/wiki/The_Infinity_War "The Infinity War"). Shocker was forced to fight alongside the heroes called the [Guardians of the Galaxy](/wiki/Guardians_of_the_Galaxy_%281969_team%29 "Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)") when alien doubles of both sides attacked. After the doubles stopped coming, Doctor Octopus tried to order Shocker and the others to continue fighting the heroes but instead, they turned on Doctor Octopus. They did not wish to harm the people who had helped save their lives. Shocker helped chase Doctor Octopus out of the building.*Guardians of the Galaxy* \#28–29\. Marvel Comics.
At one point in his career, Shocker became increasingly paranoid that he was on the Scourge of the Underworld's hit list, even though there was no actual proof that he was.*The Deadly Foes of Spider\-Man* \#1\. Marvel Comics. He thus started seeking ways to become more powerful, hoping to thwart any attempt on his life by the vigilante group. Shocker somehow acquired actual superhuman vibration powers. As he becomes more powerful, he realizes that the new powers will eventually kill him. He seeks a vibrational harness to cure himself and is aided by [Night Thrasher](/wiki/Night_Thrasher_%28Dwayne_Taylor%29 "Night Thrasher (Dwayne Taylor)") and Spider\-Man.*Web of Spider\-Man* \#109\. Marvel Comics. Shocker has had Spider\-Man on the ropes on several occasions, with timely interventions often saving Spider\-Man. Individuals thwarting Shocker's victories over Spider\-Man include security guards, Dominic Fortune, and even a Scourge of the Underworld impostor. Shocker has also let Spider\-Man go on a few occasions, the first being when he found Spider\-Man incapacitated with a bout of vertigo on the outside of a tall building. He doesn't kill Spider\-Man, thinking it an unworthy end, but doesn't help him either.*Spider\-Man* \#83\. Marvel Comics. Shocker found another moment of victory over Spider\-Man when he teamed up with the Trapster. Sent by the [Friends of Humanity](/wiki/Friends_of_Humanity "Friends of Humanity") to assassinate [Paul Stacy](/wiki/List_of_Spider-Man_supporting_characters%23Gwen_Stacy%27s_family "List of Spider-Man supporting characters#Gwen Stacy's family"), the duo managed to glue Stacy and Spider\-Man together and corner them, only to be called off their assignment moments before finishing them off.*Spider\-Man* \#85–87\. Marvel Comics. Shocker would later turn on the Trapster at the behest of Osborn of having Trapster eliminated as a potential witness against his recent attempt to frame Spider\-Man for murder. Preparing to kill the resigned Trapster in an alley, he was attacked and rendered unconscious at the last minute by Spider\-Man (then disguised under the alias [Dusk](/wiki/Dusk_%28comics%29 "Dusk (comics)")).*Spider\-Man* \#91\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker has a run\-in with [Iron Man](/wiki/Iron_Man "Iron Man") on a subway car in NYC.*Iron Man* vol. 3 \#42\. Marvel Comics. Shocker is hired by the [Golem](/wiki/Golem_%28comics%29 "Golem (comics)"), along with Constrictor and Jack O'Lantern, to protect a diamond delivery. He battles [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 "Hood (comics)").*The Hood* \#1–6\. Marvel Comics. Shocker was terminated as a freelance agent by [Hammer Industries](/wiki/Justin_Hammer "Justin Hammer") and captured by Spider\-Man while trying to rob a federal bank alongside Hydro\-Man. He accidentally evaporates his water\-based ally with a misplaced vibration.*Spider\-Man* vol. 2 \#51–52\. Marvel Comics. He allied himself with Speed Demon of the New [Thunderbolts](/wiki/Thunderbolts_%28comics%29 "Thunderbolts (comics)") to break into a particularly well\-guarded safe. Though the police arrived at his hide\-out in quick pursuit, he was saved by Speed Demon dashing in and stealing both the loot and Shocker's weapons, removing all traces of evidence (and, unfortunately for Shocker, also keeping the money to fund the Thunderbolts' further activities).*New Thunderbolts* \#8\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker plays a small role in the "[Secret War](/wiki/Secret_War_%28comics%29 "Secret War (comics)")" crossover event where he was among the villains used by [Lucia von Bardas](/wiki/Lucia_von_Bardas "Lucia von Bardas") to attack New York.*Secret War* \#3–5\. Marvel Comics.
A new version of the [Sinister Six](/wiki/Sinister_Six "Sinister Six"), with Shocker as a member, bands together during the "[Civil War](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comics%29 "Civil War (comics)")" but were stopped by [Captain America](/wiki/Captain_America "Captain America") and his [Secret Avengers](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comic_book%29%23Plot_synopsis "Civil War (comic book)#Plot synopsis").*Civil War* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker was among the group of villains that the Punisher attempts to kill at the wake of the recently deceased [Stilt\-Man](/wiki/Stilt-Man "Stilt-Man") that was held at the Bar with No Name. He survives the poisoning and fire\-bombing.*The Punisher War Journal* \#4\. Marvel Comics.*[She\-Hulk](/wiki/She-Hulk "She-Hulk")* \#17\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker was shown to have partially reformed the Sinister Syndicate alongside Hydro\-Man and Boomerang. This group attempts to rob Baily's Auction House but are interrupted by Spider\-Man and then Initiative members [War Machine](/wiki/War_Machine "War Machine") and [Komodo](/wiki/Komodo_%28comics%29%23Character_from_Avengers:The_Initiative "The Initiative"). The latter are there to neutralize Spider\-Man. The trio escapes, only to be found and attacked by government operatives called 'Scarlet Spiders'.*Avengers: The Initiative* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
In his first "[Brand New Day](/wiki/Spider-Man:Brand_New_Day "Brand New Day")" appearance, he is shown to have been hired by a mobster to take out a subway train wagon full of jurors. After a brief battle with Spider\-Man, he is knocked unconscious while Spider\-Man uses his gauntlets to destroy rubble blocking the path. Although he seems cooperative at first, as soon as he is secured by Spider\-Man, he activates a powerful shock in his gauntlets through his belt, causing the main exit to collapse and allowing him to escape.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#578–579\. Marvel Comics. On their way to collect money from bets on superhero fights, Shocker and Boomerang discover the dead body of "the Bookie".*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#584\. Marvel Comics.
During the "[Dark Reign](/wiki/Dark_Reign_%28comics%29 "Dark Reign (comics)")" storyline, Shocker appeared as a member of Hood's crime syndicate.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \#4–5
During the *Origin of the Species* storyline, Shocker is invited by Doctor Octopus to rejoin the reestablished Sinister Six, where he exchange for securing some specific items. He and Tombstone went after [Menace](/wiki/Menace_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Menace (Marvel Comics)")'s infant in the restaurant shop, until Spider\-Man interfered.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#642\. Marvel Comics. After he passes out from his fight, the police arrive but Shocker is carried away by Tombstone who escapes.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#644\. Marvel Comics. When Spider\-Man goes on a rampage against the villains after the infant was stolen by Chameleon, Shocker is attacked in his hideout and threatens Shocker to tell him everything about the villains' whereabouts. Shocker tells Spider\-Man that Chameleon has the baby at the Kravinoff Mansion.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#645\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker was then seen in the Raft due to a popular online vote at Marvel.com{{Cite web\|url\=http://marvel.com/news/story/14891/choose\_the\_next\_thunderbolt\|title \= Marvel News, Blog, Articles \& Press Releases \| Marvel}} and was selected to join the Thunderbolts's new Beta team called the Underbolts where it was revealed that [MACH\-V](/wiki/Abner_Jenkins "Abner Jenkins") has put his name on the list of likely candidates.*Thunderbolts* \#156\. Marvel Comics.
During the "[Spider\-Island](/wiki/Spider-Island "Spider-Island")" storyline, Spider\-Man and [Carlie Cooper](/wiki/Carlie_Cooper "Carlie Cooper") encounter a six\-armed Shocker. During the fight, Shocker reveals that he wants the money so that [Mad Thinker](/wiki/Mad_Thinker "Mad Thinker") can cure him. Shocker then pulls off his mask to reveal that he's slowly mutating into a spider\-like creature.*The Amazing Spider\-Man* \#669\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker later appeared as a member of Villains for Hire (a villain counterpart of [Heroes for Hire](/wiki/Heroes_for_Hire "Heroes for Hire")).*Villains for Hire* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
As part of the "[Marvel NOW!](/wiki/Marvel_NOW%21 "Marvel NOW!")", Shocker appears as a member of the latest incarnation of the Sinister Six, consisting of himself, Boomerang, [Lady Beetle](/wiki/Janice_Lincoln "Janice Lincoln"), [Speed Demon](/wiki/Speed_Demon_%28comics%29 "Speed Demon (comics)"), [Overdrive](/wiki/Overdrive_%28comics%29 "Overdrive (comics)"), and the [Living Brain](/wiki/Living_Brain "Living Brain").*[The Superior Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man "The Superior Spider-Man")* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker features as one of the main characters in *[The Superior Foes of Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Foes_of_Spider-Man "The Superior Foes of Spider-Man")*, which concludes with [Silvermane](/wiki/Silvermane "Silvermane") crowning him the new don of the New York underworld after Shocker saves dozens of mobsters by singlehandedly defeating the [Punisher](/wiki/Punisher "Punisher").{{Cite comic\| writer \= Nick Spencer\| penciller \= Steve Lieber\| inker \= Steve Lieber\| story \= Goodbye, Farewell and Good Riddance\| title \= The Superior Foes of Spider\-Man\| volume \= 1\| issue \= \#17\| date \= November 26, 2014\| publisher \= Marvel Comics\| location \= United States}} Shocker shares a meal with She\-Hulk while they discuss a memory Jennifer cannot remember, and Herman helps her by telling what little he remembers because she treated him well and bought him lunch, whereas other heroes would just beat him up and ask questions later.*She\-Hulk* vol. 3 \#5 It was then revealed that a villain named Nighteater created a spell that would murder hundreds of people but made everyone think he was not a villain, but was instead a hero named [Nightwatch](/wiki/Nightwatch_%28comics%29 "Nightwatch (comics)"), because it was more profitable. When Shocker found out, he assisted She\-Hulk in defeating Nightwatch. When asked by Nightwatch why Shocker was angry after already getting his cut, even if he had forgotten, Shocker said that it was because he wanted to be a hero too.*She\-Hulk* vol. 3 \#12\. Marvel Comics.
When New York City was covered in the Darkforce dome by the evil Captain America during the "[Secret Empire](/wiki/Secret_Empire_%282017_comic%29 "Secret Empire (2017 comic)")" storyline, Shocker and [Scorpia](/wiki/Scorpia_%28comics%29 "Scorpia (comics)") took advantage of this by robbing a bank but was stopped by [Rogue](/wiki/Rogue_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Rogue (Marvel Comics)").*Uncanny Avengers* vol. 3 \#24\. Marvel Comics. When the Shocker accidentally crushes the ground beneath them, they were surrounded by Darkforce creatures and had no choice but to work together. When they finally beat the biggest of the creatures, Rogue flies away.*Uncanny Avengers* vol. 3 \#25\. Marvel Comics. Herman Schultz is being tried for his crimes as the Shocker and Rogue volunteers herself as a character witness. Rogue said that the Shocker, from her experience when she was fighting Darkforce monsters alongside him, was smart, kind and courageous, and given the chance, could redeem himself.*Uncanny Avengers* vol. 3 \#30\. Marvel Comics.
During the "[Sinister War](/wiki/Sinister_War "Sinister War")" storyline, Shocker was with [Boomerang](/wiki/Boomerang_%28comics%29 "Boomerang (comics)"), [Hydro\-Man](/wiki/Hydro-Man "Hydro-Man"), [Speed Demon](/wiki/Speed_Demon_%28comics%29 "Speed Demon (comics)"), and [Overdrive](/wiki/Overdrive_%28character%29 "Overdrive (character)") when they were used by [Kindred](/wiki/Kindred_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Kindred (Marvel Comics)") to attack Spider\-Man.*Sinister War* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
During the "[Devil's Reign](/wiki/Devil%27s_Reign "Devil's Reign")" storyline, Shocker was seen as a member of [Mayor Wilson Fisk](/wiki/Kingpin_%28character%29 "Kingpin (character)")'s incarnation of the Thunderbolts at the time when Mayor Fisk made superhero activities illegal. After defeating [Darkhawk](/wiki/Darkhawk "Darkhawk"), Shocker tried to get [Luke Cage](/wiki/Luke_Cage "Luke Cage") and [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones "Jessica Jones") to surrender only to be defeated by them.*Devil's Reign* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
During the "[Gang War](/wiki/Gang_War_%28comics%29 "Gang War (comics)")" storyline, Shocker is among the villains hired by Hobgoblin to guard his hideout and are attacked by Scorpion, [Shift](/wiki/Shift_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Shift (Marvel Comics)"), and [Starling](/wiki/Starling_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Starling (Marvel Comics)").*Miles Morales: Spider\-Man* Vol. 2 \#15\. Marvel Comics. During Shocker's fight with Scorpion, Shocker was among the villains persuaded by him to turn against Hobgoblin.*Miles Morales: Spider\-Man* Vol. 2 \#16\. Marvel Comics.
|
[
"Fictional character biography\n-----------------------------",
"Herman Schultz was born in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). He was a [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\") [dropout](/wiki/wikt:Dropout \"Dropout\") who had brilliant talents as both an inventor and an engineer. Instead of using such talents to gain legitimate employment, he became a successful burglar and the world's best [safe\\-cracker](/wiki/Safe-cracking \"Safe-cracking\") (according to him in later stories). After finally being caught and incarcerated for his crimes, he developed a pair of gauntlets designed to shoot air blasts, vibrating at high frequency.{{cite book \\|last\\=Rovin \\|first\\=Jeff \\|title\\=\\[\\[The Encyclopedia of Super\\-Villains]] \\|date\\=1987 \\|publisher\\=Facts on File \\|isbn\\=0\\-8160\\-1356\\-X \\|location\\=New York \\|page\\=315\\-316 \\|authorlink\\=Jeff Rovin}}<https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsu0000rovi_h5r9/page/314/mode/2up> Schultz uses his gauntlets to escape from prison and becomes the supervillain known as \"the Shocker\".{{cite book \\|last1\\=Brevoort \\|first1\\=Tom \\|last2\\=DeFalco \\|first2\\=Tom \\|last3\\=Manning \\|first3\\=Matthew K. \\|last4\\=Sanderson \\|first4\\=Peter \\|last5\\=Wiacek \\|first5\\=Win \\|title\\=Marvel Year By Year: A Visual History \\|date\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=DK Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-1465455505 \\|page\\=121}} He defeats [Spider\\-Man](/wiki/Spider-Man \"Spider-Man\") in their first confrontation (Spider\\-Man was at a disadvantage due to having a bad left arm sprain from an earlier battle with the [Lizard](/wiki/Lizard_%28comics%29 \"Lizard (comics)\")*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#44–45\\. Marvel Comics.) during a robbery. While robbing a bank, he was later beaten and sent back to prison after Spider\\-Man pinned Schultz's thumbs away from the gauntlets' triggers with his webbing and then knocked him out.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#46\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker later stole an ancient stone tablet with an inscription for a formula that could restore youth, that had been earlier stolen by the [Kingpin](/wiki/Kingpin_%28comics%29 \"Kingpin (comics)\").*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#72\\. Marvel Comics. Likely Schultz's most ambitious solo exploit was his attempt to hold New York City for ransom by blacking out various electrical grids to spell out his name, and extort one million dollars from the city.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#151–152\\. Marvel Comics. He then made one million dollars by harassing a stock broker.*The Defenders* \\#64\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker later joined [Egghead](/wiki/Egghead_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Egghead (Marvel Comics)\")'s [Masters of Evil](/wiki/Masters_of_Evil \"Masters of Evil\") (with [Radioactive Man](/wiki/Radioactive_Man_%28comics%29 \"Radioactive Man (comics)\"), [Tiger Shark](/wiki/Tiger_Shark_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Tiger Shark (Marvel Comics)\"), [Moonstone](/wiki/Karla_Sofen \"Karla Sofen\"), and [Beetle](/wiki/Abner_Jenkins \"Abner Jenkins\")) to incriminate [Dr. Henry Pym](/wiki/Hank_Pym \"Hank Pym\"), then on trial for treason. The Masters battled the [Avengers](/wiki/Avengers_%28comics%29 \"Avengers (comics)\") in this encounter; Shocker was brainwashed and purposely abandoned by Egghead to deliver a false testimony,*Avengers* \\#228\\. Marvel Comics. and subsequently cooperated with the authorities in exonerating the ex\\-Avenger.*The Avengers* \\#229\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker was later hired by the Nazi war criminal Baron Von Lundt to kill [Dominic Fortune](/wiki/Dominic_Fortune \"Dominic Fortune\"), and built the vibro\\-shock units into his entire uniform to do so.*Web of Spider\\-Man* \\#10\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker was hired by the [Chameleon](/wiki/Chameleon_%28comics%29 \"Chameleon (comics)\") and [Hammerhead](/wiki/Hammerhead_%28comics%29 \"Hammerhead (comics)\") to induce [Electro](/wiki/Electro_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Electro (Marvel Comics)\") to join their organization.*The Spectacular Spider\\-Man* \\#157\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker later attempted to steal thousands of charity dollars at the celebrity fund raiser for the New York City Library.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#335\\. Marvel Comics. He's captured by Spider\\-Man and sent to prison. He later escapes with the help of fellow inmate [Boomerang](/wiki/Boomerang_%28comics%29 \"Boomerang (comics)\"). By this time, he's developed severe confidence issues and has become terrified that the [Scourge of the Underworld](/wiki/Scourge_of_the_Underworld \"Scourge of the Underworld\") is going to kill him. A tipping point occurs when Spider\\-Man apprehends him and seems to not take him seriously. Enraged, Shocker defeats Spider\\-Man and is about to finish him off when a Scourge imposter intervenes, causing Shocker to flee.*The Deadly Foes of Spider\\-Man* \\#1–3\\. Marvel Comics. When he next appeared his confidence issues are gone. He aims to hunt down Scourge himself and kill him first.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#364\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker has proven to be a constant presence among Spider\\-Man's gallery of enemies. He often works as a member of a team (including [Hobgoblin](/wiki/Hobgoblin_%28comics%29 \"Hobgoblin (comics)\")'s [Sinister Seven](/wiki/Sinister_Six%23Sinister_Seven \"Sinister Six#Sinister Seven\"), [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn \"Norman Osborn\")'s [Sinister Twelve](/wiki/Sinister_Six%23Sinister_Twelve \"Sinister Six#Sinister Twelve\"), [Doctor Octopus](/wiki/Doctor_Octopus \"Doctor Octopus\")'s most recent [Sinister Six](/wiki/Sinister_Six%23Civil_War%27s_Sinister_Six \"Sinister Six#Civil War's Sinister Six\"), and the Masters of Evil) or in partnership with at least one other villain. Previous alliances include Boomerang, the Beetle, [Rhino](/wiki/Rhino_%28comics%29 \"Rhino (comics)\"), [Leila Davis](/wiki/Leila_Davis \"Leila Davis\"), [Hydro\\-Man](/wiki/Hydro-Man \"Hydro-Man\"), and [Speed Demon](/wiki/Speed_Demon_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Speed Demon (Marvel Comics)\") (all of which made up the [Sinister Syndicate](/wiki/Sinister_Syndicate \"Sinister Syndicate\")), and the [Trapster](/wiki/Trapster \"Trapster\"), [Constrictor](/wiki/Constrictor_%28comics%29 \"Constrictor (comics)\") and [Jack O'Lantern](/wiki/Jack_O%27Lantern_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Jack O'Lantern (Marvel Comics)\"). He also teamed up with a large group of villains during the [Acts of Vengeance](/wiki/Acts_of_Vengeance \"Acts of Vengeance\"), when he helped them unsuccessfully attack the [Fantastic Four](/wiki/Fantastic_Four \"Fantastic Four\").*Fantastic Four* \\#334\\. Marvel Comics. During one of his team\\-ups with Doctor Octopus, he participated in a raid on [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion \"Avengers Mansion\"), hoping to help conquer it as the heroes were distracted by the events of [the Infinity War](/wiki/The_Infinity_War \"The Infinity War\"). Shocker was forced to fight alongside the heroes called the [Guardians of the Galaxy](/wiki/Guardians_of_the_Galaxy_%281969_team%29 \"Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 team)\") when alien doubles of both sides attacked. After the doubles stopped coming, Doctor Octopus tried to order Shocker and the others to continue fighting the heroes but instead, they turned on Doctor Octopus. They did not wish to harm the people who had helped save their lives. Shocker helped chase Doctor Octopus out of the building.*Guardians of the Galaxy* \\#28–29\\. Marvel Comics.",
"At one point in his career, Shocker became increasingly paranoid that he was on the Scourge of the Underworld's hit list, even though there was no actual proof that he was.*The Deadly Foes of Spider\\-Man* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics. He thus started seeking ways to become more powerful, hoping to thwart any attempt on his life by the vigilante group. Shocker somehow acquired actual superhuman vibration powers. As he becomes more powerful, he realizes that the new powers will eventually kill him. He seeks a vibrational harness to cure himself and is aided by [Night Thrasher](/wiki/Night_Thrasher_%28Dwayne_Taylor%29 \"Night Thrasher (Dwayne Taylor)\") and Spider\\-Man.*Web of Spider\\-Man* \\#109\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker has had Spider\\-Man on the ropes on several occasions, with timely interventions often saving Spider\\-Man. Individuals thwarting Shocker's victories over Spider\\-Man include security guards, Dominic Fortune, and even a Scourge of the Underworld impostor. Shocker has also let Spider\\-Man go on a few occasions, the first being when he found Spider\\-Man incapacitated with a bout of vertigo on the outside of a tall building. He doesn't kill Spider\\-Man, thinking it an unworthy end, but doesn't help him either.*Spider\\-Man* \\#83\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker found another moment of victory over Spider\\-Man when he teamed up with the Trapster. Sent by the [Friends of Humanity](/wiki/Friends_of_Humanity \"Friends of Humanity\") to assassinate [Paul Stacy](/wiki/List_of_Spider-Man_supporting_characters%23Gwen_Stacy%27s_family \"List of Spider-Man supporting characters#Gwen Stacy's family\"), the duo managed to glue Stacy and Spider\\-Man together and corner them, only to be called off their assignment moments before finishing them off.*Spider\\-Man* \\#85–87\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker would later turn on the Trapster at the behest of Osborn of having Trapster eliminated as a potential witness against his recent attempt to frame Spider\\-Man for murder. Preparing to kill the resigned Trapster in an alley, he was attacked and rendered unconscious at the last minute by Spider\\-Man (then disguised under the alias [Dusk](/wiki/Dusk_%28comics%29 \"Dusk (comics)\")).*Spider\\-Man* \\#91\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker has a run\\-in with [Iron Man](/wiki/Iron_Man \"Iron Man\") on a subway car in NYC.*Iron Man* vol. 3 \\#42\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker is hired by the [Golem](/wiki/Golem_%28comics%29 \"Golem (comics)\"), along with Constrictor and Jack O'Lantern, to protect a diamond delivery. He battles [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 \"Hood (comics)\").*The Hood* \\#1–6\\. Marvel Comics. Shocker was terminated as a freelance agent by [Hammer Industries](/wiki/Justin_Hammer \"Justin Hammer\") and captured by Spider\\-Man while trying to rob a federal bank alongside Hydro\\-Man. He accidentally evaporates his water\\-based ally with a misplaced vibration.*Spider\\-Man* vol. 2 \\#51–52\\. Marvel Comics. He allied himself with Speed Demon of the New [Thunderbolts](/wiki/Thunderbolts_%28comics%29 \"Thunderbolts (comics)\") to break into a particularly well\\-guarded safe. Though the police arrived at his hide\\-out in quick pursuit, he was saved by Speed Demon dashing in and stealing both the loot and Shocker's weapons, removing all traces of evidence (and, unfortunately for Shocker, also keeping the money to fund the Thunderbolts' further activities).*New Thunderbolts* \\#8\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker plays a small role in the \"[Secret War](/wiki/Secret_War_%28comics%29 \"Secret War (comics)\")\" crossover event where he was among the villains used by [Lucia von Bardas](/wiki/Lucia_von_Bardas \"Lucia von Bardas\") to attack New York.*Secret War* \\#3–5\\. Marvel Comics.",
"A new version of the [Sinister Six](/wiki/Sinister_Six \"Sinister Six\"), with Shocker as a member, bands together during the \"[Civil War](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comics%29 \"Civil War (comics)\")\" but were stopped by [Captain America](/wiki/Captain_America \"Captain America\") and his [Secret Avengers](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comic_book%29%23Plot_synopsis \"Civil War (comic book)#Plot synopsis\").*Civil War* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker was among the group of villains that the Punisher attempts to kill at the wake of the recently deceased [Stilt\\-Man](/wiki/Stilt-Man \"Stilt-Man\") that was held at the Bar with No Name. He survives the poisoning and fire\\-bombing.*The Punisher War Journal* \\#4\\. Marvel Comics.*[She\\-Hulk](/wiki/She-Hulk \"She-Hulk\")* \\#17\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker was shown to have partially reformed the Sinister Syndicate alongside Hydro\\-Man and Boomerang. This group attempts to rob Baily's Auction House but are interrupted by Spider\\-Man and then Initiative members [War Machine](/wiki/War_Machine \"War Machine\") and [Komodo](/wiki/Komodo_%28comics%29%23Character_from_Avengers:The_Initiative \"The Initiative\"). The latter are there to neutralize Spider\\-Man. The trio escapes, only to be found and attacked by government operatives called 'Scarlet Spiders'.*Avengers: The Initiative* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"In his first \"[Brand New Day](/wiki/Spider-Man:Brand_New_Day \"Brand New Day\")\" appearance, he is shown to have been hired by a mobster to take out a subway train wagon full of jurors. After a brief battle with Spider\\-Man, he is knocked unconscious while Spider\\-Man uses his gauntlets to destroy rubble blocking the path. Although he seems cooperative at first, as soon as he is secured by Spider\\-Man, he activates a powerful shock in his gauntlets through his belt, causing the main exit to collapse and allowing him to escape.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#578–579\\. Marvel Comics. On their way to collect money from bets on superhero fights, Shocker and Boomerang discover the dead body of \"the Bookie\".*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#584\\. Marvel Comics.",
"During the \"[Dark Reign](/wiki/Dark_Reign_%28comics%29 \"Dark Reign (comics)\")\" storyline, Shocker appeared as a member of Hood's crime syndicate.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \\#4–5",
"During the *Origin of the Species* storyline, Shocker is invited by Doctor Octopus to rejoin the reestablished Sinister Six, where he exchange for securing some specific items. He and Tombstone went after [Menace](/wiki/Menace_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Menace (Marvel Comics)\")'s infant in the restaurant shop, until Spider\\-Man interfered.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#642\\. Marvel Comics. After he passes out from his fight, the police arrive but Shocker is carried away by Tombstone who escapes.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#644\\. Marvel Comics. When Spider\\-Man goes on a rampage against the villains after the infant was stolen by Chameleon, Shocker is attacked in his hideout and threatens Shocker to tell him everything about the villains' whereabouts. Shocker tells Spider\\-Man that Chameleon has the baby at the Kravinoff Mansion.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#645\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker was then seen in the Raft due to a popular online vote at Marvel.com{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://marvel.com/news/story/14891/choose\\_the\\_next\\_thunderbolt\\|title \\= Marvel News, Blog, Articles \\& Press Releases \\| Marvel}} and was selected to join the Thunderbolts's new Beta team called the Underbolts where it was revealed that [MACH\\-V](/wiki/Abner_Jenkins \"Abner Jenkins\") has put his name on the list of likely candidates.*Thunderbolts* \\#156\\. Marvel Comics.",
"During the \"[Spider\\-Island](/wiki/Spider-Island \"Spider-Island\")\" storyline, Spider\\-Man and [Carlie Cooper](/wiki/Carlie_Cooper \"Carlie Cooper\") encounter a six\\-armed Shocker. During the fight, Shocker reveals that he wants the money so that [Mad Thinker](/wiki/Mad_Thinker \"Mad Thinker\") can cure him. Shocker then pulls off his mask to reveal that he's slowly mutating into a spider\\-like creature.*The Amazing Spider\\-Man* \\#669\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker later appeared as a member of Villains for Hire (a villain counterpart of [Heroes for Hire](/wiki/Heroes_for_Hire \"Heroes for Hire\")).*Villains for Hire* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"As part of the \"[Marvel NOW!](/wiki/Marvel_NOW%21 \"Marvel NOW!\")\", Shocker appears as a member of the latest incarnation of the Sinister Six, consisting of himself, Boomerang, [Lady Beetle](/wiki/Janice_Lincoln \"Janice Lincoln\"), [Speed Demon](/wiki/Speed_Demon_%28comics%29 \"Speed Demon (comics)\"), [Overdrive](/wiki/Overdrive_%28comics%29 \"Overdrive (comics)\"), and the [Living Brain](/wiki/Living_Brain \"Living Brain\").*[The Superior Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man \"The Superior Spider-Man\")* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker features as one of the main characters in *[The Superior Foes of Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Foes_of_Spider-Man \"The Superior Foes of Spider-Man\")*, which concludes with [Silvermane](/wiki/Silvermane \"Silvermane\") crowning him the new don of the New York underworld after Shocker saves dozens of mobsters by singlehandedly defeating the [Punisher](/wiki/Punisher \"Punisher\").{{Cite comic\\| writer \\= Nick Spencer\\| penciller \\= Steve Lieber\\| inker \\= Steve Lieber\\| story \\= Goodbye, Farewell and Good Riddance\\| title \\= The Superior Foes of Spider\\-Man\\| volume \\= 1\\| issue \\= \\#17\\| date \\= November 26, 2014\\| publisher \\= Marvel Comics\\| location \\= United States}} Shocker shares a meal with She\\-Hulk while they discuss a memory Jennifer cannot remember, and Herman helps her by telling what little he remembers because she treated him well and bought him lunch, whereas other heroes would just beat him up and ask questions later.*She\\-Hulk* vol. 3 \\#5 It was then revealed that a villain named Nighteater created a spell that would murder hundreds of people but made everyone think he was not a villain, but was instead a hero named [Nightwatch](/wiki/Nightwatch_%28comics%29 \"Nightwatch (comics)\"), because it was more profitable. When Shocker found out, he assisted She\\-Hulk in defeating Nightwatch. When asked by Nightwatch why Shocker was angry after already getting his cut, even if he had forgotten, Shocker said that it was because he wanted to be a hero too.*She\\-Hulk* vol. 3 \\#12\\. Marvel Comics.",
"When New York City was covered in the Darkforce dome by the evil Captain America during the \"[Secret Empire](/wiki/Secret_Empire_%282017_comic%29 \"Secret Empire (2017 comic)\")\" storyline, Shocker and [Scorpia](/wiki/Scorpia_%28comics%29 \"Scorpia (comics)\") took advantage of this by robbing a bank but was stopped by [Rogue](/wiki/Rogue_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Rogue (Marvel Comics)\").*Uncanny Avengers* vol. 3 \\#24\\. Marvel Comics. When the Shocker accidentally crushes the ground beneath them, they were surrounded by Darkforce creatures and had no choice but to work together. When they finally beat the biggest of the creatures, Rogue flies away.*Uncanny Avengers* vol. 3 \\#25\\. Marvel Comics. Herman Schultz is being tried for his crimes as the Shocker and Rogue volunteers herself as a character witness. Rogue said that the Shocker, from her experience when she was fighting Darkforce monsters alongside him, was smart, kind and courageous, and given the chance, could redeem himself.*Uncanny Avengers* vol. 3 \\#30\\. Marvel Comics.",
"During the \"[Sinister War](/wiki/Sinister_War \"Sinister War\")\" storyline, Shocker was with [Boomerang](/wiki/Boomerang_%28comics%29 \"Boomerang (comics)\"), [Hydro\\-Man](/wiki/Hydro-Man \"Hydro-Man\"), [Speed Demon](/wiki/Speed_Demon_%28comics%29 \"Speed Demon (comics)\"), and [Overdrive](/wiki/Overdrive_%28character%29 \"Overdrive (character)\") when they were used by [Kindred](/wiki/Kindred_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Kindred (Marvel Comics)\") to attack Spider\\-Man.*Sinister War* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"During the \"[Devil's Reign](/wiki/Devil%27s_Reign \"Devil's Reign\")\" storyline, Shocker was seen as a member of [Mayor Wilson Fisk](/wiki/Kingpin_%28character%29 \"Kingpin (character)\")'s incarnation of the Thunderbolts at the time when Mayor Fisk made superhero activities illegal. After defeating [Darkhawk](/wiki/Darkhawk \"Darkhawk\"), Shocker tried to get [Luke Cage](/wiki/Luke_Cage \"Luke Cage\") and [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones \"Jessica Jones\") to surrender only to be defeated by them.*Devil's Reign* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"During the \"[Gang War](/wiki/Gang_War_%28comics%29 \"Gang War (comics)\")\" storyline, Shocker is among the villains hired by Hobgoblin to guard his hideout and are attacked by Scorpion, [Shift](/wiki/Shift_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Shift (Marvel Comics)\"), and [Starling](/wiki/Starling_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Starling (Marvel Comics)\").*Miles Morales: Spider\\-Man* Vol. 2 \\#15\\. Marvel Comics. During Shocker's fight with Scorpion, Shocker was among the villains persuaded by him to turn against Hobgoblin.*Miles Morales: Spider\\-Man* Vol. 2 \\#16\\. Marvel Comics.",
""
] |
Characterization
----------------
### Skills and equipment
The Shocker wears a pair of gauntlets he designed with vibro\-shock units known as "vibro\-smashers" that, when activated by a pump\-action thumb trigger, can project a concentrated blast of compressed air that vibrates at an intense frequency. This creates a series of rapid\-succession high\-pressure air blasts that result in a series of powerful impacts. This allows Shocker to both effectively throw long range vibrational punches from a distance, creating destructive vibrations that can crumble solid concrete and cause extensive damage to the human body and its internal organs, as well as throw shock waves which vibrate the structure of something to weaken or destroy it. A lesser known ability of the gauntlets allows Shocker to make incredible leaps, by directing the air blasts toward the ground in front of him. Holding the thumb triggers down for an extended period of time increases the intensity, speed, and even spread of the air blasts.
The feedback from the Shocker's gauntlets is extremely intense (the initial test almost killed him). To guard himself from this, he developed a protective costume consisting largely of yellow quilt patches designed to absorb the shock. The costume is made of foam\-lined synthetic fabric which absorbs all vibrations and establishes a vibrational shield which deflects normal blows and allows him to slip from any grasp. The costume's appearance has been the source of ridicule on the part of Spider\-Man and other characters. How fellow villain the [Looter](/wiki/Looter_%28comics%29 "Looter (comics)") was able to once wield one of the gauntlets without wearing a protective costume and suffering injury is unclear, though his super strength and durability were presumably a factor. Despite having no superhuman abilities, his vibrating suit and gauntlets enable him to trade blows with Spider\-Man.
Around the year 2000 ([real time](/wiki/Real_time_%28media%29%23Comic_books_and_strips "Real time (media)#Comic books and strips")), Herman Schultz began upgrading the abilities of his costume and weapons. His suit now contains a number of built\-in shock units, which throw up a protective vibrational field when triggered by accompanying motion detectors. Besides deflecting most physical blows, this makes it difficult, if not impossible for someone to physically assault or grasp him by surprise. This power upgrade was accompanied by a much bulkier and more protective looking costume (as designed by artist [John Romita, Jr.](/wiki/John_Romita%2C_Jr. "John Romita, Jr.")).
He also recently allowed Hammer Industries to drastically upgrade the power of his gauntlets. However, not trusting to share the whole of his secrets (and thus become what he perceives as expendable), he refused Hammer's technicians access to his actual costume, which (at least at the time) likely wasn't providing him with thorough protection from the feedback of the upgraded gauntlets (he cited nosebleeds as a risk he was willing to take).
Shocker has since appeared repeatedly in his original costume and minus the redesigned super\-gauntlets provided to him by Hammer Industries. Whether or not this means he has found a way to retain his upgraded abilities in his old costume or whether he no longer uses them remains in question.
Continued use of the gauntlets has had a negative effect on Shocker's body and he admits that he rarely has a day when he gets out of bed without his back hurting.*Wakanda* \#5 (February 2023\). Marvel Comics.
### Personality
While most Spider\-Man villains usually shift from their original goals to a vendetta against Spider\-Man, the Shocker is still concerned largely with making a living and protecting his reputation. As such, the character is usually portrayed as behaving in a more professional manner than the majority of his maniacal peers.*The Superior Foes of Spider\-Man* \#16\. Marvel Comics.
Shocker has a notably rational personality among Spider\-Man's enemies. He has often been shown to recognize his own limitations amongst a universe of super\-powered individuals. He was once stricken with chronic anxiety and paranoia (in the *Deadly Foes of Spider\-Man* series) stemming from his fears about being targeted by anti\-heroes Scourge and the Punisher (surprisingly, he has survived encounters with both). While partnered with the Trapster, he mentions that he engages in [psychotherapy](/wiki/Psychotherapy "Psychotherapy").
In recent stories ("Venomous" and "Senseless Violence"), Shocker has revealed that he is extremely frustrated with his place in life, not wanting to be known as a punching bag for superheroes like Spider\-Man. He unsuccessfully attempts to purchase the [Venom](/wiki/Venom_%28Marvel_Comics_character%29 "Venom (Marvel Comics character)") [symbiote](/wiki/Symbiote_%28comics%29 "Symbiote (comics)") at an auction to gain some respect. When temporarily partnered with Hydro\-Man, he rebukes Morrie's suggestion that they go kill Spider\-Man, being far more interested in more financially lucrative ventures and trying to rebuild a professional reputation.
|
[
"Characterization\n----------------",
"### Skills and equipment",
"The Shocker wears a pair of gauntlets he designed with vibro\\-shock units known as \"vibro\\-smashers\" that, when activated by a pump\\-action thumb trigger, can project a concentrated blast of compressed air that vibrates at an intense frequency. This creates a series of rapid\\-succession high\\-pressure air blasts that result in a series of powerful impacts. This allows Shocker to both effectively throw long range vibrational punches from a distance, creating destructive vibrations that can crumble solid concrete and cause extensive damage to the human body and its internal organs, as well as throw shock waves which vibrate the structure of something to weaken or destroy it. A lesser known ability of the gauntlets allows Shocker to make incredible leaps, by directing the air blasts toward the ground in front of him. Holding the thumb triggers down for an extended period of time increases the intensity, speed, and even spread of the air blasts.",
"The feedback from the Shocker's gauntlets is extremely intense (the initial test almost killed him). To guard himself from this, he developed a protective costume consisting largely of yellow quilt patches designed to absorb the shock. The costume is made of foam\\-lined synthetic fabric which absorbs all vibrations and establishes a vibrational shield which deflects normal blows and allows him to slip from any grasp. The costume's appearance has been the source of ridicule on the part of Spider\\-Man and other characters. How fellow villain the [Looter](/wiki/Looter_%28comics%29 \"Looter (comics)\") was able to once wield one of the gauntlets without wearing a protective costume and suffering injury is unclear, though his super strength and durability were presumably a factor. Despite having no superhuman abilities, his vibrating suit and gauntlets enable him to trade blows with Spider\\-Man.",
"Around the year 2000 ([real time](/wiki/Real_time_%28media%29%23Comic_books_and_strips \"Real time (media)#Comic books and strips\")), Herman Schultz began upgrading the abilities of his costume and weapons. His suit now contains a number of built\\-in shock units, which throw up a protective vibrational field when triggered by accompanying motion detectors. Besides deflecting most physical blows, this makes it difficult, if not impossible for someone to physically assault or grasp him by surprise. This power upgrade was accompanied by a much bulkier and more protective looking costume (as designed by artist [John Romita, Jr.](/wiki/John_Romita%2C_Jr. \"John Romita, Jr.\")).",
"He also recently allowed Hammer Industries to drastically upgrade the power of his gauntlets. However, not trusting to share the whole of his secrets (and thus become what he perceives as expendable), he refused Hammer's technicians access to his actual costume, which (at least at the time) likely wasn't providing him with thorough protection from the feedback of the upgraded gauntlets (he cited nosebleeds as a risk he was willing to take).",
"Shocker has since appeared repeatedly in his original costume and minus the redesigned super\\-gauntlets provided to him by Hammer Industries. Whether or not this means he has found a way to retain his upgraded abilities in his old costume or whether he no longer uses them remains in question.",
"Continued use of the gauntlets has had a negative effect on Shocker's body and he admits that he rarely has a day when he gets out of bed without his back hurting.*Wakanda* \\#5 (February 2023\\). Marvel Comics.",
"### Personality",
"While most Spider\\-Man villains usually shift from their original goals to a vendetta against Spider\\-Man, the Shocker is still concerned largely with making a living and protecting his reputation. As such, the character is usually portrayed as behaving in a more professional manner than the majority of his maniacal peers.*The Superior Foes of Spider\\-Man* \\#16\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Shocker has a notably rational personality among Spider\\-Man's enemies. He has often been shown to recognize his own limitations amongst a universe of super\\-powered individuals. He was once stricken with chronic anxiety and paranoia (in the *Deadly Foes of Spider\\-Man* series) stemming from his fears about being targeted by anti\\-heroes Scourge and the Punisher (surprisingly, he has survived encounters with both). While partnered with the Trapster, he mentions that he engages in [psychotherapy](/wiki/Psychotherapy \"Psychotherapy\").",
"In recent stories (\"Venomous\" and \"Senseless Violence\"), Shocker has revealed that he is extremely frustrated with his place in life, not wanting to be known as a punching bag for superheroes like Spider\\-Man. He unsuccessfully attempts to purchase the [Venom](/wiki/Venom_%28Marvel_Comics_character%29 \"Venom (Marvel Comics character)\") [symbiote](/wiki/Symbiote_%28comics%29 \"Symbiote (comics)\") at an auction to gain some respect. When temporarily partnered with Hydro\\-Man, he rebukes Morrie's suggestion that they go kill Spider\\-Man, being far more interested in more financially lucrative ventures and trying to rebuild a professional reputation.",
""
] |
### Skills and equipment
The Shocker wears a pair of gauntlets he designed with vibro\-shock units known as "vibro\-smashers" that, when activated by a pump\-action thumb trigger, can project a concentrated blast of compressed air that vibrates at an intense frequency. This creates a series of rapid\-succession high\-pressure air blasts that result in a series of powerful impacts. This allows Shocker to both effectively throw long range vibrational punches from a distance, creating destructive vibrations that can crumble solid concrete and cause extensive damage to the human body and its internal organs, as well as throw shock waves which vibrate the structure of something to weaken or destroy it. A lesser known ability of the gauntlets allows Shocker to make incredible leaps, by directing the air blasts toward the ground in front of him. Holding the thumb triggers down for an extended period of time increases the intensity, speed, and even spread of the air blasts.
The feedback from the Shocker's gauntlets is extremely intense (the initial test almost killed him). To guard himself from this, he developed a protective costume consisting largely of yellow quilt patches designed to absorb the shock. The costume is made of foam\-lined synthetic fabric which absorbs all vibrations and establishes a vibrational shield which deflects normal blows and allows him to slip from any grasp. The costume's appearance has been the source of ridicule on the part of Spider\-Man and other characters. How fellow villain the [Looter](/wiki/Looter_%28comics%29 "Looter (comics)") was able to once wield one of the gauntlets without wearing a protective costume and suffering injury is unclear, though his super strength and durability were presumably a factor. Despite having no superhuman abilities, his vibrating suit and gauntlets enable him to trade blows with Spider\-Man.
Around the year 2000 ([real time](/wiki/Real_time_%28media%29%23Comic_books_and_strips "Real time (media)#Comic books and strips")), Herman Schultz began upgrading the abilities of his costume and weapons. His suit now contains a number of built\-in shock units, which throw up a protective vibrational field when triggered by accompanying motion detectors. Besides deflecting most physical blows, this makes it difficult, if not impossible for someone to physically assault or grasp him by surprise. This power upgrade was accompanied by a much bulkier and more protective looking costume (as designed by artist [John Romita, Jr.](/wiki/John_Romita%2C_Jr. "John Romita, Jr.")).
He also recently allowed Hammer Industries to drastically upgrade the power of his gauntlets. However, not trusting to share the whole of his secrets (and thus become what he perceives as expendable), he refused Hammer's technicians access to his actual costume, which (at least at the time) likely wasn't providing him with thorough protection from the feedback of the upgraded gauntlets (he cited nosebleeds as a risk he was willing to take).
Shocker has since appeared repeatedly in his original costume and minus the redesigned super\-gauntlets provided to him by Hammer Industries. Whether or not this means he has found a way to retain his upgraded abilities in his old costume or whether he no longer uses them remains in question.
Continued use of the gauntlets has had a negative effect on Shocker's body and he admits that he rarely has a day when he gets out of bed without his back hurting.*Wakanda* \#5 (February 2023\). Marvel Comics.
|
[
"### Skills and equipment",
"The Shocker wears a pair of gauntlets he designed with vibro\\-shock units known as \"vibro\\-smashers\" that, when activated by a pump\\-action thumb trigger, can project a concentrated blast of compressed air that vibrates at an intense frequency. This creates a series of rapid\\-succession high\\-pressure air blasts that result in a series of powerful impacts. This allows Shocker to both effectively throw long range vibrational punches from a distance, creating destructive vibrations that can crumble solid concrete and cause extensive damage to the human body and its internal organs, as well as throw shock waves which vibrate the structure of something to weaken or destroy it. A lesser known ability of the gauntlets allows Shocker to make incredible leaps, by directing the air blasts toward the ground in front of him. Holding the thumb triggers down for an extended period of time increases the intensity, speed, and even spread of the air blasts.",
"The feedback from the Shocker's gauntlets is extremely intense (the initial test almost killed him). To guard himself from this, he developed a protective costume consisting largely of yellow quilt patches designed to absorb the shock. The costume is made of foam\\-lined synthetic fabric which absorbs all vibrations and establishes a vibrational shield which deflects normal blows and allows him to slip from any grasp. The costume's appearance has been the source of ridicule on the part of Spider\\-Man and other characters. How fellow villain the [Looter](/wiki/Looter_%28comics%29 \"Looter (comics)\") was able to once wield one of the gauntlets without wearing a protective costume and suffering injury is unclear, though his super strength and durability were presumably a factor. Despite having no superhuman abilities, his vibrating suit and gauntlets enable him to trade blows with Spider\\-Man.",
"Around the year 2000 ([real time](/wiki/Real_time_%28media%29%23Comic_books_and_strips \"Real time (media)#Comic books and strips\")), Herman Schultz began upgrading the abilities of his costume and weapons. His suit now contains a number of built\\-in shock units, which throw up a protective vibrational field when triggered by accompanying motion detectors. Besides deflecting most physical blows, this makes it difficult, if not impossible for someone to physically assault or grasp him by surprise. This power upgrade was accompanied by a much bulkier and more protective looking costume (as designed by artist [John Romita, Jr.](/wiki/John_Romita%2C_Jr. \"John Romita, Jr.\")).",
"He also recently allowed Hammer Industries to drastically upgrade the power of his gauntlets. However, not trusting to share the whole of his secrets (and thus become what he perceives as expendable), he refused Hammer's technicians access to his actual costume, which (at least at the time) likely wasn't providing him with thorough protection from the feedback of the upgraded gauntlets (he cited nosebleeds as a risk he was willing to take).",
"Shocker has since appeared repeatedly in his original costume and minus the redesigned super\\-gauntlets provided to him by Hammer Industries. Whether or not this means he has found a way to retain his upgraded abilities in his old costume or whether he no longer uses them remains in question.",
"Continued use of the gauntlets has had a negative effect on Shocker's body and he admits that he rarely has a day when he gets out of bed without his back hurting.*Wakanda* \\#5 (February 2023\\). Marvel Comics.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Eric Moon was born on 6 March 1923 in [Yeovil](/wiki/Yeovil "Yeovil"), [England](/wiki/England "England"), and spent most of his youth in [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton"). After receiving his grammar (secondary) school certificate from then Taunton School, Moon was hired as a junior library assistant at the prestigious Southampton Public Library in 1939\. The ambitious Moon pursued professional qualification by passing the Library Association's mastery examination. The Library Association is the United Kingdom's foremost library organization, and counterpart to the American Library Association (ALA). Moon soon began his military service in 1941, joining the Royal Air Force. Following his discharge in 1946 he pursued his professional education as a librarian, at the then [Loughborough College](/wiki/Loughborough_University "Loughborough University"). While at Loughborough, Moon completed the rigorous requirements of advancement to the highest level of honor, FLA, Fellow of the Library Association. He began his professional career running small libraries in [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire "Hertfordshire"), at [Finchley](/wiki/Finchley "Finchley"), at [Brentford and Chiswick](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Brentford_and_Chiswick "Municipal Borough of Brentford and Chiswick"), and then at [Kensington](/wiki/Kensington "Kensington"), experimenting with novel ideas in library service through this period. Frustrated with the conservatism of British librarianship, in 1958 he took a job as head of public libraries in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Newfoundland and Labrador"), Canada, where he worked for one year.
### *Library Journal*
In 1959 Moon was hired as editor\-in\-chief of *Library Journal*, based in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). The leadership of the [R.R. Bowker](/wiki/R.R._Bowker "R.R. Bowker") company, *Library Journal's* publisher, saw in Moon a personality they hoped would revive the struggling magazine and take it in new directions. *Library Journal's* fame dated back to the late 19th century with [Melvil Dewey](/wiki/Melvil_Dewey "Melvil Dewey") serving as its founding editor from 1876 to 1881\.
In his nine years as editor\-in\-chief, Moon changed *Library Journal* substantially, most noticeably by engaging the magazine in controversial issues and taking sides in the heated debates that characterized American librarianship during the period. Under Moon's editorship, *Library Journal* became known for its [liberal](/wiki/American_liberal "American liberal"), [activist](/wiki/Activist "Activist") perspectives on the professional issues of the day. With Moon at the helm, *Library Journal* earned consistent profits from advertising revenues and sweeping interest marked by an increase in circulation. This change in direction was first defined by Moon's choice in 1960 to address [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation "Racial segregation") in [Southern](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States") libraries, where [African American](/wiki/African_American "African American") librarians were not allowed to work in "[white](/wiki/White_%28people%29 "White (people)")" libraries or participate in the library associations of Southern states. Until Moon, no mainstream publications so much as acknowledged the discrimination in library access. Moon soon realized that he needed support from black librarians to continue reporting accurately on activities in the South. Moon formed alliances with many, including [Elonnie "E.J." Josey](/wiki/E._J._Josey "E. J. Josey") who was an African American librarian at Savannah State College (Savannah, Georgia). Moon, along with Josey and countless others, advanced the concern of free access and integration of libraries and professional library associations. The debate over racially segregated libraries divided the profession at that time, and Moon's activist position placed his *Library Journal* in the camp of those in the profession who advocated significant change.
Moon also tackled the largely protested Vietnam War. Moon's editorials continued to challenge the profession during the tumultuous 1960s. Likewise, Moon's credit includes *Library Journal's* treatment of censorship and book selection practices in libraries. This transformation made *Library Journal* popular reading for American librarians; by the mid\-1960s the magazine was financially thriving. In 1965 Eric Moon was appointed to the Bowker Board of Directors.
In that year he also became a citizen of the United States.
### Later life
Moon quit his post as editor\-in\-chief of *Library Journal* in 1968, shortly after Bowker was acquired by the [Xerox Corporation](/wiki/Xerox_Corporation "Xerox Corporation"). In 1969 he was hired as the chief editor of Scarecrow Press, a small publisher with ties to the library community that had recently been purchased by the Grolier Educational Corporation (now a subsidiary of [Scholastic, Inc.](/wiki/Scholastic%2C_Inc. "Scholastic, Inc.")), taking over for founder [Ralph Shaw](/wiki/Ralph_R._Shaw_%28Librarian%29 "Ralph R. Shaw (Librarian)"). At Scarecrow, Moon rapidly increased the number of titles published per year, while introducing higher standards for editorial accuracy. (Scarecrow had been notorious for typographical errors in its books.) He also broadened the scope of the press beyond its traditional focus on [library science](/wiki/Library_science "Library science") topics to include religion and music, just to name a few. In 1971, Moon became the company's president. Moon retired from Scarecrow Press in 1978\.
Moon was much involved in the American Library Association (ALA) \- its function, rules and policies throughout his American career. He had no qualms about criticizing the ALA, particularly regarding ALA's silence on the issue of racial prejudice and discrimination in libraries and library associations. By 1965, Moon was elected to the ALA Council. Moon ran for the office of Vice\-President/President\-Elect of the American Library Association as a petition candidate in 1976 and was elected. He was inaugurated in 1977\. The major concern of his presidential year was to influence the development of a national [information policy](/wiki/Information_policy "Information policy"). Events in the profession during his term made it difficult to arouse strong interest in this goal within the association, whose leaders mostly lacked prior experience in the policy arena to begin with. Following his presidential year, Moon continued to influence ALA politics as a member of its governing Council and various committees into the mid\-1990s.
In 1981, Moon received the [Joseph W. Lippincott Award](/wiki/Joseph_W._Lippincott_Award "Joseph W. Lippincott Award") and in 1987 [American Library Association Honorary Membership](/wiki/American_Library_Association_Honorary_Membership "American Library Association Honorary Membership"). ALA's top award. In 2000, Moon was bestowed the highest honor by the British library profession, the coveted Honorary Fellowship, awarded by the [Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals](/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Library_and_Information_Professionals "Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals").
Eric Moon retired to live in [Sarasota, Florida](/wiki/Sarasota%2C_Florida "Sarasota, Florida"), with his wife Ilse Moon (1932\-2024\), retired secretary of the [Association for Library and Information Science Education](/wiki/Association_for_Library_and_Information_Science_Education "Association for Library and Information Science Education"). He died there on 31 July 2016 at the age of 93\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2016/08/people/obituary\-eric\-moon\-former\-ala\-president\-and\-lj\-editor\-in\-chief/?utm\_\|title\=Obituary: Eric Moon, Former ALA President and LJ Editor\-in\-Chief\|last\=Berry III\|first\=John N.\|date\=2 August 2016\|website\=Library Journal\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-02\|archive\-date\=15 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815115108/http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2016/08/people/obituary\-eric\-moon\-former\-ala\-president\-and\-lj\-editor\-in\-chief/?utm\_\|url\-status\=dead}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Eric Moon was born on 6 March 1923 in [Yeovil](/wiki/Yeovil \"Yeovil\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), and spent most of his youth in [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\"). After receiving his grammar (secondary) school certificate from then Taunton School, Moon was hired as a junior library assistant at the prestigious Southampton Public Library in 1939\\. The ambitious Moon pursued professional qualification by passing the Library Association's mastery examination. The Library Association is the United Kingdom's foremost library organization, and counterpart to the American Library Association (ALA). Moon soon began his military service in 1941, joining the Royal Air Force. Following his discharge in 1946 he pursued his professional education as a librarian, at the then [Loughborough College](/wiki/Loughborough_University \"Loughborough University\"). While at Loughborough, Moon completed the rigorous requirements of advancement to the highest level of honor, FLA, Fellow of the Library Association. He began his professional career running small libraries in [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire \"Hertfordshire\"), at [Finchley](/wiki/Finchley \"Finchley\"), at [Brentford and Chiswick](/wiki/Municipal_Borough_of_Brentford_and_Chiswick \"Municipal Borough of Brentford and Chiswick\"), and then at [Kensington](/wiki/Kensington \"Kensington\"), experimenting with novel ideas in library service through this period. Frustrated with the conservatism of British librarianship, in 1958 he took a job as head of public libraries in [Newfoundland](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"Newfoundland and Labrador\"), Canada, where he worked for one year.",
"### *Library Journal*",
"In 1959 Moon was hired as editor\\-in\\-chief of *Library Journal*, based in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). The leadership of the [R.R. Bowker](/wiki/R.R._Bowker \"R.R. Bowker\") company, *Library Journal's* publisher, saw in Moon a personality they hoped would revive the struggling magazine and take it in new directions. *Library Journal's* fame dated back to the late 19th century with [Melvil Dewey](/wiki/Melvil_Dewey \"Melvil Dewey\") serving as its founding editor from 1876 to 1881\\.",
"In his nine years as editor\\-in\\-chief, Moon changed *Library Journal* substantially, most noticeably by engaging the magazine in controversial issues and taking sides in the heated debates that characterized American librarianship during the period. Under Moon's editorship, *Library Journal* became known for its [liberal](/wiki/American_liberal \"American liberal\"), [activist](/wiki/Activist \"Activist\") perspectives on the professional issues of the day. With Moon at the helm, *Library Journal* earned consistent profits from advertising revenues and sweeping interest marked by an increase in circulation. This change in direction was first defined by Moon's choice in 1960 to address [racial segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation \"Racial segregation\") in [Southern](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\") libraries, where [African American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") librarians were not allowed to work in \"[white](/wiki/White_%28people%29 \"White (people)\")\" libraries or participate in the library associations of Southern states. Until Moon, no mainstream publications so much as acknowledged the discrimination in library access. Moon soon realized that he needed support from black librarians to continue reporting accurately on activities in the South. Moon formed alliances with many, including [Elonnie \"E.J.\" Josey](/wiki/E._J._Josey \"E. J. Josey\") who was an African American librarian at Savannah State College (Savannah, Georgia). Moon, along with Josey and countless others, advanced the concern of free access and integration of libraries and professional library associations. The debate over racially segregated libraries divided the profession at that time, and Moon's activist position placed his *Library Journal* in the camp of those in the profession who advocated significant change.",
"Moon also tackled the largely protested Vietnam War. Moon's editorials continued to challenge the profession during the tumultuous 1960s. Likewise, Moon's credit includes *Library Journal's* treatment of censorship and book selection practices in libraries. This transformation made *Library Journal* popular reading for American librarians; by the mid\\-1960s the magazine was financially thriving. In 1965 Eric Moon was appointed to the Bowker Board of Directors.",
"In that year he also became a citizen of the United States.",
"### Later life",
"Moon quit his post as editor\\-in\\-chief of *Library Journal* in 1968, shortly after Bowker was acquired by the [Xerox Corporation](/wiki/Xerox_Corporation \"Xerox Corporation\"). In 1969 he was hired as the chief editor of Scarecrow Press, a small publisher with ties to the library community that had recently been purchased by the Grolier Educational Corporation (now a subsidiary of [Scholastic, Inc.](/wiki/Scholastic%2C_Inc. \"Scholastic, Inc.\")), taking over for founder [Ralph Shaw](/wiki/Ralph_R._Shaw_%28Librarian%29 \"Ralph R. Shaw (Librarian)\"). At Scarecrow, Moon rapidly increased the number of titles published per year, while introducing higher standards for editorial accuracy. (Scarecrow had been notorious for typographical errors in its books.) He also broadened the scope of the press beyond its traditional focus on [library science](/wiki/Library_science \"Library science\") topics to include religion and music, just to name a few. In 1971, Moon became the company's president. Moon retired from Scarecrow Press in 1978\\.",
"Moon was much involved in the American Library Association (ALA) \\- its function, rules and policies throughout his American career. He had no qualms about criticizing the ALA, particularly regarding ALA's silence on the issue of racial prejudice and discrimination in libraries and library associations. By 1965, Moon was elected to the ALA Council. Moon ran for the office of Vice\\-President/President\\-Elect of the American Library Association as a petition candidate in 1976 and was elected. He was inaugurated in 1977\\. The major concern of his presidential year was to influence the development of a national [information policy](/wiki/Information_policy \"Information policy\"). Events in the profession during his term made it difficult to arouse strong interest in this goal within the association, whose leaders mostly lacked prior experience in the policy arena to begin with. Following his presidential year, Moon continued to influence ALA politics as a member of its governing Council and various committees into the mid\\-1990s.",
"In 1981, Moon received the [Joseph W. Lippincott Award](/wiki/Joseph_W._Lippincott_Award \"Joseph W. Lippincott Award\") and in 1987 [American Library Association Honorary Membership](/wiki/American_Library_Association_Honorary_Membership \"American Library Association Honorary Membership\"). ALA's top award. In 2000, Moon was bestowed the highest honor by the British library profession, the coveted Honorary Fellowship, awarded by the [Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals](/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Library_and_Information_Professionals \"Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals\").",
"Eric Moon retired to live in [Sarasota, Florida](/wiki/Sarasota%2C_Florida \"Sarasota, Florida\"), with his wife Ilse Moon (1932\\-2024\\), retired secretary of the [Association for Library and Information Science Education](/wiki/Association_for_Library_and_Information_Science_Education \"Association for Library and Information Science Education\"). He died there on 31 July 2016 at the age of 93\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2016/08/people/obituary\\-eric\\-moon\\-former\\-ala\\-president\\-and\\-lj\\-editor\\-in\\-chief/?utm\\_\\|title\\=Obituary: Eric Moon, Former ALA President and LJ Editor\\-in\\-Chief\\|last\\=Berry III\\|first\\=John N.\\|date\\=2 August 2016\\|website\\=Library Journal\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-02\\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815115108/http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2016/08/people/obituary\\-eric\\-moon\\-former\\-ala\\-president\\-and\\-lj\\-editor\\-in\\-chief/?utm\\_\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early years
Green began learning to skate in 2009 because he was interested in playing ice hockey. He teamed up with his sister in August 2009 and joined the Wheaton Ice Skating Academy in September. The siblings took gold in the juvenile category at the [2013 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2013_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "2013 U.S. Figure Skating Championships") and won the intermediate title at the [2014 edition](/wiki/2014_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "2014 U.S. Figure Skating Championships").
At the [2015](/wiki/2015_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "2015 U.S. Figure Skating Championships") and [2016 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2016_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "2016 U.S. Figure Skating Championships"), the Greens took gold in the novice category. They then moved up to the junior level domestically and placed fifth at the [2017 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2017_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "2017 U.S. Figure Skating Championships").
### 2017–2018 season
Having become age\-eligible for junior international events, the Greens made their [ISU Junior Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix "ISU Junior Grand Prix") (JGP) debut, winning bronze in [Riga](/wiki/Riga "Riga"), Latvia, and [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk "Gdańsk"), Poland. They finished as third alternates for the JGP Final.
In January, they took silver at the [2018 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2018_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 U.S. Figure Skating Championships"), scoring 12\.46 points less than champions [Christina Carreira](/wiki/Christina_Carreira "Christina Carreira") / [Anthony Ponomarenko](/wiki/Anthony_Ponomarenko "Anthony Ponomarenko"), and were assigned to the [2018 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 World Junior Figure Skating Championships") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia"). In Bulgaria, the siblings ranked fifth in the short dance, seventh in the free dance, and sixth overall.
### 2018–2019 season
The Greens withdrew from their JGP assignments due to Caroline's illness. Returning to competition, they won junior gold medals at the [2018 Golden Spin of Zagreb](/wiki/2018_Golden_Spin_of_Zagreb "2018 Golden Spin of Zagreb") in December and at the [Toruń Cup](/wiki/Toru%C5%84_Cup "Toruń Cup") in early January. At the [2019 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2019_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 U.S. Figure Skating Championships"), they outscored [Avonley Nguyen](/wiki/Avonley_Nguyen "Avonley Nguyen") / [Vadym Kolesnik](/wiki/Vadym_Kolesnik "Vadym Kolesnik") by 1\.48 points to become national junior champions.
The Greens concluded the season at the [2019 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 World Junior Figure Skating Championships"). In the rhythm dance, Caroline stumbled during the tango [pattern dance](/wiki/Pattern_dance "Pattern dance") segment, leading to an eighth\-place finish. They improved in the free dance, moving up to seventh place. Following the end of the competitive season, Gordon opted to retire from competitive ice dance to focus on academics. Caroline subsequently formed a new partnership with [Michael Parsons](/wiki/Michael_Parsons_%28figure_skater%29 "Michael Parsons (figure skater)").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early years",
"Green began learning to skate in 2009 because he was interested in playing ice hockey. He teamed up with his sister in August 2009 and joined the Wheaton Ice Skating Academy in September. The siblings took gold in the juvenile category at the [2013 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2013_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"2013 U.S. Figure Skating Championships\") and won the intermediate title at the [2014 edition](/wiki/2014_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"2014 U.S. Figure Skating Championships\").",
"At the [2015](/wiki/2015_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"2015 U.S. Figure Skating Championships\") and [2016 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2016_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"2016 U.S. Figure Skating Championships\"), the Greens took gold in the novice category. They then moved up to the junior level domestically and placed fifth at the [2017 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2017_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"2017 U.S. Figure Skating Championships\").",
"### 2017–2018 season",
"Having become age\\-eligible for junior international events, the Greens made their [ISU Junior Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix \"ISU Junior Grand Prix\") (JGP) debut, winning bronze in [Riga](/wiki/Riga \"Riga\"), Latvia, and [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk \"Gdańsk\"), Poland. They finished as third alternates for the JGP Final.",
"In January, they took silver at the [2018 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2018_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 U.S. Figure Skating Championships\"), scoring 12\\.46 points less than champions [Christina Carreira](/wiki/Christina_Carreira \"Christina Carreira\") / [Anthony Ponomarenko](/wiki/Anthony_Ponomarenko \"Anthony Ponomarenko\"), and were assigned to the [2018 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\"). In Bulgaria, the siblings ranked fifth in the short dance, seventh in the free dance, and sixth overall.",
"### 2018–2019 season",
"The Greens withdrew from their JGP assignments due to Caroline's illness. Returning to competition, they won junior gold medals at the [2018 Golden Spin of Zagreb](/wiki/2018_Golden_Spin_of_Zagreb \"2018 Golden Spin of Zagreb\") in December and at the [Toruń Cup](/wiki/Toru%C5%84_Cup \"Toruń Cup\") in early January. At the [2019 U.S. Championships](/wiki/2019_U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 U.S. Figure Skating Championships\"), they outscored [Avonley Nguyen](/wiki/Avonley_Nguyen \"Avonley Nguyen\") / [Vadym Kolesnik](/wiki/Vadym_Kolesnik \"Vadym Kolesnik\") by 1\\.48 points to become national junior champions.",
"The Greens concluded the season at the [2019 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\"). In the rhythm dance, Caroline stumbled during the tango [pattern dance](/wiki/Pattern_dance \"Pattern dance\") segment, leading to an eighth\\-place finish. They improved in the free dance, moving up to seventh place. Following the end of the competitive season, Gordon opted to retire from competitive ice dance to focus on academics. Caroline subsequently formed a new partnership with [Michael Parsons](/wiki/Michael_Parsons_%28figure_skater%29 \"Michael Parsons (figure skater)\").",
""
] |
Reign (AD 54–68\)
-----------------
The main ancient Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius") and [Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio").{{sfn\|Griffin\|2002\|p\=37}} They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant and claim that their cost left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined".[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), "Life of Nero", [§ 31](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#31).Tacitus, *[Annals](/wiki/wikisource:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2345_XV.45 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45")* [XV.45](/wiki/wikisource:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2345_XV.45 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45"). Modern historians note that the period was riddled with deflation and that Nero intended his spending on public\-work and charities to ease economic troubles.{{cite journal \|last\=Thornton \|first\=Mary Elizabeth Kelly \|title\=Nero's New Deal \|journal\=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association \|volume\=102 \|page\=629 \|year\=1971 \|jstor\=2935958 \|doi\=10\.2307/2935958 \|issn\=0065\-9711}}
### Early reign
[thumb\|left\|Bust of Nero as pharaoh](/wiki/File:Bust_of_Roman_emperor_as_pharaoh-E_27418-IMG_3389-gradient.jpg "Bust of Roman emperor as pharaoh-E 27418-IMG 3389-gradient.jpg")
Nero became emperor in AD 54, aged 16\. His tutor, [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger "Seneca the Younger"), prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".{{sfn\|Malitz\|2005\|p\=16}} [H. H. Scullard](/wiki/H._H._Scullard "H. H. Scullard") writes that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials *intra cubiculum*, to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators."{{sfn\|Scullard\|2011\|p\=257}} His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate "Roman Senate").{{sfn\|Malitz\|2005\|p\=18}}
Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; [Marcus Junius Silanus](/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Silanus_%28consul_46%29 "Marcus Junius Silanus (consul 46)"), a great\-grandson of Augustus; and [Narcissus](/wiki/Tiberius_Claudius_Narcissus "Tiberius Claudius Narcissus").{{sfn\|Scullard\|2011\|p\=257}} One of the earliest coins that Nero issued during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's [obverse](/wiki/Obverse "Obverse") side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two [lictors](/wiki/Lictors "Lictors") during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the [Vestalis Maxima](/wiki/Vestalis_Maxima "Vestalis Maxima").{{sfn\|Malitz\|2005\|p\=16}} In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally [Marcus Antonius Pallas](/wiki/Pallas_%28freedman%29 "Pallas (freedman)") from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl [Claudia Acte](/wiki/Claudia_Acte "Claudia Acte")—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him.{{sfn\|Shotter\|2012\|p\=12}} Nero, who was having an affair with Acte,{{efn\-lr\|Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard).}} exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia.{{sfn\|Scullard\|2011\|p\=257}}
[thumb\|Emperor Nero being instructed by [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger "Seneca the Younger"), work by Spanish sculptor [Eduardo Barrón](/wiki/Eduardo_Barr%C3%B3n_Gonz%C3%A1lez "Eduardo Barrón González")](/wiki/File:Ner%C3%B3n_y_S%C3%A9neca-Barr%C3%B3n.png "Nerón y Séneca-Barrón.png")
Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well\-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in AD 58\. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.{{sfn\|Malitz\|2005\|p\=19}}
Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described as *Quinquennium Neronis* by [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan "Trajan").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Anderson \|first1\=J. G. C. \|last2\=Haverfield \|first2\=F. \|date\=1911 \|title\=Trajan on the Quinquennium Neronis \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/295862 \|journal\=The Journal of Roman Studies \|volume\=1 \|pages\=173–179 \|doi\=10\.2307/295862 \|jstor\=295862 \|s2cid\=163727450 \|issn\=0075\-4358}}{{sfn\|Malitz\|2005\|p\=17}} Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities.Günther, Sven (2014\) '[Taxation in the Greco\-Roman World: The Roman Principate](https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/43505/chapter/364128738?login=false)', *Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies*. After the affair of [Lucius Pedanius Secundus](/wiki/Lucius_Pedanius_Secundus "Lucius Pedanius Secundus"), who was murdered by a desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities.{{cite web \|title\=Nero {{!}} Roman emperor \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero\-Roman\-emperor \|url\-status\=live \|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica \|access\-date\=2 July 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801180237/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero\-Roman\-emperor \|archive\-date\=1 August 2017}}
### Residences
Outside of Rome, Nero had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. At [Subiaco, Lazio](/wiki/Subiaco%2C_Lazio "Subiaco, Lazio"), near Rome he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa.Nero's villa <https://www.tibursuperbum.it/eng/escursioni/subiaco/VillaNerone.htm> He stayed at the [Villa of Nero](/wiki/Villa_of_Nero "Villa of Nero") at [Olympia, Greece](/wiki/Olympia%2C_Greece "Olympia, Greece"), during his participation at the [Olympic Games](/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games "Ancient Olympic Games") of AD 67\.
### Matricide
[thumb\|Coin of Nero and [Poppaea Sabina](/wiki/Poppaea_Sabina "Poppaea Sabina") Billon tetradrachm of Alexandria, Egypt, 25 mm, 12\.51 gr. Obverse: radiate head right; ΝΕΡΩ. ΚΛΑΥ. ΚΑΙΣ. ΣΕΒ. ΓΕΡ. ΑΥ. Reverse: draped bust of Poppaea right; ΠΟΠΠΑΙΑ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗ. Year LI \= 10 \= 63–64\.According](/wiki/Image:Nero_and_Poppaea_Sabina.jpg "Nero and Poppaea Sabina.jpg") to [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), Nero had his former freedman [Anicetus](/wiki/Anicetus_%28freedman%29 "Anicetus (freedman)") arrange a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.{{sfn\|Barrett\|2010}}{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero\*.html\#34 34]}} *The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome* cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in AD 59 are "not fully understood".{{sfn\|Barrett\|2010}} According to [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with [Poppaea Sabina](/wiki/Poppaea_Sabina "Poppaea Sabina"). In *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to [Rufrius Crispinus](/wiki/Rufrius_Crispinus "Rufrius Crispinus"), but in his later work *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 "Annals (Tacitus)")* Tacitus says Poppaea was married to [Otho](/wiki/Otho "Otho") when the affair began.{{sfn\|Barrett\|Fantham\|Yardley\|2016\|p\=214}} In *Annals* Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife [Octavia](/wiki/Claudia_Octavia "Claudia Octavia"). [Anthony A. Barrett](/wiki/Anthony_A._Barrett "Anthony A. Barrett") writes that Tacitus' account in *Annals* "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove \[Nero] over the brink".{{sfn\|Barrett\|Fantham\|Yardley\|2016\|p\=215}} A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62\.{{Cite journal \|last\=Dawson \|first\=Alexis \|date\=1969 \|title\=Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina? \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3296108 \|journal\=The Classical Journal \|volume\=64 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=253–267 \|jstor\=3296108 \|issn\=0009\-8353}}{{sfn\|Barrett\|Fantham\|Yardley\|2016\|p\=215}} Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized \[by Tacitus] because \[he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally \[served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."{{sfn\|Barrett\|Fantham\|Yardley\|2016\|p\=215}}
### Decline
Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the [Nile river](/wiki/Nile_river "Nile river") sources with a [successful expedition](/wiki/Nero_exploration_of_Nile_river "Nero exploration of Nile river").{{sfn\|Buckley\|Dinter\|2013\|p\=364}} After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire.{{sfn\|Scullard\|2011\|p\=258}} However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death.{{sfn\|Barrett\|2010}} [Miriam T. Griffins](/wiki/Miriam_T._Griffin "Miriam T. Griffin") suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death. Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".{{sfn\|Griffin\|2002\|p\=84}}[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals*, [XIV.13](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2313 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#13")
He began to build a new palace, the [Domus Transitoria](/wiki/Domus_Transitoria "Domus Transitoria"), from about AD 60\.{{sfn\|Buckley\|Dinter\|2013\|loc\=Chapter 19: Buildings of an emperor \- How Nero transformed Rome}} It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with the [Palatine](/wiki/Palatine "Palatine") including the [Gardens of Maecenas](/wiki/Gardens_of_Maecenas "Gardens of Maecenas"), [Horti Lamiani](/wiki/Horti_Lamiani "Horti Lamiani"), [Horti Lolliani](/wiki/Horti_Lolliani "Horti Lolliani"), etc.{{cite web\|url\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/\_Texts/PLATOP\*/Domus\_Transitoria.html\|title \= LacusCurtius • Domus Transitoria (Platner \& Ashby, 1929\)}}{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=31\.1}}
In AD 62, Nero's adviser [Burrus](/wiki/Sextus_Afranius_Burrus "Sextus Afranius Burrus") died.{{sfn\|Barrett\|2010}} That same year, Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (*maiestas* trial) against Antistius Sosianus.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XIV.48](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2348 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#48").{{sfn\|Griffin\|2002\|p\=53}} He also executed his rivals [Cornelius Sulla](/wiki/Faustus_Cornelius_Sulla_Felix "Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix") and [Rubellius Plautus](/wiki/Rubellius_Plautus "Rubellius Plautus").{{sfn\|Malitz\|2005\|p\=x}} Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate "Roman Senate"). Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."{{sfn\|Malitz\|2005\|p\=22}}
After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian prefects: [Faenius Rufus](/wiki/Faenius_Rufus "Faenius Rufus") and [Ofonius Tigellinus](/wiki/Ofonius_Tigellinus "Ofonius Tigellinus"). Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.{{sfn\|Scullard\|2011\|p\=26}} According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XIV.60](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2360 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#60"). After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus, and she was executed.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XIV.64](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2364 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#64").{{sfn\|Griffin\|2002\|p\=99}}
In AD 64 during the [Saturnalia](/wiki/Saturnalia "Saturnalia"), Nero married [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras_%28freedman%29 "Pythagoras (freedman)"), a [freedman](/wiki/Freedman "Freedman").{{sfn\|Tacitus\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/tacitus/annals/15b\*.html\#37 15\.37]}}{{sfn\|Cassius Dio\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/62\*.html 13, 28]}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.umich.edu/\~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html \| title\=Roman Same\-Sex Weddings from the Legal Perspective \|author\=Frier, Bruce W. \|publisher\=University of Michigan \|work\=Classical Studies Newsletter, Volume X \|year\=2004 \|access\-date\=24 February 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230041201/http://www.umich.edu/\~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html \|archive\-date\=30 December 2011 }}[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), p. 146{{dubious\|date\=October 2024}}
### Great Fire of Rome
{{Main\|Great Fire of Rome}}
[thumb\|*The Fire of Rome* by [Hubert Robert](/wiki/Hubert_Robert "Hubert Robert") (1785\)](/wiki/File:Robert%2C_Hubert_-_Incendie_%C3%A0_Rome_-.jpg "Robert, Hubert - Incendie à Rome -.jpg")
The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant shops on the slope of the [Aventine](/wiki/Aventine_Hill "Aventine Hill") overlooking the [Circus Maximus](/wiki/Circus_Maximus "Circus Maximus"), or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), p. 122[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals*, [XV.38](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2338 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#38") Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings, and temples on the Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), p. 125 The fire burned for over seven days before subsiding; it then started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.{{sfn\|Scullard\|2011\|p\=260}}[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus")*, [XV.40](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2340 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#40")
Some Romans thought the fire an accident, as the merchant shops were timber\-framed and sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber\-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's behalf. The accounts by [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder "Pliny the Elder"), Suetonius, and Cassius Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's alleged arson, including his creation of a real\-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire to clear the site for his planned palatial [Golden House](/wiki/Domus_Aurea "Domus Aurea").[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), p. 182 This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30\-meter\-tall statue of himself, the [Colossus of Nero](/wiki/Colossus_of_Nero "Colossus of Nero"), sited more or less where the [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum "Colosseum") would eventually be built.Roth, Leland M. (1993\). *Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning*. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 227–28\. {{ISBN\|0\-06\-430158\-3}}.Ball, Larry F. (2003\). *The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution*. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0\-521\-82251\-3}}.Warden reduces its size to under {{convert\|100\|acre\|km2}}. {{cite journal\|author\=Warden, P.G.\|title\=The Domus Aurea Reconsidered\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/989644\|journal\= Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians \|volume\=40 \|issue\=4\|year\=1981\|pages\= 271–78\|doi\=10\.2307/989644\|jstor\=989644}} Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "[Sack of Ilium](/wiki/Iliupersis "Iliupersis")" in stage costume while the city burned.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), p. 77{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero\*.html\#38 38]}}{{sfn\|Cassius Dio\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/62\*.html\#16 62\.16]}} The popular legend that Nero played the [lyre](/wiki/Lyre "Lyre") while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of [Flavian](/wiki/Flavian_dynasty "Flavian dynasty") propaganda ... which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule".{{sfn\|Buckley\|Dinter\|2013\|p\=2}}
Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals*, [XV.39](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2339 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#39"){{Cite book\|last\=Walsh\|first\=Joseph J.\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RX\-tDwAAQBAJ\&q\=nero\+search\+debris\+rome\+fire\+victims\&pg\=PT57\|title\=The Great Fire of Rome: Life and Death in the Ancient City\|year\= 2019\|publisher\=JHU Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4214\-3372\-1\|language\=en}} After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.
Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), p. 121 According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), pp. 121–122 Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 "Annals (Tacitus)")*. XV.44\.
Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by [porticos](/wiki/Porticos "Porticos") on wide roads.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals*, [XV.43](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2343 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#43") Nero also built himself a new palace complex known as the [Domus Aurea](/wiki/Domus_Aurea "Domus Aurea") in an area cleared by the fire. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, Nero's government increased taxation.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/emperor\-nero\-facts\-biography\-tyrant\-crimes\-accomplishments/ \|title\=Emperor Nero: the tyrant of Rome \|publisher\=BBC History Magazine and BBC History Revealed \|access\-date\=3 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506004906/https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/emperor\-nero\-facts\-biography\-tyrant\-crimes\-accomplishments/ \|archive\-date\=6 May 2021 }} Particularly heavy [tributes](/wiki/Tributes "Tributes") were imposed on the provinces of the empire.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XV.45](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2345 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45"). To meet at least a portion of the costs, Nero devalued the [Roman currency](/wiki/Roman_currency "Roman currency"), increasing inflationary pressure for the first time in the Empire's history.{{efn\-lr\|Nero or his moneyers reduced the weight of the \[\[denarius]] from 84 per \[\[Roman pound]] to 96 (3\.80 grams to 3\.30 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99\.5% to 93\.5%—the silver weight dropping from 3\.80 grams to 2\.97 grams. He also reduced the weight of the \[\[aureus]] from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (7\.9 grams to 7\.2 grams). \[\[Tulane University]] hand\-out, \[https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/\~august/handouts/601cprin.htm archived]. {{better source needed\|date\=October 2023}}}}
### Later years
In AD 65, [Gaius Calpurnius Piso](/wiki/Gaius_Calpurnius_Piso_%28conspirator%29 "Gaius Calpurnius Piso (conspirator)"), a Roman statesman, organized a [conspiracy against Nero](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy "Pisonian conspiracy") with the help of [Subrius Flavus](/wiki/Subrius_Flavus "Subrius Flavus") and [Sulpicius Asper](/wiki/Sulpicius_Asper "Sulpicius Asper"), a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XV.49](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2349 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#49"). According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the [Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic").[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XV.50](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2350 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#50"). The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, [Epaphroditus](/wiki/Epaphroditus_%28freedman_of_Nero%29 "Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)").[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XV.55](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2355 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#55"). As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed, including [Lucan](/wiki/Marcus_Annaeus_Lucanus "Marcus Annaeus Lucanus"), the poet.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XV.70](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2370 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#70"). Nero's previous advisor [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger "Seneca the Younger") was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide, as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Annals* [XV. 60–62](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2360 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#60").
Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in AD 65, before she could give birth to his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.Rudich, Vasily (1993\) *Political Dissidence Under Nero*. Psychology Press. pp. 135–136\. {{ISBN\|9780415069519}} Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous [state funeral](/wiki/State_funeral "State funeral") and [divine honors](/wiki/Imperial_cult_%28ancient_Rome%29%23Divus%2C_deus_and_the_numen "Imperial cult (ancient Rome)#Divus, deus and the numen"), and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not known where.{{cite journal\|author\=Counts, Derek B.\|title\=Regum Externorum Consuetudine: The Nature and Function of Embalming in Rome\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25011039\|journal\=Classical Antiquity\|volume\= 15 \|issue\= 2\|date\=1996\|pages\= 189–190\|quote\= p. 193, note 18 "We should not consider it an insult that Poppaea was not buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, as were other members of the imperial family until the time of Nerva." 196 (note 37, citing Pliny the elder, ''Natural History'', 12\.83\).\|doi\=10\.2307/25011039\|jstor\=25011039}}
In AD 67, Nero married [Sporus](/wiki/Sporus "Sporus"), a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea.{{sfn\|Cassius Dio\|loc\=62\.28}}{{Citation\|last\=Suetonius\|editor1\-first\=Robert A\|editor1\-last\=Kaster\|title\=Nero\|work\=Studies on the Text of Suetonius' 'De Vita Caesarum'\|year\=2016\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|doi\=10\.1093/oseo/instance.00233087\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-875847\-1}}
### Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death
In March 68, [Gaius Julius Vindex](/wiki/Vindex "Vindex"), the governor of [Gallia Lugdunensis](/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis "Gallia Lugdunensis"), rebelled against Nero's tax policies.Cassius Dio, [63\.22](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#22).Donahue, John, ["Galba (68–69 A.D.)"](http://www.roman-emperors.org/galba.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911211039/http://www.roman\-emperors.org/galba.htm \|date\=11 September 2008 }} at *De Imperatoribus Romanis*. [Lucius Verginius Rufus](/wiki/Lucius_Virginius_Rufus "Lucius Virginius Rufus"), the governor of [Germania Superior](/wiki/Germania_Superior "Germania Superior"), was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), [63\.24](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#24). In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon [Servius Sulpicius Galba](/wiki/Galba "Galba"), the governor of [Hispania Tarraconensis](/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis "Hispania Tarraconensis"), to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.[Plutarch](/wiki/Plutarch "Plutarch"), [Galba 5](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html#5).
[thumb\|left\|upright\|A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the [Palatine](/wiki/Palatine "Palatine").](/wiki/Image:Nero_Palatino_Inv618.jpg "Nero Palatino Inv618.jpg")
At the [Battle of Vesontio](/wiki/Battle_of_Vesontio_%2868%29 "Battle of Vesontio (68)") in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide. However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), [63\.25](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#25).
While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a "public enemy". The prefect of the [Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Praetorian_Guard "Praetorian Guard"), [Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus](/wiki/Gaius_Nymphidius_Sabinus "Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus"), also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba.{{sfn\|Plutarch\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba\*.html\#8 Galba 8]}}
In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of [Ostia](/wiki/Ostia_Antica "Ostia Antica") and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still\-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil "Virgil")'s *[Aeneid](/wiki/Aeneid "Aeneid")*: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to [Parthia](/wiki/Parthian_Empire "Parthian Empire"), throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the [prefecture of Egypt](/wiki/Egypt_%28Roman_province%29 "Egypt (Roman province)")". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=47}}
Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a [gladiator](/wiki/Gladiator "Gladiator") or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the [Tiber](/wiki/Tiber "Tiber").{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=47}}
Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, [Phaon](/wiki/Phaon_%28freedman%29 "Phaon (freedman)"), offered his villa, {{convert\|4\|mi\|abbr\=on}} outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal [freedmen](/wiki/Freedman "Freedman"), [Epaphroditus](/wiki/Epaphroditus_%28freedman_of_Nero%29 "Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)"), [Phaon](/wiki/Phaon_%28freedman%29 "Phaon (freedman)"), [Neophytus](/wiki/Neophytus_%28freedman%29 "Neophytus (freedman)"), and [Sporus](/wiki/Sporus "Sporus"), reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him.[Aurelius Victor](/wiki/Aurelius_Victor "Aurelius Victor"), *[Epitome de Caesaribus](/wiki/Epitome_de_Caesaribus "Epitome de Caesaribus") 5* At this time, Nero learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=48–49}} Nero prepared himself for [suicide](/wiki/Forced_suicide "Forced suicide"), pacing up and down muttering *Qualis artifex pereo* ("What an artist the world is losing!"). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=49}}[thumb\|upright\|An 1815 illustration of the alleged tomb of Nero; actually tomb of proconsul [Gaius Vibius Marianus](/wiki/Gaius_Vibius_Marianus "Gaius Vibius Marianus").](/wiki/File:A_select_collection_of_views_and_ruins_in_Rome_and_its_vicinity_-_recently_executed_from_drawings_made_upon_the_spot_%281815%29_%2814592716650%29.jpg "A select collection of views and ruins in Rome and its vicinity - recently executed from drawings made upon the spot (1815) (14592716650).jpg")
When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!".{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=49}} He died on 9 June 68,{{efn\-lr\|\[\[Cassius Dio]] \[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/66\*.html 66\.4]: "from the death of Nero to the beginning of Vespasian's rule a year and twenty\-two days elapsed". Vespasian's reign officially began on 1 July (\[\[Suetonius]], \[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian\*.html\#6 ''Vespasian'' 6]), which places the death on 9 June. Furthermore, \[\[Epiphanius of Salamis\|Epiphanius]]' ''\[\[On Weights and Measures]]'' (\[https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/epiphanius\_weights\_03\_text.htm III]) gives a reign length of "thirteen years and seven months and twenty\-seven days". \[\[Jerome]] (\[https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome\_chronicle\_03\_part2\.htm 2070]) gives "13 years, 7 months and 28 days" (using \[\[inclusive counting]]).}} the anniversary of the death of his first wife, [Claudia Octavia](/wiki/Claudia_Octavia "Claudia Octavia"), and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the [Villa Borghese](/wiki/Villa_Borghese "Villa Borghese") ([Pincian Hill](/wiki/Pincian_Hill "Pincian Hill")) area of Rome.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=50}} According to [Sulpicius Severus](/wiki/Sulpicius_Severus "Sulpicius Severus"), it is unclear whether Nero took his own life.{{cite web\|url\=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf211/npnf211\.ii.vi.ii.xxix.html\#fnf\_ii.vi.ii.xxix\-p2\.1\|title\=Philip Schaff: NPNF\-211\. Sulpitius Severus, Vincent of Lerins, John Cassian – Christian Classics Ethereal Library\|website\=ccel.org\|access\-date\=24 November 2019}}
With his death, the [Julio\-Claudian dynasty](/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty "Julio-Claudian dynasty") ended.{{cite book\|last \= Barrett\| first \= A. A\| title \= Agrippina: sister of Caligula, wife of Claudius, mother of Nero\| location \= London\| date \= 1996\|isbn\=978\-0713468540\|publisher\=Routledge}}{{rp\|19}} Chaos would ensue in the [year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors "Year of the Four Emperors").Tacitus, *Histories* [I.2](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%232 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2").
### After Nero
{{see also\|Nero Redivivus legend\|Pseudo\-Nero}}
[thumb\|upright\|[Apotheosis](/wiki/Apotheosis "Apotheosis") of Nero, c. after 68\. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.](/wiki/Image:Nero-nancy.jpg "Nero-nancy.jpg")
According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.{{sfn\|Cassius Dio\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/63\*.html 63]}}{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=57}} Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by senators, nobility, and the upper class.Tacitus, *Histories* [I.4](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%234 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#4"). The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero but had been bribed to overthrow him.Tacitus, *Histories* [I.5](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%235 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#5").
Eastern sources, namely [Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus "Philostratus") and [Apollonius of Tyana](/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana "Apollonius of Tyana"), mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of [Hellas](/wiki/Roman_Greece "Roman Greece") with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character", and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them".{{sfn\|Philostratus\|loc\=\[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/philostratus\-life\-of\-apollonius/philostratus\-life\-of\-apollonius\-5\.41\-43/ 5\.41]}} Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well\-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their [nostalgia](/wiki/Nostalgia "Nostalgia")".{{sfn\|Griffin\|2002\|p\=186}}
Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal".[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), p. 29\. Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 such images survive.{{Cite journal \|last\=Pollini \|first\=John \|date\=2006 \|title\=Review of Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25067270 \|journal\=The Art Bulletin \|volume\=88 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=590–597 \|jstor\=25067270 \|issn\=0004\-3079}} This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously,{{Cite journal \| doi\=10\.11141/ia.42\.2\|title \= Sanctioning Memory: Changing Identity – Using 3D laser scanning to identify two 'new' portraits of the Emperor Nero in English antiquarian collections\| journal\=Internet Archaeology\| issue\=42\|year \= 2016\|last1 \= Russell\|first1 \= Miles\| last2\=Manley\| first2\=Harry\| doi\-access\=free}} a practice known as *[damnatio memoriae](/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae "Damnatio memoriae")*. Champlin doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin "#Champlin"), pp. 29–31\. Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom").{{Cite journal \| doi\=10\.11141/ia.32\.5\|title \= Finding Nero: shining a new light on Romano\-British sculpture\| journal\=Internet Archaeology\| issue\=32\|year \= 2013\|last1 \= Russell\|first1 \= Miles\| last2\=Manley\| first2\=Harry\| doi\-access\=free}}
The civil war during the [year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors "Year of the Four Emperors") was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could. [Galba](/wiki/Galba "Galba") began his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Histories* [I.6](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%236 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#6"). One such notable enemy included [Nymphidius Sabinus](/wiki/Nymphidius_Sabinus "Nymphidius Sabinus"), who claimed to be the son of Emperor [Caligula](/wiki/Caligula "Caligula").{{sfn\|Plutarch\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba\*.html\#9 Galba 9]}}
[Otho](/wiki/Otho "Otho") overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *Histories* [I.13](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%2313 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#13"). It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), [Life of Otho 7](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Otho*.html#7). Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero. [Vitellius](/wiki/Vitellius "Vitellius") overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.Suetonius, [Life of Vitellius 11](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vitellius*.html#11).
After Nero's death in AD 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.Suetonius, [Life of Nero 57](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#57); Tacitus, *Histories* [II.8](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%238 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8"); Cassius Dio, *Roman History* [66\.19](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122094705/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/66%2A.html\#19 \|date\=22 November 2022 }} This belief came to be known as the [Nero Redivivus Legend](/wiki/Nero_Redivivus_Legend "Nero Redivivus Legend"). The [legend](/wiki/Legend "Legend") of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. [Augustine of Hippo](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo "Augustine of Hippo") wrote of the legend as a popular belief in AD 422\.Augustine of Hippo, *City of God*. [XX.19\.3](http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf102.iv.XX.19.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302004357/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf102\.iv.XX.19\.html \|date\=2 March 2007 }}
At least [three Nero impostors](/wiki/Pseudo-Neros "Pseudo-Neros") emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre, and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign of Vitellius.Tacitus, *Histories* [II.8](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%238 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8"). After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. Sometime during the reign of [Titus](/wiki/Titus "Titus") (79–81\), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero, but he, too, was killed.{{sfn\|Cassius Dio\|loc\=\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/66\*.html\#19 66\.19]}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/66%2A.html \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=14 December 2022 \|archive\-date\=22 November 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122094705/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\_Dio/66%2A.html \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }} Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of [Domitian](/wiki/Domitian "Domitian"), there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up,{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc\=57}} and the matter almost came to war.
|
[
"Reign (AD 54–68\\)\n-----------------",
"The main ancient Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\") and [Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\").{{sfn\\|Griffin\\|2002\\|p\\=37}} They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant and claim that their cost left Italy \"thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money\" with \"the provinces ruined\".[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), \"Life of Nero\", [§ 31](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#31).Tacitus, *[Annals](/wiki/wikisource:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2345_XV.45 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45\")* [XV.45](/wiki/wikisource:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2345_XV.45 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45\"). Modern historians note that the period was riddled with deflation and that Nero intended his spending on public\\-work and charities to ease economic troubles.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Thornton \\|first\\=Mary Elizabeth Kelly \\|title\\=Nero's New Deal \\|journal\\=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association \\|volume\\=102 \\|page\\=629 \\|year\\=1971 \\|jstor\\=2935958 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2935958 \\|issn\\=0065\\-9711}}",
"### Early reign",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Bust of Nero as pharaoh](/wiki/File:Bust_of_Roman_emperor_as_pharaoh-E_27418-IMG_3389-gradient.jpg \"Bust of Roman emperor as pharaoh-E 27418-IMG 3389-gradient.jpg\")",
"Nero became emperor in AD 54, aged 16\\. His tutor, [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger \"Seneca the Younger\"), prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about \"eliminating the ills of the previous regime\".{{sfn\\|Malitz\\|2005\\|p\\=16}} [H. H. Scullard](/wiki/H._H._Scullard \"H. H. Scullard\") writes that \"he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials *intra cubiculum*, to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators.\"{{sfn\\|Scullard\\|2011\\|p\\=257}} His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate \"Roman Senate\").{{sfn\\|Malitz\\|2005\\|p\\=18}}",
"Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, \"meant to rule through her son\". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; [Marcus Junius Silanus](/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Silanus_%28consul_46%29 \"Marcus Junius Silanus (consul 46)\"), a great\\-grandson of Augustus; and [Narcissus](/wiki/Tiberius_Claudius_Narcissus \"Tiberius Claudius Narcissus\").{{sfn\\|Scullard\\|2011\\|p\\=257}} One of the earliest coins that Nero issued during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's [obverse](/wiki/Obverse \"Obverse\") side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two [lictors](/wiki/Lictors \"Lictors\") during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the [Vestalis Maxima](/wiki/Vestalis_Maxima \"Vestalis Maxima\").{{sfn\\|Malitz\\|2005\\|p\\=16}} In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally [Marcus Antonius Pallas](/wiki/Pallas_%28freedman%29 \"Pallas (freedman)\") from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: \"What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl [Claudia Acte](/wiki/Claudia_Acte \"Claudia Acte\")—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence.\" Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him.{{sfn\\|Shotter\\|2012\\|p\\=12}} Nero, who was having an affair with Acte,{{efn\\-lr\\|Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard).}} exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia.{{sfn\\|Scullard\\|2011\\|p\\=257}}\n[thumb\\|Emperor Nero being instructed by [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger \"Seneca the Younger\"), work by Spanish sculptor [Eduardo Barrón](/wiki/Eduardo_Barr%C3%B3n_Gonz%C3%A1lez \"Eduardo Barrón González\")](/wiki/File:Ner%C3%B3n_y_S%C3%A9neca-Barr%C3%B3n.png \"Nerón y Séneca-Barrón.png\")",
"Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as \"well\\-meant but incompetent notions\" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in AD 58\\. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.{{sfn\\|Malitz\\|2005\\|p\\=19}}",
"Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described as *Quinquennium Neronis* by [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan \"Trajan\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Anderson \\|first1\\=J. G. C. \\|last2\\=Haverfield \\|first2\\=F. \\|date\\=1911 \\|title\\=Trajan on the Quinquennium Neronis \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/295862 \\|journal\\=The Journal of Roman Studies \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=173–179 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/295862 \\|jstor\\=295862 \\|s2cid\\=163727450 \\|issn\\=0075\\-4358}}{{sfn\\|Malitz\\|2005\\|p\\=17}} Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities.Günther, Sven (2014\\) '[Taxation in the Greco\\-Roman World: The Roman Principate](https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/43505/chapter/364128738?login=false)', *Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies*. After the affair of [Lucius Pedanius Secundus](/wiki/Lucius_Pedanius_Secundus \"Lucius Pedanius Secundus\"), who was murdered by a desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities.{{cite web \\|title\\=Nero {{!}} Roman emperor \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero\\-Roman\\-emperor \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801180237/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero\\-Roman\\-emperor \\|archive\\-date\\=1 August 2017}}",
"### Residences",
"Outside of Rome, Nero had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. At [Subiaco, Lazio](/wiki/Subiaco%2C_Lazio \"Subiaco, Lazio\"), near Rome he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa.Nero's villa <https://www.tibursuperbum.it/eng/escursioni/subiaco/VillaNerone.htm> He stayed at the [Villa of Nero](/wiki/Villa_of_Nero \"Villa of Nero\") at [Olympia, Greece](/wiki/Olympia%2C_Greece \"Olympia, Greece\"), during his participation at the [Olympic Games](/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games \"Ancient Olympic Games\") of AD 67\\.",
"### Matricide",
"[thumb\\|Coin of Nero and [Poppaea Sabina](/wiki/Poppaea_Sabina \"Poppaea Sabina\") Billon tetradrachm of Alexandria, Egypt, 25 mm, 12\\.51 gr. Obverse: radiate head right; ΝΕΡΩ. ΚΛΑΥ. ΚΑΙΣ. ΣΕΒ. ΓΕΡ. ΑΥ. Reverse: draped bust of Poppaea right; ΠΟΠΠΑΙΑ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗ. Year LI \\= 10 \\= 63–64\\.According](/wiki/Image:Nero_and_Poppaea_Sabina.jpg \"Nero and Poppaea Sabina.jpg\") to [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), Nero had his former freedman [Anicetus](/wiki/Anicetus_%28freedman%29 \"Anicetus (freedman)\") arrange a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|2010}}{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero\\*.html\\#34 34]}} *The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome* cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in AD 59 are \"not fully understood\".{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|2010}} According to [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with [Poppaea Sabina](/wiki/Poppaea_Sabina \"Poppaea Sabina\"). In *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to [Rufrius Crispinus](/wiki/Rufrius_Crispinus \"Rufrius Crispinus\"), but in his later work *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 \"Annals (Tacitus)\")* Tacitus says Poppaea was married to [Otho](/wiki/Otho \"Otho\") when the affair began.{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|Fantham\\|Yardley\\|2016\\|p\\=214}} In *Annals* Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife [Octavia](/wiki/Claudia_Octavia \"Claudia Octavia\"). [Anthony A. Barrett](/wiki/Anthony_A._Barrett \"Anthony A. Barrett\") writes that Tacitus' account in *Annals* \"suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove \\[Nero] over the brink\".{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|Fantham\\|Yardley\\|2016\\|p\\=215}} A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62\\.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Dawson \\|first\\=Alexis \\|date\\=1969 \\|title\\=Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina? \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3296108 \\|journal\\=The Classical Journal \\|volume\\=64 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=253–267 \\|jstor\\=3296108 \\|issn\\=0009\\-8353}}{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|Fantham\\|Yardley\\|2016\\|p\\=215}} Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a \"literary device, utilized \\[by Tacitus] because \\[he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally \\[served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman.\"{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|Fantham\\|Yardley\\|2016\\|p\\=215}}",
"### Decline",
"Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the [Nile river](/wiki/Nile_river \"Nile river\") sources with a [successful expedition](/wiki/Nero_exploration_of_Nile_river \"Nero exploration of Nile river\").{{sfn\\|Buckley\\|Dinter\\|2013\\|p\\=364}} After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire.{{sfn\\|Scullard\\|2011\\|p\\=258}} However, Nero's \"conduct became far more egregious\" after his mother's death.{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|2010}} [Miriam T. Griffins](/wiki/Miriam_T._Griffin \"Miriam T. Griffin\") suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that \"Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity\" after Agrippina's death. Griffin points out that Tacitus \"makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct\".{{sfn\\|Griffin\\|2002\\|p\\=84}}[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals*, [XIV.13](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2313 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#13\")",
"He began to build a new palace, the [Domus Transitoria](/wiki/Domus_Transitoria \"Domus Transitoria\"), from about AD 60\\.{{sfn\\|Buckley\\|Dinter\\|2013\\|loc\\=Chapter 19: Buildings of an emperor \\- How Nero transformed Rome}} It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with the [Palatine](/wiki/Palatine \"Palatine\") including the [Gardens of Maecenas](/wiki/Gardens_of_Maecenas \"Gardens of Maecenas\"), [Horti Lamiani](/wiki/Horti_Lamiani \"Horti Lamiani\"), [Horti Lolliani](/wiki/Horti_Lolliani \"Horti Lolliani\"), etc.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/\\_Texts/PLATOP\\*/Domus\\_Transitoria.html\\|title \\= LacusCurtius • Domus Transitoria (Platner \\& Ashby, 1929\\)}}{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=31\\.1}}",
"In AD 62, Nero's adviser [Burrus](/wiki/Sextus_Afranius_Burrus \"Sextus Afranius Burrus\") died.{{sfn\\|Barrett\\|2010}} That same year, Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (*maiestas* trial) against Antistius Sosianus.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XIV.48](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2348 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#48\").{{sfn\\|Griffin\\|2002\\|p\\=53}} He also executed his rivals [Cornelius Sulla](/wiki/Faustus_Cornelius_Sulla_Felix \"Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix\") and [Rubellius Plautus](/wiki/Rubellius_Plautus \"Rubellius Plautus\").{{sfn\\|Malitz\\|2005\\|p\\=x}} Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate \"Roman Senate\"). Malitz writes that \"Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable.\"{{sfn\\|Malitz\\|2005\\|p\\=22}}",
"After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian prefects: [Faenius Rufus](/wiki/Faenius_Rufus \"Faenius Rufus\") and [Ofonius Tigellinus](/wiki/Ofonius_Tigellinus \"Ofonius Tigellinus\"). Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.{{sfn\\|Scullard\\|2011\\|p\\=26}} According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XIV.60](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2360 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#60\"). After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus, and she was executed.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XIV.64](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_14%2364 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#64\").{{sfn\\|Griffin\\|2002\\|p\\=99}}",
"In AD 64 during the [Saturnalia](/wiki/Saturnalia \"Saturnalia\"), Nero married [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras_%28freedman%29 \"Pythagoras (freedman)\"), a [freedman](/wiki/Freedman \"Freedman\").{{sfn\\|Tacitus\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/tacitus/annals/15b\\*.html\\#37 15\\.37]}}{{sfn\\|Cassius Dio\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/62\\*.html 13, 28]}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.umich.edu/\\~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html \\| title\\=Roman Same\\-Sex Weddings from the Legal Perspective \\|author\\=Frier, Bruce W. \\|publisher\\=University of Michigan \\|work\\=Classical Studies Newsletter, Volume X \\|year\\=2004 \\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230041201/http://www.umich.edu/\\~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html \\|archive\\-date\\=30 December 2011 }}[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), p. 146{{dubious\\|date\\=October 2024}}",
"### Great Fire of Rome",
"{{Main\\|Great Fire of Rome}}\n[thumb\\|*The Fire of Rome* by [Hubert Robert](/wiki/Hubert_Robert \"Hubert Robert\") (1785\\)](/wiki/File:Robert%2C_Hubert_-_Incendie_%C3%A0_Rome_-.jpg \"Robert, Hubert - Incendie à Rome -.jpg\")\nThe Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant shops on the slope of the [Aventine](/wiki/Aventine_Hill \"Aventine Hill\") overlooking the [Circus Maximus](/wiki/Circus_Maximus \"Circus Maximus\"), or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), p. 122[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals*, [XV.38](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2338 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#38\") Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings, and temples on the Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), p. 125 The fire burned for over seven days before subsiding; it then started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.{{sfn\\|Scullard\\|2011\\|p\\=260}}[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\")*, [XV.40](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2340 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#40\")",
"Some Romans thought the fire an accident, as the merchant shops were timber\\-framed and sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber\\-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's behalf. The accounts by [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\"), Suetonius, and Cassius Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's alleged arson, including his creation of a real\\-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire to clear the site for his planned palatial [Golden House](/wiki/Domus_Aurea \"Domus Aurea\").[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), p. 182 This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30\\-meter\\-tall statue of himself, the [Colossus of Nero](/wiki/Colossus_of_Nero \"Colossus of Nero\"), sited more or less where the [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum \"Colosseum\") would eventually be built.Roth, Leland M. (1993\\). *Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning*. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 227–28\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-06\\-430158\\-3}}.Ball, Larry F. (2003\\). *The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution*. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-82251\\-3}}.Warden reduces its size to under {{convert\\|100\\|acre\\|km2}}. {{cite journal\\|author\\=Warden, P.G.\\|title\\=The Domus Aurea Reconsidered\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/989644\\|journal\\= Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians \\|volume\\=40 \\|issue\\=4\\|year\\=1981\\|pages\\= 271–78\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/989644\\|jstor\\=989644}} Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the \"[Sack of Ilium](/wiki/Iliupersis \"Iliupersis\")\" in stage costume while the city burned.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), p. 77{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero\\*.html\\#38 38]}}{{sfn\\|Cassius Dio\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/62\\*.html\\#16 62\\.16]}} The popular legend that Nero played the [lyre](/wiki/Lyre \"Lyre\") while Rome burned \"is at least partly a literary construct of [Flavian](/wiki/Flavian_dynasty \"Flavian dynasty\") propaganda ... which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule\".{{sfn\\|Buckley\\|Dinter\\|2013\\|p\\=2}}",
"Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals*, [XV.39](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2339 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#39\"){{Cite book\\|last\\=Walsh\\|first\\=Joseph J.\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RX\\-tDwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=nero\\+search\\+debris\\+rome\\+fire\\+victims\\&pg\\=PT57\\|title\\=The Great Fire of Rome: Life and Death in the Ancient City\\|year\\= 2019\\|publisher\\=JHU Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4214\\-3372\\-1\\|language\\=en}} After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.",
"Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), p. 121 According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by \"being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive\".[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), pp. 121–122 Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 \"Annals (Tacitus)\")*. XV.44\\.",
"Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by [porticos](/wiki/Porticos \"Porticos\") on wide roads.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals*, [XV.43](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2343 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#43\") Nero also built himself a new palace complex known as the [Domus Aurea](/wiki/Domus_Aurea \"Domus Aurea\") in an area cleared by the fire. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, Nero's government increased taxation.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/emperor\\-nero\\-facts\\-biography\\-tyrant\\-crimes\\-accomplishments/ \\|title\\=Emperor Nero: the tyrant of Rome \\|publisher\\=BBC History Magazine and BBC History Revealed \\|access\\-date\\=3 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506004906/https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/emperor\\-nero\\-facts\\-biography\\-tyrant\\-crimes\\-accomplishments/ \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2021 }} Particularly heavy [tributes](/wiki/Tributes \"Tributes\") were imposed on the provinces of the empire.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XV.45](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2345 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45\"). To meet at least a portion of the costs, Nero devalued the [Roman currency](/wiki/Roman_currency \"Roman currency\"), increasing inflationary pressure for the first time in the Empire's history.{{efn\\-lr\\|Nero or his moneyers reduced the weight of the \\[\\[denarius]] from 84 per \\[\\[Roman pound]] to 96 (3\\.80 grams to 3\\.30 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99\\.5% to 93\\.5%—the silver weight dropping from 3\\.80 grams to 2\\.97 grams. He also reduced the weight of the \\[\\[aureus]] from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (7\\.9 grams to 7\\.2 grams). \\[\\[Tulane University]] hand\\-out, \\[https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/\\~august/handouts/601cprin.htm archived]. {{better source needed\\|date\\=October 2023}}}}",
"### Later years",
"In AD 65, [Gaius Calpurnius Piso](/wiki/Gaius_Calpurnius_Piso_%28conspirator%29 \"Gaius Calpurnius Piso (conspirator)\"), a Roman statesman, organized a [conspiracy against Nero](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy \"Pisonian conspiracy\") with the help of [Subrius Flavus](/wiki/Subrius_Flavus \"Subrius Flavus\") and [Sulpicius Asper](/wiki/Sulpicius_Asper \"Sulpicius Asper\"), a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XV.49](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2349 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#49\"). According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to \"rescue the state\" from the emperor and restore the [Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\").[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XV.50](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2350 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#50\"). The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, [Epaphroditus](/wiki/Epaphroditus_%28freedman_of_Nero%29 \"Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)\").[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XV.55](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2355 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#55\"). As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed, including [Lucan](/wiki/Marcus_Annaeus_Lucanus \"Marcus Annaeus Lucanus\"), the poet.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XV.70](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2370 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#70\"). Nero's previous advisor [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger \"Seneca the Younger\") was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide, as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Annals* [XV. 60–62](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_15%2360 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#60\").",
"Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in AD 65, before she could give birth to his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.Rudich, Vasily (1993\\) *Political Dissidence Under Nero*. Psychology Press. pp. 135–136\\. {{ISBN\\|9780415069519}} Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous [state funeral](/wiki/State_funeral \"State funeral\") and [divine honors](/wiki/Imperial_cult_%28ancient_Rome%29%23Divus%2C_deus_and_the_numen \"Imperial cult (ancient Rome)#Divus, deus and the numen\"), and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not known where.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Counts, Derek B.\\|title\\=Regum Externorum Consuetudine: The Nature and Function of Embalming in Rome\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25011039\\|journal\\=Classical Antiquity\\|volume\\= 15 \\|issue\\= 2\\|date\\=1996\\|pages\\= 189–190\\|quote\\= p. 193, note 18 \"We should not consider it an insult that Poppaea was not buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, as were other members of the imperial family until the time of Nerva.\" 196 (note 37, citing Pliny the elder, ''Natural History'', 12\\.83\\).\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/25011039\\|jstor\\=25011039}}",
"In AD 67, Nero married [Sporus](/wiki/Sporus \"Sporus\"), a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea.{{sfn\\|Cassius Dio\\|loc\\=62\\.28}}{{Citation\\|last\\=Suetonius\\|editor1\\-first\\=Robert A\\|editor1\\-last\\=Kaster\\|title\\=Nero\\|work\\=Studies on the Text of Suetonius' 'De Vita Caesarum'\\|year\\=2016\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/oseo/instance.00233087\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-875847\\-1}}",
"### Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death",
"In March 68, [Gaius Julius Vindex](/wiki/Vindex \"Vindex\"), the governor of [Gallia Lugdunensis](/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis \"Gallia Lugdunensis\"), rebelled against Nero's tax policies.Cassius Dio, [63\\.22](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#22).Donahue, John, [\"Galba (68–69 A.D.)\"](http://www.roman-emperors.org/galba.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911211039/http://www.roman\\-emperors.org/galba.htm \\|date\\=11 September 2008 }} at *De Imperatoribus Romanis*. [Lucius Verginius Rufus](/wiki/Lucius_Virginius_Rufus \"Lucius Virginius Rufus\"), the governor of [Germania Superior](/wiki/Germania_Superior \"Germania Superior\"), was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), [63\\.24](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#24). In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon [Servius Sulpicius Galba](/wiki/Galba \"Galba\"), the governor of [Hispania Tarraconensis](/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis \"Hispania Tarraconensis\"), to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.[Plutarch](/wiki/Plutarch \"Plutarch\"), [Galba 5](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html#5).\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the [Palatine](/wiki/Palatine \"Palatine\").](/wiki/Image:Nero_Palatino_Inv618.jpg \"Nero Palatino Inv618.jpg\")",
"At the [Battle of Vesontio](/wiki/Battle_of_Vesontio_%2868%29 \"Battle of Vesontio (68)\") in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide. However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), [63\\.25](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#25).",
"While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a \"public enemy\". The prefect of the [Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Praetorian_Guard \"Praetorian Guard\"), [Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus](/wiki/Gaius_Nymphidius_Sabinus \"Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus\"), also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba.{{sfn\\|Plutarch\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba\\*.html\\#8 Galba 8]}}",
"In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of [Ostia](/wiki/Ostia_Antica \"Ostia Antica\") and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still\\-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from [Virgil](/wiki/Virgil \"Virgil\")'s *[Aeneid](/wiki/Aeneid \"Aeneid\")*: \"Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?\" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to [Parthia](/wiki/Parthian_Empire \"Parthian Empire\"), throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences \"and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the [prefecture of Egypt](/wiki/Egypt_%28Roman_province%29 \"Egypt (Roman province)\")\". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=47}}",
"Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a [gladiator](/wiki/Gladiator \"Gladiator\") or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, \"Have I neither friend nor foe?\" and ran out as if to throw himself into the [Tiber](/wiki/Tiber \"Tiber\").{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=47}}\nReturning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, [Phaon](/wiki/Phaon_%28freedman%29 \"Phaon (freedman)\"), offered his villa, {{convert\\|4\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal [freedmen](/wiki/Freedman \"Freedman\"), [Epaphroditus](/wiki/Epaphroditus_%28freedman_of_Nero%29 \"Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)\"), [Phaon](/wiki/Phaon_%28freedman%29 \"Phaon (freedman)\"), [Neophytus](/wiki/Neophytus_%28freedman%29 \"Neophytus (freedman)\"), and [Sporus](/wiki/Sporus \"Sporus\"), reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him.[Aurelius Victor](/wiki/Aurelius_Victor \"Aurelius Victor\"), *[Epitome de Caesaribus](/wiki/Epitome_de_Caesaribus \"Epitome de Caesaribus\") 5* At this time, Nero learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy.{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=48–49}} Nero prepared himself for [suicide](/wiki/Forced_suicide \"Forced suicide\"), pacing up and down muttering *Qualis artifex pereo* (\"What an artist the world is losing!\"). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task.{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=49}}[thumb\\|upright\\|An 1815 illustration of the alleged tomb of Nero; actually tomb of proconsul [Gaius Vibius Marianus](/wiki/Gaius_Vibius_Marianus \"Gaius Vibius Marianus\").](/wiki/File:A_select_collection_of_views_and_ruins_in_Rome_and_its_vicinity_-_recently_executed_from_drawings_made_upon_the_spot_%281815%29_%2814592716650%29.jpg \"A select collection of views and ruins in Rome and its vicinity - recently executed from drawings made upon the spot (1815) (14592716650).jpg\")\nWhen one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were \"Too late! This is fidelity!\".{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=49}} He died on 9 June 68,{{efn\\-lr\\|\\[\\[Cassius Dio]] \\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/66\\*.html 66\\.4]: \"from the death of Nero to the beginning of Vespasian's rule a year and twenty\\-two days elapsed\". Vespasian's reign officially began on 1 July (\\[\\[Suetonius]], \\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian\\*.html\\#6 ''Vespasian'' 6]), which places the death on 9 June. Furthermore, \\[\\[Epiphanius of Salamis\\|Epiphanius]]' ''\\[\\[On Weights and Measures]]'' (\\[https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/epiphanius\\_weights\\_03\\_text.htm III]) gives a reign length of \"thirteen years and seven months and twenty\\-seven days\". \\[\\[Jerome]] (\\[https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome\\_chronicle\\_03\\_part2\\.htm 2070]) gives \"13 years, 7 months and 28 days\" (using \\[\\[inclusive counting]]).}} the anniversary of the death of his first wife, [Claudia Octavia](/wiki/Claudia_Octavia \"Claudia Octavia\"), and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the [Villa Borghese](/wiki/Villa_Borghese \"Villa Borghese\") ([Pincian Hill](/wiki/Pincian_Hill \"Pincian Hill\")) area of Rome.{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=50}} According to [Sulpicius Severus](/wiki/Sulpicius_Severus \"Sulpicius Severus\"), it is unclear whether Nero took his own life.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf211/npnf211\\.ii.vi.ii.xxix.html\\#fnf\\_ii.vi.ii.xxix\\-p2\\.1\\|title\\=Philip Schaff: NPNF\\-211\\. Sulpitius Severus, Vincent of Lerins, John Cassian – Christian Classics Ethereal Library\\|website\\=ccel.org\\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2019}}",
"With his death, the [Julio\\-Claudian dynasty](/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty \"Julio-Claudian dynasty\") ended.{{cite book\\|last \\= Barrett\\| first \\= A. A\\| title \\= Agrippina: sister of Caligula, wife of Claudius, mother of Nero\\| location \\= London\\| date \\= 1996\\|isbn\\=978\\-0713468540\\|publisher\\=Routledge}}{{rp\\|19}} Chaos would ensue in the [year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors \"Year of the Four Emperors\").Tacitus, *Histories* [I.2](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%232 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2\").",
"### After Nero",
"{{see also\\|Nero Redivivus legend\\|Pseudo\\-Nero}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Apotheosis](/wiki/Apotheosis \"Apotheosis\") of Nero, c. after 68\\. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.](/wiki/Image:Nero-nancy.jpg \"Nero-nancy.jpg\")\nAccording to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.{{sfn\\|Cassius Dio\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/63\\*.html 63]}}{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=57}} Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by senators, nobility, and the upper class.Tacitus, *Histories* [I.4](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%234 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#4\"). The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and \"those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero\", on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero but had been bribed to overthrow him.Tacitus, *Histories* [I.5](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%235 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#5\").",
"Eastern sources, namely [Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus \"Philostratus\") and [Apollonius of Tyana](/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana \"Apollonius of Tyana\"), mention that Nero's death was mourned as he \"restored the liberties of [Hellas](/wiki/Roman_Greece \"Roman Greece\") with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character\", and that he \"held our liberties in his hand and respected them\".{{sfn\\|Philostratus\\|loc\\=\\[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/philostratus\\-life\\-of\\-apollonius/philostratus\\-life\\-of\\-apollonius\\-5\\.41\\-43/ 5\\.41]}} Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well\\-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was \"loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their [nostalgia](/wiki/Nostalgia \"Nostalgia\")\".{{sfn\\|Griffin\\|2002\\|p\\=186}}",
"Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an \"outburst of private zeal\".[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), p. 29\\. Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 such images survive.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Pollini \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Review of Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25067270 \\|journal\\=The Art Bulletin \\|volume\\=88 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=590–597 \\|jstor\\=25067270 \\|issn\\=0004\\-3079}} This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously,{{Cite journal \\| doi\\=10\\.11141/ia.42\\.2\\|title \\= Sanctioning Memory: Changing Identity – Using 3D laser scanning to identify two 'new' portraits of the Emperor Nero in English antiquarian collections\\| journal\\=Internet Archaeology\\| issue\\=42\\|year \\= 2016\\|last1 \\= Russell\\|first1 \\= Miles\\| last2\\=Manley\\| first2\\=Harry\\| doi\\-access\\=free}} a practice known as *[damnatio memoriae](/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae \"Damnatio memoriae\")*. Champlin doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.[Champlin](/wiki/%23Champlin \"#Champlin\"), pp. 29–31\\. Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\").{{Cite journal \\| doi\\=10\\.11141/ia.32\\.5\\|title \\= Finding Nero: shining a new light on Romano\\-British sculpture\\| journal\\=Internet Archaeology\\| issue\\=32\\|year \\= 2013\\|last1 \\= Russell\\|first1 \\= Miles\\| last2\\=Manley\\| first2\\=Harry\\| doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"The civil war during the [year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors \"Year of the Four Emperors\") was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could. [Galba](/wiki/Galba \"Galba\") began his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Histories* [I.6](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%236 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#6\"). One such notable enemy included [Nymphidius Sabinus](/wiki/Nymphidius_Sabinus \"Nymphidius Sabinus\"), who claimed to be the son of Emperor [Caligula](/wiki/Caligula \"Caligula\").{{sfn\\|Plutarch\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba\\*.html\\#9 Galba 9]}}",
"[Otho](/wiki/Otho \"Otho\") overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *Histories* [I.13](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%2313 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#13\"). It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), [Life of Otho 7](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Otho*.html#7). Otho used \"Nero\" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero. [Vitellius](/wiki/Vitellius \"Vitellius\") overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.Suetonius, [Life of Vitellius 11](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vitellius*.html#11).",
"After Nero's death in AD 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.Suetonius, [Life of Nero 57](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#57); Tacitus, *Histories* [II.8](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%238 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8\"); Cassius Dio, *Roman History* [66\\.19](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122094705/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/66%2A.html\\#19 \\|date\\=22 November 2022 }} This belief came to be known as the [Nero Redivivus Legend](/wiki/Nero_Redivivus_Legend \"Nero Redivivus Legend\"). The [legend](/wiki/Legend \"Legend\") of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. [Augustine of Hippo](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo \"Augustine of Hippo\") wrote of the legend as a popular belief in AD 422\\.Augustine of Hippo, *City of God*. [XX.19\\.3](http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf102.iv.XX.19.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302004357/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf102\\.iv.XX.19\\.html \\|date\\=2 March 2007 }}",
"At least [three Nero impostors](/wiki/Pseudo-Neros \"Pseudo-Neros\") emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre, and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign of Vitellius.Tacitus, *Histories* [II.8](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%238 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8\"). After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. Sometime during the reign of [Titus](/wiki/Titus \"Titus\") (79–81\\), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero, but he, too, was killed.{{sfn\\|Cassius Dio\\|loc\\=\\[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/66\\*.html\\#19 66\\.19]}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/66%2A.html \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 November 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122094705/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius\\_Dio/66%2A.html \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }} Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of [Domitian](/wiki/Domitian \"Domitian\"), there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up,{{sfn\\|Suetonius\\|loc\\=57}} and the matter almost came to war.",
""
] |
Career
------
Born in [Masson, Quebec](/wiki/Masson%2C_Quebec "Masson, Quebec"), Charette has played in thirteen [Briers](/wiki/Tim_Hortons_Brier "Tim Hortons Brier"), and was the first curler to have played every position (including alternate) at a Brier. He skipped teams in 1989, 1993 and 2007; played third for [Guy Hemmings](/wiki/Guy_Hemmings "Guy Hemmings") in 1998 and 1999, played second for [Don Westphal](/wiki/Don_Westphal "Don Westphal") in 1997, played lead for Westphal in 1996 and was the alternate for [Kevin Adams](/wiki/Kevin_Adams_%28curler%29 "Kevin Adams (curler)") in 1991, [Ted Butler](/wiki/Ted_Butler_%28curler%29 "Ted Butler (curler)") in 1992 and [Jean\-Michel Ménard](/wiki/Jean-Michel_M%C3%A9nard "Jean-Michel Ménard") in 2013, 2014, 2016 and 2017\.
Charette's best performance at the Brier was the two years he played for Hemmings, where they lost in the Brier final on both occasions.
Charette had to qualify for the [2007 Tim Hortons Brier](/wiki/2007_Tim_Hortons_Brier "2007 Tim Hortons Brier") by defeating defending Brier champion [Jean\-Michel Ménard](/wiki/Jean-Michel_M%C3%A9nard "Jean-Michel Ménard") in the Quebec final 12\-8\.
In 2001, Charette played third for [Peter Corner](/wiki/Peter_Corner "Peter Corner") in the [*Ontario* provincial championships](/wiki/2001_Ontario_Nokia_Cup "2001 Ontario Nokia Cup"), but they finished 3\-6\.
After the [2010\-11 curling season](/wiki/2010-11_curling_season "2010-11 curling season") ended, [Serge Reid](/wiki/Serge_Reid "Serge Reid")'s team announced in a tweet that Charette would be joining their rink as skip and would throw lead stones.[Announcement @TeamReidCurling](https://twitter.com/TeamReidcurling/status/66578587649720320) He played with them for one season before forming a new team with [Richard Faguy](/wiki/Richard_Faguy "Richard Faguy"), [Louis Biron](/wiki/Louis_Biron "Louis Biron") and [Maurice Cayouette](/wiki/Maurice_Cayouette "Maurice Cayouette").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Born in [Masson, Quebec](/wiki/Masson%2C_Quebec \"Masson, Quebec\"), Charette has played in thirteen [Briers](/wiki/Tim_Hortons_Brier \"Tim Hortons Brier\"), and was the first curler to have played every position (including alternate) at a Brier. He skipped teams in 1989, 1993 and 2007; played third for [Guy Hemmings](/wiki/Guy_Hemmings \"Guy Hemmings\") in 1998 and 1999, played second for [Don Westphal](/wiki/Don_Westphal \"Don Westphal\") in 1997, played lead for Westphal in 1996 and was the alternate for [Kevin Adams](/wiki/Kevin_Adams_%28curler%29 \"Kevin Adams (curler)\") in 1991, [Ted Butler](/wiki/Ted_Butler_%28curler%29 \"Ted Butler (curler)\") in 1992 and [Jean\\-Michel Ménard](/wiki/Jean-Michel_M%C3%A9nard \"Jean-Michel Ménard\") in 2013, 2014, 2016 and 2017\\.",
"Charette's best performance at the Brier was the two years he played for Hemmings, where they lost in the Brier final on both occasions.",
"Charette had to qualify for the [2007 Tim Hortons Brier](/wiki/2007_Tim_Hortons_Brier \"2007 Tim Hortons Brier\") by defeating defending Brier champion [Jean\\-Michel Ménard](/wiki/Jean-Michel_M%C3%A9nard \"Jean-Michel Ménard\") in the Quebec final 12\\-8\\.",
"In 2001, Charette played third for [Peter Corner](/wiki/Peter_Corner \"Peter Corner\") in the [*Ontario* provincial championships](/wiki/2001_Ontario_Nokia_Cup \"2001 Ontario Nokia Cup\"), but they finished 3\\-6\\.",
"After the [2010\\-11 curling season](/wiki/2010-11_curling_season \"2010-11 curling season\") ended, [Serge Reid](/wiki/Serge_Reid \"Serge Reid\")'s team announced in a tweet that Charette would be joining their rink as skip and would throw lead stones.[Announcement @TeamReidCurling](https://twitter.com/TeamReidcurling/status/66578587649720320) He played with them for one season before forming a new team with [Richard Faguy](/wiki/Richard_Faguy \"Richard Faguy\"), [Louis Biron](/wiki/Louis_Biron \"Louis Biron\") and [Maurice Cayouette](/wiki/Maurice_Cayouette \"Maurice Cayouette\").",
""
] |
History
-------
### Roman period
Under the [Judaea Province](/wiki/Judaea_%28Roman_province%29 "Judaea (Roman province)"), a Jewish town was situated at this spot. Ceramics from the [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine "Byzantine") era have been found here.Dauphin, 1998, p. 647 Alma had several nearby [khirbas](/wiki/Khirba "Khirba"), and fragments of inscriptions from an ancient [synagogue](/wiki/Synagogue "Synagogue") were found at the site of the village in the 20th century. Remains of a ruined watch\-tower was found on the crest of the ridge, and a quarter of a mile south of those there were three perfect [dolmens](/wiki/Dolmen "Dolmen"), not very large.Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p. [220](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/220/mode/1up)
### Crusader period
The name Alma is first mentioned in the [Crusader](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem") period, from a personal name.Palmer, pp. [66](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp00conduoft#page/66/mode/1up), [17](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp00conduoft#page/17/mode/1up), [61](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp00conduoft#page/61/mode/1up) The Jewish community existed until the 17th century. [Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela "Benjamin of Tudela") (1130–1173\) said that during his visit, he found 50 Jewish families living in Alma.{{cite book\|title\=Lexicon of the Land of Israel\|publisher\=Miskal \- Yedioth Ahronoth Books and Chemed Books\|year\=1999\|author\=HaReuveni, Immanuel\|page\=763\|isbn\=965\-448\-413\-7\|language\=he}}
The [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusaders "Crusaders") called the village "Alme"; it remained under their rule until 1187\.{{Cite book \|last\=Kedar \|first\=Benjamin Z. \|title\=Holy Men in a Holy Land: Christian, Muslim and Jewish Religiosity in the Near East at the Time of the Crusades \|publisher\=Royal Holloway, University of London \|year\=2005 \|edition\= \|series\=Hayes Robinson Lecture Series No. 9 \|location\=London \|pages\=21}} While travelling though the region in the 12th century CE, [Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela "Benjamin of Tudela") noted that Alma contained fifty [Jewish](/wiki/Jews "Jews") inhabitants and a "large cemetery of the [Israelites](/wiki/Israelites "Israelites")", where several sages mentioned in the [Mishnah](/wiki/Mishnah "Mishnah") and [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud "Talmud") were buried.[Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela "Benjamin of Tudela") in Thomas Wright. *[Early Travels in Palestine](https://books.google.com/books?id=QliW8XHtsa4C&pg=PA89)*. Courier Corporation; 2003\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-486\-42871\-0}}. p. 89\. An anonymous Hebrew manuscript of the period mentions that the village's inhabitants were Jews and Muslims, and the lord apparently Frankish. The narrative tells that on every [Shabbat Eve](/wiki/Erev_Shabbat "Erev Shabbat"), Jews and Muslims light candles on the tomb of Rabbi [Eleazar ben Arach](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Arach "Eleazar ben Arach"), a [tanna](/wiki/Tannaim "Tannaim") and a local [tzadik](/wiki/Tzadik "Tzadik") (righteous man), and mentions a nearby miracle\-working tree.
Two inscriptions discovered in 'Alma indicate the presence of an [ancient Jewish synagogue](/wiki/Ancient_synagogues_in_Israel "Ancient synagogues in Israel") at the site.{{Citation \|title\=XXIII. ʿAlma \|date\=2023\-03\-20 \|work\=Volume 5/Part 1 Galilaea and Northern Regions: 5876\-6924 \|pages\=146–149 \|url\=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10\.1515/9783110715774\-031/html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|publisher\=De Gruyter \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1515/9783110715774\-031 \|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-071577\-4}} One inscription was discovered on a [lintel](/wiki/Lintel "Lintel") fragment featuring a bilingual [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language") and [Aramaic](/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic "Jewish Palestinian Aramaic") inscription, with its right half [repurposed](/wiki/Spolia "Spolia"). It conveys a blessing of peace for the location and the [people of Israel](/wiki/Jews "Jews"), along with a dedication by the artisan.{{efn\|The inscription reads: “יהי שלום על המקום הזה ועל כל מקומות עמו ישראל. אמן. סלה. אנה יוסה בר לוי הלוי אומנה דעבדת הדין שקופה”, translating into “May there be peace upon this place and upon all the places of \[\[Jews\|his people Israel]]. \[\[Amen]]. \[\[Selah]]. I am Yose, son of Levi, the \[\[Levite]], the artisan who made this lintel.”}} The dating corresponds with that of the [Bar'am synagogues](/wiki/Kfar_Bar%27am_synagogue "Kfar Bar'am synagogue"), and the unusual first\-person usage, similar to [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") epitaphs, acknowledges Levi as both a name and [title](/wiki/Levite "Levite"). Additionally, a second inscription—a two\-line Aramaic inscription{{Efn\|The inscription reads: “]\-\-\[נה טברייה דע]בד \-\- {{!}} הדי\[ן שקופה מלך ע]למה יתן ברכתה בעמלה\[”, translating into: “…na the Tiberian who made/donated this lintel. May the king of the world (bless his work).”}}—was found in secondary use in the modern synagogue of 'Alma.
An anonymous Hebrew manuscript of the period mentions that the village's inhabitants were Jews and Muslims, and the lord apparently Frankish. The narrative tells that on every [Shabbat Eve](/wiki/Erev_Shabbat "Erev Shabbat"), Jews and Muslims light candles on the tomb of Rabbi [Eleazar ben Arach](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Arach "Eleazar ben Arach"), a [tanna](/wiki/Tannaim "Tannaim") and a local [tzadik](/wiki/Tzadik "Tzadik") (righteous man), and mentions a nearby miracle\-working tree.
### Ottoman era
[thumb\|180px\|Map of Alma, 1870s](/wiki/File:Historical_map_series_for_the_area_of_Alma%2C_Safad_%281870s%29.jpg "Historical map series for the area of Alma, Safad (1870s).jpg")
At the beginning of the period of [Ottoman rule](/wiki/Ottoman_empire "Ottoman empire") over Palestine, [Moshe Basola](/wiki/Moshe_Basola "Moshe Basola") passed through Alma during 1521\-1523\. He noted that there were 15 Jewish families and one synagogue there,Schwarz, 1850, [p. 385](http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa;cc=moa;sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1;idno=AHZ1758.0001.001;seq=399) though no Jews are listed in the early Ottoman [tax registers](/wiki/Daftar "Daftar"). [Rhode](/wiki/Harold_Rhode "Harold Rhode") hypothesize that Basola have counted some Jews who went back and forth between Alma and [Safad](/wiki/Safad "Safad"), and were listed/taxed there.Rhode, 1979, p. 188
In the Ottoman tax registers of 1596, the village is listed as forming part of the *[nahiya](/wiki/Nahiya "Nahiya")* ("subdistrict") of Jira in the *[liwa'](/wiki/Liwa_%28Arabic%29 "Liwa (Arabic)")* ("district") of [Safad](/wiki/Safad "Safad"). It had a relatively large population of 1,440, consisting of 288 Muslim households and 140 Muslim bachelors, together with seven Jewish households and one Jewish bachelor. The village paid taxes on goats, beehives, a water\-powered mill, and a press that was used for processing olives or grapes.Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 177Note that Rhode, 1979, p. [6](https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420031504/https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The\_Administration\_and\_Population\_of\_the\_Sancak\_of\_Safed\_in\_the\_Sixteenth\_Century \|date\=2019\-04\-20 }} writes that the register that Hütteroth and Abdulfattah studied was not from 1595/6, but from 1548/9 Total tax revenue amounted to a substantial 51,100 [akce](/wiki/Akce "Akce").Petersen, 2005, p. [133](https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n141/mode/1up). Alma's prosperity was attributed to its close proximity to Safad.Petersen, 2005, p. [42](https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n49/mode/1up).
[Edward Robinson](/wiki/Edward_Robinson_%28scholar%29 "Edward Robinson (scholar)") and [Eli Smith](/wiki/Eli_Smith "Eli Smith"), who travelled to the region in 1838, give the full name of the village as '*Alma el\-Khait* ({{lang\-ar\|علماالخيط}}).Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Second Appendix, p. [134](https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearch03robiuoft#page/134/mode/1up).
[James Finn](/wiki/James_Finn "James Finn"), the British consul to Jerusalem who travelled around Palestine between 1853 and 1856, describes the village of Alma as being situated in an area in which volcanic basalt was abundant. Around the village, women and children were gathering olives from the trees by beating them with poles and then collecting the fallen fruit. He notes that the small district in which the village is located is known by the locals as "the *Khait*" (Arabic for "string") and that they "boast of its extraordinary fertility in corn\-produce."Finn, 1877, p. [108](https://archive.org/stream/byewaysinpalesti00finniala#page/108/mode/1up)
[Victor Guérin](/wiki/Victor_Gu%C3%A9rin "Victor Guérin") visited in 1875, and noted that 200 Muslim inhabitants lived there.Guérin, 1880, pp. [445](https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr00gugoog#page/n485/mode/1up)\-6
In *The Survey of Western Palestine* (1881\), Alma is described as a village built of stone with about 250 "[Algerine](/wiki/Algerine "Algerine") [Mohammedan](/wiki/Mohammedan "Mohammedan")" residents, situated in the middle of a fertile plain with a few gardens.Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, [p.196](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/196/mode/1up). Also quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 432\.
A population list from about 1887 showed *Alma* to have about 1,105 Muslim inhabitants.Schumacher, 1888, p. [189](https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme19pale#page/n214/mode/1up)
### British Mandate period
[thumb\|180px\|Map of Alma, 1940s](/wiki/File:Historical_map_series_for_the_area_of_Alma%2C_Safad_%281940s%29.jpg "Historical map series for the area of Alma, Safad (1940s).jpg")
Alma was in the [Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Safad_Subdistrict%2C_Mandatory_Palestine "Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine"). The population of Alma in the [1922 census](/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine "1922 census of Palestine") consisted of 309 Muslims,Barron, 1923, Table XI, p. [41](https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n43/mode/1up) increasing to 712 Muslims in 148 occupied houses by [1931](/wiki/1931_census_of_Palestine "1931 census of Palestine").Mills, 1932, p. [105](https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas)
In the [1945 statistics](/wiki/Village_Statistics%2C_1945 "Village Statistics, 1945"), the population had reached 950,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [69](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Safad/Page-069.jpg) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604235924/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Safad/Page\-069\.jpg \|date\=2011\-06\-04 }}[Khalidi](/wiki/Walid_Khalidi "Walid Khalidi"), 1992, p. 432 still all Muslim.United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, *Village Statistics, April 1945*, p. [4](http://domino.un.org/pdfs/AAC25ComTech7Add1.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609143136/http://domino.un.org/pdfs/AAC25ComTech7Add1\.pdf \|date\=June 9, 2012 }}
The villagers were heavily involved in agriculture, including raising livestock and growing crops. During the 1942/43 season olive trees were recorded as being grown on 750 dunums of village land, 550 dunums of which were fruit\-bearing trees. It was the largest olive grove in Safad district. In 1944–45 983 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards and 7,475 dunums were devoted to cereal crops.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [118](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Safad/Page-118.jpg) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924152110/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Safad/Page\-118\.jpg \|date\=2015\-09\-24 }}
The village comprised a total area of 19,498 [dunums](/wiki/Dunam "Dunam") of which 17,240 dunums was run by Arabs and the rest public. The population of the village was entirely Arab in ethnicity and Muslim in religion. They had their own mosque and elementary school, which pupils from [al\-Rihaniyya](/wiki/Rehaniya "Rehaniya") also attended.
A large number of inhabitants were employed in cereal farming, which occupied about 38% of the land area. Some land was also allocated for irrigation and plantation, and the growing of olives.
{{Col\-begin}}
{{Col\-2}}
Types of landuse in [dunams](/wiki/Dunam "Dunam") by Arabs in 1945:Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [168](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Safad/Page-168.jpg) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101214855/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Safad/Page\-168\.jpg \|date\=2014\-11\-01 }}
| Land Usage | Dunams |
| --- | --- |
| Irrigated \& Plantation | 983 |
| Olives | 750 |
| Cereal | 7,475 |
| Urban | 147 |
| Cultivable | 8,458 |
| Non\-cultivable | 10,893 |
|
{{Col\-2}}
The land ownership of the village before occupation in dunums:
| Owner | Durums |
| --- | --- |
| Arab | 17,240 |
| Jewish | 0 |
| Public | 2,258 |
| **Total** | 19,498 |
|
{{Col\-end}}
### State of Israel
[thumb\|right\|200px\| [Orthodox Jewish](/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish "Orthodox Jewish") man in Alma (1957\)](/wiki/Image:Alma%2C_Israel_%28997009326174605171.jpg "Alma, Israel (997009326174605171.jpg")
The village was captured by the Israeli forces from the local Arab population in [Operation Hiram](/wiki/Operation_Hiram "Operation Hiram") on 30 October 1948\. Israeli historian [Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris "Benny Morris") has documented that Alma was the one village in the area where the villagers were uprooted and/or expelled by the Israeli forces, in spite of the fact that they had not offered any resistance.Morris, 2004, p. [475](https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA475)
Alma was repopulated on 1 September 1949 by immigrants to Israel from [Libya](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya "History of the Jews in Libya"). In 1953, a group of [converts to Judaism](/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism "Conversion to Judaism"), known as the [Jews of San Nicandro](/wiki/Jews_of_San_Nicandro "Jews of San Nicandro"), arrived from Italy. They later abandoned Alma to live in other nearby [moshavim](/wiki/Moshav "Moshav"). After the Italians left, [Cochin Jews](/wiki/Cochin_Jews "Cochin Jews") arrived from [India](/wiki/India "India").{{cite book\| publisher \= Mapa Publishing\|isbn \= 965\-7184\-34\-7\|pages \= 424\|others \= Yuval El'azari (ed.)\|title \= Mapa's concise gazetteer of Israel\|location \= Tel Aviv\|year \= 2005\|language\=he}} By 1968, Alma's inhabitants were mostly from Libya and [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"). The economy is based on hillculture (vineyards, deciduous fruit, olives, vegetables) and cattle. In its early years of development, Alma was associated with [Hapoel HaMizrachi](/wiki/Hapoel_HaMizrachi "Hapoel HaMizrachi").
| \+ **{{big\|Historical population and ethnic composition of Alma}}** |
| --- |
| Year | Jews | Muslims | Others | Total |
| 12th century | 50 | ? | | |
| 1521 | 15 | ? | | |
| 1596 | 8 households | 428 households | | 1,440 |
| 1875 | | 200 | | |
| 1881 | | 250 | | |
| 1887 | | 1,105 | | |
| 1922 | | 309 | | |
| 1931 | | 712 | | |
| 1945Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [9](http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p09.jpg) | | 950 | | |
| 1948: [Israeli independence](/wiki/Israeli_independence "Israeli independence"). Expulsion of Arab Muslim population | | | | | | | |
| 2022 | | | | {{Israel populations\|Alma}} |
|
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Roman period",
"Under the [Judaea Province](/wiki/Judaea_%28Roman_province%29 \"Judaea (Roman province)\"), a Jewish town was situated at this spot. Ceramics from the [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine \"Byzantine\") era have been found here.Dauphin, 1998, p. 647 Alma had several nearby [khirbas](/wiki/Khirba \"Khirba\"), and fragments of inscriptions from an ancient [synagogue](/wiki/Synagogue \"Synagogue\") were found at the site of the village in the 20th century. Remains of a ruined watch\\-tower was found on the crest of the ridge, and a quarter of a mile south of those there were three perfect [dolmens](/wiki/Dolmen \"Dolmen\"), not very large.Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p. [220](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/220/mode/1up)",
"### Crusader period",
"The name Alma is first mentioned in the [Crusader](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\") period, from a personal name.Palmer, pp. [66](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp00conduoft#page/66/mode/1up), [17](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp00conduoft#page/17/mode/1up), [61](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp00conduoft#page/61/mode/1up) The Jewish community existed until the 17th century. [Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela \"Benjamin of Tudela\") (1130–1173\\) said that during his visit, he found 50 Jewish families living in Alma.{{cite book\\|title\\=Lexicon of the Land of Israel\\|publisher\\=Miskal \\- Yedioth Ahronoth Books and Chemed Books\\|year\\=1999\\|author\\=HaReuveni, Immanuel\\|page\\=763\\|isbn\\=965\\-448\\-413\\-7\\|language\\=he}}",
"The [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusaders \"Crusaders\") called the village \"Alme\"; it remained under their rule until 1187\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kedar \\|first\\=Benjamin Z. \\|title\\=Holy Men in a Holy Land: Christian, Muslim and Jewish Religiosity in the Near East at the Time of the Crusades \\|publisher\\=Royal Holloway, University of London \\|year\\=2005 \\|edition\\= \\|series\\=Hayes Robinson Lecture Series No. 9 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=21}} While travelling though the region in the 12th century CE, [Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela \"Benjamin of Tudela\") noted that Alma contained fifty [Jewish](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") inhabitants and a \"large cemetery of the [Israelites](/wiki/Israelites \"Israelites\")\", where several sages mentioned in the [Mishnah](/wiki/Mishnah \"Mishnah\") and [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud \"Talmud\") were buried.[Benjamin of Tudela](/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela \"Benjamin of Tudela\") in Thomas Wright. *[Early Travels in Palestine](https://books.google.com/books?id=QliW8XHtsa4C&pg=PA89)*. Courier Corporation; 2003\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-486\\-42871\\-0}}. p. 89\\. An anonymous Hebrew manuscript of the period mentions that the village's inhabitants were Jews and Muslims, and the lord apparently Frankish. The narrative tells that on every [Shabbat Eve](/wiki/Erev_Shabbat \"Erev Shabbat\"), Jews and Muslims light candles on the tomb of Rabbi [Eleazar ben Arach](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Arach \"Eleazar ben Arach\"), a [tanna](/wiki/Tannaim \"Tannaim\") and a local [tzadik](/wiki/Tzadik \"Tzadik\") (righteous man), and mentions a nearby miracle\\-working tree.",
"Two inscriptions discovered in 'Alma indicate the presence of an [ancient Jewish synagogue](/wiki/Ancient_synagogues_in_Israel \"Ancient synagogues in Israel\") at the site.{{Citation \\|title\\=XXIII. ʿAlma \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-20 \\|work\\=Volume 5/Part 1 Galilaea and Northern Regions: 5876\\-6924 \\|pages\\=146–149 \\|url\\=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10\\.1515/9783110715774\\-031/html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|publisher\\=De Gruyter \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1515/9783110715774\\-031 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-071577\\-4}} One inscription was discovered on a [lintel](/wiki/Lintel \"Lintel\") fragment featuring a bilingual [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") and [Aramaic](/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic \"Jewish Palestinian Aramaic\") inscription, with its right half [repurposed](/wiki/Spolia \"Spolia\"). It conveys a blessing of peace for the location and the [people of Israel](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\"), along with a dedication by the artisan.{{efn\\|The inscription reads: “יהי שלום על המקום הזה ועל כל מקומות עמו ישראל. אמן. סלה. אנה יוסה בר לוי הלוי אומנה דעבדת הדין שקופה”, translating into “May there be peace upon this place and upon all the places of \\[\\[Jews\\|his people Israel]]. \\[\\[Amen]]. \\[\\[Selah]]. I am Yose, son of Levi, the \\[\\[Levite]], the artisan who made this lintel.”}} The dating corresponds with that of the [Bar'am synagogues](/wiki/Kfar_Bar%27am_synagogue \"Kfar Bar'am synagogue\"), and the unusual first\\-person usage, similar to [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") epitaphs, acknowledges Levi as both a name and [title](/wiki/Levite \"Levite\"). Additionally, a second inscription—a two\\-line Aramaic inscription{{Efn\\|The inscription reads: “]\\-\\-\\[נה טברייה דע]בד \\-\\- {{!}} הדי\\[ן שקופה מלך ע]למה יתן ברכתה בעמלה\\[”, translating into: “…na the Tiberian who made/donated this lintel. May the king of the world (bless his work).”}}—was found in secondary use in the modern synagogue of 'Alma.",
"An anonymous Hebrew manuscript of the period mentions that the village's inhabitants were Jews and Muslims, and the lord apparently Frankish. The narrative tells that on every [Shabbat Eve](/wiki/Erev_Shabbat \"Erev Shabbat\"), Jews and Muslims light candles on the tomb of Rabbi [Eleazar ben Arach](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Arach \"Eleazar ben Arach\"), a [tanna](/wiki/Tannaim \"Tannaim\") and a local [tzadik](/wiki/Tzadik \"Tzadik\") (righteous man), and mentions a nearby miracle\\-working tree.",
"### Ottoman era",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|Map of Alma, 1870s](/wiki/File:Historical_map_series_for_the_area_of_Alma%2C_Safad_%281870s%29.jpg \"Historical map series for the area of Alma, Safad (1870s).jpg\")\nAt the beginning of the period of [Ottoman rule](/wiki/Ottoman_empire \"Ottoman empire\") over Palestine, [Moshe Basola](/wiki/Moshe_Basola \"Moshe Basola\") passed through Alma during 1521\\-1523\\. He noted that there were 15 Jewish families and one synagogue there,Schwarz, 1850, [p. 385](http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa;cc=moa;sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1;idno=AHZ1758.0001.001;seq=399) though no Jews are listed in the early Ottoman [tax registers](/wiki/Daftar \"Daftar\"). [Rhode](/wiki/Harold_Rhode \"Harold Rhode\") hypothesize that Basola have counted some Jews who went back and forth between Alma and [Safad](/wiki/Safad \"Safad\"), and were listed/taxed there.Rhode, 1979, p. 188",
"In the Ottoman tax registers of 1596, the village is listed as forming part of the *[nahiya](/wiki/Nahiya \"Nahiya\")* (\"subdistrict\") of Jira in the *[liwa'](/wiki/Liwa_%28Arabic%29 \"Liwa (Arabic)\")* (\"district\") of [Safad](/wiki/Safad \"Safad\"). It had a relatively large population of 1,440, consisting of 288 Muslim households and 140 Muslim bachelors, together with seven Jewish households and one Jewish bachelor. The village paid taxes on goats, beehives, a water\\-powered mill, and a press that was used for processing olives or grapes.Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 177Note that Rhode, 1979, p. [6](https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420031504/https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The\\_Administration\\_and\\_Population\\_of\\_the\\_Sancak\\_of\\_Safed\\_in\\_the\\_Sixteenth\\_Century \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-20 }} writes that the register that Hütteroth and Abdulfattah studied was not from 1595/6, but from 1548/9 Total tax revenue amounted to a substantial 51,100 [akce](/wiki/Akce \"Akce\").Petersen, 2005, p. [133](https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n141/mode/1up). Alma's prosperity was attributed to its close proximity to Safad.Petersen, 2005, p. [42](https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n49/mode/1up).",
"[Edward Robinson](/wiki/Edward_Robinson_%28scholar%29 \"Edward Robinson (scholar)\") and [Eli Smith](/wiki/Eli_Smith \"Eli Smith\"), who travelled to the region in 1838, give the full name of the village as '*Alma el\\-Khait* ({{lang\\-ar\\|علماالخيط}}).Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Second Appendix, p. [134](https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearch03robiuoft#page/134/mode/1up).",
"[James Finn](/wiki/James_Finn \"James Finn\"), the British consul to Jerusalem who travelled around Palestine between 1853 and 1856, describes the village of Alma as being situated in an area in which volcanic basalt was abundant. Around the village, women and children were gathering olives from the trees by beating them with poles and then collecting the fallen fruit. He notes that the small district in which the village is located is known by the locals as \"the *Khait*\" (Arabic for \"string\") and that they \"boast of its extraordinary fertility in corn\\-produce.\"Finn, 1877, p. [108](https://archive.org/stream/byewaysinpalesti00finniala#page/108/mode/1up)",
"[Victor Guérin](/wiki/Victor_Gu%C3%A9rin \"Victor Guérin\") visited in 1875, and noted that 200 Muslim inhabitants lived there.Guérin, 1880, pp. [445](https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr00gugoog#page/n485/mode/1up)\\-6 \nIn *The Survey of Western Palestine* (1881\\), Alma is described as a village built of stone with about 250 \"[Algerine](/wiki/Algerine \"Algerine\") [Mohammedan](/wiki/Mohammedan \"Mohammedan\")\" residents, situated in the middle of a fertile plain with a few gardens.Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, [p.196](https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/196/mode/1up). Also quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 432\\.",
"A population list from about 1887 showed *Alma* to have about 1,105 Muslim inhabitants.Schumacher, 1888, p. [189](https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme19pale#page/n214/mode/1up)",
"### British Mandate period",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|Map of Alma, 1940s](/wiki/File:Historical_map_series_for_the_area_of_Alma%2C_Safad_%281940s%29.jpg \"Historical map series for the area of Alma, Safad (1940s).jpg\")\nAlma was in the [Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Safad_Subdistrict%2C_Mandatory_Palestine \"Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine\"). The population of Alma in the [1922 census](/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine \"1922 census of Palestine\") consisted of 309 Muslims,Barron, 1923, Table XI, p. [41](https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n43/mode/1up) increasing to 712 Muslims in 148 occupied houses by [1931](/wiki/1931_census_of_Palestine \"1931 census of Palestine\").Mills, 1932, p. [105](https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas)",
"In the [1945 statistics](/wiki/Village_Statistics%2C_1945 \"Village Statistics, 1945\"), the population had reached 950,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [69](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Safad/Page-069.jpg) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604235924/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Safad/Page\\-069\\.jpg \\|date\\=2011\\-06\\-04 }}[Khalidi](/wiki/Walid_Khalidi \"Walid Khalidi\"), 1992, p. 432 still all Muslim.United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, *Village Statistics, April 1945*, p. [4](http://domino.un.org/pdfs/AAC25ComTech7Add1.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609143136/http://domino.un.org/pdfs/AAC25ComTech7Add1\\.pdf \\|date\\=June 9, 2012 }}",
"The villagers were heavily involved in agriculture, including raising livestock and growing crops. During the 1942/43 season olive trees were recorded as being grown on 750 dunums of village land, 550 dunums of which were fruit\\-bearing trees. It was the largest olive grove in Safad district. In 1944–45 983 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards and 7,475 dunums were devoted to cereal crops.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [118](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Safad/Page-118.jpg) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924152110/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Safad/Page\\-118\\.jpg \\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-24 }}",
"The village comprised a total area of 19,498 [dunums](/wiki/Dunam \"Dunam\") of which 17,240 dunums was run by Arabs and the rest public. The population of the village was entirely Arab in ethnicity and Muslim in religion. They had their own mosque and elementary school, which pupils from [al\\-Rihaniyya](/wiki/Rehaniya \"Rehaniya\") also attended.",
"A large number of inhabitants were employed in cereal farming, which occupied about 38% of the land area. Some land was also allocated for irrigation and plantation, and the growing of olives.",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{Col\\-2}}",
"Types of landuse in [dunams](/wiki/Dunam \"Dunam\") by Arabs in 1945:Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. *Village Statistics, April, 1945\\.* Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [168](http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Safad/Page-168.jpg) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101214855/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Safad/Page\\-168\\.jpg \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-01 }}",
"",
"| Land Usage | Dunams |\n| --- | --- |\n| Irrigated \\& Plantation | 983 |\n| Olives | 750 |\n| Cereal | 7,475 |\n| Urban | 147 |\n| Cultivable | 8,458 |\n| Non\\-cultivable | 10,893 |\n|",
"{{Col\\-2}}",
"The land ownership of the village before occupation in dunums:",
"| Owner | Durums |\n| --- | --- |\n| Arab | 17,240 |\n| Jewish | 0 |\n| Public | 2,258 |\n| **Total** | 19,498 |\n|",
"{{Col\\-end}}",
"### State of Israel",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\| [Orthodox Jewish](/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish \"Orthodox Jewish\") man in Alma (1957\\)](/wiki/Image:Alma%2C_Israel_%28997009326174605171.jpg \"Alma, Israel (997009326174605171.jpg\")",
"The village was captured by the Israeli forces from the local Arab population in [Operation Hiram](/wiki/Operation_Hiram \"Operation Hiram\") on 30 October 1948\\. Israeli historian [Benny Morris](/wiki/Benny_Morris \"Benny Morris\") has documented that Alma was the one village in the area where the villagers were uprooted and/or expelled by the Israeli forces, in spite of the fact that they had not offered any resistance.Morris, 2004, p. [475](https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA475)",
"Alma was repopulated on 1 September 1949 by immigrants to Israel from [Libya](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya \"History of the Jews in Libya\"). In 1953, a group of [converts to Judaism](/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism \"Conversion to Judaism\"), known as the [Jews of San Nicandro](/wiki/Jews_of_San_Nicandro \"Jews of San Nicandro\"), arrived from Italy. They later abandoned Alma to live in other nearby [moshavim](/wiki/Moshav \"Moshav\"). After the Italians left, [Cochin Jews](/wiki/Cochin_Jews \"Cochin Jews\") arrived from [India](/wiki/India \"India\").{{cite book\\| publisher \\= Mapa Publishing\\|isbn \\= 965\\-7184\\-34\\-7\\|pages \\= 424\\|others \\= Yuval El'azari (ed.)\\|title \\= Mapa's concise gazetteer of Israel\\|location \\= Tel Aviv\\|year \\= 2005\\|language\\=he}} By 1968, Alma's inhabitants were mostly from Libya and [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"). The economy is based on hillculture (vineyards, deciduous fruit, olives, vegetables) and cattle. In its early years of development, Alma was associated with [Hapoel HaMizrachi](/wiki/Hapoel_HaMizrachi \"Hapoel HaMizrachi\").",
"",
"| \\+ **{{big\\|Historical population and ethnic composition of Alma}}** |\n| --- |\n| Year | Jews | Muslims | Others | Total |\n| 12th century | 50 | ? | | |\n| 1521 | 15 | ? | | |\n| 1596 | 8 households | 428 households | | 1,440 |\n| 1875 | | 200 | | |\n| 1881 | | 250 | | |\n| 1887 | | 1,105 | | |\n| 1922 | | 309 | | |\n| 1931 | | 712 | | |\n| 1945Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [9](http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p09.jpg) | | 950 | | |\n| 1948: [Israeli independence](/wiki/Israeli_independence \"Israeli independence\"). Expulsion of Arab Muslim population | | | | | | | |\n| 2022 | | | | {{Israel populations\\|Alma}} |\n|",
""
] |
Infrastructure
--------------
### Rajendra Setu, Begusarai
[thumb\|Rajendra Setu](/wiki/File:Rajendra_Setu.png "Rajendra Setu.png")
**[Rajendra Setu](/wiki/Rajendra_Setu "Rajendra Setu")**, or **Simaria Bridge**, is a bridge across the [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges "Ganges") that was the first to link the northern and southern portions of the state of [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar "Bihar"). The location of the bridge was based on the work of [M. Visvesvaraya](/wiki/M._Visvesvaraya "M. Visvesvaraya"), who was more than 90 years old at the time. In a wheelchair, he visited the bridge site on the special request of Bihar's chief minister, [Shri Krishna Sinha](/wiki/Shri_Krishna_Sinha "Shri Krishna Sinha"). It was the first bridge over the Ganges to be built in independent [India](/wiki/India "India") (after 1947\).In the entire east to west stretch of about {{cvt\|445\|km}} of river Ganga in Bihar, there is a rail\-cum road bridge at Varanasi and then the downstream if we go the nearest Rail link across river Ganga was available at Mokama\-Simaria, at Mokama (Rajendra Bridge) which is {{cvt\|318\|km}} from Varanasi.
The road\-cum\-rail bridge near [Hathidah](/wiki/Hathidah_railway_station "Hathidah railway station") in [Patna district](/wiki/Patna_district "Patna district") and [Simaria](/wiki/Simaria "Simaria") in [Begusarai district](/wiki/Begusarai_district "Begusarai district") was inaugurated in 1959 by [Jawaharlal Nehru](/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru "Jawaharlal Nehru"), prime minister of India, and Shri Krishna Sinha. The bridge was constructed by [Braithwaite, Burn \& Jessop Construction Company](/wiki/Braithwaite%2C_Burn_%26_Jessop_Construction_Company "Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company"). It is about 2 kilometres (1\.2 mi) long and carries a two\-lane road and a single\-line railway track.
### [Digha\- Sonpur Bridge](/wiki/Digha%E2%80%93Sonpur_Bridge "Digha–Sonpur Bridge") (JP Setu), Patna
The Mokama\-Simaria rail link was already saturated and become a major bottleneck for increasing the number of trains between North and South Bihar. This has been a great hindrance in the industrialization of North Bihar and Nepal, which have become the important trade centre for consumable goods. Construction of Rail\-cum\-Road Bridge would remove the bottle\-neck and both parts of Bihar will be connected by more number of trains. Trade centers of North Bihar will also be connected with the rest part of Bihar. Power houses at Barauni and Kanti who are undergoing expansion in North Bihar shall also be benefitted due to lessened congestion . The work of Ganga Rail Bridge at Patna was included in 1997–98 when the proposal was only for the Rail bridge but in 2006–07 the scope was increased to Rail cum Road Bridge. It was the longest Rail cum Road bridge. The dilapidated condition of the road bridge connecting North and South Bihar in Patna (Mahatma Gandhi Setu), warrants for immediate arrangement of alternate road bridge. Understanding the problem, in the year 2005, in September 2006 scope of the project was enlarged and Rail bridge was converted into Rail cum Road bridge. The bridge would be second longest Rail\-cum\-Road Bridge in India with total length of 4556m. The bridge consists of 38 spans. The Road of the bridge is connecting NH\-31 of North Bihar to NH\-80 of South Bihar. Gladly, work on all the 38 Spans of this mega structure was completed by December 2014\. The construction of bridge was completed by 2016 and it was inaugurated by the Honourable Prime Minister of India in March 2016\.
### Shri Krishna Setu, Munger
[Shri Krishna Setu](/wiki/Munger_Ganga_Bridge "Munger Ganga Bridge") at Munger has a revised cost of Rs. 2363 crore, in which Rs. 1116 crore share with State Government and Rs. 1247 crore share with Railway. Rail link of the bridge is connecting Jamalpur station of Sahebganj loop (Maldah Division) of Eastern Railway to [Sahibpur Kamal station](/wiki/Sahibpur_Kamal_Junction_railway_station "Sahibpur Kamal Junction railway station") (Barauni\-Katihar section) of East Central Railway. The bridge is 3190 m long. All the 31 spans of this bridge have been completed by December 2014\. The railway part of the bridge was inaugurated in the year 2016 by the Prime Minister of India but the road took more 6 years and was inaugurated in the 2022\. It is named after first chief minister of Bihar [Shri Krishna Sinha](/wiki/Shri_Krishna_Sinha "Shri Krishna Sinha").
### Kosi Bridge
In the year 1887, a meter gauge rail link between Nirmali and Bhaptiahi (Saraigarh) to Pratapganj up to river Kosi was provided by the Bengal North West Railway. Due to severe [Indo\-Nepal earthquake on 15 January 1934](/wiki/1934_Nepal%E2%80%93India_earthquake "1934 Nepal–India earthquake") (and regular flooding by river Kosi which was changing course towards West) this rail link along with Raharia railway station washed away in heavy flood owing to meandering nature of river Kosi thus from 1934 to 1956 railway section from Supaul\-Pratapganj \& Nirmali become non existent.
(Indian Railway Map of 1942\-43 {{cite web \| url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/124446949@N06/51744166798/in/album\-72157654843515426/ \| title\=India Railways \- Railway Map of British India including Burma \& Ceylon (1942\) \| date\=13 December 2021 }})
(Indian Railway Map of 1956 {{cite web \| url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/124446949@N06/50263573137/in/album\-72157654843515426/ \| title\=India Railways \- Railway map of India (1956\) \| date\=24 August 2020 }})
And no attempt was made to restore this link for a long period.{{cite web \|title\=Indian and adjacent countries \|url\=http://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/topo/india\_1m/sheet\-72\-katmandu\-1917\.jpg \|website\=legacy.lib.utexas.edu \|access\-date\=16 September 2020 \|archive\-date\=17 September 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917010805/http://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/topo/india\_1m/sheet\-72\-katmandu\-1917\.jpg \|url\-status\=live }} The Kosi Rail Bridge project included in the budget in the year 2003–04 at an estimated cost of Rs. 323 Crore. After the construction of Kosi Rail Bridge, the distance between Nirmali and Saraigarh (Bhaptiahi) will get reduced to {{cvt\|20\.5\|km}} from present {{cvt\|299\|km}}. It will provide an alternative BG route of length {{cvt\|625\|km}} between Gorakhpur and Katihar via Darbhanga against the existing route of {{cvt\|814\|km}} via Chhapra and Barauni, which at present is a highly saturated corridor. This project gained exceptional significance as Silchar to Porbandar East West Corridor from Muzaffarpur to Purnia (NH 27\) of NHAI shares the same location for crossing the river. The bridge is {{convert\|2052\|m\|ft}} long with 36 spans.
### New Sone Railway Bridge
This bridge was constructed during the year 1898\. Due to introduction of clause of MBG\-1987 loading, the existing bridge became the major constraint and necessitated the construction of a new alternate bridge. Traffic on this route will increase considerably when the third line between Dehri\-On\-Sone and Mughalsarai will become operational. The New Sone Bridge between Dehri\-on\-Sone and Sonenagar which has been successfully commissioned on 16 August 2014, will prove a great help in this regard.
### Gandak Bridge
A new second bridge on river Gandak has been opened ({{cvt\|5\.5\|km\|disp\=sqbr}}) between Sonpur and Hajipur for double line traffic for this section.
|
[
"Infrastructure\n--------------",
"### Rajendra Setu, Begusarai",
"[thumb\\|Rajendra Setu](/wiki/File:Rajendra_Setu.png \"Rajendra Setu.png\")\n**[Rajendra Setu](/wiki/Rajendra_Setu \"Rajendra Setu\")**, or **Simaria Bridge**, is a bridge across the [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges \"Ganges\") that was the first to link the northern and southern portions of the state of [Bihar](/wiki/Bihar \"Bihar\"). The location of the bridge was based on the work of [M. Visvesvaraya](/wiki/M._Visvesvaraya \"M. Visvesvaraya\"), who was more than 90 years old at the time. In a wheelchair, he visited the bridge site on the special request of Bihar's chief minister, [Shri Krishna Sinha](/wiki/Shri_Krishna_Sinha \"Shri Krishna Sinha\"). It was the first bridge over the Ganges to be built in independent [India](/wiki/India \"India\") (after 1947\\).In the entire east to west stretch of about {{cvt\\|445\\|km}} of river Ganga in Bihar, there is a rail\\-cum road bridge at Varanasi and then the downstream if we go the nearest Rail link across river Ganga was available at Mokama\\-Simaria, at Mokama (Rajendra Bridge) which is {{cvt\\|318\\|km}} from Varanasi.",
"The road\\-cum\\-rail bridge near [Hathidah](/wiki/Hathidah_railway_station \"Hathidah railway station\") in [Patna district](/wiki/Patna_district \"Patna district\") and [Simaria](/wiki/Simaria \"Simaria\") in [Begusarai district](/wiki/Begusarai_district \"Begusarai district\") was inaugurated in 1959 by [Jawaharlal Nehru](/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru \"Jawaharlal Nehru\"), prime minister of India, and Shri Krishna Sinha. The bridge was constructed by [Braithwaite, Burn \\& Jessop Construction Company](/wiki/Braithwaite%2C_Burn_%26_Jessop_Construction_Company \"Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company\"). It is about 2 kilometres (1\\.2 mi) long and carries a two\\-lane road and a single\\-line railway track.",
"### [Digha\\- Sonpur Bridge](/wiki/Digha%E2%80%93Sonpur_Bridge \"Digha–Sonpur Bridge\") (JP Setu), Patna",
"The Mokama\\-Simaria rail link was already saturated and become a major bottleneck for increasing the number of trains between North and South Bihar. This has been a great hindrance in the industrialization of North Bihar and Nepal, which have become the important trade centre for consumable goods. Construction of Rail\\-cum\\-Road Bridge would remove the bottle\\-neck and both parts of Bihar will be connected by more number of trains. Trade centers of North Bihar will also be connected with the rest part of Bihar. Power houses at Barauni and Kanti who are undergoing expansion in North Bihar shall also be benefitted due to lessened congestion . The work of Ganga Rail Bridge at Patna was included in 1997–98 when the proposal was only for the Rail bridge but in 2006–07 the scope was increased to Rail cum Road Bridge. It was the longest Rail cum Road bridge. The dilapidated condition of the road bridge connecting North and South Bihar in Patna (Mahatma Gandhi Setu), warrants for immediate arrangement of alternate road bridge. Understanding the problem, in the year 2005, in September 2006 scope of the project was enlarged and Rail bridge was converted into Rail cum Road bridge. The bridge would be second longest Rail\\-cum\\-Road Bridge in India with total length of 4556m. The bridge consists of 38 spans. The Road of the bridge is connecting NH\\-31 of North Bihar to NH\\-80 of South Bihar. Gladly, work on all the 38 Spans of this mega structure was completed by December 2014\\. The construction of bridge was completed by 2016 and it was inaugurated by the Honourable Prime Minister of India in March 2016\\.",
"### Shri Krishna Setu, Munger",
"[Shri Krishna Setu](/wiki/Munger_Ganga_Bridge \"Munger Ganga Bridge\") at Munger has a revised cost of Rs. 2363 crore, in which Rs. 1116 crore share with State Government and Rs. 1247 crore share with Railway. Rail link of the bridge is connecting Jamalpur station of Sahebganj loop (Maldah Division) of Eastern Railway to [Sahibpur Kamal station](/wiki/Sahibpur_Kamal_Junction_railway_station \"Sahibpur Kamal Junction railway station\") (Barauni\\-Katihar section) of East Central Railway. The bridge is 3190 m long. All the 31 spans of this bridge have been completed by December 2014\\. The railway part of the bridge was inaugurated in the year 2016 by the Prime Minister of India but the road took more 6 years and was inaugurated in the 2022\\. It is named after first chief minister of Bihar [Shri Krishna Sinha](/wiki/Shri_Krishna_Sinha \"Shri Krishna Sinha\").",
"### Kosi Bridge",
"In the year 1887, a meter gauge rail link between Nirmali and Bhaptiahi (Saraigarh) to Pratapganj up to river Kosi was provided by the Bengal North West Railway. Due to severe [Indo\\-Nepal earthquake on 15 January 1934](/wiki/1934_Nepal%E2%80%93India_earthquake \"1934 Nepal–India earthquake\") (and regular flooding by river Kosi which was changing course towards West) this rail link along with Raharia railway station washed away in heavy flood owing to meandering nature of river Kosi thus from 1934 to 1956 railway section from Supaul\\-Pratapganj \\& Nirmali become non existent. \n(Indian Railway Map of 1942\\-43 {{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/124446949@N06/51744166798/in/album\\-72157654843515426/ \\| title\\=India Railways \\- Railway Map of British India including Burma \\& Ceylon (1942\\) \\| date\\=13 December 2021 }})\n(Indian Railway Map of 1956 {{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/124446949@N06/50263573137/in/album\\-72157654843515426/ \\| title\\=India Railways \\- Railway map of India (1956\\) \\| date\\=24 August 2020 }}) \nAnd no attempt was made to restore this link for a long period.{{cite web \\|title\\=Indian and adjacent countries \\|url\\=http://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/topo/india\\_1m/sheet\\-72\\-katmandu\\-1917\\.jpg \\|website\\=legacy.lib.utexas.edu \\|access\\-date\\=16 September 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 September 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917010805/http://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/topo/india\\_1m/sheet\\-72\\-katmandu\\-1917\\.jpg \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Kosi Rail Bridge project included in the budget in the year 2003–04 at an estimated cost of Rs. 323 Crore. After the construction of Kosi Rail Bridge, the distance between Nirmali and Saraigarh (Bhaptiahi) will get reduced to {{cvt\\|20\\.5\\|km}} from present {{cvt\\|299\\|km}}. It will provide an alternative BG route of length {{cvt\\|625\\|km}} between Gorakhpur and Katihar via Darbhanga against the existing route of {{cvt\\|814\\|km}} via Chhapra and Barauni, which at present is a highly saturated corridor. This project gained exceptional significance as Silchar to Porbandar East West Corridor from Muzaffarpur to Purnia (NH 27\\) of NHAI shares the same location for crossing the river. The bridge is {{convert\\|2052\\|m\\|ft}} long with 36 spans.",
"### New Sone Railway Bridge",
"This bridge was constructed during the year 1898\\. Due to introduction of clause of MBG\\-1987 loading, the existing bridge became the major constraint and necessitated the construction of a new alternate bridge. Traffic on this route will increase considerably when the third line between Dehri\\-On\\-Sone and Mughalsarai will become operational. The New Sone Bridge between Dehri\\-on\\-Sone and Sonenagar which has been successfully commissioned on 16 August 2014, will prove a great help in this regard.",
"### Gandak Bridge",
"A new second bridge on river Gandak has been opened ({{cvt\\|5\\.5\\|km\\|disp\\=sqbr}}) between Sonpur and Hajipur for double line traffic for this section.",
""
] |
Life
----
Unusual for a Welsh king or prince, a near\-contemporary biography of Gruffudd, *The History of Gruffudd ap Cynan*, has survived. Much of our knowledge of Gruffudd comes from this source. The traditional view among scholars was that it was written during the third quarter of the 12th century during the reign of Gruffudd's son, Owain Gwynedd, but it has recently been suggested that it may date from the early reign of Llywelyn the Great, around 1200\. The author is not known.
Most of the existing manuscripts of the history are in [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language "Welsh language") but these are clearly translations of a [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") original. It is usually considered that the original Latin version has been lost and that existing Latin versions are re\-translations from the Welsh. However, Russell (2006\) has suggested that the Latin version in [Peniarth MS 434E](/wiki/Peniarth_Manuscripts "Peniarth Manuscripts") incorporates the original Latin version, later amended to bring it into line with the Welsh text.
### Ancestry
According to the *Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan*, Gruffudd was born in the [Hiberno–Norse](/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels "Norse–Gaels") [Kingdom of Dublin](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dublin "Kingdom of Dublin") and reared near [Swords](/wiki/Swords%2C_Dublin "Swords, Dublin"), [County Dublin](/wiki/County_Dublin "County Dublin") in Ireland. He was the son of an exiled Welsh King as per the Life, [Cynan ap Iago](/wiki/Cynan_ap_Iago "Cynan ap Iago"), who was a claimant to the kingship of Gwynedd but was probably never its king in actuality, though his father, Gruffudd's grandfather, [Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig](/wiki/Iago_ab_Idwal_ap_Meurig "Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig"), had ruled Gwynedd from 1023 to 1039\. When Gruffudd first appeared on the scene in Wales the Welsh annals several times refer to him as "grandson of Iago" rather than the more usual "son of Cynan", indicating that his father was little known in Wales. Cynan ap Iago seems to have died while Gruffudd was still young, since the *History* describes his mother telling him who his father was.
According to *[Historia Gruffud vab Kenan](/wiki/Historia_Gruffud_vab_Kenan "Historia Gruffud vab Kenan")*, Gruffudd's mother was *Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb*, a granddaughter of King [Sigtrygg Silkbeard](/wiki/Sigtrygg_Silkbeard "Sigtrygg Silkbeard") and a member of the Hiberno\-Norse [Uí Ímair](/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair "Uí Ímair") dynasty.{{sfn\|Hudson\|2005\|page\=83}} The latter had two sons named Amlaíb: one died in 1013, whilst [another died in 1034](/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_mac_Sitriuc "Amlaíb mac Sitriuc"). Either man could have been Ragnailt's father.
During his many struggles to gain the kingship of Gwynedd, Gruffudd received considerable aid from Ireland, from the Hiberno\-Norse at [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"), the [Isles](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles "Kingdom of the Isles") and [Wexford](/wiki/Wexford "Wexford") and from [Muircheartach Ua Briain](/wiki/Muircheartach_Ua_Briain "Muircheartach Ua Briain"), because he was also descendant through his mother from [Brian Boru](/wiki/Brian_Boru "Brian Boru"), [High King of Ireland](/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland "High King of Ireland").{{\#tag:ref\|Anonymous, ''The History of Gruffydd Ap Cynan'', trans. and ed. by Arthur Jones, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1910\|group\=cy}}
### First bid for the throne
Gruffudd first attempted to take over the rule of Gwynedd in 1075, following the death of [Bleddyn ap Cynfyn](/wiki/Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn "Bleddyn ap Cynfyn"). [Trahaearn ap Caradog](/wiki/Trahaearn_ap_Caradog "Trahaearn ap Caradog") had seized control of Gwynedd but had not yet firmly established himself. Gruffudd landed on [Abermenai Point](/wiki/Abermenai_Point "Abermenai Point"), [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey "Anglesey") with an Irish force, and with the assistance of troops provided by the [Norman](/wiki/Normans "Normans") [Robert of Rhuddlan](/wiki/Robert_of_Rhuddlan "Robert of Rhuddlan") first defeated and killed [Cynwrig ap Rhiwallon](/wiki/Cynwrig_ap_Rhiwallon "Cynwrig ap Rhiwallon"), an ally of Trahaearn who held [Llŷn](/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula "Llŷn Peninsula"), then defeated Trahaearn himself in the [Battle of Gwaed Erw](/wiki/Battle_of_Gwaed_Erw "Battle of Gwaed Erw") in [Meirionnydd](/wiki/Meirionnydd "Meirionnydd") and gained control of Gwynedd. Gruffudd then led his forces eastwards to reclaim territories taken over by the Normans, and despite the assistance previously given by Robert of Rhuddlan attacked and destroyed [Rhuddlan Castle](/wiki/Rhuddlan_Castle "Rhuddlan Castle"). However tension between Gruffudd's Danish\-Irish bodyguard and the local Welsh led to a rebellion in Llŷn, and Trahaearn took the opportunity to counterattack, defeating Gruffudd at the [Battle of Bron yr Erw](/wiki/Battle_of_Bron_yr_Erw "Battle of Bron yr Erw") above [Clynnog Fawr](/wiki/Clynnog_Fawr "Clynnog Fawr") the same year.
### Second bid for the throne and capture by the Normans
[thumb\|right\|Coat of Arms [retroactively attributed](/wiki/Attributed_arms "Attributed arms") to Gruffudd ap Cynan](/wiki/File:Gryffydd_ap_Cynan%2C_King_of_Gwynedd.svg "Gryffydd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd.svg")
Gruffudd fled to Ireland but, in 1081, returned and made an alliance with [Rhys ap Tewdwr](/wiki/Rhys_ap_Tewdwr "Rhys ap Tewdwr"), prince of [Deheubarth](/wiki/Deheubarth "Deheubarth"). Rhys had been attacked by [Caradog ap Gruffudd](/wiki/Caradog_ap_Gruffudd "Caradog ap Gruffudd") of [Gwent](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent "Kingdom of Gwent") and [Morgannwg](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg "Kingdom of Morgannwg"), and had been forced to flee to [St Davids Cathedral](/wiki/St_Davids_Cathedral "St Davids Cathedral"). Gruffudd this time embarked from [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford "Waterford") with a force composed of [Danes](/wiki/Danes "Danes") and [Irish](/wiki/Irish_people "Irish people") and landed near St Davids, presumably by prior arrangement with Rhys. He was joined here by a force of his supporters from Gwynedd, and he and Rhys marched north to seek Trahaearn ap Caradog and Caradog ap Gruffudd who had themselves made an alliance and been joined by Meilyr ap Rhiwallon of [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys "Kingdom of Powys"). The armies of the two confederacies met at the [Battle of Mynydd Carn](/wiki/Battle_of_Mynydd_Carn "Battle of Mynydd Carn"), with Gruffudd and Rhys victorious and Trahaearn, Caradog and Meilyr all being killed. Gruffudd was thus able to seize power in Gwynedd for the second time.
He was soon faced with a new enemy, as the Normans were now encroaching on Gwynedd. Gruffudd had not been king very long when he was enticed to a meeting with [Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester](/wiki/Hugh_d%27Avranches%2C_Earl_of_Chester "Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester") and [Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury](/wiki/Hugh_of_Montgomery%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Shrewsbury "Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury") at [Rhug](/wiki/Rhug "Rhug"), near [Corwen](/wiki/Corwen "Corwen"). At the meeting, Gruffudd was seized and taken prisoner. According to his biographer, this was by the treachery of one of his own men, Meirion Goch. Gruffudd was imprisoned in Earl Hugh's castle at [Chester](/wiki/Chester "Chester") for many years while Earl Hugh and [Robert of Rhuddlan](/wiki/Robert_of_Rhuddlan "Robert of Rhuddlan") went on to take possession of Gwynedd, building castles at [Bangor](/wiki/Bangor%2C_Gwynedd "Bangor, Gwynedd"), [Caernarfon](/wiki/Caernarfon "Caernarfon") and [Aberlleiniog](/wiki/Aberlleiniog "Aberlleiniog").
### Escape from captivity and third reign
Gruffudd reappeared on the scene years later, having escaped from captivity, he was free by 1094\. {{\#tag:Ref\|According to his biography he was in fetters in the marketplace at Chester when Cynwrig the Tall, on a visit to the city, saw his opportunity when the burgesses were at dinner. He picked Gruffudd up, fetters and all, and carried him out of the city on his shoulders. There is debate among historians as to the year of Gruffudd's escape. \[\[Ordericus Vitalis]] mentions a "Grifridus" attacking the Normans in 1088\. The ''History'' in one place states that Gruffudd was imprisoned for twelve years, in another that he was imprisoned for sixteen years. Since he was captured in 1081, that would date his release to 1093 or 1097\. \[\[John Edward Lloyd]] favours 1093, considering that Gruffudd was involved at the beginning of the Welsh uprising in 1094\. K. L. Maund on the other hand favours 1097, pointing out that there is no reference to Gruffudd in the contemporary annals until 1098\. D. Simon Evans inclines to the view that \[\[Orderic Vitalis\|Ordericus Vitalis]]' date of 1088 could be correct, suggesting that an argument based on the silence of the annals is unsafe.\|group\=cy}} Gruffudd again took refuge in Ireland but returned to Gwynedd to lead the assaults on Norman castles such as [Castell Aberlleiniog](/wiki/Castell_Aberlleiniog "Castell Aberlleiniog"). The Welsh revolt had begun in 1094 and by late 1095 had spread to many parts of [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"). This induced [William II of England](/wiki/William_II_of_England "William II of England") (William Rufus) to intervene, invading [North Wales](/wiki/North_Wales "North Wales") in 1095\. However, his army was unable to bring the Welsh to battle and returned to Chester without having achieved very much. King William mounted a second invasion in 1097, but again without much success. The *History* only mentions one invasion by Rufus, which could indicate that Gruffudd did not feature in the resistance to the first invasion. At this time [Cadwgan ap Bleddyn](/wiki/Cadwgan_ap_Bleddyn "Cadwgan ap Bleddyn") of [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys "Kingdom of Powys") led the Welsh resistance.
In the summer of 1098, Earl Hugh of Chester joined with Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury in another attempt to recover his losses in Gwynedd. Gruffudd and his ally [Cadwgan ap Bleddyn](/wiki/Cadwgan_ap_Bleddyn "Cadwgan ap Bleddyn") retreated to Anglesey, but were then forced to flee to Ireland in a [skiff](/wiki/Skiff "Skiff") when a fleet he had hired from the Danish settlement in Ireland accepted a better offer from the Normans and changed sides.
### King for the fourth time and consolidation
The Normans were obliged to evacuate Anglesey, and the following year, Gruffudd returned from Ireland to take possession again, having apparently come to an agreement with Earl Hugh of Chester. The situation was changed by the arrival of a [Norwegian fleet](/wiki/Norway "Norway") under the command of King [Magnus Barefoot](/wiki/Magnus_Barefoot "Magnus Barefoot") (Magnus III of Norway) who attacked the Norman forces near the eastern end of the [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait "Menai Strait"). Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury was killed by an arrow said to have been shot by Magnus himself.
With the death of Hugh of Chester in 1101, Gruffudd was able to consolidate his position in Gwynedd, as much by diplomacy as by force. He met King [Henry I of England](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England "Henry I of England") who granted him the rule of Llŷn, [Eifionydd](/wiki/Eifionydd "Eifionydd"), [Ardudwy](/wiki/Ardudwy "Ardudwy") and [Arllechwedd](/wiki/Arllechwedd "Arllechwedd"), considerably extending his kingdom. By 1114, he had gained enough power to induce King Henry to invade Gwynedd, one detachment led by King [Alexander I of Scotland](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Scotland "Alexander I of Scotland"). Faced with overwhelming force, Gruffudd was obliged to pay homage to Henry and to pay a heavy fine but lost no territory.
The Kingdom was expanded by his sons,{{\#tag:ref\|By about 1118, advancing years meant that most of the fighting, which pushed Gwynedd's borders eastward and southwards, was done by his three sons by his wife Angharad daughter of \[\[Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl]]\|group\=cy}} [Owain Gwynedd](/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd "Owain Gwynedd") and later [Cadwaladr](/wiki/Cadwaladr_ap_Gruffudd "Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd"), by Gruffudd's last years "[Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion "Ceredigion"), [Meirionnydd](/wiki/Meirionnydd "Meirionnydd"), [Rhos](/wiki/Rhos_%28North_Wales%29 "Rhos (North Wales)"), [Rhufoniog](/wiki/Rhufoniog "Rhufoniog") and [Dyffryn Clwyd](/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd "Dyffryn Clwyd") were under the rule of Gwynedd". The [cantrefs](/wiki/Cantref "Cantref") of Rhos and Rhufoniog were annexed in 1118, Meirionnydd captured from [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys "Kingdom of Powys") in 1123, and Dyffryn Clwyd in 1124\. Another invasion by King Henry I in 1121 ultimately ended in military failure. The king had to come to terms with Gruffudd and made no further attempt to invade Gwynedd during Gruffudd's reign. The death of Cadwallon in a battle against the forces of Powys near [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen "Llangollen") in 1132 checked further expansion for the time being.
Gruffudd was now powerful enough to ensure that his nominee [David the Scot](/wiki/David_the_Scot "David the Scot") was consecrated as [Bishop of Bangor](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor "Bishop of Bangor") in 1120\. The see had been effectively vacant since bishop [Hervey le Breton](/wiki/Hervey_le_Breton "Hervey le Breton") had been forced to flee by the Welsh almost twenty years before, since Gruffudd and King Henry could not agree on a candidate. David went on to rebuild [Bangor Cathedral](/wiki/Bangor_Cathedral "Bangor Cathedral") with a large financial contribution from Gruffudd.
Owain and Cadwaladr, in alliance with [Gruffudd ap Rhys](/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Rhys "Gruffudd ap Rhys") of [Deheubarth](/wiki/Deheubarth "Deheubarth"), gained a crushing victory over the Normans [at Crug Mawr](/wiki/Battle_of_Crug_Mawr "Battle of Crug Mawr"), near [Cardigan](/wiki/Cardigan%2C_Ceredigion "Cardigan, Ceredigion"), in 1136 and took possession of [Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion "Ceredigion"). The latter part of Gruffydd's reign was considered to be a "[Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age "Golden Age")"; according to the *Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan* Gwynedd was "bespangled with lime\-washed churches like the stars in the firmament".
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Unusual for a Welsh king or prince, a near\\-contemporary biography of Gruffudd, *The History of Gruffudd ap Cynan*, has survived. Much of our knowledge of Gruffudd comes from this source. The traditional view among scholars was that it was written during the third quarter of the 12th century during the reign of Gruffudd's son, Owain Gwynedd, but it has recently been suggested that it may date from the early reign of Llywelyn the Great, around 1200\\. The author is not known.",
"Most of the existing manuscripts of the history are in [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language \"Welsh language\") but these are clearly translations of a [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") original. It is usually considered that the original Latin version has been lost and that existing Latin versions are re\\-translations from the Welsh. However, Russell (2006\\) has suggested that the Latin version in [Peniarth MS 434E](/wiki/Peniarth_Manuscripts \"Peniarth Manuscripts\") incorporates the original Latin version, later amended to bring it into line with the Welsh text.",
"### Ancestry",
"According to the *Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan*, Gruffudd was born in the [Hiberno–Norse](/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels \"Norse–Gaels\") [Kingdom of Dublin](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dublin \"Kingdom of Dublin\") and reared near [Swords](/wiki/Swords%2C_Dublin \"Swords, Dublin\"), [County Dublin](/wiki/County_Dublin \"County Dublin\") in Ireland. He was the son of an exiled Welsh King as per the Life, [Cynan ap Iago](/wiki/Cynan_ap_Iago \"Cynan ap Iago\"), who was a claimant to the kingship of Gwynedd but was probably never its king in actuality, though his father, Gruffudd's grandfather, [Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig](/wiki/Iago_ab_Idwal_ap_Meurig \"Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig\"), had ruled Gwynedd from 1023 to 1039\\. When Gruffudd first appeared on the scene in Wales the Welsh annals several times refer to him as \"grandson of Iago\" rather than the more usual \"son of Cynan\", indicating that his father was little known in Wales. Cynan ap Iago seems to have died while Gruffudd was still young, since the *History* describes his mother telling him who his father was.",
"According to *[Historia Gruffud vab Kenan](/wiki/Historia_Gruffud_vab_Kenan \"Historia Gruffud vab Kenan\")*, Gruffudd's mother was *Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb*, a granddaughter of King [Sigtrygg Silkbeard](/wiki/Sigtrygg_Silkbeard \"Sigtrygg Silkbeard\") and a member of the Hiberno\\-Norse [Uí Ímair](/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair \"Uí Ímair\") dynasty.{{sfn\\|Hudson\\|2005\\|page\\=83}} The latter had two sons named Amlaíb: one died in 1013, whilst [another died in 1034](/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_mac_Sitriuc \"Amlaíb mac Sitriuc\"). Either man could have been Ragnailt's father.",
"During his many struggles to gain the kingship of Gwynedd, Gruffudd received considerable aid from Ireland, from the Hiberno\\-Norse at [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"), the [Isles](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles \"Kingdom of the Isles\") and [Wexford](/wiki/Wexford \"Wexford\") and from [Muircheartach Ua Briain](/wiki/Muircheartach_Ua_Briain \"Muircheartach Ua Briain\"), because he was also descendant through his mother from [Brian Boru](/wiki/Brian_Boru \"Brian Boru\"), [High King of Ireland](/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland \"High King of Ireland\").{{\\#tag:ref\\|Anonymous, ''The History of Gruffydd Ap Cynan'', trans. and ed. by Arthur Jones, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1910\\|group\\=cy}}",
"### First bid for the throne",
"Gruffudd first attempted to take over the rule of Gwynedd in 1075, following the death of [Bleddyn ap Cynfyn](/wiki/Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn \"Bleddyn ap Cynfyn\"). [Trahaearn ap Caradog](/wiki/Trahaearn_ap_Caradog \"Trahaearn ap Caradog\") had seized control of Gwynedd but had not yet firmly established himself. Gruffudd landed on [Abermenai Point](/wiki/Abermenai_Point \"Abermenai Point\"), [Anglesey](/wiki/Anglesey \"Anglesey\") with an Irish force, and with the assistance of troops provided by the [Norman](/wiki/Normans \"Normans\") [Robert of Rhuddlan](/wiki/Robert_of_Rhuddlan \"Robert of Rhuddlan\") first defeated and killed [Cynwrig ap Rhiwallon](/wiki/Cynwrig_ap_Rhiwallon \"Cynwrig ap Rhiwallon\"), an ally of Trahaearn who held [Llŷn](/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula \"Llŷn Peninsula\"), then defeated Trahaearn himself in the [Battle of Gwaed Erw](/wiki/Battle_of_Gwaed_Erw \"Battle of Gwaed Erw\") in [Meirionnydd](/wiki/Meirionnydd \"Meirionnydd\") and gained control of Gwynedd. Gruffudd then led his forces eastwards to reclaim territories taken over by the Normans, and despite the assistance previously given by Robert of Rhuddlan attacked and destroyed [Rhuddlan Castle](/wiki/Rhuddlan_Castle \"Rhuddlan Castle\"). However tension between Gruffudd's Danish\\-Irish bodyguard and the local Welsh led to a rebellion in Llŷn, and Trahaearn took the opportunity to counterattack, defeating Gruffudd at the [Battle of Bron yr Erw](/wiki/Battle_of_Bron_yr_Erw \"Battle of Bron yr Erw\") above [Clynnog Fawr](/wiki/Clynnog_Fawr \"Clynnog Fawr\") the same year.",
"### Second bid for the throne and capture by the Normans",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Coat of Arms [retroactively attributed](/wiki/Attributed_arms \"Attributed arms\") to Gruffudd ap Cynan](/wiki/File:Gryffydd_ap_Cynan%2C_King_of_Gwynedd.svg \"Gryffydd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd.svg\")",
"Gruffudd fled to Ireland but, in 1081, returned and made an alliance with [Rhys ap Tewdwr](/wiki/Rhys_ap_Tewdwr \"Rhys ap Tewdwr\"), prince of [Deheubarth](/wiki/Deheubarth \"Deheubarth\"). Rhys had been attacked by [Caradog ap Gruffudd](/wiki/Caradog_ap_Gruffudd \"Caradog ap Gruffudd\") of [Gwent](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent \"Kingdom of Gwent\") and [Morgannwg](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg \"Kingdom of Morgannwg\"), and had been forced to flee to [St Davids Cathedral](/wiki/St_Davids_Cathedral \"St Davids Cathedral\"). Gruffudd this time embarked from [Waterford](/wiki/Waterford \"Waterford\") with a force composed of [Danes](/wiki/Danes \"Danes\") and [Irish](/wiki/Irish_people \"Irish people\") and landed near St Davids, presumably by prior arrangement with Rhys. He was joined here by a force of his supporters from Gwynedd, and he and Rhys marched north to seek Trahaearn ap Caradog and Caradog ap Gruffudd who had themselves made an alliance and been joined by Meilyr ap Rhiwallon of [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys \"Kingdom of Powys\"). The armies of the two confederacies met at the [Battle of Mynydd Carn](/wiki/Battle_of_Mynydd_Carn \"Battle of Mynydd Carn\"), with Gruffudd and Rhys victorious and Trahaearn, Caradog and Meilyr all being killed. Gruffudd was thus able to seize power in Gwynedd for the second time.",
"He was soon faced with a new enemy, as the Normans were now encroaching on Gwynedd. Gruffudd had not been king very long when he was enticed to a meeting with [Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester](/wiki/Hugh_d%27Avranches%2C_Earl_of_Chester \"Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester\") and [Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury](/wiki/Hugh_of_Montgomery%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Shrewsbury \"Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury\") at [Rhug](/wiki/Rhug \"Rhug\"), near [Corwen](/wiki/Corwen \"Corwen\"). At the meeting, Gruffudd was seized and taken prisoner. According to his biographer, this was by the treachery of one of his own men, Meirion Goch. Gruffudd was imprisoned in Earl Hugh's castle at [Chester](/wiki/Chester \"Chester\") for many years while Earl Hugh and [Robert of Rhuddlan](/wiki/Robert_of_Rhuddlan \"Robert of Rhuddlan\") went on to take possession of Gwynedd, building castles at [Bangor](/wiki/Bangor%2C_Gwynedd \"Bangor, Gwynedd\"), [Caernarfon](/wiki/Caernarfon \"Caernarfon\") and [Aberlleiniog](/wiki/Aberlleiniog \"Aberlleiniog\").",
"### Escape from captivity and third reign",
"Gruffudd reappeared on the scene years later, having escaped from captivity, he was free by 1094\\. {{\\#tag:Ref\\|According to his biography he was in fetters in the marketplace at Chester when Cynwrig the Tall, on a visit to the city, saw his opportunity when the burgesses were at dinner. He picked Gruffudd up, fetters and all, and carried him out of the city on his shoulders. There is debate among historians as to the year of Gruffudd's escape. \\[\\[Ordericus Vitalis]] mentions a \"Grifridus\" attacking the Normans in 1088\\. The ''History'' in one place states that Gruffudd was imprisoned for twelve years, in another that he was imprisoned for sixteen years. Since he was captured in 1081, that would date his release to 1093 or 1097\\. \\[\\[John Edward Lloyd]] favours 1093, considering that Gruffudd was involved at the beginning of the Welsh uprising in 1094\\. K. L. Maund on the other hand favours 1097, pointing out that there is no reference to Gruffudd in the contemporary annals until 1098\\. D. Simon Evans inclines to the view that \\[\\[Orderic Vitalis\\|Ordericus Vitalis]]' date of 1088 could be correct, suggesting that an argument based on the silence of the annals is unsafe.\\|group\\=cy}} Gruffudd again took refuge in Ireland but returned to Gwynedd to lead the assaults on Norman castles such as [Castell Aberlleiniog](/wiki/Castell_Aberlleiniog \"Castell Aberlleiniog\"). The Welsh revolt had begun in 1094 and by late 1095 had spread to many parts of [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"). This induced [William II of England](/wiki/William_II_of_England \"William II of England\") (William Rufus) to intervene, invading [North Wales](/wiki/North_Wales \"North Wales\") in 1095\\. However, his army was unable to bring the Welsh to battle and returned to Chester without having achieved very much. King William mounted a second invasion in 1097, but again without much success. The *History* only mentions one invasion by Rufus, which could indicate that Gruffudd did not feature in the resistance to the first invasion. At this time [Cadwgan ap Bleddyn](/wiki/Cadwgan_ap_Bleddyn \"Cadwgan ap Bleddyn\") of [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys \"Kingdom of Powys\") led the Welsh resistance.",
"In the summer of 1098, Earl Hugh of Chester joined with Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury in another attempt to recover his losses in Gwynedd. Gruffudd and his ally [Cadwgan ap Bleddyn](/wiki/Cadwgan_ap_Bleddyn \"Cadwgan ap Bleddyn\") retreated to Anglesey, but were then forced to flee to Ireland in a [skiff](/wiki/Skiff \"Skiff\") when a fleet he had hired from the Danish settlement in Ireland accepted a better offer from the Normans and changed sides.",
"### King for the fourth time and consolidation",
"The Normans were obliged to evacuate Anglesey, and the following year, Gruffudd returned from Ireland to take possession again, having apparently come to an agreement with Earl Hugh of Chester. The situation was changed by the arrival of a [Norwegian fleet](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") under the command of King [Magnus Barefoot](/wiki/Magnus_Barefoot \"Magnus Barefoot\") (Magnus III of Norway) who attacked the Norman forces near the eastern end of the [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait \"Menai Strait\"). Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury was killed by an arrow said to have been shot by Magnus himself.",
"With the death of Hugh of Chester in 1101, Gruffudd was able to consolidate his position in Gwynedd, as much by diplomacy as by force. He met King [Henry I of England](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England \"Henry I of England\") who granted him the rule of Llŷn, [Eifionydd](/wiki/Eifionydd \"Eifionydd\"), [Ardudwy](/wiki/Ardudwy \"Ardudwy\") and [Arllechwedd](/wiki/Arllechwedd \"Arllechwedd\"), considerably extending his kingdom. By 1114, he had gained enough power to induce King Henry to invade Gwynedd, one detachment led by King [Alexander I of Scotland](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Scotland \"Alexander I of Scotland\"). Faced with overwhelming force, Gruffudd was obliged to pay homage to Henry and to pay a heavy fine but lost no territory.",
"The Kingdom was expanded by his sons,{{\\#tag:ref\\|By about 1118, advancing years meant that most of the fighting, which pushed Gwynedd's borders eastward and southwards, was done by his three sons by his wife Angharad daughter of \\[\\[Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl]]\\|group\\=cy}} [Owain Gwynedd](/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd \"Owain Gwynedd\") and later [Cadwaladr](/wiki/Cadwaladr_ap_Gruffudd \"Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd\"), by Gruffudd's last years \"[Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion \"Ceredigion\"), [Meirionnydd](/wiki/Meirionnydd \"Meirionnydd\"), [Rhos](/wiki/Rhos_%28North_Wales%29 \"Rhos (North Wales)\"), [Rhufoniog](/wiki/Rhufoniog \"Rhufoniog\") and [Dyffryn Clwyd](/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd \"Dyffryn Clwyd\") were under the rule of Gwynedd\". The [cantrefs](/wiki/Cantref \"Cantref\") of Rhos and Rhufoniog were annexed in 1118, Meirionnydd captured from [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys \"Kingdom of Powys\") in 1123, and Dyffryn Clwyd in 1124\\. Another invasion by King Henry I in 1121 ultimately ended in military failure. The king had to come to terms with Gruffudd and made no further attempt to invade Gwynedd during Gruffudd's reign. The death of Cadwallon in a battle against the forces of Powys near [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen \"Llangollen\") in 1132 checked further expansion for the time being.",
"Gruffudd was now powerful enough to ensure that his nominee [David the Scot](/wiki/David_the_Scot \"David the Scot\") was consecrated as [Bishop of Bangor](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor \"Bishop of Bangor\") in 1120\\. The see had been effectively vacant since bishop [Hervey le Breton](/wiki/Hervey_le_Breton \"Hervey le Breton\") had been forced to flee by the Welsh almost twenty years before, since Gruffudd and King Henry could not agree on a candidate. David went on to rebuild [Bangor Cathedral](/wiki/Bangor_Cathedral \"Bangor Cathedral\") with a large financial contribution from Gruffudd.",
"Owain and Cadwaladr, in alliance with [Gruffudd ap Rhys](/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Rhys \"Gruffudd ap Rhys\") of [Deheubarth](/wiki/Deheubarth \"Deheubarth\"), gained a crushing victory over the Normans [at Crug Mawr](/wiki/Battle_of_Crug_Mawr \"Battle of Crug Mawr\"), near [Cardigan](/wiki/Cardigan%2C_Ceredigion \"Cardigan, Ceredigion\"), in 1136 and took possession of [Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion \"Ceredigion\"). The latter part of Gruffydd's reign was considered to be a \"[Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age \"Golden Age\")\"; according to the *Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan* Gwynedd was \"bespangled with lime\\-washed churches like the stars in the firmament\".",
""
] |
### King for the fourth time and consolidation
The Normans were obliged to evacuate Anglesey, and the following year, Gruffudd returned from Ireland to take possession again, having apparently come to an agreement with Earl Hugh of Chester. The situation was changed by the arrival of a [Norwegian fleet](/wiki/Norway "Norway") under the command of King [Magnus Barefoot](/wiki/Magnus_Barefoot "Magnus Barefoot") (Magnus III of Norway) who attacked the Norman forces near the eastern end of the [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait "Menai Strait"). Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury was killed by an arrow said to have been shot by Magnus himself.
With the death of Hugh of Chester in 1101, Gruffudd was able to consolidate his position in Gwynedd, as much by diplomacy as by force. He met King [Henry I of England](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England "Henry I of England") who granted him the rule of Llŷn, [Eifionydd](/wiki/Eifionydd "Eifionydd"), [Ardudwy](/wiki/Ardudwy "Ardudwy") and [Arllechwedd](/wiki/Arllechwedd "Arllechwedd"), considerably extending his kingdom. By 1114, he had gained enough power to induce King Henry to invade Gwynedd, one detachment led by King [Alexander I of Scotland](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Scotland "Alexander I of Scotland"). Faced with overwhelming force, Gruffudd was obliged to pay homage to Henry and to pay a heavy fine but lost no territory.
The Kingdom was expanded by his sons,{{\#tag:ref\|By about 1118, advancing years meant that most of the fighting, which pushed Gwynedd's borders eastward and southwards, was done by his three sons by his wife Angharad daughter of \[\[Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl]]\|group\=cy}} [Owain Gwynedd](/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd "Owain Gwynedd") and later [Cadwaladr](/wiki/Cadwaladr_ap_Gruffudd "Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd"), by Gruffudd's last years "[Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion "Ceredigion"), [Meirionnydd](/wiki/Meirionnydd "Meirionnydd"), [Rhos](/wiki/Rhos_%28North_Wales%29 "Rhos (North Wales)"), [Rhufoniog](/wiki/Rhufoniog "Rhufoniog") and [Dyffryn Clwyd](/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd "Dyffryn Clwyd") were under the rule of Gwynedd". The [cantrefs](/wiki/Cantref "Cantref") of Rhos and Rhufoniog were annexed in 1118, Meirionnydd captured from [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys "Kingdom of Powys") in 1123, and Dyffryn Clwyd in 1124\. Another invasion by King Henry I in 1121 ultimately ended in military failure. The king had to come to terms with Gruffudd and made no further attempt to invade Gwynedd during Gruffudd's reign. The death of Cadwallon in a battle against the forces of Powys near [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen "Llangollen") in 1132 checked further expansion for the time being.
Gruffudd was now powerful enough to ensure that his nominee [David the Scot](/wiki/David_the_Scot "David the Scot") was consecrated as [Bishop of Bangor](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor "Bishop of Bangor") in 1120\. The see had been effectively vacant since bishop [Hervey le Breton](/wiki/Hervey_le_Breton "Hervey le Breton") had been forced to flee by the Welsh almost twenty years before, since Gruffudd and King Henry could not agree on a candidate. David went on to rebuild [Bangor Cathedral](/wiki/Bangor_Cathedral "Bangor Cathedral") with a large financial contribution from Gruffudd.
Owain and Cadwaladr, in alliance with [Gruffudd ap Rhys](/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Rhys "Gruffudd ap Rhys") of [Deheubarth](/wiki/Deheubarth "Deheubarth"), gained a crushing victory over the Normans [at Crug Mawr](/wiki/Battle_of_Crug_Mawr "Battle of Crug Mawr"), near [Cardigan](/wiki/Cardigan%2C_Ceredigion "Cardigan, Ceredigion"), in 1136 and took possession of [Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion "Ceredigion"). The latter part of Gruffydd's reign was considered to be a "[Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age "Golden Age")"; according to the *Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan* Gwynedd was "bespangled with lime\-washed churches like the stars in the firmament".
|
[
"### King for the fourth time and consolidation",
"The Normans were obliged to evacuate Anglesey, and the following year, Gruffudd returned from Ireland to take possession again, having apparently come to an agreement with Earl Hugh of Chester. The situation was changed by the arrival of a [Norwegian fleet](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") under the command of King [Magnus Barefoot](/wiki/Magnus_Barefoot \"Magnus Barefoot\") (Magnus III of Norway) who attacked the Norman forces near the eastern end of the [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait \"Menai Strait\"). Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury was killed by an arrow said to have been shot by Magnus himself.",
"With the death of Hugh of Chester in 1101, Gruffudd was able to consolidate his position in Gwynedd, as much by diplomacy as by force. He met King [Henry I of England](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England \"Henry I of England\") who granted him the rule of Llŷn, [Eifionydd](/wiki/Eifionydd \"Eifionydd\"), [Ardudwy](/wiki/Ardudwy \"Ardudwy\") and [Arllechwedd](/wiki/Arllechwedd \"Arllechwedd\"), considerably extending his kingdom. By 1114, he had gained enough power to induce King Henry to invade Gwynedd, one detachment led by King [Alexander I of Scotland](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Scotland \"Alexander I of Scotland\"). Faced with overwhelming force, Gruffudd was obliged to pay homage to Henry and to pay a heavy fine but lost no territory.",
"The Kingdom was expanded by his sons,{{\\#tag:ref\\|By about 1118, advancing years meant that most of the fighting, which pushed Gwynedd's borders eastward and southwards, was done by his three sons by his wife Angharad daughter of \\[\\[Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl]]\\|group\\=cy}} [Owain Gwynedd](/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd \"Owain Gwynedd\") and later [Cadwaladr](/wiki/Cadwaladr_ap_Gruffudd \"Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd\"), by Gruffudd's last years \"[Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion \"Ceredigion\"), [Meirionnydd](/wiki/Meirionnydd \"Meirionnydd\"), [Rhos](/wiki/Rhos_%28North_Wales%29 \"Rhos (North Wales)\"), [Rhufoniog](/wiki/Rhufoniog \"Rhufoniog\") and [Dyffryn Clwyd](/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd \"Dyffryn Clwyd\") were under the rule of Gwynedd\". The [cantrefs](/wiki/Cantref \"Cantref\") of Rhos and Rhufoniog were annexed in 1118, Meirionnydd captured from [Powys](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys \"Kingdom of Powys\") in 1123, and Dyffryn Clwyd in 1124\\. Another invasion by King Henry I in 1121 ultimately ended in military failure. The king had to come to terms with Gruffudd and made no further attempt to invade Gwynedd during Gruffudd's reign. The death of Cadwallon in a battle against the forces of Powys near [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen \"Llangollen\") in 1132 checked further expansion for the time being.",
"Gruffudd was now powerful enough to ensure that his nominee [David the Scot](/wiki/David_the_Scot \"David the Scot\") was consecrated as [Bishop of Bangor](/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor \"Bishop of Bangor\") in 1120\\. The see had been effectively vacant since bishop [Hervey le Breton](/wiki/Hervey_le_Breton \"Hervey le Breton\") had been forced to flee by the Welsh almost twenty years before, since Gruffudd and King Henry could not agree on a candidate. David went on to rebuild [Bangor Cathedral](/wiki/Bangor_Cathedral \"Bangor Cathedral\") with a large financial contribution from Gruffudd.",
"Owain and Cadwaladr, in alliance with [Gruffudd ap Rhys](/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Rhys \"Gruffudd ap Rhys\") of [Deheubarth](/wiki/Deheubarth \"Deheubarth\"), gained a crushing victory over the Normans [at Crug Mawr](/wiki/Battle_of_Crug_Mawr \"Battle of Crug Mawr\"), near [Cardigan](/wiki/Cardigan%2C_Ceredigion \"Cardigan, Ceredigion\"), in 1136 and took possession of [Ceredigion](/wiki/Ceredigion \"Ceredigion\"). The latter part of Gruffydd's reign was considered to be a \"[Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age \"Golden Age\")\"; according to the *Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan* Gwynedd was \"bespangled with lime\\-washed churches like the stars in the firmament\".",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
### Parliamentarian
Mačužić Puzić received the 216th position on the [Serbian Radical Party](/wiki/Serbian_Radical_Party "Serbian Radical Party")'s [electoral list](/wiki/Electoral_list "Electoral list") in the [2008 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2008 Serbian parliamentary election"). The party won seventy\-eight seats, and Mačužić Puzić was not selected as part of its parliamentary delegation. (From 2000 to 2011, Serbian parliamentary mandates were awarded to sponsoring parties or coalitions rather than to individual candidates, and it was common practice for mandates to be awarded out of numerical order. Mačužić Puzić could have been selected to receive a parliamentary mandate despite her low position on the list, though in fact she was not.)Serbia's Law on the Election of Representatives (2000\) stipulated that parliamentary mandates would be awarded to electoral lists (Article 80\) that crossed the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold "Electoral threshold") (Article 81\), that mandates would be given to candidates appearing on the relevant lists (Article 83\), and that the submitters of the lists were responsible for selecting their parliamentary delegations within ten days of the final results being published (Article 84\). See Law on the Election of Representatives, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 35/2000, made available via [LegislationOnline](http://www.legislationline.org/topics/country/5/topic/6), accessed 28 February 2017\.
The Radical Party split later in 2008, with several members joining the breakaway Progressive Party under the leadership of [Tomislav Nikolić](/wiki/Tomislav_Nikoli%C4%87 "Tomislav Nikolić") and [Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Aleksandar Vučić"). Mačužić Puzić was among those who sided with the Progressives.
Serbia's electoral system was reformed in 2011, such that parliamentary mandates were awarded in numerical order to candidates on successful lists. Mačužić Puzić received the 191st position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Aleksandar Vučić") — Future We Believe In* electoral list in the [2014 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2014_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2014 Serbian parliamentary election").[Избори за народне посланике Народне скупштине одржани 16\. и 23\. марта 2014\. године, ИЗБОРНЕ ЛИСТЕ (ALEKSANDAR VUČIĆ \- BUDUĆNOST U KOJU VERUJEMO)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva-izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2014.php) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180506170012/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva\-izbori\-za\-narodne\-poslanike\-2014\.php \|date\=2018\-05\-06 }}, Republika Srbija \- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 26 January 2017\. Although the party won a landslide victory with 158 out of 250 mandates, Mačužić Puzić was not elected and did not receive a seat as a replacement member over the next two years.
Mačužić Puzić was promoted to the ninety\-sixth position on the Progressive Party's *Aleksandar Vučić – Serbia Is Winning* list in the [2016 parliamentary election](/wiki/2016_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2016 Serbian parliamentary election") and was this time elected when the list won a second consecutive majority victory with 131 out of 250 mandates.[Избори за народне посланике 2016\. године » Изборне листе (АЛЕКСАНДАР ВУЧИЋ \- СРБИЈА ПОБЕЂУЈЕ)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2016-izborne-liste.php) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427083209/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori\-za\-narodne\-poslanike\-2016\-izborne\-liste.php \|date\=2018\-04\-27 }}, Republika Srbija \- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 17 February 2017\. During the 2016–20 parliament, she was a member of the assembly's foreign affairs committee; a deputy member of the defence and internal affairs committee and the committee on the economy, regional development, trade, tourism, and energy; the head of Serbia's parliamentary friendship group with [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria "Algeria"); and a member of the parliamentary friendship groups with [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), and the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America").[MAJA MACUZIC](http://www.parlament.gov.rs/MAJA_MACUZIC.924.488.html), National Assembly of Serbia, accessed 25 June 2020\.
She received the sixty\-second position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87_%E2%80%94_For_Our_Children "Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children")* list in the [2020 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2020 Serbian parliamentary election")["Ko je sve na listi SNS za republičke poslanike?"](https://www.danas.rs/politika/izbori-2020/ko-je-sve-na-listi-sns-za-republicke-poslanike/), *Danas*, 6 March 2020, accessed 30 June 2020\. and was elected to a second term in the assembly when the list won a landslide majority with 188 mandates. She resigned her mandate on 28 December 2020\.[Poslanica iz poslaničke grupe 'Aleksandar Vučić \- Za našu decu' podnela ostavku](http://rs.n1info.com/Vesti/a688485/Poslanica-iz-poslanicke-grupe-Aleksandar-Vucic-Za-nasu-decu-podnela-ostavku.html), N1, 28 December 2020, accessed 28 December 2020\.
### Municipal politics
Mačužić Puzić was awarded the third position on the Progressive Party's list for the Kraljevo municipal assembly in the [2012 Serbian local elections](/wiki/2012_Serbian_local_elections "2012 Serbian local elections")*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 45 Number 7 (24 April 2012\), p. 49\. and was elected when the list won sixteen mandates.*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 45 Number 78 (7 May 2012\), p. 318\. She was appointed to city council (i.e., the executive branch of the city government) on 21 June 2014 with responsibility for project management and regional and international co\-operation. She held this position until 29 June 2016\.[MAJA MAČUŽIĆ](http://www.otvoreniparlament.rs/poslanik/8157), Otvoreni Parlament, accessed 6 November 2017\.
She received the fourth position on the Progressive Party's list in the [2020 local elections](/wiki/2020_Serbian_local_elections "2020 Serbian local elections")*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 53 Number 10 (10 June 2020\), p. 1\. and was returned to the local assembly when the list won a majority victory with forty\-six out of seventy mandates.*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 53 Number 22 (23 June 2020\), p. 4\. She resigned from the Kraljevo assembly on 29 December 2020, one day after leaving the national assembly.*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 53 Number 52 (29 December 2020\), p. 137\.
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"### Parliamentarian",
"Mačužić Puzić received the 216th position on the [Serbian Radical Party](/wiki/Serbian_Radical_Party \"Serbian Radical Party\")'s [electoral list](/wiki/Electoral_list \"Electoral list\") in the [2008 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2008 Serbian parliamentary election\"). The party won seventy\\-eight seats, and Mačužić Puzić was not selected as part of its parliamentary delegation. (From 2000 to 2011, Serbian parliamentary mandates were awarded to sponsoring parties or coalitions rather than to individual candidates, and it was common practice for mandates to be awarded out of numerical order. Mačužić Puzić could have been selected to receive a parliamentary mandate despite her low position on the list, though in fact she was not.)Serbia's Law on the Election of Representatives (2000\\) stipulated that parliamentary mandates would be awarded to electoral lists (Article 80\\) that crossed the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold \"Electoral threshold\") (Article 81\\), that mandates would be given to candidates appearing on the relevant lists (Article 83\\), and that the submitters of the lists were responsible for selecting their parliamentary delegations within ten days of the final results being published (Article 84\\). See Law on the Election of Representatives, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 35/2000, made available via [LegislationOnline](http://www.legislationline.org/topics/country/5/topic/6), accessed 28 February 2017\\.",
"The Radical Party split later in 2008, with several members joining the breakaway Progressive Party under the leadership of [Tomislav Nikolić](/wiki/Tomislav_Nikoli%C4%87 \"Tomislav Nikolić\") and [Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Aleksandar Vučić\"). Mačužić Puzić was among those who sided with the Progressives.",
"Serbia's electoral system was reformed in 2011, such that parliamentary mandates were awarded in numerical order to candidates on successful lists. Mačužić Puzić received the 191st position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Aleksandar Vučić\") — Future We Believe In* electoral list in the [2014 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2014_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2014 Serbian parliamentary election\").[Избори за народне посланике Народне скупштине одржани 16\\. и 23\\. марта 2014\\. године, ИЗБОРНЕ ЛИСТЕ (ALEKSANDAR VUČIĆ \\- BUDUĆNOST U KOJU VERUJEMO)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva-izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2014.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180506170012/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva\\-izbori\\-za\\-narodne\\-poslanike\\-2014\\.php \\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-06 }}, Republika Srbija \\- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 26 January 2017\\. Although the party won a landslide victory with 158 out of 250 mandates, Mačužić Puzić was not elected and did not receive a seat as a replacement member over the next two years.",
"Mačužić Puzić was promoted to the ninety\\-sixth position on the Progressive Party's *Aleksandar Vučić – Serbia Is Winning* list in the [2016 parliamentary election](/wiki/2016_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2016 Serbian parliamentary election\") and was this time elected when the list won a second consecutive majority victory with 131 out of 250 mandates.[Избори за народне посланике 2016\\. године » Изборне листе (АЛЕКСАНДАР ВУЧИЋ \\- СРБИЈА ПОБЕЂУЈЕ)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2016-izborne-liste.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427083209/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori\\-za\\-narodne\\-poslanike\\-2016\\-izborne\\-liste.php \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-27 }}, Republika Srbija \\- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 17 February 2017\\. During the 2016–20 parliament, she was a member of the assembly's foreign affairs committee; a deputy member of the defence and internal affairs committee and the committee on the economy, regional development, trade, tourism, and energy; the head of Serbia's parliamentary friendship group with [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria \"Algeria\"); and a member of the parliamentary friendship groups with [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\") [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), and the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\").[MAJA MACUZIC](http://www.parlament.gov.rs/MAJA_MACUZIC.924.488.html), National Assembly of Serbia, accessed 25 June 2020\\.",
"She received the sixty\\-second position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87_%E2%80%94_For_Our_Children \"Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children\")* list in the [2020 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2020 Serbian parliamentary election\")[\"Ko je sve na listi SNS za republičke poslanike?\"](https://www.danas.rs/politika/izbori-2020/ko-je-sve-na-listi-sns-za-republicke-poslanike/), *Danas*, 6 March 2020, accessed 30 June 2020\\. and was elected to a second term in the assembly when the list won a landslide majority with 188 mandates. She resigned her mandate on 28 December 2020\\.[Poslanica iz poslaničke grupe 'Aleksandar Vučić \\- Za našu decu' podnela ostavku](http://rs.n1info.com/Vesti/a688485/Poslanica-iz-poslanicke-grupe-Aleksandar-Vucic-Za-nasu-decu-podnela-ostavku.html), N1, 28 December 2020, accessed 28 December 2020\\.",
"### Municipal politics",
"Mačužić Puzić was awarded the third position on the Progressive Party's list for the Kraljevo municipal assembly in the [2012 Serbian local elections](/wiki/2012_Serbian_local_elections \"2012 Serbian local elections\")*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 45 Number 7 (24 April 2012\\), p. 49\\. and was elected when the list won sixteen mandates.*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 45 Number 78 (7 May 2012\\), p. 318\\. She was appointed to city council (i.e., the executive branch of the city government) on 21 June 2014 with responsibility for project management and regional and international co\\-operation. She held this position until 29 June 2016\\.[MAJA MAČUŽIĆ](http://www.otvoreniparlament.rs/poslanik/8157), Otvoreni Parlament, accessed 6 November 2017\\.",
"She received the fourth position on the Progressive Party's list in the [2020 local elections](/wiki/2020_Serbian_local_elections \"2020 Serbian local elections\")*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 53 Number 10 (10 June 2020\\), p. 1\\. and was returned to the local assembly when the list won a majority victory with forty\\-six out of seventy mandates.*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 53 Number 22 (23 June 2020\\), p. 4\\. She resigned from the Kraljevo assembly on 29 December 2020, one day after leaving the national assembly.*Službeni List (Grada Kraljeva)*, Volume 53 Number 52 (29 December 2020\\), p. 137\\.",
""
] |
### Parliamentarian
Mačužić Puzić received the 216th position on the [Serbian Radical Party](/wiki/Serbian_Radical_Party "Serbian Radical Party")'s [electoral list](/wiki/Electoral_list "Electoral list") in the [2008 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2008 Serbian parliamentary election"). The party won seventy\-eight seats, and Mačužić Puzić was not selected as part of its parliamentary delegation. (From 2000 to 2011, Serbian parliamentary mandates were awarded to sponsoring parties or coalitions rather than to individual candidates, and it was common practice for mandates to be awarded out of numerical order. Mačužić Puzić could have been selected to receive a parliamentary mandate despite her low position on the list, though in fact she was not.)Serbia's Law on the Election of Representatives (2000\) stipulated that parliamentary mandates would be awarded to electoral lists (Article 80\) that crossed the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold "Electoral threshold") (Article 81\), that mandates would be given to candidates appearing on the relevant lists (Article 83\), and that the submitters of the lists were responsible for selecting their parliamentary delegations within ten days of the final results being published (Article 84\). See Law on the Election of Representatives, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 35/2000, made available via [LegislationOnline](http://www.legislationline.org/topics/country/5/topic/6), accessed 28 February 2017\.
The Radical Party split later in 2008, with several members joining the breakaway Progressive Party under the leadership of [Tomislav Nikolić](/wiki/Tomislav_Nikoli%C4%87 "Tomislav Nikolić") and [Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Aleksandar Vučić"). Mačužić Puzić was among those who sided with the Progressives.
Serbia's electoral system was reformed in 2011, such that parliamentary mandates were awarded in numerical order to candidates on successful lists. Mačužić Puzić received the 191st position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Aleksandar Vučić") — Future We Believe In* electoral list in the [2014 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2014_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2014 Serbian parliamentary election").[Избори за народне посланике Народне скупштине одржани 16\. и 23\. марта 2014\. године, ИЗБОРНЕ ЛИСТЕ (ALEKSANDAR VUČIĆ \- BUDUĆNOST U KOJU VERUJEMO)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva-izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2014.php) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180506170012/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva\-izbori\-za\-narodne\-poslanike\-2014\.php \|date\=2018\-05\-06 }}, Republika Srbija \- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 26 January 2017\. Although the party won a landslide victory with 158 out of 250 mandates, Mačužić Puzić was not elected and did not receive a seat as a replacement member over the next two years.
Mačužić Puzić was promoted to the ninety\-sixth position on the Progressive Party's *Aleksandar Vučić – Serbia Is Winning* list in the [2016 parliamentary election](/wiki/2016_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2016 Serbian parliamentary election") and was this time elected when the list won a second consecutive majority victory with 131 out of 250 mandates.[Избори за народне посланике 2016\. године » Изборне листе (АЛЕКСАНДАР ВУЧИЋ \- СРБИЈА ПОБЕЂУЈЕ)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2016-izborne-liste.php) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427083209/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori\-za\-narodne\-poslanike\-2016\-izborne\-liste.php \|date\=2018\-04\-27 }}, Republika Srbija \- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 17 February 2017\. During the 2016–20 parliament, she was a member of the assembly's foreign affairs committee; a deputy member of the defence and internal affairs committee and the committee on the economy, regional development, trade, tourism, and energy; the head of Serbia's parliamentary friendship group with [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria "Algeria"); and a member of the parliamentary friendship groups with [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), [Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), and the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America").[MAJA MACUZIC](http://www.parlament.gov.rs/MAJA_MACUZIC.924.488.html), National Assembly of Serbia, accessed 25 June 2020\.
She received the sixty\-second position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87_%E2%80%94_For_Our_Children "Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children")* list in the [2020 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Serbian_parliamentary_election "2020 Serbian parliamentary election")["Ko je sve na listi SNS za republičke poslanike?"](https://www.danas.rs/politika/izbori-2020/ko-je-sve-na-listi-sns-za-republicke-poslanike/), *Danas*, 6 March 2020, accessed 30 June 2020\. and was elected to a second term in the assembly when the list won a landslide majority with 188 mandates. She resigned her mandate on 28 December 2020\.[Poslanica iz poslaničke grupe 'Aleksandar Vučić \- Za našu decu' podnela ostavku](http://rs.n1info.com/Vesti/a688485/Poslanica-iz-poslanicke-grupe-Aleksandar-Vucic-Za-nasu-decu-podnela-ostavku.html), N1, 28 December 2020, accessed 28 December 2020\.
|
[
"### Parliamentarian",
"Mačužić Puzić received the 216th position on the [Serbian Radical Party](/wiki/Serbian_Radical_Party \"Serbian Radical Party\")'s [electoral list](/wiki/Electoral_list \"Electoral list\") in the [2008 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2008 Serbian parliamentary election\"). The party won seventy\\-eight seats, and Mačužić Puzić was not selected as part of its parliamentary delegation. (From 2000 to 2011, Serbian parliamentary mandates were awarded to sponsoring parties or coalitions rather than to individual candidates, and it was common practice for mandates to be awarded out of numerical order. Mačužić Puzić could have been selected to receive a parliamentary mandate despite her low position on the list, though in fact she was not.)Serbia's Law on the Election of Representatives (2000\\) stipulated that parliamentary mandates would be awarded to electoral lists (Article 80\\) that crossed the [electoral threshold](/wiki/Electoral_threshold \"Electoral threshold\") (Article 81\\), that mandates would be given to candidates appearing on the relevant lists (Article 83\\), and that the submitters of the lists were responsible for selecting their parliamentary delegations within ten days of the final results being published (Article 84\\). See Law on the Election of Representatives, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 35/2000, made available via [LegislationOnline](http://www.legislationline.org/topics/country/5/topic/6), accessed 28 February 2017\\.",
"The Radical Party split later in 2008, with several members joining the breakaway Progressive Party under the leadership of [Tomislav Nikolić](/wiki/Tomislav_Nikoli%C4%87 \"Tomislav Nikolić\") and [Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Aleksandar Vučić\"). Mačužić Puzić was among those who sided with the Progressives.",
"Serbia's electoral system was reformed in 2011, such that parliamentary mandates were awarded in numerical order to candidates on successful lists. Mačužić Puzić received the 191st position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Aleksandar Vučić\") — Future We Believe In* electoral list in the [2014 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2014_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2014 Serbian parliamentary election\").[Избори за народне посланике Народне скупштине одржани 16\\. и 23\\. марта 2014\\. године, ИЗБОРНЕ ЛИСТЕ (ALEKSANDAR VUČIĆ \\- BUDUĆNOST U KOJU VERUJEMO)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva-izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2014.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180506170012/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/arhiva\\-izbori\\-za\\-narodne\\-poslanike\\-2014\\.php \\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-06 }}, Republika Srbija \\- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 26 January 2017\\. Although the party won a landslide victory with 158 out of 250 mandates, Mačužić Puzić was not elected and did not receive a seat as a replacement member over the next two years.",
"Mačužić Puzić was promoted to the ninety\\-sixth position on the Progressive Party's *Aleksandar Vučić – Serbia Is Winning* list in the [2016 parliamentary election](/wiki/2016_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2016 Serbian parliamentary election\") and was this time elected when the list won a second consecutive majority victory with 131 out of 250 mandates.[Избори за народне посланике 2016\\. године » Изборне листе (АЛЕКСАНДАР ВУЧИЋ \\- СРБИЈА ПОБЕЂУЈЕ)](http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori-za-narodne-poslanike-2016-izborne-liste.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427083209/http://www.rik.parlament.gov.rs/izbori\\-za\\-narodne\\-poslanike\\-2016\\-izborne\\-liste.php \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-27 }}, Republika Srbija \\- Republička izborna komisija, accessed 17 February 2017\\. During the 2016–20 parliament, she was a member of the assembly's foreign affairs committee; a deputy member of the defence and internal affairs committee and the committee on the economy, regional development, trade, tourism, and energy; the head of Serbia's parliamentary friendship group with [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria \"Algeria\"); and a member of the parliamentary friendship groups with [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\") [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), [Norway](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), and the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\").[MAJA MACUZIC](http://www.parlament.gov.rs/MAJA_MACUZIC.924.488.html), National Assembly of Serbia, accessed 25 June 2020\\.",
"She received the sixty\\-second position on the Progressive Party's *[Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children](/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87_%E2%80%94_For_Our_Children \"Aleksandar Vučić — For Our Children\")* list in the [2020 Serbian parliamentary election](/wiki/2020_Serbian_parliamentary_election \"2020 Serbian parliamentary election\")[\"Ko je sve na listi SNS za republičke poslanike?\"](https://www.danas.rs/politika/izbori-2020/ko-je-sve-na-listi-sns-za-republicke-poslanike/), *Danas*, 6 March 2020, accessed 30 June 2020\\. and was elected to a second term in the assembly when the list won a landslide majority with 188 mandates. She resigned her mandate on 28 December 2020\\.[Poslanica iz poslaničke grupe 'Aleksandar Vučić \\- Za našu decu' podnela ostavku](http://rs.n1info.com/Vesti/a688485/Poslanica-iz-poslanicke-grupe-Aleksandar-Vucic-Za-nasu-decu-podnela-ostavku.html), N1, 28 December 2020, accessed 28 December 2020\\.",
""
] |
Comparable objects and systems
------------------------------
Commercially packaged aquarium kits, including algae, anchialine be left open or closed, are available in Hawaii. The customer can combine these to create an aquarium comparable to the EcoSphere.
It is possible to purchase *Halocaridina* shrimp from Hawaiian aquarium dealers and create home\-made sealed aquaria with no other special supplies. Sand, gravel, crushed shell, and very well cycled filtered water from a successful saltwater aquarium, with the lowest attainable ammonia content, should be used. A small inoculation of live *[Spirulina](/wiki/Spirulina_%28genus%29 "Spirulina (genus)")* algae may be introduced. Certain ubiquitous algae and bacteria are likely to be carried by the shrimp themselves and will soon colonize the walls of the container. There is a risk that pathogens also may be introduced.
The Ecosphere can degrade with time. It is "self\-sustaining" in comparison to systems which degrade much more quickly.
The advantage of an aquarium closed with a lid (rather than a permanently sealed plug, which is found in the base of an EcoSphere) is that if the system goes out of [equilibrium](/wiki/Homeostasis "Homeostasis"), the owner can remedy conditions and prevent a complete die\-off. Intervention to maintain good water quality allows a larger number of shrimp to live in the open system than can survive in the relatively poor quality closed environment.
Freshwater closed systems are often attempted by nature hobbyists and as experimental projects or demonstrations for biology classes. These require nothing more than a large glass jar with an airtight lid, a few cups of lake or river water, and mud or other substrate from the same body of water. Kept indoors at room temperatures, with exposure to sunlight from a window, such systems have been found to contain living organisms even after several decades. The original level of diversity always falls drastically, sometimes exhibiting interesting patterns of population flux and extinction. Multicellular organisms fare poorly. Eventually an equilibrium of micro\-organisms is established.
*[Make](/wiki/Make_%28magazine%29 "Make (magazine)")* magazine Volume 10 contained instructions for creating a self\-contained fresh\-water "biosphere", which contained a freshwater [amano shrimp](/wiki/Amano_shrimp "Amano shrimp"), [snails](/wiki/Snails "Snails"), [amphipods](/wiki/Amphipods "Amphipods"), [ostracods](/wiki/Ostracods "Ostracods"), [copepods](/wiki/Copepods "Copepods"), [rigid hornwort](/wiki/Rigid_hornwort "Rigid hornwort"), [duckweed](/wiki/Duckweed "Duckweed"), [pond scum](/wiki/Pond_scum "Pond scum") (for microorganisms), and small rocks or shells (as a pH buffer).{{cite journal \| url\= http://cachefly.oreilly.com/make/wp\_aquanaut.pdf \| title\= Make a Tabletop Biosphere \| journal\= Make Magazine \| archiveurl\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080902013712/http://cachefly.oreilly.com/make/wp\_aquanaut.pdf \| archivedate\= 2008\-09\-02 \| volume\= 10 \| access\-date\= 2008\-04\-16 \| url\-status\= dead }}
In their paper "The Emergence of Materially\-closed\-system Ecology", Joe Hanson and Clair Folsome discussed the creation of Ecosphere\-like closed ecosystems. They talked about how they were going to make vibrating eggs but they took a different route.In the paper Hanson stated that the composition of the closed ecosystems he created was 50% distilled water brought to a salinity of 11 parts per thousand by the addition of "Instant Ocean", 50% air, algae collected from the ponds of *Halocaridina rubra* shrimp (and their associated microbial populations), and 3 to 16 *Halocaridina rubra* shrimp (and their associated microbial populations). No container size was given. However, in similar, 2,000 ml setups the authors noted that while the survival rate of shrimp varies it averages 4 shrimp per 2,000 ml of container when not carbon, sulfur, or phosphorus limited or 1 to 8 shrimp per 1,000 ml when limited. They also noted that the shrimp population in all ecosystems declined from the starting number to a steady state within 60 days. {{cite encyclopedia \|last1\=Folsome \|first1\=Clair E. and \|last2\=Hanson \|first2\=Joe A. \|editor1\-last\=Polunin \|editor1\-first\=Nicholas \|encyclopedia\=Ecosystem Theory and Application \|title\=The Emergence of Materially\-closed\-system Ecology \|date\=1986 \|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons \|isbn\=0\-471\-10274\-1 \|pages\=269–288}}
|
[
"Comparable objects and systems\n------------------------------",
"Commercially packaged aquarium kits, including algae, anchialine be left open or closed, are available in Hawaii. The customer can combine these to create an aquarium comparable to the EcoSphere.",
"It is possible to purchase *Halocaridina* shrimp from Hawaiian aquarium dealers and create home\\-made sealed aquaria with no other special supplies. Sand, gravel, crushed shell, and very well cycled filtered water from a successful saltwater aquarium, with the lowest attainable ammonia content, should be used. A small inoculation of live *[Spirulina](/wiki/Spirulina_%28genus%29 \"Spirulina (genus)\")* algae may be introduced. Certain ubiquitous algae and bacteria are likely to be carried by the shrimp themselves and will soon colonize the walls of the container. There is a risk that pathogens also may be introduced.",
"The Ecosphere can degrade with time. It is \"self\\-sustaining\" in comparison to systems which degrade much more quickly.",
"The advantage of an aquarium closed with a lid (rather than a permanently sealed plug, which is found in the base of an EcoSphere) is that if the system goes out of [equilibrium](/wiki/Homeostasis \"Homeostasis\"), the owner can remedy conditions and prevent a complete die\\-off. Intervention to maintain good water quality allows a larger number of shrimp to live in the open system than can survive in the relatively poor quality closed environment.",
"Freshwater closed systems are often attempted by nature hobbyists and as experimental projects or demonstrations for biology classes. These require nothing more than a large glass jar with an airtight lid, a few cups of lake or river water, and mud or other substrate from the same body of water. Kept indoors at room temperatures, with exposure to sunlight from a window, such systems have been found to contain living organisms even after several decades. The original level of diversity always falls drastically, sometimes exhibiting interesting patterns of population flux and extinction. Multicellular organisms fare poorly. Eventually an equilibrium of micro\\-organisms is established.",
"*[Make](/wiki/Make_%28magazine%29 \"Make (magazine)\")* magazine Volume 10 contained instructions for creating a self\\-contained fresh\\-water \"biosphere\", which contained a freshwater [amano shrimp](/wiki/Amano_shrimp \"Amano shrimp\"), [snails](/wiki/Snails \"Snails\"), [amphipods](/wiki/Amphipods \"Amphipods\"), [ostracods](/wiki/Ostracods \"Ostracods\"), [copepods](/wiki/Copepods \"Copepods\"), [rigid hornwort](/wiki/Rigid_hornwort \"Rigid hornwort\"), [duckweed](/wiki/Duckweed \"Duckweed\"), [pond scum](/wiki/Pond_scum \"Pond scum\") (for microorganisms), and small rocks or shells (as a pH buffer).{{cite journal \\| url\\= http://cachefly.oreilly.com/make/wp\\_aquanaut.pdf \\| title\\= Make a Tabletop Biosphere \\| journal\\= Make Magazine \\| archiveurl\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080902013712/http://cachefly.oreilly.com/make/wp\\_aquanaut.pdf \\| archivedate\\= 2008\\-09\\-02 \\| volume\\= 10 \\| access\\-date\\= 2008\\-04\\-16 \\| url\\-status\\= dead }}",
"In their paper \"The Emergence of Materially\\-closed\\-system Ecology\", Joe Hanson and Clair Folsome discussed the creation of Ecosphere\\-like closed ecosystems. They talked about how they were going to make vibrating eggs but they took a different route.In the paper Hanson stated that the composition of the closed ecosystems he created was 50% distilled water brought to a salinity of 11 parts per thousand by the addition of \"Instant Ocean\", 50% air, algae collected from the ponds of *Halocaridina rubra* shrimp (and their associated microbial populations), and 3 to 16 *Halocaridina rubra* shrimp (and their associated microbial populations). No container size was given. However, in similar, 2,000 ml setups the authors noted that while the survival rate of shrimp varies it averages 4 shrimp per 2,000 ml of container when not carbon, sulfur, or phosphorus limited or 1 to 8 shrimp per 1,000 ml when limited. They also noted that the shrimp population in all ecosystems declined from the starting number to a steady state within 60 days. {{cite encyclopedia \\|last1\\=Folsome \\|first1\\=Clair E. and \\|last2\\=Hanson \\|first2\\=Joe A. \\|editor1\\-last\\=Polunin \\|editor1\\-first\\=Nicholas \\|encyclopedia\\=Ecosystem Theory and Application \\|title\\=The Emergence of Materially\\-closed\\-system Ecology \\|date\\=1986 \\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons \\|isbn\\=0\\-471\\-10274\\-1 \\|pages\\=269–288}}",
""
] |
Tennis career
-------------
She lists winning the Wimbledon junior doubles in 2000 and reaching the final in singles that same year as memorable experiences.
Although Perebiynis has not won a [WTA Tour](/wiki/Women%27s_Tennis_Association "Women's Tennis Association") singles title but she has a runner\-up in single when she lost to Australian [Alicia Molik](/wiki/Alicia_Molik "Alicia Molik") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Nordic_Light_Open "Nordic Light Open") in 2004\. She did, however, win six WTA tournaments in doubles. Her most notable doubles titles are her two victories at the J\&S Cup in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"), partnering with [Barbora Strýcová](/wiki/Barbora_Z%C3%A1hlavov%C3%A1-Str%C3%BDcov%C3%A1 "Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová") (2005\) and [Vera Dushevina](/wiki/Vera_Dushevina "Vera Dushevina") (2007\).
Her best performance at a [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 "Grand Slam (tennis)") tournament came at Wimbledon in [2005](/wiki/2005_Wimbledon_Championships "2005 Wimbledon Championships"), when she partnered with Australia's [Paul Hanley](/wiki/Paul_Hanley_%28tennis%29 "Paul Hanley (tennis)") in mixed doubles. The pair reached the final, losing in straight sets to [Mahesh Bhupathi](/wiki/Mahesh_Bhupathi "Mahesh Bhupathi") and [Mary Pierce](/wiki/Mary_Pierce "Mary Pierce").
The following year, she partnered with fellow Ukrainian [Yuliana Fedak](/wiki/Yuliana_Fedak "Yuliana Fedak") for the qualifying event of women's doubles at Wimbledon. The pair qualified for the event, then reached the semi\-finals where they lost to [Paola Suárez](/wiki/Paola_Su%C3%A1rez "Paola Suárez") and [Virginia Ruano Pascual](/wiki/Virginia_Ruano_Pascual "Virginia Ruano Pascual").
While Perebiynis was a talented junior and a respected doubles player, she has had less success in singles on the main tour. Though she swiftly climbed up the ranks early in her career, reaching the third round at both [Roland Garros](/wiki/French_Open "French Open") and Wimbledon in 2004, her tennis career faltered when she was diagnosed with a viral infection in mid\-2005\. She was forced out of competition for over six months and, as a result, her ranking dropped to outside of the top 200\. In October 2007, Perebiynis re\-entered the top 100 after qualifying for the [Kremlin Cup](/wiki/Kremlin_Cup "Kremlin Cup"), jumping over 30 places to 97 in the rankings.
[thumb\|200px\|right\|Tatiana Perebiynis in Antwerpen 2008](/wiki/File:Tatiana_Perebiynis_antwerpen_2008.jpg "Tatiana Perebiynis antwerpen 2008.jpg")
|
[
"Tennis career\n-------------",
"She lists winning the Wimbledon junior doubles in 2000 and reaching the final in singles that same year as memorable experiences.",
"Although Perebiynis has not won a [WTA Tour](/wiki/Women%27s_Tennis_Association \"Women's Tennis Association\") singles title but she has a runner\\-up in single when she lost to Australian [Alicia Molik](/wiki/Alicia_Molik \"Alicia Molik\") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Nordic_Light_Open \"Nordic Light Open\") in 2004\\. She did, however, win six WTA tournaments in doubles. Her most notable doubles titles are her two victories at the J\\&S Cup in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\"), partnering with [Barbora Strýcová](/wiki/Barbora_Z%C3%A1hlavov%C3%A1-Str%C3%BDcov%C3%A1 \"Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová\") (2005\\) and [Vera Dushevina](/wiki/Vera_Dushevina \"Vera Dushevina\") (2007\\).",
"Her best performance at a [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 \"Grand Slam (tennis)\") tournament came at Wimbledon in [2005](/wiki/2005_Wimbledon_Championships \"2005 Wimbledon Championships\"), when she partnered with Australia's [Paul Hanley](/wiki/Paul_Hanley_%28tennis%29 \"Paul Hanley (tennis)\") in mixed doubles. The pair reached the final, losing in straight sets to [Mahesh Bhupathi](/wiki/Mahesh_Bhupathi \"Mahesh Bhupathi\") and [Mary Pierce](/wiki/Mary_Pierce \"Mary Pierce\").",
"The following year, she partnered with fellow Ukrainian [Yuliana Fedak](/wiki/Yuliana_Fedak \"Yuliana Fedak\") for the qualifying event of women's doubles at Wimbledon. The pair qualified for the event, then reached the semi\\-finals where they lost to [Paola Suárez](/wiki/Paola_Su%C3%A1rez \"Paola Suárez\") and [Virginia Ruano Pascual](/wiki/Virginia_Ruano_Pascual \"Virginia Ruano Pascual\").",
"While Perebiynis was a talented junior and a respected doubles player, she has had less success in singles on the main tour. Though she swiftly climbed up the ranks early in her career, reaching the third round at both [Roland Garros](/wiki/French_Open \"French Open\") and Wimbledon in 2004, her tennis career faltered when she was diagnosed with a viral infection in mid\\-2005\\. She was forced out of competition for over six months and, as a result, her ranking dropped to outside of the top 200\\. In October 2007, Perebiynis re\\-entered the top 100 after qualifying for the [Kremlin Cup](/wiki/Kremlin_Cup \"Kremlin Cup\"), jumping over 30 places to 97 in the rankings.",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|right\\|Tatiana Perebiynis in Antwerpen 2008](/wiki/File:Tatiana_Perebiynis_antwerpen_2008.jpg \"Tatiana Perebiynis antwerpen 2008.jpg\")",
""
] |
History
-------
A church at the site dates to 1103, but was refurbished in the 18th century, with the brick facade completed in 1723\. The belltower dates to the early 19th century.
History recalls that in 24 August 1313, [Henry VII of Luxembourg, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Henry_VII%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor") died likely of malaria, at the age of 40 during the course of a siege of [Siena](/wiki/Siena "Siena"). The church was severely damaged during an incursion of troops from [Perugia](/wiki/Perugia "Perugia") in 1358\.[Tourism site for Comune of Buonconvento](http://www.comune.buonconvento.siena.it/on-line/Home/Turismoemultimedia/Luoghidiinteresse/articolo3907365.html).
The church was enriched by its position in the pilgrimage route to Rome. An inventory from 1895 listed the following works:
a frescoed medieval icon of the Madonna, and a *St Catherine of Alexandria* by a painter of the [Nasini](/wiki/Francesco_Nasini "Francesco Nasini") family, a *St Dominic* by [Stefano Volpi](/wiki/Stefano_Volpi "Stefano Volpi"), an Immaculate Conception by [Giacomo Pacchiarotti](/wiki/Giacomo_Pacchiarotti "Giacomo Pacchiarotti"); and a *Virgin of the Assumption* by [Arcangelo Salimbeni](/wiki/Arcangelo_Salimbeni "Arcangelo Salimbeni"). The sacristy had paintings attributed to [Lippo Memmi](/wiki/Lippo_Memmi "Lippo Memmi").[La patria; geografia dell' Italia](https://books.google.com/books?id=kFdEAQAAMAAJ) Part 2, Provinces of Arezzo, Grosseto, and Siena] Gustavo Strafforello (1895\) page 200\.
A *Enthroned Madonna with child and Angels* (circa 1450\) by [Matteo di Giovanni](/wiki/Matteo_di_Giovanni "Matteo di Giovanni") still remains in the church. A polyptych by [Pietro di Francesco Orioli](/wiki/Pietro_di_Francesco_Orioli "Pietro di Francesco Orioli") depicting an *Enthroned Madonna and Saints* is in the apse, along with two 17th\-century canvases.
Many of the original works including paintings by [Duccio di Buoninsegna](/wiki/Duccio_di_Buoninsegna "Duccio di Buoninsegna"), [Sano di Pietro](/wiki/Sano_di_Pietro "Sano di Pietro"), and are now sheltered in the [Museo d'Arte Sacra della Val d'Arbia](/wiki/Museo_d%27Arte_Sacra_della_Val_d%27Arbia "Museo d'Arte Sacra della Val d'Arbia").
The church also originally had paintings by [Bartolo di Fredi](/wiki/Bartolo_di_Fredi "Bartolo di Fredi") depicting the *Virgin and Angel of the Annunciation with Saints Mary Magdalen and St Anthony Abbot* (1519\), part of a polyptych. [Mostra dell'antica arte senese: Aprile\-agosto 1904](https://books.google.com/books?id=OzhuAAAAIAAJ). Catalogo generale illustrato by Corrado Ricci, Siena (Italy). Mostra d'antica arte senese, page 315\.[History of Painting in Italy: The Sienese, Umbrian, \& North Italian schools](https://books.google.com/books?id=kD83AQAAMAAJ), by Joseph Archer Crowe, Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle, Robert Langton Douglas, Sandford Arthur Strong, page 135\.
{{coord\|43\|08\|20\.03\|N\|11\|28\|55\.00\|E\|display\=title}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"A church at the site dates to 1103, but was refurbished in the 18th century, with the brick facade completed in 1723\\. The belltower dates to the early 19th century.",
"History recalls that in 24 August 1313, [Henry VII of Luxembourg, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Henry_VII%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor\") died likely of malaria, at the age of 40 during the course of a siege of [Siena](/wiki/Siena \"Siena\"). The church was severely damaged during an incursion of troops from [Perugia](/wiki/Perugia \"Perugia\") in 1358\\.[Tourism site for Comune of Buonconvento](http://www.comune.buonconvento.siena.it/on-line/Home/Turismoemultimedia/Luoghidiinteresse/articolo3907365.html).",
"The church was enriched by its position in the pilgrimage route to Rome. An inventory from 1895 listed the following works:\na frescoed medieval icon of the Madonna, and a *St Catherine of Alexandria* by a painter of the [Nasini](/wiki/Francesco_Nasini \"Francesco Nasini\") family, a *St Dominic* by [Stefano Volpi](/wiki/Stefano_Volpi \"Stefano Volpi\"), an Immaculate Conception by [Giacomo Pacchiarotti](/wiki/Giacomo_Pacchiarotti \"Giacomo Pacchiarotti\"); and a *Virgin of the Assumption* by [Arcangelo Salimbeni](/wiki/Arcangelo_Salimbeni \"Arcangelo Salimbeni\"). The sacristy had paintings attributed to [Lippo Memmi](/wiki/Lippo_Memmi \"Lippo Memmi\").[La patria; geografia dell' Italia](https://books.google.com/books?id=kFdEAQAAMAAJ) Part 2, Provinces of Arezzo, Grosseto, and Siena] Gustavo Strafforello (1895\\) page 200\\.",
"A *Enthroned Madonna with child and Angels* (circa 1450\\) by [Matteo di Giovanni](/wiki/Matteo_di_Giovanni \"Matteo di Giovanni\") still remains in the church. A polyptych by [Pietro di Francesco Orioli](/wiki/Pietro_di_Francesco_Orioli \"Pietro di Francesco Orioli\") depicting an *Enthroned Madonna and Saints* is in the apse, along with two 17th\\-century canvases.",
"Many of the original works including paintings by [Duccio di Buoninsegna](/wiki/Duccio_di_Buoninsegna \"Duccio di Buoninsegna\"), [Sano di Pietro](/wiki/Sano_di_Pietro \"Sano di Pietro\"), and are now sheltered in the [Museo d'Arte Sacra della Val d'Arbia](/wiki/Museo_d%27Arte_Sacra_della_Val_d%27Arbia \"Museo d'Arte Sacra della Val d'Arbia\").",
"The church also originally had paintings by [Bartolo di Fredi](/wiki/Bartolo_di_Fredi \"Bartolo di Fredi\") depicting the *Virgin and Angel of the Annunciation with Saints Mary Magdalen and St Anthony Abbot* (1519\\), part of a polyptych. [Mostra dell'antica arte senese: Aprile\\-agosto 1904](https://books.google.com/books?id=OzhuAAAAIAAJ). Catalogo generale illustrato by Corrado Ricci, Siena (Italy). Mostra d'antica arte senese, page 315\\.[History of Painting in Italy: The Sienese, Umbrian, \\& North Italian schools](https://books.google.com/books?id=kD83AQAAMAAJ), by Joseph Archer Crowe, Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle, Robert Langton Douglas, Sandford Arthur Strong, page 135\\.\n{{coord\\|43\\|08\\|20\\.03\\|N\\|11\\|28\\|55\\.00\\|E\\|display\\=title}}",
""
] |
Active service
--------------
34th Division went into reserve behind [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 "III Corps (United Kingdom)"). Parties of all arms were then sent into the line with [8th](/wiki/8th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29_in_the_First_World_War "8th Division (United Kingdom) in the First World War") and [23rd Divisions](/wiki/23rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "23rd Division (United Kingdom)") to learn the routines of [Trench warfare](/wiki/Trench_warfare "Trench warfare"). On 24 February the division took over its own sector of the front line. 208th (Norfolk) Field Company, Royal Engineers (RE), was attached to 102nd Bde, but the REs remained in their places in the line while the infantry brigades were rotated between line holding and reserve.Shakespear, pp. 13–6\.
The brigade was joined by its support troops in early 1916:Shakespear, p. 18\.
* 102nd Brigade Machine Gun (MG) Company – formed at [Grantham](/wiki/Grantham "Grantham"), disembarked at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre") on 26 April and joined next day
* 102nd Trench Mortar Battery (TMB) – formed by 17 June from:
+ A/102 TMB formed by 16 February, redesignated 102/1 TMB on 12 March
+ 102/2 TMB formed by 1 June
The TMBs were manned by troops drawn from the infantry battalions.
On 7 April 34th Division was relieved in the line and went to the [Second Army](/wiki/Second_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Second Army (United Kingdom)") training area behind St Omer. Early in May it proceeded by route march and train to [Albert](/wiki/Albert%2C_Somme "Albert, Somme") in the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_%28river%29 "Somme (river)") sector, where it rejoined III Corps, which had moved south to prepare for the forthcoming 'Big Push' (the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme "Battle of the Somme")).Shakespear, pp. 20–2\.
### First day on the Somme
[thumb\|right\|34th Division's attack on Sausage Valley, 1 July 1916\.](/wiki/File:Sausage_Valley_Somme_1_July_1916_map.jpg "Sausage Valley Somme 1 July 1916 map.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|*A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle*, by [William Orpen](/wiki/William_Orpen "William Orpen").](/wiki/File:A_Grave_and_a_Mine_Crater_at_La_Boisselle%2C_August_1917_Art.IWMART2378.jpg "A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle, August 1917 Art.IWMART2378.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|Lochnagar Crater, present day.](/wiki/File:Lochnagar_Crater_Ovillers.JPG "Lochnagar Crater Ovillers.JPG")
The [First day on the Somme](/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme "First day on the Somme") was the first offensive operation for 34th Division. Attacking on the right of [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 "III Corps (United Kingdom)"), its objectives (recognised as being ambitious) were the [Capture of La Boisselle](/wiki/Capture_of_La_Boisselle "Capture of La Boisselle") situated on a spur, and then an advance of {{convert\|3500\|yd\|m}} almost to [Contalmaison](/wiki/Contalmaison "Contalmaison"), crossing six successive trench lines. The bombardment began on 25 June but bad weather hindered artillery observation so the bombardment was extended by two days and the attack was postponed until 1 July. The battalions moved into their assembly trenches between 05\.00 and 07\.00 as the artillery began their final bombardment. The plan was for 34th Division to attack with 102nd Bde on the left, 101st on the right, each brigade forming two columns. 102nd Brigade's columns were led by the 21st NF south and 20th NF north of the La Boisselle [salient](/wiki/Salient_%28military%29 "Salient (military)"); a special force of '[bombers](/wiki/Grenade "Grenade")' from each battalion would turn inwards to clear the village itself. The attacking battalions were to be preceded by a [creeping barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29%23Moving_barrage "Barrage (artillery)#Moving barrage"). Each battalion was to advance in four waves, with special parties detailed to 'mop up' the captured trenches, and others to carry up supplies. This first line would be followed by the 22nd NF to the south and 23rd NF to the north. 103rd Brigade, starting from behind the British front line, would then pass through to capture the third objective. The infantry commanders had been dissatisfied with the results of the preliminary bombardment, so a special bombardment of La Boisselle village by [Stokes mortars](/wiki/Stokes_mortar "Stokes mortar") had been laid on, and other mortars laid a smoke screen on the village. Over preceding weeks [179th Tunnelling Company](/wiki/179th_Tunnelling_Company "179th Tunnelling Company"), RE, had placed huge [mines](/wiki/Tunnel_warfare%23World_War_I "Tunnel warfare#World War I") under the flanking defences of La Boiselle, the Schwabenhöhe or Schwaben redoubt to the south (the [Lochnagar mine](/wiki/Lochnagar_mine "Lochnagar mine")), and the 'Y Sap' mine to the north. These mines were fired 2 minutes before Zero, at 07\.28, obliterating sections of the German defences and creating very large craters.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 371–6, Sketch 21\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 120–1, 141\.Shakespear, pp. 33–9\.
At 07\.30 the whole infantry of the division went 'over the top', the pipers of the Tyneside Scottish playing their men into action. The leading waves rose from their assembly trenches, the rear waves came down the Tara–Usna ridge behind. The However, the Germans were unsubdued by the bombardment or the mines, and came up from their deep dugouts as soon as the barrage moved off them. Their machine guns and rifles opened up before the British had got half way across the {{convert\|200–800\|yd\|m}} of [No man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land "No man's land"). Within 10 minutes of Zero, 80 per cent of the leading British battalions were casualties. With the shortest distance to cross, 21st NF managed to overrun the trenches of the Schwabenhöhe and attempted to pass between La Boisselle and the Lochnagar crater, crossing two more trench lines. However, their right flank was exposed by the failure of 101st Bde's column attempting to advance up 'Sausage Valley'. In addition, the bombing parties made no progress into La Boisselle despite the trench mortar bombardment that had continued for 12 minutes beyond Zero. The defenders of the village were able to fire into the left flank of the column. Very heavy casualties were suffered here by 21st NF, by 22nd NF following, and then by the battalion of 103rd Bde. With the bombing party eliminated, and German reinforcements arriving, the group in the third line trench under Major Spencer Acklom of 21st NF were forced to withdraw to the second line and consolidated a position there by 08\.00, with another party of men from 101st, 102nd and 103rd Bdes holding onto Lochnagar crater nearby. To the north of La Boisselle, along the side of 'Mash Valley', No man's land was much wider, and even less progress was made. Fired upon from La Boisselle and from [Ovillers](/wiki/Ovillers-la-Boisselle "Ovillers-la-Boisselle") in the other side of the valley, 21st and 23rd NF were practically wiped out, their casualties strewn across No man's land. Apart from a few individuals, this column fell back to its starting line. During the rest of the day Acklom's party held off six counter\-attacks, and by 15\.00 the signallers had established a telephone line back to 102nd Bde HQ, by which time Acklom had gathered seven officers and about 200 other ranks (ORs). After dark Acklom established communications with the Lochnagar crater party, and together they improved their position. During the night the remnants of 102nd Bde were joined by [19th (Western) Division](/wiki/19th_%28Western%29_Division "19th (Western) Division"), some of them making their way up the tunnel used to dig the Lochnagar mine. Next day, 2 July, 19th (W) Division continued the attack on La Boisselle while Acklom held the crater with his party and some machine guns from 102nd MG Co later joined by some trench mortars. He reported his position secure at the end of 2 July, but his strength was down to five officers and 150 ORs. On 3 July he was able to extend his line rightwards with a mixed party from various battalions while 19th (W) Division completed the capture of La Boisselle. 34th Division was relieved from the line by [23rd Division](/wiki/23rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "23rd Division (United Kingdom)") during the night of 3/4 July.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 377, 381–4\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, p. 124\.Shakespear, pp. 39–41, 43–5, 48\.
The 34th Division suffered more infantry casualties than any other division on 1 July 1916, with the Tyneside Scottish Brigade suffering the worst losses of any brigade (the Tyneside Irish Brigade had the next worst):Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, p. 391\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 266–7, Appendix 3\.Shakespear, p. 52\.
* 20th NF (1st Tyneside Scottish): 16 officers and 337 ORs killed, 10 officers and 268 ORs wounded; total 631
* 21st NF (2nd Tyneside Scottish): 11 officers and 161 ORs killed, 10 officers and 296 ORs wounded; total 478
* 22nd NF (3rd Tyneside Scottish): 7 officers and 198 ORs killed, 1 officer missing, 14 officers and 319 ORs wounded; total 539
* 23rd NF (4th Tyneside Scottish): 9 officers and 178 ORs killed, 2 officers missing, 7 officers and 444 ORs wounded; total 640
* 102nd MG Co: 1 officer and 6 ORs killed, 5 officers and 24 ORs wounded; total 36
Lieutenant\-Col Elphinstone and all the battalion commanders (or acting commanders) of the brigade were among the dead. The 4th Tyneside Scottish had suffered the third\-heaviest casualties of any battalion engaged on 1 July.Middlebrook, *Somme*, Appendices 3 \& 5\.
When the Tyneside Scottish were first raised a request to wear [kilts](/wiki/Kilt "Kilt") had been refused, though they did wear a [Glengarry](/wiki/Glengarry "Glengarry") bonnet in place of the normal [Peaked cap](/wiki/Peaked_cap "Peaked cap"). After La Boisselle they were granted the right to wear a 3\-inch tartan patch as a backing to their cap badge. One Geordie remarked, 'Man, we'll have to fight a hell of a lot of battles before we get our kilts'.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 13, 256\.
The casualties among 102nd and 103rd Bdes were so severe that on 6 July they were exchanged for two fresh brigades from [37th Division](/wiki/37th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "37th Division (United Kingdom)") so that 34th Division could continue the offensive. 102nd and 103rd Brigades were temporarily amalgamated under the command of Brig\-Gen Ternan and held the quiet line opposite [Monchy\-au\-Bois](/wiki/Monchy-au-Bois "Monchy-au-Bois") and then the more active [Vimy Ridge](/wiki/Vimy_Ridge "Vimy Ridge") sector while being reinforced.Shakespear, pp. 54–6, 72\.
On 15 August 34th Division left the Somme and marched north to the [Armentières](/wiki/Armenti%C3%A8res "Armentières") sector, where it was rejoined on 22 August by 102nd Bde. It spent the rest of the year routinely holding the line at [Bois\-Grenier](/wiki/Bois-Grenier "Bois-Grenier"), with regular [trench raids](/wiki/Trench_raiding "Trench raiding").Shakespear, pp. 72, 75, 80–4\.
### Arras
On 26 January 1917 the division was suddenly rushed from Armentières to go into reserve at [Méteren](/wiki/M%C3%A9teren "Méteren") in case the Germans attacked over the now\-frozen marshes north of [Boezinge](/wiki/Boezinge "Boezinge"). This did not happen, but the division underwent three weeks' training there for the forthcoming offensive before moving to the [Arras](/wiki/Arras "Arras") sector to continue preparations. The [First Battle of the Scarpe](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Scarpe "First Battle of the Scarpe") launched the [Arras Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 "Battle of Arras (1917)") at 05\.30 on 9 April. 34th Division was to assault three successive lines of German trenches, designated the Black, Blue and Brown lines, the Black being {{convert\|80–150\|yd\|m}} in front of the start line, the Brown about {{convert\|500–600\|yd\|m}} away. The attack by 102nd Bde went well: the defenders were shattered by the barrage (including an overhead machine gun barrage) and most of the survivors wee eager to surrender. 21st and 22nd NF captured the Blue Line on schedule and the advance was continued by 20th NF on the right and 23rd NF on the left. However, the failure of 103rd Bde meant that 24th NF's flank was 'in the air', and the battalion was delayed cutting through [barbed wire](/wiki/Wire_obstacle "Wire obstacle") and lost the protection of the creeping barrage. It had a stiff fight for the German support line, taking it by short rushes and losing 165 men in the process. Both 20th and 23rd NF had to dig in a little short of the final objective (the Green Line). Conditions on the bare uplands were bad, and there were deaths from exposure during the night. Next day 103rd Bde was still held up but 102nd Bde occupied the Green Line without difficulty. As the brigade secured its position over the following days amidst snowstorms it was subjected to heavy shelling. Large numbers of men also had to be evacuated sick because of the bad weather. 102nd Brigade moved back to billets on the night of 14/15 April.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 231–3, 254–5, Sketch 10\.Shakespear, pp. 87–8, 95–9 102–9\.
Brigadier\-Gen Ternan gave up the command of 102nd Bde and was replaced on 22 April 1917 by the younger Brig\-Gen N.H.T. Thomson from the [Seaforth Highlanders](/wiki/Seaforth_Highlanders "Seaforth Highlanders"). The brigade returned to the line while the [Second Battle of the Scarpe](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Scarpe "Second Battle of the Scarpe") was being fought. The battalions were still weak after the recent fighting, and many of the replacements were poorly trained. On 25 April 34th Division relieved [51st (Highland) Division](/wiki/51st_%28Highland%29_Division "51st (Highland) Division") in the line, with orders to attack on 28 April ([Battle of Arleux](/wiki/Battle_of_Arleux "Battle of Arleux")). For this operation 102nd Bfde was in divisional reserve, but loaned 20th NF to 101st Bde, which was tasked with attacking the village of [Rœux](/wiki/R%C5%93ux "Rœux"). The assault was delivered at 04\.25, and 20th NF took over the British front line once 101st Bde had gone forward. THe attack went badly and by nightfall 101st Bde – including 20th NF – had only 25 officers and 790 men left in the line. [XVII Corps](/wiki/XVII_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 "XVII Corps (United Kingdom)") and 34th Division decided to make a surprise attack that night with 102nd Bde in an attempt to capture the chemical works at Rœux. 22nd NF would jump off from 103rd Bde's positions in Cawdor Trench and 23rd NF from 101st Bde's Corona Trench. No reconnaissance was possible, and 23rd NF could not get through the crowded communication trenches into position until an hour after the planned Zero hour, Unfortunately, orders to 22nd NF to delay the attack did not reach the battalion in time, and it jumped off as planned at 03\.00, quickly ejecting the enemy from Calabar Trench. However, the battalion could make no further progress because the ground ahead was under machine gun fire from three side. 23rd NF, fatigued from its march, attacked at 04\.00 up Corona trench, but was also stopped by machine gun fire. 34th Division was now so exhausted that it had to be relieved on 30 April/1 May.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 414–6, Sketch 19\.Shakespear, pp. 111–23\.
### Greenland Hill and Hargicourt
34th Division spent the rest of May resting and training, with 102nd Bde round [Fienvillers](/wiki/Fienvillers "Fienvillers"). Reinforcements were scarce: consequently battalions of 34th Division were temporarily reduced from four to three companies. 34th Division went back into the line on 30 May, with 102nd Bde in divisional reserve. 102nd Brigade relieved 101st on 4/5 June and carried out an attack to capture some trenches on the slope of Greenland Hill. Although small\-scale, this attack was supported by 164 field guns, numerous heavy guns, all three of the division's MG companies and all three TMBs. The assault was made with 20th NF, 21st NF and 22nd NF in line, with 23rd NF in support. Each assaulting battalion had all three companies in line, each in four waves. The first two waves were to capture and mop up the first objective ('Curly' and 'Charlie' trenches), the third and fourth to pass through and take the second objective ('Cod' and 'Cuthbert' trenches). 10th [Lincolnshire Regiment](/wiki/Lincolnshire_Regiment "Lincolnshire Regiment") from 101st Bde would provide carrying parties, and 103rd Bde would dig a new trench to link up the second objective with the existing front line. Zero was at 20\.00, and the barrage crashed down on Curly and Charlie trenches for four minutes and when it lifted the stormers were immediately into the trenches. There was stubborn close\-quarters fighting in a few places, but the first objective was cleared with the exception of a small part of 20th NF's area. The third and fourth waves quickly disengaged from the fighting and went on to the second objective close behind the barrage, and established themselves by midnight. At 22\.00 the 18th NF (the divisional [pioneer battalion](/wiki/Pioneer_%28military%29 "Pioneer (military)")) was already digging a communication trench across the old No man's land while the Lincolns carried up supplies and 208th Field Co, RE, helped to form strongpoints in the new front line. The enemy kept up a heavy barrage all night and made several bombing attacks but these were driven off by rifle grenades and rifle fire. The last German outpost in Curly trench was captured by 20th NF at 14\.00 next day, supported by trench mortars, but the battalion still had to call down artillery fire to break up an enemy counter\-attack that evening. After 55 hours' combat, 102nd Bde was relieved on 8 June.Shakespear, pp. 123–32\.
[thumb\|right\|*The Church, Péronne*, by [William Orpen](/wiki/William_Orpen "William Orpen"), depicting the destruction carried out by German troops as they retreated to the Hindenburg Line in 1917\.](/wiki/File:The_Church%2C_Peronne_Art.IWMART3034.jpg "The Church, Peronne Art.IWMART3034.jpg")
34th Division spent the rest of June refitting and training the replacements it received, but these were not enough to replace all the losses. Then between 8 and 10 July the division moved to [Péronne](/wiki/P%C3%A9ronne%2C_Somme "Péronne, Somme"), with 102nd Bde moving into the [Hargicourt](/wiki/Hargicourt%2C_Somme "Hargicourt, Somme") sector. The area had been devastated by the Germans before they retreated to the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line "Hindenburg Line") earlier in the year, and much labour was required to repair roads and erect huts to replace the destroyed buildings. The front line consisted of a chain of posts rather than continuous trenches, and No man's land was unusually wide. At first the TMBs could not reach across No man's land, but they used some captured German [7\.7 cm guns](/wiki/7.7_cm_FK_96_n.A. "7.7 cm FK 96 n.A.") instead. Earl on 26 August, 101st Bde carried out a small attack assisted by 20th and 23rd NF from 102nd Bde and two mortars of 102nd TMB. It was a minor operation planned in great detail, one of a number of such attacks being carried out as diversions from that summer's main [Ypres Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele "Battle of Passchendaele"). The objectives were 'Malakoff Farm' and the adjoining trench system on Cologne Ridge in front of Hargicourt, about {{convert\|2000\|yd\|m}} in front of the Hindenburg Line proper. The capture of these positions would reduce German observation over British positions. The attack was carefully rehearsed behind the lines where turf had been cut to represent the enemy trenches. 101st Brigade put all its battalions into the line, with 20th NF in reserve behind a railway embankment, while 23rd NF would send a company bombing up 'Rifle Pit Trench' to link up with the outer flank. Each of 101st Bde's four battalions was also loaned a company from 102nd Bde as a carrying party. The barrage came down at 04\.30 on 26 August and lifted after four minutes then began to creep towards the enemy front line, followed by the infantry. 101st Brigade pushed through Malakoff Farm and the bombers of 23rd NF had no difficulty linking up with them. However, the following night 103rd Bde failed to complete the capture of the high ground of Cologne Ridge in front Fire directed from this position made the Hargicourt valley dangerous, so 102nd Bde carried out another small formal attack to complete its capture on 9–11 September. It had been taken out of the line to rehearse for this attack, returning on 7 September. Preparations on 8 September were hampered by enemy artillery fire but promptly at 23\.45 21st and 23rd NF were formed up on their jumping off tapes in No man's land, about {{convert\|350\|yd\|m}} from the German trenches. Each battalion had two companies in the front line, each in four waves, the first to cross the first trench ('Farm' trench) and form a screen the other side, the second to mop up, and the third and fourth to consolidate. The other two companies were to carry up barbed wire and string it across the whole front, even if fighting was still going on in the trench. The guns opened up at 00\.15 and the assaulting waves followed the creeping barrage. The right company of 21st NF lost direction in the mist, but the rest of the attack went well, the enemy fleeing. Brigadier\-Gen Thomson then ordered 21st NF to bomb their way forward to join up with the new position, which was consolidated by 22nd NF, 20th Fd Co and the pioneers of 18th NF. German retaliatory fire was heavy, but the position was held. 21st NF attempted to expand their position that afternoon, but the Germans counter\-attacked at the same time, and a confused fight ensued under bombardment by both sides. 102nd Brigade completed the capture of the last lengths of trench on 11 September, then handed a secure position over to 101st Bde and went back into divisional reserve. The brigades total casualties were 290 officers and 374 ORs, mostly caused by shellfire after the assault. 34th Division remained in this sector until the end of the month but there were only patrol actions and raids.Shakespear, pp. 133–51\.
### Ypres
Many of the reinforcements received at the end of September had minimal training, and it was claimed that some of them had never fired their rifles. 34th Division was now transferred north to the [Ypres Salient](/wiki/Ypres_Salient "Ypres Salient") where the offensive was continuing. After arriving on 9 October the division was employed to repair roads so that the advance could continue. 103rd Brigade took over part of the line across the Broembeek valley on 12 October, and was relieved by 102nd Bde on the night of 16/17 October. The troops were now existing in wrecked farms and captured [pillboxes](/wiki/Pillbox_%28military%29 "Pillbox (military)") linked by [duckboard](/wiki/Boardwalk%23Duckboards "Boardwalk#Duckboards") tracks amidst a sea of flooded shellholes. On 19 October 101st Bde relieved the battalions of 102nd Bde in the front line and carried out a preliminary advance (the '[Action of 22 October 1917](/wiki/Action_of_22_October_1917 "Action of 22 October 1917")') north of [Poelcapelle](/wiki/Poelcapelle "Poelcapelle") to protect the left flank of the projected main attack. A company of 20th NF held the line on the right of 101st Bde, standing fast and keeping the enemy under fire. To its right 102nd Bde attacked with 24th/27th NF borrowed from 103rd Bde. Two companies of 24th/27th NF stood fast, the other two pivoted, to keep touch with [18th (Eastern) Division](/wiki/18th_%28Eastern%29_Division "18th (Eastern) Division")'s attack further right. Unlike, 101st Bde, which suffered badly, 102nd Bde's small operation went well, 24th/27th NF taking all its objectives, including a farm that had been overlooked by 18th (E) Division. The division was withdrawn on 24 October.Shakespear, pp. 152–9, 164\.
### Winter 1917–18
34th Division spent three months in a quieter sector to the south, then went into reserve in February 1918\. By the beginning of 1918 the BEF was suffering a manpower crisis. Brigades were reduced from four to three battalions each, and the remainder were broken up to provide reinforcements for the others. In 34th Division the Tyneside Scottish and Tyneside Irish battalions were amalgamated to form a single 102nd Bde. The 1st and 2nd Tyneside Scottish were disbanded on 3 February and replaced by the 2nd Tyneside Irish from 103rd Bde. At the same time the brigade MG companies were concentrated into a divisional MG battalion. The composition of 102nd Bde therefore was:Shakespear, pp. 168–9\.
* 22nd NF (3rd Tyneside Scottish)
* 23rd NF (4th Tyneside Scottish)
* 25th NF (2nd Tyneside Irish)
* 102nd TMB
### German spring offensive
34th Division returned to the Arras sector in March 1918\. The Germans were soon to launch their [Spring offensive](/wiki/German_spring_offensive "German spring offensive"), and their plans in the Arras area were quite well known. The offensive began at 04\.15 on 21 March with a massive bombardment, mainly on 102nd Bde on the division's right and the adjacent [59th (2nd North Midland) Division](/wiki/59th_%282nd_North_Midland%29_Division "59th (2nd North Midland) Division"). The shelling cut telephone lines to the front line battalions and mist shrouded the enemy advance. About 10\.00 the enemy broke through 59th (2nd NM) Division's left brigade, forcing back the adjacent company of 22nd NF, which had practised this manoeuvre and sent up signal rockets to inform the artillery that this had been done. A company of 25th NF was sent down from brigade reserve to help form a defensive flank, but the enemy advance was too fast. By noon the whole of 25th NF was trying to form a line facing south; about 14\.00 A and B Companies and stragglers from other battalions were lining the railway embankment. However, the rest of the brigade was still in the front line, and Germans moving north were behind the battalion' HQs in a railway cutting in the support line ('Bunhill Row'). A signal party trying to restore communications to the HQs was briefly captured, but got away to warn them. The battalion HQs burned their papers and prepared for all\-round defence with C Company of 34th MG Bn. At 17\.00 Lt\-Col Acklom was killed trying to break out with the HQ party of 22nd NF. The position being hopeless, and surrounded by wounded and gassed men, the other two battalion. commanders surrendered at 17\.30, having prevented the Germans from rolling up the support line for hours. The companies in the front trench had fallen back slowly, using each communication trench in turn as a defence line (as 34th Division had planned). Finally a frontal attack on the original front line turned these positions, driving them back until the remnants of 22nd and 23rd NF formed a trench block in the support line at 'Queen's Lane'. This held up the advance for some time with rifle and [Lewis gun](/wiki/Lewis_gun "Lewis gun") fire, then about 15\.30 they were pushed back until they joined up with the defensive flank formed by 101st Bde along 'Factory Avenue', where the companies of 25th NF had gathered. That night the survivors of 102nd Bde, together with a company of the 18th BF (Pioneers) and J Special Company, RE, were formed into a 500\-strong composite battalion under the command of Maj H.S. Neaves, holding the line between the other two brigades. Brigadier\-Gen Thomson established 102nd Bde HQ in the [Sensée](/wiki/Sens%C3%A9e "Sensée") valley behind [St Léger](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%A9ger%2C_Pas-de-Calais "Saint-Léger, Pas-de-Calais").Blaxland, pp. 48–9\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol I, pp. 133, 236–7, 228, 239–40, 253, 315–.Middlebrook, *Kaiser's Battle*, pp. 234–7, 402\.Shakespear, pp. 171–84, 190–1\.
The following morning also dawned with mist, covering the German advance, which after a whoile succeeded in penetrating between 101st and 102nd Bdes, the 25th NF losing a few men surrounded and captured. 101st Brigade was forced back by heavy artillery fire, opening a wide gap that the 102nd Bde battalion was too small to fill, even with reinforcement from the pioneers of 18th NF and 207th and 209th Field Companies, RE. The enemy kept probing behind its flank, but at 13\.30 three companies of 1st [East Lancashire Regiment](/wiki/East_Lancashire_Regiment "East Lancashire Regiment") arrived from 103rd Bde. Together they held their own front in the 'Third System' trenches behind Henin Hill, but their left flank was forced further and further back as the enemy pushed through towards St Léger. Another group of men from 22nd and 23rd NF assisted 101st Bde on the other side of this salient. Late in the day [31st Division](/wiki/31st_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "31st Division (United Kingdom)") arrived to relieve 34th Division, which withdrew to the rear areas.Blaxland, p. 59\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol I, pp. 315–9, 324\.Shakespear, pp. 192–9\.
### Battle of the Lys
34th Division was moved north to a quieter area to recuperate, occupying a line in the [Houplines](/wiki/Houplines "Houplines") sector, in front of Armentières under [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "First Army (United Kingdom)"). The exhausted battalions had to absorb inexperienced reinforcements and improve the neglected defences. Unfortunately, this was the sector chosen for the next phase of the German spring offensive (the [Battle of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 "Battle of the Lys (1918)")). It began with heavy [mustard gas](/wiki/Mustard_gas "Mustard gas") shelling of Armentières on 7/8 April, the gas drifting across the rear areas of the defences; 34th Division had over 900 gas casualties, mainly among 102nd Bde, the pioneers of 18th NF and [sappers](/wiki/Sapper "Sapper") of 207th Fd Co, RE. On 8 April the brigade was reinforced by two companies from 15th [Royal Scots](/wiki/Royal_Scots "Royal Scots") with 101st Bde in reserve. The bombardment began at 04\.00 on 9 April, but the attack did not at first affected 34th Division's front, being concentrated against its neighbours to the south, where it broke through [40th Division](/wiki/40th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "40th Division (United Kingdom)"). Once again, the division was forced to form a defensive flank to the south, while 102nd Bde remained defending Armentières, with Brigade HQ in an old jute factory by the railway line. That night Houplines was heavily bombarded, but 102nd Bde was not attacked. However, the following afternoon it had to evacuate the town, which was now in a dangerous salient following the breakthrough to the south. The orders arrived at 11\.45 and 102nd Bde got away without difficulty, crossing the [River Lys](/wiki/Lys_%28river%29 "Lys (river)") by 18\.30\. After the bridges had been destroyed behind them, the troops of 102nd Bde took up position along the north bank of the river with B Company 34th MG Bn, linking up with [Second Army](/wiki/Second_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Second Army (United Kingdom)") to the north. However, 34th Division was still in a narrow salient around [Nieppe](/wiki/Nieppe "Nieppe"), packed with troops from First and Second Armies, and no rations arrived that night. 102nd Brigade's position, supported by several companies of 34th MG Bn, formed the apex of the salient and came under attack at 05\.30 on 11 April. The Germans made no attempt to attack the flanks of the salient, so this attack was probably only intended to pin 34th Division in its vulnerable position. A party penetrated into the houses at Pont\-de\-Nieppe, and when they began expanding outwards 102nd Bde fell back to the Nieppe Switch line, almost all of the rearguard, C Company, 22nd NF, and several MG teams being killed or captured. At 16\.30 orders arrived for 34th Division to fall back up the [Bailleul](/wiki/Bailleul%2C_Nord "Bailleul, Nord") road towards [Steenwerck](/wiki/Steenwerck "Steenwerck"). The brigadiers agreed to begin at 19\.30, and by 01\.00 on 12 April 102nd Bde and [88th Bde](/wiki/88th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "88th Brigade (United Kingdom)") of [29th Division](/wiki/29th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "29th Division (United Kingdom)") were holding a W\-shaped front from Steenwerck station to Pont d'Achelles, with RE companies filling the gaps. 34th Division HQ now had six brigades under its command, and with good artillery support they mainly managed to maintain their positions throughout 12–13 April despite heavy onslaughts. 23rd NF held up the enemy on the De Seule–Neuve Eglise road, and 25th BF came up from reserve to help form a line facing north, but the whole battalion HQ staff of 22nd NF became casualties when it was hit by a single enemy shell.Late on 13 April 34th Division ordered them to continue in these positions, but the brigadiers on the spot disagreed, arguing that the pressure of four full German divisions was proving too much and a further stand would result in unnecessary casualties: 102nd and 88th Bdes were almost surrounded. They received permission to continue their preparations for withdrawal, and got away without interference. By now 102nd Bde was so reduced in numbers that it was taken out of the line and reorganised as a composite battalion under Lt\-Col H.S. Neaves with a strength of 462 all ranks, 34th MG Bn with 10 guns, and 90 men from the Motor Machine Gun Company. 102nd Composite Bn remained in support during the bitter fighting of 14–15 April. Although Bailleul fell, and 34th Division's weak brigades were once again in the front line on 16 April, in shallow trenches without any wire, the German attack out of the town was crushed by massed artillery and small\-arms fire. The fighting then died down on 34th Division's front, and on 21 April it was finally relieved by French troops.Blaxland, pp. 117–20\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 113, 140, 159–63, 173, 182–4, 189, 201–4, 235–7, 269, 292–5, 308–11, 322, 332, 365, 370; Sketches 14, 16, 18–25\.Shakespear, pp. 201–5, 218–9, 222, 225–8, 233–5, 240\.
|
[
"Active service\n--------------",
"34th Division went into reserve behind [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"III Corps (United Kingdom)\"). Parties of all arms were then sent into the line with [8th](/wiki/8th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29_in_the_First_World_War \"8th Division (United Kingdom) in the First World War\") and [23rd Divisions](/wiki/23rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"23rd Division (United Kingdom)\") to learn the routines of [Trench warfare](/wiki/Trench_warfare \"Trench warfare\"). On 24 February the division took over its own sector of the front line. 208th (Norfolk) Field Company, Royal Engineers (RE), was attached to 102nd Bde, but the REs remained in their places in the line while the infantry brigades were rotated between line holding and reserve.Shakespear, pp. 13–6\\.",
"The brigade was joined by its support troops in early 1916:Shakespear, p. 18\\.\n* 102nd Brigade Machine Gun (MG) Company – formed at [Grantham](/wiki/Grantham \"Grantham\"), disembarked at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\") on 26 April and joined next day\n* 102nd Trench Mortar Battery (TMB) – formed by 17 June from:\n\t+ A/102 TMB formed by 16 February, redesignated 102/1 TMB on 12 March\n\t+ 102/2 TMB formed by 1 June",
"The TMBs were manned by troops drawn from the infantry battalions.",
"On 7 April 34th Division was relieved in the line and went to the [Second Army](/wiki/Second_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Second Army (United Kingdom)\") training area behind St Omer. Early in May it proceeded by route march and train to [Albert](/wiki/Albert%2C_Somme \"Albert, Somme\") in the [Somme](/wiki/Somme_%28river%29 \"Somme (river)\") sector, where it rejoined III Corps, which had moved south to prepare for the forthcoming 'Big Push' (the [Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme \"Battle of the Somme\")).Shakespear, pp. 20–2\\.",
"### First day on the Somme",
"[thumb\\|right\\|34th Division's attack on Sausage Valley, 1 July 1916\\.](/wiki/File:Sausage_Valley_Somme_1_July_1916_map.jpg \"Sausage Valley Somme 1 July 1916 map.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|*A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle*, by [William Orpen](/wiki/William_Orpen \"William Orpen\").](/wiki/File:A_Grave_and_a_Mine_Crater_at_La_Boisselle%2C_August_1917_Art.IWMART2378.jpg \"A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle, August 1917 Art.IWMART2378.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Lochnagar Crater, present day.](/wiki/File:Lochnagar_Crater_Ovillers.JPG \"Lochnagar Crater Ovillers.JPG\")\nThe [First day on the Somme](/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme \"First day on the Somme\") was the first offensive operation for 34th Division. Attacking on the right of [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"III Corps (United Kingdom)\"), its objectives (recognised as being ambitious) were the [Capture of La Boisselle](/wiki/Capture_of_La_Boisselle \"Capture of La Boisselle\") situated on a spur, and then an advance of {{convert\\|3500\\|yd\\|m}} almost to [Contalmaison](/wiki/Contalmaison \"Contalmaison\"), crossing six successive trench lines. The bombardment began on 25 June but bad weather hindered artillery observation so the bombardment was extended by two days and the attack was postponed until 1 July. The battalions moved into their assembly trenches between 05\\.00 and 07\\.00 as the artillery began their final bombardment. The plan was for 34th Division to attack with 102nd Bde on the left, 101st on the right, each brigade forming two columns. 102nd Brigade's columns were led by the 21st NF south and 20th NF north of the La Boisselle [salient](/wiki/Salient_%28military%29 \"Salient (military)\"); a special force of '[bombers](/wiki/Grenade \"Grenade\")' from each battalion would turn inwards to clear the village itself. The attacking battalions were to be preceded by a [creeping barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29%23Moving_barrage \"Barrage (artillery)#Moving barrage\"). Each battalion was to advance in four waves, with special parties detailed to 'mop up' the captured trenches, and others to carry up supplies. This first line would be followed by the 22nd NF to the south and 23rd NF to the north. 103rd Brigade, starting from behind the British front line, would then pass through to capture the third objective. The infantry commanders had been dissatisfied with the results of the preliminary bombardment, so a special bombardment of La Boisselle village by [Stokes mortars](/wiki/Stokes_mortar \"Stokes mortar\") had been laid on, and other mortars laid a smoke screen on the village. Over preceding weeks [179th Tunnelling Company](/wiki/179th_Tunnelling_Company \"179th Tunnelling Company\"), RE, had placed huge [mines](/wiki/Tunnel_warfare%23World_War_I \"Tunnel warfare#World War I\") under the flanking defences of La Boiselle, the Schwabenhöhe or Schwaben redoubt to the south (the [Lochnagar mine](/wiki/Lochnagar_mine \"Lochnagar mine\")), and the 'Y Sap' mine to the north. These mines were fired 2 minutes before Zero, at 07\\.28, obliterating sections of the German defences and creating very large craters.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 371–6, Sketch 21\\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 120–1, 141\\.Shakespear, pp. 33–9\\.",
"At 07\\.30 the whole infantry of the division went 'over the top', the pipers of the Tyneside Scottish playing their men into action. The leading waves rose from their assembly trenches, the rear waves came down the Tara–Usna ridge behind. The However, the Germans were unsubdued by the bombardment or the mines, and came up from their deep dugouts as soon as the barrage moved off them. Their machine guns and rifles opened up before the British had got half way across the {{convert\\|200–800\\|yd\\|m}} of [No man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land \"No man's land\"). Within 10 minutes of Zero, 80 per cent of the leading British battalions were casualties. With the shortest distance to cross, 21st NF managed to overrun the trenches of the Schwabenhöhe and attempted to pass between La Boisselle and the Lochnagar crater, crossing two more trench lines. However, their right flank was exposed by the failure of 101st Bde's column attempting to advance up 'Sausage Valley'. In addition, the bombing parties made no progress into La Boisselle despite the trench mortar bombardment that had continued for 12 minutes beyond Zero. The defenders of the village were able to fire into the left flank of the column. Very heavy casualties were suffered here by 21st NF, by 22nd NF following, and then by the battalion of 103rd Bde. With the bombing party eliminated, and German reinforcements arriving, the group in the third line trench under Major Spencer Acklom of 21st NF were forced to withdraw to the second line and consolidated a position there by 08\\.00, with another party of men from 101st, 102nd and 103rd Bdes holding onto Lochnagar crater nearby. To the north of La Boisselle, along the side of 'Mash Valley', No man's land was much wider, and even less progress was made. Fired upon from La Boisselle and from [Ovillers](/wiki/Ovillers-la-Boisselle \"Ovillers-la-Boisselle\") in the other side of the valley, 21st and 23rd NF were practically wiped out, their casualties strewn across No man's land. Apart from a few individuals, this column fell back to its starting line. During the rest of the day Acklom's party held off six counter\\-attacks, and by 15\\.00 the signallers had established a telephone line back to 102nd Bde HQ, by which time Acklom had gathered seven officers and about 200 other ranks (ORs). After dark Acklom established communications with the Lochnagar crater party, and together they improved their position. During the night the remnants of 102nd Bde were joined by [19th (Western) Division](/wiki/19th_%28Western%29_Division \"19th (Western) Division\"), some of them making their way up the tunnel used to dig the Lochnagar mine. Next day, 2 July, 19th (W) Division continued the attack on La Boisselle while Acklom held the crater with his party and some machine guns from 102nd MG Co later joined by some trench mortars. He reported his position secure at the end of 2 July, but his strength was down to five officers and 150 ORs. On 3 July he was able to extend his line rightwards with a mixed party from various battalions while 19th (W) Division completed the capture of La Boisselle. 34th Division was relieved from the line by [23rd Division](/wiki/23rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"23rd Division (United Kingdom)\") during the night of 3/4 July.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 377, 381–4\\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, p. 124\\.Shakespear, pp. 39–41, 43–5, 48\\.",
"The 34th Division suffered more infantry casualties than any other division on 1 July 1916, with the Tyneside Scottish Brigade suffering the worst losses of any brigade (the Tyneside Irish Brigade had the next worst):Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, p. 391\\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 266–7, Appendix 3\\.Shakespear, p. 52\\.\n* 20th NF (1st Tyneside Scottish): 16 officers and 337 ORs killed, 10 officers and 268 ORs wounded; total 631\n* 21st NF (2nd Tyneside Scottish): 11 officers and 161 ORs killed, 10 officers and 296 ORs wounded; total 478\n* 22nd NF (3rd Tyneside Scottish): 7 officers and 198 ORs killed, 1 officer missing, 14 officers and 319 ORs wounded; total 539\n* 23rd NF (4th Tyneside Scottish): 9 officers and 178 ORs killed, 2 officers missing, 7 officers and 444 ORs wounded; total 640\n* 102nd MG Co: 1 officer and 6 ORs killed, 5 officers and 24 ORs wounded; total 36",
"Lieutenant\\-Col Elphinstone and all the battalion commanders (or acting commanders) of the brigade were among the dead. The 4th Tyneside Scottish had suffered the third\\-heaviest casualties of any battalion engaged on 1 July.Middlebrook, *Somme*, Appendices 3 \\& 5\\.",
"When the Tyneside Scottish were first raised a request to wear [kilts](/wiki/Kilt \"Kilt\") had been refused, though they did wear a [Glengarry](/wiki/Glengarry \"Glengarry\") bonnet in place of the normal [Peaked cap](/wiki/Peaked_cap \"Peaked cap\"). After La Boisselle they were granted the right to wear a 3\\-inch tartan patch as a backing to their cap badge. One Geordie remarked, 'Man, we'll have to fight a hell of a lot of battles before we get our kilts'.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 13, 256\\.",
"The casualties among 102nd and 103rd Bdes were so severe that on 6 July they were exchanged for two fresh brigades from [37th Division](/wiki/37th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"37th Division (United Kingdom)\") so that 34th Division could continue the offensive. 102nd and 103rd Brigades were temporarily amalgamated under the command of Brig\\-Gen Ternan and held the quiet line opposite [Monchy\\-au\\-Bois](/wiki/Monchy-au-Bois \"Monchy-au-Bois\") and then the more active [Vimy Ridge](/wiki/Vimy_Ridge \"Vimy Ridge\") sector while being reinforced.Shakespear, pp. 54–6, 72\\.",
"On 15 August 34th Division left the Somme and marched north to the [Armentières](/wiki/Armenti%C3%A8res \"Armentières\") sector, where it was rejoined on 22 August by 102nd Bde. It spent the rest of the year routinely holding the line at [Bois\\-Grenier](/wiki/Bois-Grenier \"Bois-Grenier\"), with regular [trench raids](/wiki/Trench_raiding \"Trench raiding\").Shakespear, pp. 72, 75, 80–4\\.",
"### Arras",
"On 26 January 1917 the division was suddenly rushed from Armentières to go into reserve at [Méteren](/wiki/M%C3%A9teren \"Méteren\") in case the Germans attacked over the now\\-frozen marshes north of [Boezinge](/wiki/Boezinge \"Boezinge\"). This did not happen, but the division underwent three weeks' training there for the forthcoming offensive before moving to the [Arras](/wiki/Arras \"Arras\") sector to continue preparations. The [First Battle of the Scarpe](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Scarpe \"First Battle of the Scarpe\") launched the [Arras Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 \"Battle of Arras (1917)\") at 05\\.30 on 9 April. 34th Division was to assault three successive lines of German trenches, designated the Black, Blue and Brown lines, the Black being {{convert\\|80–150\\|yd\\|m}} in front of the start line, the Brown about {{convert\\|500–600\\|yd\\|m}} away. The attack by 102nd Bde went well: the defenders were shattered by the barrage (including an overhead machine gun barrage) and most of the survivors wee eager to surrender. 21st and 22nd NF captured the Blue Line on schedule and the advance was continued by 20th NF on the right and 23rd NF on the left. However, the failure of 103rd Bde meant that 24th NF's flank was 'in the air', and the battalion was delayed cutting through [barbed wire](/wiki/Wire_obstacle \"Wire obstacle\") and lost the protection of the creeping barrage. It had a stiff fight for the German support line, taking it by short rushes and losing 165 men in the process. Both 20th and 23rd NF had to dig in a little short of the final objective (the Green Line). Conditions on the bare uplands were bad, and there were deaths from exposure during the night. Next day 103rd Bde was still held up but 102nd Bde occupied the Green Line without difficulty. As the brigade secured its position over the following days amidst snowstorms it was subjected to heavy shelling. Large numbers of men also had to be evacuated sick because of the bad weather. 102nd Brigade moved back to billets on the night of 14/15 April.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 231–3, 254–5, Sketch 10\\.Shakespear, pp. 87–8, 95–9 102–9\\.",
"Brigadier\\-Gen Ternan gave up the command of 102nd Bde and was replaced on 22 April 1917 by the younger Brig\\-Gen N.H.T. Thomson from the [Seaforth Highlanders](/wiki/Seaforth_Highlanders \"Seaforth Highlanders\"). The brigade returned to the line while the [Second Battle of the Scarpe](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Scarpe \"Second Battle of the Scarpe\") was being fought. The battalions were still weak after the recent fighting, and many of the replacements were poorly trained. On 25 April 34th Division relieved [51st (Highland) Division](/wiki/51st_%28Highland%29_Division \"51st (Highland) Division\") in the line, with orders to attack on 28 April ([Battle of Arleux](/wiki/Battle_of_Arleux \"Battle of Arleux\")). For this operation 102nd Bfde was in divisional reserve, but loaned 20th NF to 101st Bde, which was tasked with attacking the village of [Rœux](/wiki/R%C5%93ux \"Rœux\"). The assault was delivered at 04\\.25, and 20th NF took over the British front line once 101st Bde had gone forward. THe attack went badly and by nightfall 101st Bde – including 20th NF – had only 25 officers and 790 men left in the line. [XVII Corps](/wiki/XVII_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"XVII Corps (United Kingdom)\") and 34th Division decided to make a surprise attack that night with 102nd Bde in an attempt to capture the chemical works at Rœux. 22nd NF would jump off from 103rd Bde's positions in Cawdor Trench and 23rd NF from 101st Bde's Corona Trench. No reconnaissance was possible, and 23rd NF could not get through the crowded communication trenches into position until an hour after the planned Zero hour, Unfortunately, orders to 22nd NF to delay the attack did not reach the battalion in time, and it jumped off as planned at 03\\.00, quickly ejecting the enemy from Calabar Trench. However, the battalion could make no further progress because the ground ahead was under machine gun fire from three side. 23rd NF, fatigued from its march, attacked at 04\\.00 up Corona trench, but was also stopped by machine gun fire. 34th Division was now so exhausted that it had to be relieved on 30 April/1 May.Falls, *1917*, Vol I, pp. 414–6, Sketch 19\\.Shakespear, pp. 111–23\\.",
"### Greenland Hill and Hargicourt",
"34th Division spent the rest of May resting and training, with 102nd Bde round [Fienvillers](/wiki/Fienvillers \"Fienvillers\"). Reinforcements were scarce: consequently battalions of 34th Division were temporarily reduced from four to three companies. 34th Division went back into the line on 30 May, with 102nd Bde in divisional reserve. 102nd Brigade relieved 101st on 4/5 June and carried out an attack to capture some trenches on the slope of Greenland Hill. Although small\\-scale, this attack was supported by 164 field guns, numerous heavy guns, all three of the division's MG companies and all three TMBs. The assault was made with 20th NF, 21st NF and 22nd NF in line, with 23rd NF in support. Each assaulting battalion had all three companies in line, each in four waves. The first two waves were to capture and mop up the first objective ('Curly' and 'Charlie' trenches), the third and fourth to pass through and take the second objective ('Cod' and 'Cuthbert' trenches). 10th [Lincolnshire Regiment](/wiki/Lincolnshire_Regiment \"Lincolnshire Regiment\") from 101st Bde would provide carrying parties, and 103rd Bde would dig a new trench to link up the second objective with the existing front line. Zero was at 20\\.00, and the barrage crashed down on Curly and Charlie trenches for four minutes and when it lifted the stormers were immediately into the trenches. There was stubborn close\\-quarters fighting in a few places, but the first objective was cleared with the exception of a small part of 20th NF's area. The third and fourth waves quickly disengaged from the fighting and went on to the second objective close behind the barrage, and established themselves by midnight. At 22\\.00 the 18th NF (the divisional [pioneer battalion](/wiki/Pioneer_%28military%29 \"Pioneer (military)\")) was already digging a communication trench across the old No man's land while the Lincolns carried up supplies and 208th Field Co, RE, helped to form strongpoints in the new front line. The enemy kept up a heavy barrage all night and made several bombing attacks but these were driven off by rifle grenades and rifle fire. The last German outpost in Curly trench was captured by 20th NF at 14\\.00 next day, supported by trench mortars, but the battalion still had to call down artillery fire to break up an enemy counter\\-attack that evening. After 55 hours' combat, 102nd Bde was relieved on 8 June.Shakespear, pp. 123–32\\.\n[thumb\\|right\\|*The Church, Péronne*, by [William Orpen](/wiki/William_Orpen \"William Orpen\"), depicting the destruction carried out by German troops as they retreated to the Hindenburg Line in 1917\\.](/wiki/File:The_Church%2C_Peronne_Art.IWMART3034.jpg \"The Church, Peronne Art.IWMART3034.jpg\")\n34th Division spent the rest of June refitting and training the replacements it received, but these were not enough to replace all the losses. Then between 8 and 10 July the division moved to [Péronne](/wiki/P%C3%A9ronne%2C_Somme \"Péronne, Somme\"), with 102nd Bde moving into the [Hargicourt](/wiki/Hargicourt%2C_Somme \"Hargicourt, Somme\") sector. The area had been devastated by the Germans before they retreated to the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line \"Hindenburg Line\") earlier in the year, and much labour was required to repair roads and erect huts to replace the destroyed buildings. The front line consisted of a chain of posts rather than continuous trenches, and No man's land was unusually wide. At first the TMBs could not reach across No man's land, but they used some captured German [7\\.7 cm guns](/wiki/7.7_cm_FK_96_n.A. \"7.7 cm FK 96 n.A.\") instead. Earl on 26 August, 101st Bde carried out a small attack assisted by 20th and 23rd NF from 102nd Bde and two mortars of 102nd TMB. It was a minor operation planned in great detail, one of a number of such attacks being carried out as diversions from that summer's main [Ypres Offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele \"Battle of Passchendaele\"). The objectives were 'Malakoff Farm' and the adjoining trench system on Cologne Ridge in front of Hargicourt, about {{convert\\|2000\\|yd\\|m}} in front of the Hindenburg Line proper. The capture of these positions would reduce German observation over British positions. The attack was carefully rehearsed behind the lines where turf had been cut to represent the enemy trenches. 101st Brigade put all its battalions into the line, with 20th NF in reserve behind a railway embankment, while 23rd NF would send a company bombing up 'Rifle Pit Trench' to link up with the outer flank. Each of 101st Bde's four battalions was also loaned a company from 102nd Bde as a carrying party. The barrage came down at 04\\.30 on 26 August and lifted after four minutes then began to creep towards the enemy front line, followed by the infantry. 101st Brigade pushed through Malakoff Farm and the bombers of 23rd NF had no difficulty linking up with them. However, the following night 103rd Bde failed to complete the capture of the high ground of Cologne Ridge in front Fire directed from this position made the Hargicourt valley dangerous, so 102nd Bde carried out another small formal attack to complete its capture on 9–11 September. It had been taken out of the line to rehearse for this attack, returning on 7 September. Preparations on 8 September were hampered by enemy artillery fire but promptly at 23\\.45 21st and 23rd NF were formed up on their jumping off tapes in No man's land, about {{convert\\|350\\|yd\\|m}} from the German trenches. Each battalion had two companies in the front line, each in four waves, the first to cross the first trench ('Farm' trench) and form a screen the other side, the second to mop up, and the third and fourth to consolidate. The other two companies were to carry up barbed wire and string it across the whole front, even if fighting was still going on in the trench. The guns opened up at 00\\.15 and the assaulting waves followed the creeping barrage. The right company of 21st NF lost direction in the mist, but the rest of the attack went well, the enemy fleeing. Brigadier\\-Gen Thomson then ordered 21st NF to bomb their way forward to join up with the new position, which was consolidated by 22nd NF, 20th Fd Co and the pioneers of 18th NF. German retaliatory fire was heavy, but the position was held. 21st NF attempted to expand their position that afternoon, but the Germans counter\\-attacked at the same time, and a confused fight ensued under bombardment by both sides. 102nd Brigade completed the capture of the last lengths of trench on 11 September, then handed a secure position over to 101st Bde and went back into divisional reserve. The brigades total casualties were 290 officers and 374 ORs, mostly caused by shellfire after the assault. 34th Division remained in this sector until the end of the month but there were only patrol actions and raids.Shakespear, pp. 133–51\\.",
"### Ypres",
"Many of the reinforcements received at the end of September had minimal training, and it was claimed that some of them had never fired their rifles. 34th Division was now transferred north to the [Ypres Salient](/wiki/Ypres_Salient \"Ypres Salient\") where the offensive was continuing. After arriving on 9 October the division was employed to repair roads so that the advance could continue. 103rd Brigade took over part of the line across the Broembeek valley on 12 October, and was relieved by 102nd Bde on the night of 16/17 October. The troops were now existing in wrecked farms and captured [pillboxes](/wiki/Pillbox_%28military%29 \"Pillbox (military)\") linked by [duckboard](/wiki/Boardwalk%23Duckboards \"Boardwalk#Duckboards\") tracks amidst a sea of flooded shellholes. On 19 October 101st Bde relieved the battalions of 102nd Bde in the front line and carried out a preliminary advance (the '[Action of 22 October 1917](/wiki/Action_of_22_October_1917 \"Action of 22 October 1917\")') north of [Poelcapelle](/wiki/Poelcapelle \"Poelcapelle\") to protect the left flank of the projected main attack. A company of 20th NF held the line on the right of 101st Bde, standing fast and keeping the enemy under fire. To its right 102nd Bde attacked with 24th/27th NF borrowed from 103rd Bde. Two companies of 24th/27th NF stood fast, the other two pivoted, to keep touch with [18th (Eastern) Division](/wiki/18th_%28Eastern%29_Division \"18th (Eastern) Division\")'s attack further right. Unlike, 101st Bde, which suffered badly, 102nd Bde's small operation went well, 24th/27th NF taking all its objectives, including a farm that had been overlooked by 18th (E) Division. The division was withdrawn on 24 October.Shakespear, pp. 152–9, 164\\.",
"### Winter 1917–18",
"34th Division spent three months in a quieter sector to the south, then went into reserve in February 1918\\. By the beginning of 1918 the BEF was suffering a manpower crisis. Brigades were reduced from four to three battalions each, and the remainder were broken up to provide reinforcements for the others. In 34th Division the Tyneside Scottish and Tyneside Irish battalions were amalgamated to form a single 102nd Bde. The 1st and 2nd Tyneside Scottish were disbanded on 3 February and replaced by the 2nd Tyneside Irish from 103rd Bde. At the same time the brigade MG companies were concentrated into a divisional MG battalion. The composition of 102nd Bde therefore was:Shakespear, pp. 168–9\\.\n* 22nd NF (3rd Tyneside Scottish)\n* 23rd NF (4th Tyneside Scottish)\n* 25th NF (2nd Tyneside Irish)\n* 102nd TMB",
"### German spring offensive",
"34th Division returned to the Arras sector in March 1918\\. The Germans were soon to launch their [Spring offensive](/wiki/German_spring_offensive \"German spring offensive\"), and their plans in the Arras area were quite well known. The offensive began at 04\\.15 on 21 March with a massive bombardment, mainly on 102nd Bde on the division's right and the adjacent [59th (2nd North Midland) Division](/wiki/59th_%282nd_North_Midland%29_Division \"59th (2nd North Midland) Division\"). The shelling cut telephone lines to the front line battalions and mist shrouded the enemy advance. About 10\\.00 the enemy broke through 59th (2nd NM) Division's left brigade, forcing back the adjacent company of 22nd NF, which had practised this manoeuvre and sent up signal rockets to inform the artillery that this had been done. A company of 25th NF was sent down from brigade reserve to help form a defensive flank, but the enemy advance was too fast. By noon the whole of 25th NF was trying to form a line facing south; about 14\\.00 A and B Companies and stragglers from other battalions were lining the railway embankment. However, the rest of the brigade was still in the front line, and Germans moving north were behind the battalion' HQs in a railway cutting in the support line ('Bunhill Row'). A signal party trying to restore communications to the HQs was briefly captured, but got away to warn them. The battalion HQs burned their papers and prepared for all\\-round defence with C Company of 34th MG Bn. At 17\\.00 Lt\\-Col Acklom was killed trying to break out with the HQ party of 22nd NF. The position being hopeless, and surrounded by wounded and gassed men, the other two battalion. commanders surrendered at 17\\.30, having prevented the Germans from rolling up the support line for hours. The companies in the front trench had fallen back slowly, using each communication trench in turn as a defence line (as 34th Division had planned). Finally a frontal attack on the original front line turned these positions, driving them back until the remnants of 22nd and 23rd NF formed a trench block in the support line at 'Queen's Lane'. This held up the advance for some time with rifle and [Lewis gun](/wiki/Lewis_gun \"Lewis gun\") fire, then about 15\\.30 they were pushed back until they joined up with the defensive flank formed by 101st Bde along 'Factory Avenue', where the companies of 25th NF had gathered. That night the survivors of 102nd Bde, together with a company of the 18th BF (Pioneers) and J Special Company, RE, were formed into a 500\\-strong composite battalion under the command of Maj H.S. Neaves, holding the line between the other two brigades. Brigadier\\-Gen Thomson established 102nd Bde HQ in the [Sensée](/wiki/Sens%C3%A9e \"Sensée\") valley behind [St Léger](/wiki/Saint-L%C3%A9ger%2C_Pas-de-Calais \"Saint-Léger, Pas-de-Calais\").Blaxland, pp. 48–9\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol I, pp. 133, 236–7, 228, 239–40, 253, 315–.Middlebrook, *Kaiser's Battle*, pp. 234–7, 402\\.Shakespear, pp. 171–84, 190–1\\.",
"The following morning also dawned with mist, covering the German advance, which after a whoile succeeded in penetrating between 101st and 102nd Bdes, the 25th NF losing a few men surrounded and captured. 101st Brigade was forced back by heavy artillery fire, opening a wide gap that the 102nd Bde battalion was too small to fill, even with reinforcement from the pioneers of 18th NF and 207th and 209th Field Companies, RE. The enemy kept probing behind its flank, but at 13\\.30 three companies of 1st [East Lancashire Regiment](/wiki/East_Lancashire_Regiment \"East Lancashire Regiment\") arrived from 103rd Bde. Together they held their own front in the 'Third System' trenches behind Henin Hill, but their left flank was forced further and further back as the enemy pushed through towards St Léger. Another group of men from 22nd and 23rd NF assisted 101st Bde on the other side of this salient. Late in the day [31st Division](/wiki/31st_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"31st Division (United Kingdom)\") arrived to relieve 34th Division, which withdrew to the rear areas.Blaxland, p. 59\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol I, pp. 315–9, 324\\.Shakespear, pp. 192–9\\.",
"### Battle of the Lys",
"34th Division was moved north to a quieter area to recuperate, occupying a line in the [Houplines](/wiki/Houplines \"Houplines\") sector, in front of Armentières under [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"First Army (United Kingdom)\"). The exhausted battalions had to absorb inexperienced reinforcements and improve the neglected defences. Unfortunately, this was the sector chosen for the next phase of the German spring offensive (the [Battle of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Lys (1918)\")). It began with heavy [mustard gas](/wiki/Mustard_gas \"Mustard gas\") shelling of Armentières on 7/8 April, the gas drifting across the rear areas of the defences; 34th Division had over 900 gas casualties, mainly among 102nd Bde, the pioneers of 18th NF and [sappers](/wiki/Sapper \"Sapper\") of 207th Fd Co, RE. On 8 April the brigade was reinforced by two companies from 15th [Royal Scots](/wiki/Royal_Scots \"Royal Scots\") with 101st Bde in reserve. The bombardment began at 04\\.00 on 9 April, but the attack did not at first affected 34th Division's front, being concentrated against its neighbours to the south, where it broke through [40th Division](/wiki/40th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"40th Division (United Kingdom)\"). Once again, the division was forced to form a defensive flank to the south, while 102nd Bde remained defending Armentières, with Brigade HQ in an old jute factory by the railway line. That night Houplines was heavily bombarded, but 102nd Bde was not attacked. However, the following afternoon it had to evacuate the town, which was now in a dangerous salient following the breakthrough to the south. The orders arrived at 11\\.45 and 102nd Bde got away without difficulty, crossing the [River Lys](/wiki/Lys_%28river%29 \"Lys (river)\") by 18\\.30\\. After the bridges had been destroyed behind them, the troops of 102nd Bde took up position along the north bank of the river with B Company 34th MG Bn, linking up with [Second Army](/wiki/Second_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Second Army (United Kingdom)\") to the north. However, 34th Division was still in a narrow salient around [Nieppe](/wiki/Nieppe \"Nieppe\"), packed with troops from First and Second Armies, and no rations arrived that night. 102nd Brigade's position, supported by several companies of 34th MG Bn, formed the apex of the salient and came under attack at 05\\.30 on 11 April. The Germans made no attempt to attack the flanks of the salient, so this attack was probably only intended to pin 34th Division in its vulnerable position. A party penetrated into the houses at Pont\\-de\\-Nieppe, and when they began expanding outwards 102nd Bde fell back to the Nieppe Switch line, almost all of the rearguard, C Company, 22nd NF, and several MG teams being killed or captured. At 16\\.30 orders arrived for 34th Division to fall back up the [Bailleul](/wiki/Bailleul%2C_Nord \"Bailleul, Nord\") road towards [Steenwerck](/wiki/Steenwerck \"Steenwerck\"). The brigadiers agreed to begin at 19\\.30, and by 01\\.00 on 12 April 102nd Bde and [88th Bde](/wiki/88th_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"88th Brigade (United Kingdom)\") of [29th Division](/wiki/29th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"29th Division (United Kingdom)\") were holding a W\\-shaped front from Steenwerck station to Pont d'Achelles, with RE companies filling the gaps. 34th Division HQ now had six brigades under its command, and with good artillery support they mainly managed to maintain their positions throughout 12–13 April despite heavy onslaughts. 23rd NF held up the enemy on the De Seule–Neuve Eglise road, and 25th BF came up from reserve to help form a line facing north, but the whole battalion HQ staff of 22nd NF became casualties when it was hit by a single enemy shell.Late on 13 April 34th Division ordered them to continue in these positions, but the brigadiers on the spot disagreed, arguing that the pressure of four full German divisions was proving too much and a further stand would result in unnecessary casualties: 102nd and 88th Bdes were almost surrounded. They received permission to continue their preparations for withdrawal, and got away without interference. By now 102nd Bde was so reduced in numbers that it was taken out of the line and reorganised as a composite battalion under Lt\\-Col H.S. Neaves with a strength of 462 all ranks, 34th MG Bn with 10 guns, and 90 men from the Motor Machine Gun Company. 102nd Composite Bn remained in support during the bitter fighting of 14–15 April. Although Bailleul fell, and 34th Division's weak brigades were once again in the front line on 16 April, in shallow trenches without any wire, the German attack out of the town was crushed by massed artillery and small\\-arms fire. The fighting then died down on 34th Division's front, and on 21 April it was finally relieved by French troops.Blaxland, pp. 117–20\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 113, 140, 159–63, 173, 182–4, 189, 201–4, 235–7, 269, 292–5, 308–11, 322, 332, 365, 370; Sketches 14, 16, 18–25\\.Shakespear, pp. 201–5, 218–9, 222, 225–8, 233–5, 240\\.",
""
] |
### First day on the Somme
[thumb\|right\|34th Division's attack on Sausage Valley, 1 July 1916\.](/wiki/File:Sausage_Valley_Somme_1_July_1916_map.jpg "Sausage Valley Somme 1 July 1916 map.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|*A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle*, by [William Orpen](/wiki/William_Orpen "William Orpen").](/wiki/File:A_Grave_and_a_Mine_Crater_at_La_Boisselle%2C_August_1917_Art.IWMART2378.jpg "A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle, August 1917 Art.IWMART2378.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|Lochnagar Crater, present day.](/wiki/File:Lochnagar_Crater_Ovillers.JPG "Lochnagar Crater Ovillers.JPG")
The [First day on the Somme](/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme "First day on the Somme") was the first offensive operation for 34th Division. Attacking on the right of [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 "III Corps (United Kingdom)"), its objectives (recognised as being ambitious) were the [Capture of La Boisselle](/wiki/Capture_of_La_Boisselle "Capture of La Boisselle") situated on a spur, and then an advance of {{convert\|3500\|yd\|m}} almost to [Contalmaison](/wiki/Contalmaison "Contalmaison"), crossing six successive trench lines. The bombardment began on 25 June but bad weather hindered artillery observation so the bombardment was extended by two days and the attack was postponed until 1 July. The battalions moved into their assembly trenches between 05\.00 and 07\.00 as the artillery began their final bombardment. The plan was for 34th Division to attack with 102nd Bde on the left, 101st on the right, each brigade forming two columns. 102nd Brigade's columns were led by the 21st NF south and 20th NF north of the La Boisselle [salient](/wiki/Salient_%28military%29 "Salient (military)"); a special force of '[bombers](/wiki/Grenade "Grenade")' from each battalion would turn inwards to clear the village itself. The attacking battalions were to be preceded by a [creeping barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29%23Moving_barrage "Barrage (artillery)#Moving barrage"). Each battalion was to advance in four waves, with special parties detailed to 'mop up' the captured trenches, and others to carry up supplies. This first line would be followed by the 22nd NF to the south and 23rd NF to the north. 103rd Brigade, starting from behind the British front line, would then pass through to capture the third objective. The infantry commanders had been dissatisfied with the results of the preliminary bombardment, so a special bombardment of La Boisselle village by [Stokes mortars](/wiki/Stokes_mortar "Stokes mortar") had been laid on, and other mortars laid a smoke screen on the village. Over preceding weeks [179th Tunnelling Company](/wiki/179th_Tunnelling_Company "179th Tunnelling Company"), RE, had placed huge [mines](/wiki/Tunnel_warfare%23World_War_I "Tunnel warfare#World War I") under the flanking defences of La Boiselle, the Schwabenhöhe or Schwaben redoubt to the south (the [Lochnagar mine](/wiki/Lochnagar_mine "Lochnagar mine")), and the 'Y Sap' mine to the north. These mines were fired 2 minutes before Zero, at 07\.28, obliterating sections of the German defences and creating very large craters.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 371–6, Sketch 21\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 120–1, 141\.Shakespear, pp. 33–9\.
At 07\.30 the whole infantry of the division went 'over the top', the pipers of the Tyneside Scottish playing their men into action. The leading waves rose from their assembly trenches, the rear waves came down the Tara–Usna ridge behind. The However, the Germans were unsubdued by the bombardment or the mines, and came up from their deep dugouts as soon as the barrage moved off them. Their machine guns and rifles opened up before the British had got half way across the {{convert\|200–800\|yd\|m}} of [No man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land "No man's land"). Within 10 minutes of Zero, 80 per cent of the leading British battalions were casualties. With the shortest distance to cross, 21st NF managed to overrun the trenches of the Schwabenhöhe and attempted to pass between La Boisselle and the Lochnagar crater, crossing two more trench lines. However, their right flank was exposed by the failure of 101st Bde's column attempting to advance up 'Sausage Valley'. In addition, the bombing parties made no progress into La Boisselle despite the trench mortar bombardment that had continued for 12 minutes beyond Zero. The defenders of the village were able to fire into the left flank of the column. Very heavy casualties were suffered here by 21st NF, by 22nd NF following, and then by the battalion of 103rd Bde. With the bombing party eliminated, and German reinforcements arriving, the group in the third line trench under Major Spencer Acklom of 21st NF were forced to withdraw to the second line and consolidated a position there by 08\.00, with another party of men from 101st, 102nd and 103rd Bdes holding onto Lochnagar crater nearby. To the north of La Boisselle, along the side of 'Mash Valley', No man's land was much wider, and even less progress was made. Fired upon from La Boisselle and from [Ovillers](/wiki/Ovillers-la-Boisselle "Ovillers-la-Boisselle") in the other side of the valley, 21st and 23rd NF were practically wiped out, their casualties strewn across No man's land. Apart from a few individuals, this column fell back to its starting line. During the rest of the day Acklom's party held off six counter\-attacks, and by 15\.00 the signallers had established a telephone line back to 102nd Bde HQ, by which time Acklom had gathered seven officers and about 200 other ranks (ORs). After dark Acklom established communications with the Lochnagar crater party, and together they improved their position. During the night the remnants of 102nd Bde were joined by [19th (Western) Division](/wiki/19th_%28Western%29_Division "19th (Western) Division"), some of them making their way up the tunnel used to dig the Lochnagar mine. Next day, 2 July, 19th (W) Division continued the attack on La Boisselle while Acklom held the crater with his party and some machine guns from 102nd MG Co later joined by some trench mortars. He reported his position secure at the end of 2 July, but his strength was down to five officers and 150 ORs. On 3 July he was able to extend his line rightwards with a mixed party from various battalions while 19th (W) Division completed the capture of La Boisselle. 34th Division was relieved from the line by [23rd Division](/wiki/23rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "23rd Division (United Kingdom)") during the night of 3/4 July.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 377, 381–4\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, p. 124\.Shakespear, pp. 39–41, 43–5, 48\.
The 34th Division suffered more infantry casualties than any other division on 1 July 1916, with the Tyneside Scottish Brigade suffering the worst losses of any brigade (the Tyneside Irish Brigade had the next worst):Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, p. 391\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 266–7, Appendix 3\.Shakespear, p. 52\.
* 20th NF (1st Tyneside Scottish): 16 officers and 337 ORs killed, 10 officers and 268 ORs wounded; total 631
* 21st NF (2nd Tyneside Scottish): 11 officers and 161 ORs killed, 10 officers and 296 ORs wounded; total 478
* 22nd NF (3rd Tyneside Scottish): 7 officers and 198 ORs killed, 1 officer missing, 14 officers and 319 ORs wounded; total 539
* 23rd NF (4th Tyneside Scottish): 9 officers and 178 ORs killed, 2 officers missing, 7 officers and 444 ORs wounded; total 640
* 102nd MG Co: 1 officer and 6 ORs killed, 5 officers and 24 ORs wounded; total 36
Lieutenant\-Col Elphinstone and all the battalion commanders (or acting commanders) of the brigade were among the dead. The 4th Tyneside Scottish had suffered the third\-heaviest casualties of any battalion engaged on 1 July.Middlebrook, *Somme*, Appendices 3 \& 5\.
When the Tyneside Scottish were first raised a request to wear [kilts](/wiki/Kilt "Kilt") had been refused, though they did wear a [Glengarry](/wiki/Glengarry "Glengarry") bonnet in place of the normal [Peaked cap](/wiki/Peaked_cap "Peaked cap"). After La Boisselle they were granted the right to wear a 3\-inch tartan patch as a backing to their cap badge. One Geordie remarked, 'Man, we'll have to fight a hell of a lot of battles before we get our kilts'.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 13, 256\.
The casualties among 102nd and 103rd Bdes were so severe that on 6 July they were exchanged for two fresh brigades from [37th Division](/wiki/37th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "37th Division (United Kingdom)") so that 34th Division could continue the offensive. 102nd and 103rd Brigades were temporarily amalgamated under the command of Brig\-Gen Ternan and held the quiet line opposite [Monchy\-au\-Bois](/wiki/Monchy-au-Bois "Monchy-au-Bois") and then the more active [Vimy Ridge](/wiki/Vimy_Ridge "Vimy Ridge") sector while being reinforced.Shakespear, pp. 54–6, 72\.
On 15 August 34th Division left the Somme and marched north to the [Armentières](/wiki/Armenti%C3%A8res "Armentières") sector, where it was rejoined on 22 August by 102nd Bde. It spent the rest of the year routinely holding the line at [Bois\-Grenier](/wiki/Bois-Grenier "Bois-Grenier"), with regular [trench raids](/wiki/Trench_raiding "Trench raiding").Shakespear, pp. 72, 75, 80–4\.
|
[
"### First day on the Somme",
"[thumb\\|right\\|34th Division's attack on Sausage Valley, 1 July 1916\\.](/wiki/File:Sausage_Valley_Somme_1_July_1916_map.jpg \"Sausage Valley Somme 1 July 1916 map.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|*A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle*, by [William Orpen](/wiki/William_Orpen \"William Orpen\").](/wiki/File:A_Grave_and_a_Mine_Crater_at_La_Boisselle%2C_August_1917_Art.IWMART2378.jpg \"A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle, August 1917 Art.IWMART2378.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Lochnagar Crater, present day.](/wiki/File:Lochnagar_Crater_Ovillers.JPG \"Lochnagar Crater Ovillers.JPG\")\nThe [First day on the Somme](/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme \"First day on the Somme\") was the first offensive operation for 34th Division. Attacking on the right of [III Corps](/wiki/III_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"III Corps (United Kingdom)\"), its objectives (recognised as being ambitious) were the [Capture of La Boisselle](/wiki/Capture_of_La_Boisselle \"Capture of La Boisselle\") situated on a spur, and then an advance of {{convert\\|3500\\|yd\\|m}} almost to [Contalmaison](/wiki/Contalmaison \"Contalmaison\"), crossing six successive trench lines. The bombardment began on 25 June but bad weather hindered artillery observation so the bombardment was extended by two days and the attack was postponed until 1 July. The battalions moved into their assembly trenches between 05\\.00 and 07\\.00 as the artillery began their final bombardment. The plan was for 34th Division to attack with 102nd Bde on the left, 101st on the right, each brigade forming two columns. 102nd Brigade's columns were led by the 21st NF south and 20th NF north of the La Boisselle [salient](/wiki/Salient_%28military%29 \"Salient (military)\"); a special force of '[bombers](/wiki/Grenade \"Grenade\")' from each battalion would turn inwards to clear the village itself. The attacking battalions were to be preceded by a [creeping barrage](/wiki/Barrage_%28artillery%29%23Moving_barrage \"Barrage (artillery)#Moving barrage\"). Each battalion was to advance in four waves, with special parties detailed to 'mop up' the captured trenches, and others to carry up supplies. This first line would be followed by the 22nd NF to the south and 23rd NF to the north. 103rd Brigade, starting from behind the British front line, would then pass through to capture the third objective. The infantry commanders had been dissatisfied with the results of the preliminary bombardment, so a special bombardment of La Boisselle village by [Stokes mortars](/wiki/Stokes_mortar \"Stokes mortar\") had been laid on, and other mortars laid a smoke screen on the village. Over preceding weeks [179th Tunnelling Company](/wiki/179th_Tunnelling_Company \"179th Tunnelling Company\"), RE, had placed huge [mines](/wiki/Tunnel_warfare%23World_War_I \"Tunnel warfare#World War I\") under the flanking defences of La Boiselle, the Schwabenhöhe or Schwaben redoubt to the south (the [Lochnagar mine](/wiki/Lochnagar_mine \"Lochnagar mine\")), and the 'Y Sap' mine to the north. These mines were fired 2 minutes before Zero, at 07\\.28, obliterating sections of the German defences and creating very large craters.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 371–6, Sketch 21\\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 120–1, 141\\.Shakespear, pp. 33–9\\.",
"At 07\\.30 the whole infantry of the division went 'over the top', the pipers of the Tyneside Scottish playing their men into action. The leading waves rose from their assembly trenches, the rear waves came down the Tara–Usna ridge behind. The However, the Germans were unsubdued by the bombardment or the mines, and came up from their deep dugouts as soon as the barrage moved off them. Their machine guns and rifles opened up before the British had got half way across the {{convert\\|200–800\\|yd\\|m}} of [No man's land](/wiki/No_man%27s_land \"No man's land\"). Within 10 minutes of Zero, 80 per cent of the leading British battalions were casualties. With the shortest distance to cross, 21st NF managed to overrun the trenches of the Schwabenhöhe and attempted to pass between La Boisselle and the Lochnagar crater, crossing two more trench lines. However, their right flank was exposed by the failure of 101st Bde's column attempting to advance up 'Sausage Valley'. In addition, the bombing parties made no progress into La Boisselle despite the trench mortar bombardment that had continued for 12 minutes beyond Zero. The defenders of the village were able to fire into the left flank of the column. Very heavy casualties were suffered here by 21st NF, by 22nd NF following, and then by the battalion of 103rd Bde. With the bombing party eliminated, and German reinforcements arriving, the group in the third line trench under Major Spencer Acklom of 21st NF were forced to withdraw to the second line and consolidated a position there by 08\\.00, with another party of men from 101st, 102nd and 103rd Bdes holding onto Lochnagar crater nearby. To the north of La Boisselle, along the side of 'Mash Valley', No man's land was much wider, and even less progress was made. Fired upon from La Boisselle and from [Ovillers](/wiki/Ovillers-la-Boisselle \"Ovillers-la-Boisselle\") in the other side of the valley, 21st and 23rd NF were practically wiped out, their casualties strewn across No man's land. Apart from a few individuals, this column fell back to its starting line. During the rest of the day Acklom's party held off six counter\\-attacks, and by 15\\.00 the signallers had established a telephone line back to 102nd Bde HQ, by which time Acklom had gathered seven officers and about 200 other ranks (ORs). After dark Acklom established communications with the Lochnagar crater party, and together they improved their position. During the night the remnants of 102nd Bde were joined by [19th (Western) Division](/wiki/19th_%28Western%29_Division \"19th (Western) Division\"), some of them making their way up the tunnel used to dig the Lochnagar mine. Next day, 2 July, 19th (W) Division continued the attack on La Boisselle while Acklom held the crater with his party and some machine guns from 102nd MG Co later joined by some trench mortars. He reported his position secure at the end of 2 July, but his strength was down to five officers and 150 ORs. On 3 July he was able to extend his line rightwards with a mixed party from various battalions while 19th (W) Division completed the capture of La Boisselle. 34th Division was relieved from the line by [23rd Division](/wiki/23rd_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"23rd Division (United Kingdom)\") during the night of 3/4 July.Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, pp. 377, 381–4\\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, p. 124\\.Shakespear, pp. 39–41, 43–5, 48\\.",
"The 34th Division suffered more infantry casualties than any other division on 1 July 1916, with the Tyneside Scottish Brigade suffering the worst losses of any brigade (the Tyneside Irish Brigade had the next worst):Edmonds, *1916*, Vol I, p. 391\\.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 266–7, Appendix 3\\.Shakespear, p. 52\\.\n* 20th NF (1st Tyneside Scottish): 16 officers and 337 ORs killed, 10 officers and 268 ORs wounded; total 631\n* 21st NF (2nd Tyneside Scottish): 11 officers and 161 ORs killed, 10 officers and 296 ORs wounded; total 478\n* 22nd NF (3rd Tyneside Scottish): 7 officers and 198 ORs killed, 1 officer missing, 14 officers and 319 ORs wounded; total 539\n* 23rd NF (4th Tyneside Scottish): 9 officers and 178 ORs killed, 2 officers missing, 7 officers and 444 ORs wounded; total 640\n* 102nd MG Co: 1 officer and 6 ORs killed, 5 officers and 24 ORs wounded; total 36",
"Lieutenant\\-Col Elphinstone and all the battalion commanders (or acting commanders) of the brigade were among the dead. The 4th Tyneside Scottish had suffered the third\\-heaviest casualties of any battalion engaged on 1 July.Middlebrook, *Somme*, Appendices 3 \\& 5\\.",
"When the Tyneside Scottish were first raised a request to wear [kilts](/wiki/Kilt \"Kilt\") had been refused, though they did wear a [Glengarry](/wiki/Glengarry \"Glengarry\") bonnet in place of the normal [Peaked cap](/wiki/Peaked_cap \"Peaked cap\"). After La Boisselle they were granted the right to wear a 3\\-inch tartan patch as a backing to their cap badge. One Geordie remarked, 'Man, we'll have to fight a hell of a lot of battles before we get our kilts'.Middlebrook, *Somme*, pp. 13, 256\\.",
"The casualties among 102nd and 103rd Bdes were so severe that on 6 July they were exchanged for two fresh brigades from [37th Division](/wiki/37th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"37th Division (United Kingdom)\") so that 34th Division could continue the offensive. 102nd and 103rd Brigades were temporarily amalgamated under the command of Brig\\-Gen Ternan and held the quiet line opposite [Monchy\\-au\\-Bois](/wiki/Monchy-au-Bois \"Monchy-au-Bois\") and then the more active [Vimy Ridge](/wiki/Vimy_Ridge \"Vimy Ridge\") sector while being reinforced.Shakespear, pp. 54–6, 72\\.",
"On 15 August 34th Division left the Somme and marched north to the [Armentières](/wiki/Armenti%C3%A8res \"Armentières\") sector, where it was rejoined on 22 August by 102nd Bde. It spent the rest of the year routinely holding the line at [Bois\\-Grenier](/wiki/Bois-Grenier \"Bois-Grenier\"), with regular [trench raids](/wiki/Trench_raiding \"Trench raiding\").Shakespear, pp. 72, 75, 80–4\\.",
""
] |
Reorganised 102nd Brigade
-------------------------
Until mid\-May 34th Division was engaged in digging new defence lines in the rear (though the men were twice called on to 'stand to' and prepare to defend these positions during the [Second Battle of Kemmel](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29%23Second_Battle_of_Kemmel_%2825%E2%80%9326_April%29 "Battle of the Lys (1918)#Second Battle of Kemmel (25–26 April)") and [Battle of the Scherpenberg](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29%23Battle_of_the_Scherpenberg_%2829_April%29 "Battle of the Lys (1918)#Battle of the Scherpenberg (29 April)") when German breakthroughs of the French line looked possible).Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 410, 436\.Shakespear, p. 250\. After the disasters of the German offensive, the BEF did not have sufficient reinforcements to return all its formations to full strength. The decision was made to reduce some divisions to [Training Cadres](/wiki/Cadre_%28military%29 "Cadre (military)") (TC) to train US troops, with the hope that they could be rebuilt later. 34th Division was one of those selected, its battalions reduced to 10 officers and 45 ORs each, the remainder being posted to other units. On 21 May Brig\-Gen E. Hilliam from [15th (Scottish) Division](/wiki/15th_%28Scottish%29_Division "15th (Scottish) Division") changed places with Brig\-Gen Thomson and took command of 102nd Bde. The division also took temporary command of a large number of TCs from other divisions that were being reduced. Over the following weeks the division assisted in training the [28th](/wiki/28th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "28th Infantry Division (United States)"), [78th](/wiki/78th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "78th Infantry Division (United States)") and [80th US Divisions](/wiki/80th_Division_%28United_States%29 "80th Division (United States)"), each US brigade HQ being affiliated to a brigade of 34th Division, and each US battalion to a British battalion TC.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 5–6, 9, 25\.Shakespear, pp. 250–2\.
Meanwhile reinforcements were being urgently shipped to the Western Front from the [Palestine campaign](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign "Sinai and Palestine campaign"), and on 13 June 34th Division was informed that it would be reconstituted using these units. On 30 June–1 July three [Territorial Force](/wiki/Territorial_Force "Territorial Force") battalions from [53rd (Welsh) Division](/wiki/53rd_%28Welsh%29_Division "53rd (Welsh) Division") arrived at [Proven](/wiki/Proven "Proven") to reform 102nd Bde:James, pp. 65, 117–8\.Shakespear, pp. 252–3\.Dudley Ward, Appendix IX.
* 1/4th Bn, [Cheshire Regiment](/wiki/Cheshire_Regiment "Cheshire Regiment")
* 1/7th Bn, Cheshire Regiment
* 1/1st Bn, [Herefordshire Regiment](/wiki/Herefordshire_Regiment "Herefordshire Regiment")
* 102nd TMB – reformed 10 July
Of the original battalions of the brigade converted to TCs, 22nd NF joined [16th Division](/wiki/16th_%28Irish%29_Division "16th (Irish) Division"), was reconstituted in England, and later returned to the Western Front for the last weeks of the war; the 23rd and 25th NF remained as TCs with [39th Division](/wiki/39th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "39th Division (United Kingdom)") and later [197th Bde](/wiki/197th_%28Lancashire_Fusiliers%29_Brigade "197th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade") of [66th Division](/wiki/66th_%282nd_East_Lancashire%29_Division "66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division"), preparing US and British troops for frontline service until the end of the war.Becke, Pt 3a, pp. 61–9\.Becke, Pt 3b, pp. 96–7\.Becke, Pt 2b, p. 72\.
### Soissons
As soon as this reorganisation was complete 34th Division was sent to reinforce the French sector of the front. When the Germans launched the last effort of their Spring Offensive on 15 July (the [Second Battle of the Marne](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne "Second Battle of the Marne")), the division was diverted and by the evening of 18 July was concentrated round [Senlis](/wiki/Senlis "Senlis"). The infantry were then moved up by lorry and by 03\.00 on 23 July had completed the relief of a French division in the front line. The 34th Division immediately joined in the French counter\-attack (the [Battle of the Soissonnais and the Ourcq](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Soissonnais_and_the_Ourcq "Battle of the Soissonnais and the Ourcq")) on 23 July. Two French corps attacked, and 34th Division's role was to link the two. At 07\.15 the division was ordered to attack at 07\.40\. 102nd Brigade on the right received the order and attacked on time, but due to communication problems, 101st Bde on the right was late setting off (08\.00\) and was stopped in its tracks, while the French brigade on the left did not advance at all. 102nd Brigade advanced alone through high standing corn behind its creeping barrage, with 1/7th Cheshires on the right and 1/1st Herefords left (each with 8 [Vickers guns](/wiki/Vickers_gun "Vickers gun") from 34th MG Bn), and made about {{convert\|1200\|yd\|m}} before being stopped by machine gun fire from three directions. It was ordered to consolidate the line it had gained, and remained there until relieved on 28 July. The division immediately moved during the night of 28/29 July to the Bois de la Baillette to attack [Beugneux](/wiki/Beugneux "Beugneux") Ridge. For this attack 1/4th Cheshires was in corps reserve, the rest of 102nd Bde in divisional reserve. However, the attack got held up, and the divisional reserve (102nd Bde with an MG company and 2\.4th [Somerset Light Infantry](/wiki/Somerset_Light_Infantry "Somerset Light Infantry") (SLI)) was called forward to renew the attack. This coincided with a heavy German counter\-attack against the French to the left, and the whole Allied line fell back; all three brigades of 34th Division were in line to hold this position. The division renewed its attack on 1 August; 102nd Bde HQ commanded the divisional reserve consisting of 1/7th Cheshires, 2/4th SLI, 34th MG Bn (less two companies) and the three RE companies. The other battalions of 102nd Bde had special tasks on either flank of the division. 1/1st Herefords were intended to capture some high ground to the south of 101st Bde, but could make no progress. 1/4th Cheshires reinforced the north flank of 103rd Bde; this move was successful and the battalion was able to hand over to French troops by 11\.00\. The enemy slipped away that night, and French troops passed through 34th Division on 2 August to pursue them. After the battle, the division entrained to return to the British front.Blaxland, pp. 152–3\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 169, 227, 235, 249, 258–9, 265–7, 282–4, 295–6; Sketch 14; Appendix A.Shakespear, pp. 253–66\.
### Hundred Days Offensive
The division then returned to British command to participate in the final advance of the [Hundred Days Offensive](/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive "Hundred Days Offensive"). From 7 to 16 August it was refitting and training. It then went into the line in the Ypres sector on 21 August, with 102nd Bde in reserve. The Allied offensive had begun further south on 8 August, and the enemy had begun to give ground south of Ypres. It was planned that 102nd Bde would be attached to [41st Division](/wiki/41st_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "41st Division (United Kingdom)") to attack and recapture Kemmel Hill, but patrols from 34th Division were able to seize the feature without a formal attack. 102nd Brigade took over from 101st and 103rd Bdes on 2/3 September and 1/7th Cheshires were able to advance the line during the day. Next morning the battalion advanced behind a creeping barrage and by the end of the day 1/7th Cheshires and 1/1st Herefords had reached 'Peckham Farm' and 'Ulster Road' on the slopes of Messines Ridge. The division was then relieved and rested for two weeks.Shakespear, pp. 269–70, 273–4\.
34th Division attacked on the first day of the [Fifth Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Fifth_Battle_of_Ypres "Fifth Battle of Ypres") on 28 September. The morning attack by 101st and 103rd Bdes consisted of pushing forward strong patrols protected by smoke barrages. The advance continued that night, and by 08\.30 next day 1/7th Cheshires were able to pass through and reach the [Ypres](/wiki/Ypres "Ypres")–[Comines](/wiki/Comines%2C_Nord "Comines, Nord") Canal. Successful turning movements by neighbouring divisions meant that 34th Division was now squeezed out of the line.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, *1918*, pp. 70–1, 79–80\.Shakespear, pp. 275–6\.
A few days later the division took over holding a section of the line until the [Battle of Courtrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Courtrai_%281918%29 "Battle of Courtrai (1918)") on 14 October. 102nd Brigade formed the right of 34th Division's attack, with 1/4th Cheshires on the left, 1/7th Cheshires on the right, and 1/1st Herefords in the rear. The jumping\-off line had to be carefully adjusted to conform to the barrage line, but all troops were in position by 04\.25\. The enemy was active with his artillery from 04\.15, particularly gas shelling, and 1/4th Cheshires' battalion HQ was hit twice, with many casualties. The barrage came down at 05\.32, then began creeping forwards when the attack began three minutes later. With morning fog, enemy gas, and a smoke barrage fired to mask the village of [Geluwe](/wiki/Geluwe "Geluwe"), the visibility was no more than 5 m, and attacking infantry were led by compass, many of them holding the belt of the man at front. Casualties were caused by enemy outposts too far forward to be included in the barrage (the trench mortars had tried to deal with them), but thereafter progress to the first objective, the Black Line {{convert\|1500\|yd\|m}} ahead, was straightforward, and prisoners were taken. After a pause at the Black Line, the attack was resumed at 06\.18, with A and B Companies of 1/4th Cheshires making a rapid advance to Coucou and then probing ahead to the Menin Depot and the outskirts of [Menin](/wiki/Menen "Menen") itself. The battalion took numerous prisoners, a field gun, and several machine guns. 1/7th Cheshires also reached the outskirts of Menin. 102nd Brigade consolidated this line (the Blue Line) behind a protective barrage while the remaining pillboxes and outposts were mopped up. Machine gun fire prevented patrols from entering Menin during the night while the enemy destroyed their stores there, but early on 15 October 1/4th Cheshires pushed through the town. Menin was quickly occupied by 102nd Bde, which established posts along the [River Lys](/wiki/River_Lys "River Lys") at the sites of 'Mongrel' and 'Marathon' bridges. 1/1st Herefords crossed over the ruins of Marathon Bridge and patrolled beyond the river on 15/16 June. The following night the brigade was relieved.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, *1918*, Vol V, pp. 271–3, 285\.Shakespear, pp. 276–83\.
From now on, 34th Division operated as brigade groups, each infantry brigade accompanied by a field artillery brigade, an RE company and a company of 34th MG Bn. On 25 October 102nd took the lead for the Action at [Ooteghem](/wiki/Otegem "Otegem"). Before the main attack, 1/7th Cheshires made a subsidiary attack at 03\.00 to secure the crossings of the [Bossuit–Courtrai Canal](/wiki/Bossuit%E2%80%93Kortrijk_Canal "Bossuit–Kortrijk Canal"). It was supported by a barrage by all three field brigades of 34th Divisional Artillery and 34th MG Bn. The three companies sent forwards could not cross the canal because of machine gun fire, but A and C cleared [Bossuit](/wiki/Bossuit "Bossuit"); B Company at Lock 4 was counter\-attacked, losing heavily, but was able to cross at 15\.00 when the main attack came abreast of it. The division's main attack was made at 09\.05 by 1/4th Cheshires supported by 1/1st Herefords. The barrage was provided by 34th and 41st Divisional Artillery, with smoke barrages to cover the bridging operations and heavy batteries shelling the road and selected targets. Opposition was slight and the canal tunnel was cleared by 09\.30 and the village of Moen by 15\.00\. 1/4th Cheshires then went forward, with 1/1st Herefords protecting its open flank, and as darkness fell it reached its objective at Autryve, close to the [River Schelde](/wiki/Scheldt "Scheldt"), liberating Belgian civilians. In this final successful action the brigade's losses were only 87 (including 25 captured at Lock 4\) and it took an equal number of prisoners. It was relieved on 27 October and did not take part in the Action at [Tiegem](/wiki/Tiegem "Tiegem") on 31 October.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, *1918*, Vol V, pp. 440–1\.Shakespear, pp. 285–9\.
On 3 November 34th Division marched back to the [Courtrai](/wiki/Courtrai "Courtrai") area where it was refitting and training in corps reserve when the [Armistice with Germany](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany "Armistice with Germany") came into force on 11 November 1918\.Edmonds \& Maxwell\-Hyslop, *1918*, Vol V, p. 546\.Shakespear, pp. 293–4\.
|
[
"Reorganised 102nd Brigade\n-------------------------",
"Until mid\\-May 34th Division was engaged in digging new defence lines in the rear (though the men were twice called on to 'stand to' and prepare to defend these positions during the [Second Battle of Kemmel](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29%23Second_Battle_of_Kemmel_%2825%E2%80%9326_April%29 \"Battle of the Lys (1918)#Second Battle of Kemmel (25–26 April)\") and [Battle of the Scherpenberg](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29%23Battle_of_the_Scherpenberg_%2829_April%29 \"Battle of the Lys (1918)#Battle of the Scherpenberg (29 April)\") when German breakthroughs of the French line looked possible).Edmonds, *1918*, Vol II, pp. 410, 436\\.Shakespear, p. 250\\. After the disasters of the German offensive, the BEF did not have sufficient reinforcements to return all its formations to full strength. The decision was made to reduce some divisions to [Training Cadres](/wiki/Cadre_%28military%29 \"Cadre (military)\") (TC) to train US troops, with the hope that they could be rebuilt later. 34th Division was one of those selected, its battalions reduced to 10 officers and 45 ORs each, the remainder being posted to other units. On 21 May Brig\\-Gen E. Hilliam from [15th (Scottish) Division](/wiki/15th_%28Scottish%29_Division \"15th (Scottish) Division\") changed places with Brig\\-Gen Thomson and took command of 102nd Bde. The division also took temporary command of a large number of TCs from other divisions that were being reduced. Over the following weeks the division assisted in training the [28th](/wiki/28th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"28th Infantry Division (United States)\"), [78th](/wiki/78th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"78th Infantry Division (United States)\") and [80th US Divisions](/wiki/80th_Division_%28United_States%29 \"80th Division (United States)\"), each US brigade HQ being affiliated to a brigade of 34th Division, and each US battalion to a British battalion TC.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 5–6, 9, 25\\.Shakespear, pp. 250–2\\.",
"Meanwhile reinforcements were being urgently shipped to the Western Front from the [Palestine campaign](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign \"Sinai and Palestine campaign\"), and on 13 June 34th Division was informed that it would be reconstituted using these units. On 30 June–1 July three [Territorial Force](/wiki/Territorial_Force \"Territorial Force\") battalions from [53rd (Welsh) Division](/wiki/53rd_%28Welsh%29_Division \"53rd (Welsh) Division\") arrived at [Proven](/wiki/Proven \"Proven\") to reform 102nd Bde:James, pp. 65, 117–8\\.Shakespear, pp. 252–3\\.Dudley Ward, Appendix IX.\n* 1/4th Bn, [Cheshire Regiment](/wiki/Cheshire_Regiment \"Cheshire Regiment\")\n* 1/7th Bn, Cheshire Regiment\n* 1/1st Bn, [Herefordshire Regiment](/wiki/Herefordshire_Regiment \"Herefordshire Regiment\")\n* 102nd TMB – reformed 10 July",
"Of the original battalions of the brigade converted to TCs, 22nd NF joined [16th Division](/wiki/16th_%28Irish%29_Division \"16th (Irish) Division\"), was reconstituted in England, and later returned to the Western Front for the last weeks of the war; the 23rd and 25th NF remained as TCs with [39th Division](/wiki/39th_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"39th Division (United Kingdom)\") and later [197th Bde](/wiki/197th_%28Lancashire_Fusiliers%29_Brigade \"197th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade\") of [66th Division](/wiki/66th_%282nd_East_Lancashire%29_Division \"66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division\"), preparing US and British troops for frontline service until the end of the war.Becke, Pt 3a, pp. 61–9\\.Becke, Pt 3b, pp. 96–7\\.Becke, Pt 2b, p. 72\\.",
"### Soissons",
"As soon as this reorganisation was complete 34th Division was sent to reinforce the French sector of the front. When the Germans launched the last effort of their Spring Offensive on 15 July (the [Second Battle of the Marne](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne \"Second Battle of the Marne\")), the division was diverted and by the evening of 18 July was concentrated round [Senlis](/wiki/Senlis \"Senlis\"). The infantry were then moved up by lorry and by 03\\.00 on 23 July had completed the relief of a French division in the front line. The 34th Division immediately joined in the French counter\\-attack (the [Battle of the Soissonnais and the Ourcq](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Soissonnais_and_the_Ourcq \"Battle of the Soissonnais and the Ourcq\")) on 23 July. Two French corps attacked, and 34th Division's role was to link the two. At 07\\.15 the division was ordered to attack at 07\\.40\\. 102nd Brigade on the right received the order and attacked on time, but due to communication problems, 101st Bde on the right was late setting off (08\\.00\\) and was stopped in its tracks, while the French brigade on the left did not advance at all. 102nd Brigade advanced alone through high standing corn behind its creeping barrage, with 1/7th Cheshires on the right and 1/1st Herefords left (each with 8 [Vickers guns](/wiki/Vickers_gun \"Vickers gun\") from 34th MG Bn), and made about {{convert\\|1200\\|yd\\|m}} before being stopped by machine gun fire from three directions. It was ordered to consolidate the line it had gained, and remained there until relieved on 28 July. The division immediately moved during the night of 28/29 July to the Bois de la Baillette to attack [Beugneux](/wiki/Beugneux \"Beugneux\") Ridge. For this attack 1/4th Cheshires was in corps reserve, the rest of 102nd Bde in divisional reserve. However, the attack got held up, and the divisional reserve (102nd Bde with an MG company and 2\\.4th [Somerset Light Infantry](/wiki/Somerset_Light_Infantry \"Somerset Light Infantry\") (SLI)) was called forward to renew the attack. This coincided with a heavy German counter\\-attack against the French to the left, and the whole Allied line fell back; all three brigades of 34th Division were in line to hold this position. The division renewed its attack on 1 August; 102nd Bde HQ commanded the divisional reserve consisting of 1/7th Cheshires, 2/4th SLI, 34th MG Bn (less two companies) and the three RE companies. The other battalions of 102nd Bde had special tasks on either flank of the division. 1/1st Herefords were intended to capture some high ground to the south of 101st Bde, but could make no progress. 1/4th Cheshires reinforced the north flank of 103rd Bde; this move was successful and the battalion was able to hand over to French troops by 11\\.00\\. The enemy slipped away that night, and French troops passed through 34th Division on 2 August to pursue them. After the battle, the division entrained to return to the British front.Blaxland, pp. 152–3\\.Edmonds, *1918*, Vol III, pp. 169, 227, 235, 249, 258–9, 265–7, 282–4, 295–6; Sketch 14; Appendix A.Shakespear, pp. 253–66\\.",
"### Hundred Days Offensive",
"The division then returned to British command to participate in the final advance of the [Hundred Days Offensive](/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive \"Hundred Days Offensive\"). From 7 to 16 August it was refitting and training. It then went into the line in the Ypres sector on 21 August, with 102nd Bde in reserve. The Allied offensive had begun further south on 8 August, and the enemy had begun to give ground south of Ypres. It was planned that 102nd Bde would be attached to [41st Division](/wiki/41st_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"41st Division (United Kingdom)\") to attack and recapture Kemmel Hill, but patrols from 34th Division were able to seize the feature without a formal attack. 102nd Brigade took over from 101st and 103rd Bdes on 2/3 September and 1/7th Cheshires were able to advance the line during the day. Next morning the battalion advanced behind a creeping barrage and by the end of the day 1/7th Cheshires and 1/1st Herefords had reached 'Peckham Farm' and 'Ulster Road' on the slopes of Messines Ridge. The division was then relieved and rested for two weeks.Shakespear, pp. 269–70, 273–4\\.",
"34th Division attacked on the first day of the [Fifth Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Fifth_Battle_of_Ypres \"Fifth Battle of Ypres\") on 28 September. The morning attack by 101st and 103rd Bdes consisted of pushing forward strong patrols protected by smoke barrages. The advance continued that night, and by 08\\.30 next day 1/7th Cheshires were able to pass through and reach the [Ypres](/wiki/Ypres \"Ypres\")–[Comines](/wiki/Comines%2C_Nord \"Comines, Nord\") Canal. Successful turning movements by neighbouring divisions meant that 34th Division was now squeezed out of the line.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, *1918*, pp. 70–1, 79–80\\.Shakespear, pp. 275–6\\.",
"A few days later the division took over holding a section of the line until the [Battle of Courtrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Courtrai_%281918%29 \"Battle of Courtrai (1918)\") on 14 October. 102nd Brigade formed the right of 34th Division's attack, with 1/4th Cheshires on the left, 1/7th Cheshires on the right, and 1/1st Herefords in the rear. The jumping\\-off line had to be carefully adjusted to conform to the barrage line, but all troops were in position by 04\\.25\\. The enemy was active with his artillery from 04\\.15, particularly gas shelling, and 1/4th Cheshires' battalion HQ was hit twice, with many casualties. The barrage came down at 05\\.32, then began creeping forwards when the attack began three minutes later. With morning fog, enemy gas, and a smoke barrage fired to mask the village of [Geluwe](/wiki/Geluwe \"Geluwe\"), the visibility was no more than 5 m, and attacking infantry were led by compass, many of them holding the belt of the man at front. Casualties were caused by enemy outposts too far forward to be included in the barrage (the trench mortars had tried to deal with them), but thereafter progress to the first objective, the Black Line {{convert\\|1500\\|yd\\|m}} ahead, was straightforward, and prisoners were taken. After a pause at the Black Line, the attack was resumed at 06\\.18, with A and B Companies of 1/4th Cheshires making a rapid advance to Coucou and then probing ahead to the Menin Depot and the outskirts of [Menin](/wiki/Menen \"Menen\") itself. The battalion took numerous prisoners, a field gun, and several machine guns. 1/7th Cheshires also reached the outskirts of Menin. 102nd Brigade consolidated this line (the Blue Line) behind a protective barrage while the remaining pillboxes and outposts were mopped up. Machine gun fire prevented patrols from entering Menin during the night while the enemy destroyed their stores there, but early on 15 October 1/4th Cheshires pushed through the town. Menin was quickly occupied by 102nd Bde, which established posts along the [River Lys](/wiki/River_Lys \"River Lys\") at the sites of 'Mongrel' and 'Marathon' bridges. 1/1st Herefords crossed over the ruins of Marathon Bridge and patrolled beyond the river on 15/16 June. The following night the brigade was relieved.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, *1918*, Vol V, pp. 271–3, 285\\.Shakespear, pp. 276–83\\.",
"From now on, 34th Division operated as brigade groups, each infantry brigade accompanied by a field artillery brigade, an RE company and a company of 34th MG Bn. On 25 October 102nd took the lead for the Action at [Ooteghem](/wiki/Otegem \"Otegem\"). Before the main attack, 1/7th Cheshires made a subsidiary attack at 03\\.00 to secure the crossings of the [Bossuit–Courtrai Canal](/wiki/Bossuit%E2%80%93Kortrijk_Canal \"Bossuit–Kortrijk Canal\"). It was supported by a barrage by all three field brigades of 34th Divisional Artillery and 34th MG Bn. The three companies sent forwards could not cross the canal because of machine gun fire, but A and C cleared [Bossuit](/wiki/Bossuit \"Bossuit\"); B Company at Lock 4 was counter\\-attacked, losing heavily, but was able to cross at 15\\.00 when the main attack came abreast of it. The division's main attack was made at 09\\.05 by 1/4th Cheshires supported by 1/1st Herefords. The barrage was provided by 34th and 41st Divisional Artillery, with smoke barrages to cover the bridging operations and heavy batteries shelling the road and selected targets. Opposition was slight and the canal tunnel was cleared by 09\\.30 and the village of Moen by 15\\.00\\. 1/4th Cheshires then went forward, with 1/1st Herefords protecting its open flank, and as darkness fell it reached its objective at Autryve, close to the [River Schelde](/wiki/Scheldt \"Scheldt\"), liberating Belgian civilians. In this final successful action the brigade's losses were only 87 (including 25 captured at Lock 4\\) and it took an equal number of prisoners. It was relieved on 27 October and did not take part in the Action at [Tiegem](/wiki/Tiegem \"Tiegem\") on 31 October.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, *1918*, Vol V, pp. 440–1\\.Shakespear, pp. 285–9\\.",
"On 3 November 34th Division marched back to the [Courtrai](/wiki/Courtrai \"Courtrai\") area where it was refitting and training in corps reserve when the [Armistice with Germany](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany \"Armistice with Germany\") came into force on 11 November 1918\\.Edmonds \\& Maxwell\\-Hyslop, *1918*, Vol V, p. 546\\.Shakespear, pp. 293–4\\.",
""
] |
Plot overview
-------------
Plump little Phoebe Olcott is a timid but helpful 15\-year\-old girl, admired by her father's students for her quiet temperament and stubbornness. After her father, a schoolteacher, is killed in action while fighting as an [American Patriot](/wiki/Patriot_%28American_Revolution%29 "Patriot (American Revolution)") (commonly known as Rebels) in the quick revolution, she ends up living with her aunt's family, who happen to be [Loyalist](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 "Loyalist (American Revolution)").
Phoebe continues to hide in the shadows of her cousins Gideon and Anne Robinson until Gideon becomes a British soldier. When he is suddenly found hanged, Phoebe discovers that Gideon was actually a spy and finds a list of names that was entrusted to Gideon and must be delivered to [Fort Ticonderoga](/wiki/Fort_Ticonderoga "Fort Ticonderoga").
She arrives at Fort Ticonderoga too late; the post has been abandoned. Instead, she finds a bear and a cat and meets Jem Morrissay, whose family happens to be one of the names on the list entrusted to Gideon. Phoebe and Jem form an uneasy relationship and she is reunited with her family and several other Loyalist families fleeing to [Upper Canada](/wiki/Upper_Canada "Upper Canada") to avoid [persecution](/wiki/Persecution "Persecution") by the [Patriots](/wiki/Patriot_%28American_Revolution%29 "Patriot (American Revolution)").
During the flight of the Loyalists, they capture Japhet Oram, a Loyalist soldier, and are uncertain if he is a deserter or a rebel spy. The leader of the group insists that the soldier be taken to Canada and hanged. When Phoebe's own convictions, background, and morals clash with the more radical of the Loyalists, she soon finds herself isolated from the rest of the group. She secretly cuts Japhet loose and runs away, but is pursued by Jem.
Despite their growing attraction to one another, Phoebe refuses to return to the other Loyalists with Jem. Forced to continue alone, Phoebe begins her dangerous journey to Canada in order to escape the revolution and fulfil Gideon's final mission.
|
[
"Plot overview\n-------------",
"Plump little Phoebe Olcott is a timid but helpful 15\\-year\\-old girl, admired by her father's students for her quiet temperament and stubbornness. After her father, a schoolteacher, is killed in action while fighting as an [American Patriot](/wiki/Patriot_%28American_Revolution%29 \"Patriot (American Revolution)\") (commonly known as Rebels) in the quick revolution, she ends up living with her aunt's family, who happen to be [Loyalist](/wiki/Loyalist_%28American_Revolution%29 \"Loyalist (American Revolution)\").",
"Phoebe continues to hide in the shadows of her cousins Gideon and Anne Robinson until Gideon becomes a British soldier. When he is suddenly found hanged, Phoebe discovers that Gideon was actually a spy and finds a list of names that was entrusted to Gideon and must be delivered to [Fort Ticonderoga](/wiki/Fort_Ticonderoga \"Fort Ticonderoga\").",
"She arrives at Fort Ticonderoga too late; the post has been abandoned. Instead, she finds a bear and a cat and meets Jem Morrissay, whose family happens to be one of the names on the list entrusted to Gideon. Phoebe and Jem form an uneasy relationship and she is reunited with her family and several other Loyalist families fleeing to [Upper Canada](/wiki/Upper_Canada \"Upper Canada\") to avoid [persecution](/wiki/Persecution \"Persecution\") by the [Patriots](/wiki/Patriot_%28American_Revolution%29 \"Patriot (American Revolution)\").",
"During the flight of the Loyalists, they capture Japhet Oram, a Loyalist soldier, and are uncertain if he is a deserter or a rebel spy. The leader of the group insists that the soldier be taken to Canada and hanged. When Phoebe's own convictions, background, and morals clash with the more radical of the Loyalists, she soon finds herself isolated from the rest of the group. She secretly cuts Japhet loose and runs away, but is pursued by Jem.",
"Despite their growing attraction to one another, Phoebe refuses to return to the other Loyalists with Jem. Forced to continue alone, Phoebe begins her dangerous journey to Canada in order to escape the revolution and fulfil Gideon's final mission.",
""
] |
Historical
----------
### 1788 Oath
In 1788, the State Defence Commission of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania issued this following military oath to all military personnel of the Commonwealth armed services. This is the oath spoken in Polish.
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Ja N.N. przysięgam Panu Bogu wszechmogącemu w Trójcy Świętej jedynemu, jako Najjaśniejszemu Stanisławowi Augustowi królowi polskiemu i Wielkiemu Księciu Litewskiemu, tudzież stanom skonfederowanym Rzeczypospolitej pod aktem siódmego października tysiąc siedemset osiemdziesiątego ósmego roku w Warszawie pod laskami Wgo Stanisława Małachowskiego koronnego i Wgo Kazimierza księcia Sapiechy Lit. marszałków konfederacyją związanym wiernym a Komisyi Wojskowej Obojga Narodów posłusznym będę: tak mi Boże dopomóż!}}
#### English Text
*I N.N. swear to the Lord Almighty One in the Holy Trinity, to the Most Serene Stanisław Augustus, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the Confederate States of the Commonwealth under the Act of the Seventh October One Thousand Seven Hundred and Eighty\-Eight in Warsaw under the gowns of Honourable Stanisław Małachowski Crown Marshal, and Honourable Kazimierz, Prince Sapiecha, Lithuanian Marshal, both bounded by the Confederacy, that I will be loyal and to the Military Commission of the Both Nations obedient: so help me God!*
### Kościuszko's Uprising (1794\)
[thumb\|right\|*[Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko "Tadeusz Kościuszko") taking an oath at [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków")'s [Market Square](/wiki/Main_Market_Square%2C_Krak%C3%B3w "Main Market Square, Kraków")*, an 1804 gouache by [Michał Stachowicz](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Stachowicz "Michał Stachowicz")](/wiki/File:Stachowicz_Przysi%C4%99ga_T._Ko%C5%9Bciuszki_na_rynku_w_Krakowie.jpg "Stachowicz Przysięga T. Kościuszki na rynku w Krakowie.jpg")
The Oath of [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko "Tadeusz Kościuszko"), sworn in the old town market of [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków") on 24 March 1794, at the outbreak of the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising "Kościuszko Uprising").
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Ja, Tadeusz Kościuszko, przysięgam w obliczu Boga całemu Narodowi Polskiemu, iż powierzonej mi władzy na niczyj prywatny ucisk nie użyję, lecz jedynie jej dla obrony całości granic, odzyskania samowładności Narodu i ugruntowania powszechnej wolności używać będę. Tak mi Panie Boże dopomóż i niewinna męka Syna Jego.}}
#### English translation
*I, Tadeusz Kościuszko, hereby swear in the face of God to the whole Polish Nation, that I shall not use the power entrusted to me for anyone's personal oppression, but only for the defence of the integrity of the borders, for retaking the sovereignty of the Nation, and for strengthening the universal freedom. So help me God and the innocent Passion of His Son!*
### Polish Legions in World War I
{{Main\|Oath Crisis}}
The oath was prepared by the German authorities and on July 3, 1917 presented to Gen. [Hans Beseler](/wiki/Hans_Beseler "Hans Beseler"), then the German governor of [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw") and the highest authority of the planned [Polnische Wehrmacht](/wiki/Polnische_Wehrmacht "Polnische Wehrmacht") military formation. He invoked in swearing to the loyalty of the [Polish Legions](/wiki/Polish_Legions_in_World_War_I "Polish Legions in World War I") with it, thus putting them under direct German command.
However, the Polish Legions were already enraged with the German and Austro\-Hungarian plans to place limits on Polish independence. In addition, they were angered by and also the Austro\-Hungarian's dismissal of [Józef Piłsudski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski "Józef Piłsudski"), who was the Legions' leader. Therefore, most of the soldiers of the Legions declined to swear allegiance to a non\-existent king of Poland or to a foreign government, which led to the so\-called [Oath Crisis](/wiki/Oath_Crisis "Oath Crisis").
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Przysięgam Panu Bogu Wszechmogącemu, że Ojczyźnie mojej, Polskiemu Królestwu, i memu przyszłemu Królowi na lądzie i wodzie i na każdym miejscu wiernie i uczciwie służyć będę; że w wojnie obecnej dotrzymam wiernie braterstwa broni wojskom Niemiec i Austro\-Węgier oraz państw z nimi sprzymierzonych; że będę przełożonych swych i dowódców słuchał, dawane mi rozkazy i przepisy wykonywał i w ogóle tak się zachowywał, abym mógł żyć i umierać jako mężny prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi, Boże, dopomóż!}}
#### English translation
*I hereby swear to God Almighty, that I shall loyally serve my Fatherland, the Kingdom of Poland and my future King, both on water and on land, and in any circumstances; that during this war I shall remain a loyal brother in arms to the soldiers of Germany and Austria\-Hungary and of the states allied to them; that I shall obey my superiors and commanders, fulfil the orders and generally behave so as to be able to live and die as a brave and just Polish soldier. So help me God!*
### The Polish Army in France (1918\)
Oath written by General [Józef Haller](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Haller_de_Hallenburg "Józef Haller de Hallenburg") and the [Polish National Committee](/wiki/Polish_National_Committee_%281917-1919%29 "Polish National Committee (1917-1919)") in 1918\. It was used by the units of the [Blue Army](/wiki/Blue_Army_%28Poland%29 "Blue Army (Poland)"), that is the Polish Army formed in [France](/wiki/France "France") at the end of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War").
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Przysięgam przed Panem Bogiem Wszechmogącym, w Trójcy Świętej Jedynym, na wierność Ojczyźnie mojej, Polsce, jednej i niepodzielnej. Przysięgam, iż gotów jestem życie oddać za świętą sprawę jej zjednoczenia i wyzwolenia, bronić sztandaru mego do ostatniej kropli krwi, dochować karności i posłuszeństwa mojej zwierzchności wojskowej, a w całym postępowaniu moim strzec honoru żołnierza polskiego. Tak mi, Panie Boże, dopomóż.}}
#### English translation
*I swear in the sight of God Almighty, who is One in the Holy Trinity, my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Poland, sole and indivisible. I swear that I am ready to give my life for the sacred cause of her unification and liberation, I swear to defend my banner to the last drop of my blood, to remain loyal and obedient to my commanders, and that by all my deeds I will guard the honour of the Polish soldier. So help me God!*
### Greater Poland Uprising (1919\)
To avoid an open conflict with [Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Republic "Weimar Republic"), the forces fighting in the [Greater Poland Uprising](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Uprising_%281918%E2%80%931919%29 "Greater Poland Uprising (1918–1919)") formally declared the existence of a separate state, and those forces were then considered separate from the Polish Army. Hence the oath of the armed forces of [Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland "Greater Poland") was different from that used by other Polish units elsewhere.
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|W obliczu Boga Wszechmogącego w Trójcy Świętej Jedynego ślubuję, że Polsce, Ojczyźnie mojej i sprawie całego Narodu Polskiego zawsze i wszędzie służyć będę, że kraju Ojczystego i dobra narodowego do ostatniej kropli krwi bronić będę, że Komisarzowi Naczelnej Rady Ludowej w Poznaniu i dowódcom, i przełożonym swoim mianowanym przez tenże Komisariat, zawsze i wszędzie posłuszny będę, że w ogóle tak zachowywać się będę, jak przystoi na mężnego i prawego żołnierza\-Polaka, że po zjednoczeniu Polski złożę przysięgę żołnierską, ustanowioną przez polską zwierzchność państwową.}}
#### English translation
*In the sight of God Almighty, One in the Holy Trinity, I hereby swear my everlasting allegiance to Poland, my Fatherland and to the whole Polish Nation. I swear to defend the Fatherland and the national good to the last drop of my blood. I swear loyalty and obedience to the Commissioner of the Supreme National Council in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 "Poznań") and to my commanders, and to my superiors named by the Commission. I swear to always behave as a brave and valiant soldier and Pole, and that when Poland is united I shall take an oath accepted by the Polish military authority.*
### Second Polish Republic (1924\)
During the interwar period, the unified Polish Army introduced three distinct oaths to accommodate the diverse religious beliefs of its soldiers. These oaths were established by the Basic Duties of a Soldier Act on July 18, 1924, and later reaffirmed by an order from the Ministry of Military Affairs on July 15, 1927\.
#### Polish text
**Christians** {{lang\|pl\|Przysięgam Panu Bogu Wszechmogącemu, w Trójcy Świętej Jedynemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić. Stać na straży konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego. Prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym. Rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać. Tajemnic wojskowych strzec. Za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach. I w ogóle tak postępować, aby mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg i święta Syna jego męka. Amen.}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw "Dziennik Ustaw")* [1927 Nr 68 Poz.603](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19270680603/O/D19270603.pdf)
**Muslims** {{lang\|pl\|Przysięgam Panu Bogu Jedynemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić, stać na straży Konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego, prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym, rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać, tajemnic wojskowych strzec, za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach i w ogóle tak postępować, abym mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Bereetjum Mine Allachivy Veresulini illeclezine a hetdeteum minel masiurkine BilWałłagi, Tałłagi, Amin.}}
**Other denominations** {{lang\|pl\|Przysięgam Bogu Wszechmogącemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić, stać na Straży Konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego, prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym, rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać, tajemnic wojskowych strzec, za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach i w ogóle tak postępować abym mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg. Amen.}}
#### English translation
**Christians** *I swear to God Almighty, One in Holy Trinity, my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, the Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry out the orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, and to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. So help me God and the sacred Passion of His Son! Amen.*
**Muslims** *I swear to the Only God my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry out the orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. Bereetjum Mine Allachivy Veresulini illeclezine a hetdeteum minel masiurkine BilWałłagi, Tałłagi, Amin.*
**Other denominations** *I swear to God Almighty my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, the Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. So help me God! Amen.*
### Armia Krajowa (WWII)
Since the [Armia Krajowa](/wiki/Armia_Krajowa "Armia Krajowa") was formed of various smaller resistance organizations, initially the words of the oath used by the Polish underground varied. The following is the text for the Christians serving in the Home Army. Other denominations used different variations of it.
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|W obliczu Boga Wszechmogącego i Najświętszej Maryi Panny, Królowej Korony Polskiej, przysięgam być wierny Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Stać nieugięcie na straży jej honoru, o wyzwolenie z niewoli walczyć ze wszystkich sił, aż do ofiary mego życia. Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Naczelnemu Wodzowi i wyznaczonemu przezeń Dowódcy Armii Krajowej będę bezwzględnie posłuszny a tajemnicy niezłomnie dochowam, cokolwiek by mnie spotkać miało. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg.}}
#### English translation
*Before God Almighty and Mary the Blessed Virgin, Queen of the Polish Crown, I pledge allegiance to my Fatherland, the Republic of Poland. I pledge to steadfastly guard Her honour, and to fight for Her liberation with all my strength, even to the extent of sacrificing my own life. I pledge [unconditional obedience](/wiki/Unconditional_obedience "Unconditional obedience") to the President of Poland, the Commander\-in\-Chief of the Republic of Poland, and the Home Army Commander who is appointed. I pledge to resolutely keep secret whatever may happen to me. So help me God!*
### Polish Armed Forces in the East (1943\)
This oath was first taken on 15 July 1943, in [Sielce](/wiki/Sielce "Sielce"), at the [Oka River](/wiki/Oka_River "Oka River"). It was used by the Soviet\-backed military of Poland until the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") and afterwards.
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Składam uroczystą przysięgę ziemi polskiej, broczącej we krwi, narodowi polskiemu, umęczonemu w niemieckim jarzmie, że nie skalam imienia Polaka, że wiernie będę służył Ojczyźnie.
Przysięgam ziemi polskiej i narodowi polskiemu rzetelnie pełnić obowiązki żołnierza w obozie, w pochodzie, w boju, w każdej chwili i na każdym miejscu, strzec wojskowej tajemnicy, wypełniać wiernie rozkazy oficerów i dowódców.
Przysięgam dochować wierności sojuszniczej Związkowi Radzieckiemu, który dał mi do ręki broń do walki z wspólnym wrogiem, przysięgam dochować braterstwa broni sojuszniczej Czerwonej Armii.
Przysięgam ziemi polskiej i narodowi polskiemu, że do ostatniej kropli krwi, do ostatniego tchu nienawidzieć będę wroga \- Niemca, który zniszczył Polskę, do ostatniej kropli krwi, do ostatniego tchu walczyć będę o wyzwolenie Ojczyzny, abym mógł żyć i umierać jako prawy i uczciwy żołnierz Polski.
Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}
#### English translation
*I hereby swear to the blood\-rinsed Polish land, to the Polish nation tormented by the German yoke, that I will not desecrate the name of a Pole and that I will courageously serve my Fatherland.*
*I swear to the Polish land and to the Polish people that I will honestly serve the duties of a soldier, on the march and in battle, in the camp and at any other moment, I will guard the secrets and fulfil the orders of my officers and commanders.*
*I swear to be a loyal ally of the Soviet Union, which gave me the arms to fight our common enemy, and I swear I will preserve the brotherhood of arms with the allied Red Army.*
*I swear to the Polish land and to the Polish nation that to the last drop of blood, to the last breath shall I hate the enemy \- the German who destroyed Poland; to the last drop of blood, to the last breath shall I fight for the liberation of my Fatherland, so that I could live and die as a rightful and honest soldier of Poland.*
*So help me God!*
### Polish People's Army 1944
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Przysięgam uroczyście skrwawionej Ziemi Polskiej i Narodowi Polskiemu walczyć z niemieckim najeźdźcą o wyzwolenie Ojczyzny oraz utrwalenie wolności, niepodległości i potęgi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Przysięgam rzetelnie i sumiennie wypełniać obowiązki żołnierza polskiego, wiernie wykonywać wydane mi rozkazy i ściśle przestrzegać tajemnicy wojskowej. Przysięgam wiernie służyć Rzeczypospolitej i nigdy nie skalać imienia Polaka. Przysięgam dochować wierności Krajowej Radzie Narodowej, Władzy Naczelnej Narodu Polskiego. Przysięgam nieugięcie stać na straży praw Narodu Polskiego, mieć wszystkich obywateli w równym poszanowaniu oraz niezłomnie bronić swobód demokratycznych. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw "Dziennik Ustaw")* [1944 Nr 3 Poz.13](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19440030013/O/D19440013.pdf)
### Polish People's Army oath (1947 variant)
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Przysięgam uroczyście Narodowi Polskiemu: walczyć do ostatniego tchu w obronie Ojczyzny wyzwolonej z przemocy niemieckiej i niezłomnie strzec wolności, niepodległości i mocy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Przysięgam wypełniać rzetelnie i sumiennie obowiązki żołnierza, wykonywać wiernie rozkazy przełożonych, przestrzegać ściśle regulaminów i dochować tajemnicy wojskowej. Przysięgam służyć ze wszystkich sił Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, bronić niezłomnie Jej ustroju demokratycznego i dochować wierności Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej. Przysięgam stać nieugięcie na straży praw Ludu Polskiego, mieć wszystkich obywateli w równym poszanowaniu i nigdy nie splamić godności Polaka. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw "Dziennik Ustaw")* [1947 nr 52 Poz.267](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19470520267/O/D19470267.pdf)
#### English
*I pledge to the people of Poland to fight for the last breath in defense of the Fatherland liberated from German violence and steadfastly help in the defense of the freedom, independence and strength of the Republic of Poland. I promise thus to fulfill the duties of a soldier faithfully and conscientiously, to execute faithfully the orders of the superiors above me, to strictly observe the regulations and laws of the armed forces and preserve secrecy within it, to be of service of all the military forces of the Republic of Poland, defend her democratic system undoubtedly and keep my loyalty to the President of the Republic of Poland, and to stand firm in guarding the rights of the Polish people, promote the equality of all its citizens, and to defend the honor and dignity of the Polish nation. So help me God!*
### Polish People's Army oath (1952\-1988\)
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Ja, obywatel Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego, przysięgam Narodowi Polskiemu być uczciwym, zdyscyplinowanym, mężnym i czujnym żołnierzem, wykonywać dokładnie rozkazy przełożonych i przepisy regulaminów, dochować ściśle tajemnicy wojskowej i państwowej, nie splamić nigdy honoru i godności żołnierza polskiego. Przysięgam służyć ze wszystkich sił Ojczyźnie, bronić niezłomnie praw ludu pracującego, zawarowanych w Konstytucji, stać nieugięcie na straży władzy ludowej, dochować wierności Rządowi Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. Przysięgam strzec niezłomnie wolności, niepodległości i granic Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej przed zakusami imperializmu, stać nieugięcie na straży pokoju w braterskim przymierzu z Armią Radziecką i innymi sojuszniczymi armiami i w razie potrzeby nie szczędząc krwi ani życia mężnie walczyć w obronie Ojczyzny, o świętą sprawę niepodległości, wolności i szczęścia ludu. Gdybym nie bacząc na tę moją uroczystą przysięgę obowiązek wierności wobec Ojczyzny złamał, niechaj mnie dosięgnie surowa ręka sprawiedliwości ludowej.}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw "Dziennik Ustaw")* [1952 Nr 46 Poz.310](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19520460310/O/D19520310.pdf)
#### English
*I, a citizen of the Polish People's Republic, standing in the ranks of the Polish Army, swear to the Polish Nation to be an honest, disciplined, brave and vigilant soldier, to follow the orders of my superiors and the provisions of the regulations, strictly keep military and state secrets, never taint the honor and dignity of a Polish soldier. I swear to serve my motherland with all my strength, to defend steadfastly the rights of the working people, enshrined in the Constitution, to stand steadfastly in guarding the people's authority, and to be faithful to the Government of the People's Republic of Poland. I swear to steadfastly guard the freedom, independence and borders of the Polish People's Republic against imperialism, to stand steadfastly in guarding peace in a fraternal alliance with the Soviet Army and other allied armies and, if necessary, sparing my blood and life, bravely fight in defense of the Fatherland, for the sacred cause of independence, freedom and the happiness of the people. If, disregarding my solemn oath, I had broken my duty of faithfulness to the Fatherland, let the stern hand of the people's justice reach me.*
### 1988
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Ja, obywatel Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego,
Przysięgam służyć wiernie Ojczyźnie i narodowi swemu, przestrzegać zasad Konstytucji, być godnym chlubnych tradycji oręża polskiego.
Przysięgam, iż nie szczędząc trudu, a w potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia, stać będę nieugięcie na straży niepodległości, suwerenności i granic kraju ojczystego, strzec pokoju w braterstwie broni z sojuszniczymi armiami.
Przysięgam dbać o honor i dobre imię wojska, sumiennie spełniać powinności żołnierskie, ściśle wykonywać rozkazy przełożonych, być zdyscyplinowanym i mężnym, uczciwym i koleżeńskim żołnierzem. Przysięgam zdobywać wiedzę i umiejętności wojskowe, troszczyć się o powierzoną mi broń, sprzęt i mienie, dochować tajemnicy państwowej i służbowej.
Składając tę uroczystą przysięgę, jestem świadom swej odpowiedzialności wobec narodu i praw socjalistycznego państwa polskiego.}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw "Dziennik Ustaw")* [1988 Nr 20 Poz.133](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19880200133/O/D19880133.pdf)
#### English
*I, a citizen of the Polish People's Republic, standing in the ranks of the Polish Armed Forces, swear that:*
*I will serve my homeland and people faithfully, to abide by the principles of the Constitution, to be worthy of the glorious traditions of the Polish armed services.*
*I swear that I will spare no effort, and in the need of my own blood or my life, I will stand steadfastly guarding the independence, sovereignty and borders of my country, and guarding peace in brotherhood of arms with allied armies*.
*I swear to care for the honor and good name of the army, to diligently fulfill my military duties, strictly follow the orders of my superiors, to be a disciplined and brave, honest and friendly soldier. I swear to acquire military knowledge and skills, to take care of the weapons, equipment and property entrusted to me, and to keep the state and official secrets.*
*Taking this solemn oath, I am aware of my responsibility towards the nation and the rights of the socialist Polish state.*
### 1989
Following the establishment of the [Third Polish Republic](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281989%E2%80%93present%29 "History of Poland (1989–present)") in 1989 and changing the name of the state: *Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa* to *Rzeczpospolita Polska*, the oath was changed, esp. the reference to "socialist Polish state" has been deleted from old text.
#### Polish text
{{lang\|pl\|Ja, obywatel Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego,
Przysięgam służyć wiernie Ojczyźnie i narodowi swemu, przestrzegać zasad Konstytucji, być godnym chlubnych tradycji oręża polskiego.
Przysięgam, iż nie szczędząc trudu, a w potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia, stać będę nieugięcie na straży niepodległości, suwerenności i granic kraju ojczystego, strzec pokoju w braterstwie broni z sojuszniczymi armiami.
Przysięgam dbać o honor i dobre imię wojska, sumiennie spełniać powinności żołnierskie, ściśle wykonywać rozkazy przełożonych, być zdyscyplinowanym i mężnym, uczciwym i koleżeńskim żołnierzem. Przysięgam zdobywać wiedzę i umiejętności wojskowe, troszczyć się o powierzoną mi broń, sprzęt i mienie, dochować tajemnicy państwowej i służbowej. Składając tę uroczystą przysięgę, jestem świadom swej odpowiedzialności wobec narodu i praw Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej.
Ku Chwale Ojczyzny,
Na Sztandar,
Przysięgam.}}
#### English
*I, a citizen of the Republic of Poland, standing in the ranks of the Polish Armed Forces, swear thus:*
*that I pledge to serve my homeland and people faithfully, to abide by the principles of the Constitution, to be worthy of the glorious traditions of the Polish armed services.*
*I swear that, sparing no effort, and in the need of my own blood and my life, I will stand steadfastly guarding the independence, sovereignty and borders of my homeland, and in guarding peace in the brotherhood of arms with allied armies.*
*I swear to care for the honor and good name of the armed forces, to diligently fulfill my military duties, strictly follow the orders of my superiors placed above me, to be a disciplined and brave, honest and friendly soldier/sailor/aircraftman. I swear to acquire military knowledge and skills, to take care of the weapons, equipment and property entrusted to me, and to keep state and official secrets. By taking this solemn oath, I am aware of my responsibility towards the nation and the laws of the Republic of Poland.*
*For the Glory of the Fatherland, To its colours, I therefore pledge, (so help me God).*
### Modern oath (since 1992\)
In 1992 the oath was changed again and significantly shortened. There is only one oath for all denominations, although each soldier can omit the last line according to their own beliefs.{{Cite web \|last\=Poland \|first\=Wolters Kluwer \|title\=\[Rota przysięgi woskowej] \- Art. 1\. \- Przysięga wojskowa. \- Dz.U.1992\.77\.386 \|url\=https://sip.lex.pl/akty\-prawne/dzu\-dziennik\-ustaw/przysiega\-wojskowa\-16794908/art\-1 \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-28 \|website\=OpenLEX \|language\=pl}}
#### Polish
{{lang\|pl\|Ja żołnierz Wojska Polskiego,
Przysięgam,
Służyć wiernie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej,
Bronić jej niepodległości i granic,
Stać na straży Konstytucji,
Strzec honoru żołnierza polskiego,
Sztandaru wojskowego bronić,
Za sprawę mojej Ojczyzny,
W potrzebie krwi własnej ani
życia nie szczędzić,
Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw "Dziennik Ustaw")* [1992 Nr 77 Poz.386](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19920770386/O/D19920386.pdf)
#### English
*I, a soldier of the Polish Armed Forces*,
Fully swear,
To Serve loyally to the Republic of Poland,
Defend her independence and borders,
Stand on guard of the Constitution,
Defend the honour of a Polish soldier,
Defend the military colours and standards of the armed forces,
In the sake of my Fatherland,
Even at the cost of losing my life or blood.
*So help me God!*
|
[
"Historical\n----------",
"### 1788 Oath",
"In 1788, the State Defence Commission of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania issued this following military oath to all military personnel of the Commonwealth armed services. This is the oath spoken in Polish.",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Ja N.N. przysięgam Panu Bogu wszechmogącemu w Trójcy Świętej jedynemu, jako Najjaśniejszemu Stanisławowi Augustowi królowi polskiemu i Wielkiemu Księciu Litewskiemu, tudzież stanom skonfederowanym Rzeczypospolitej pod aktem siódmego października tysiąc siedemset osiemdziesiątego ósmego roku w Warszawie pod laskami Wgo Stanisława Małachowskiego koronnego i Wgo Kazimierza księcia Sapiechy Lit. marszałków konfederacyją związanym wiernym a Komisyi Wojskowej Obojga Narodów posłusznym będę: tak mi Boże dopomóż!}}\n#### English Text",
"*I N.N. swear to the Lord Almighty One in the Holy Trinity, to the Most Serene Stanisław Augustus, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the Confederate States of the Commonwealth under the Act of the Seventh October One Thousand Seven Hundred and Eighty\\-Eight in Warsaw under the gowns of Honourable Stanisław Małachowski Crown Marshal, and Honourable Kazimierz, Prince Sapiecha, Lithuanian Marshal, both bounded by the Confederacy, that I will be loyal and to the Military Commission of the Both Nations obedient: so help me God!*\n### Kościuszko's Uprising (1794\\)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|*[Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko \"Tadeusz Kościuszko\") taking an oath at [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\")'s [Market Square](/wiki/Main_Market_Square%2C_Krak%C3%B3w \"Main Market Square, Kraków\")*, an 1804 gouache by [Michał Stachowicz](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Stachowicz \"Michał Stachowicz\")](/wiki/File:Stachowicz_Przysi%C4%99ga_T._Ko%C5%9Bciuszki_na_rynku_w_Krakowie.jpg \"Stachowicz Przysięga T. Kościuszki na rynku w Krakowie.jpg\")\nThe Oath of [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko \"Tadeusz Kościuszko\"), sworn in the old town market of [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\") on 24 March 1794, at the outbreak of the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising \"Kościuszko Uprising\").",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Ja, Tadeusz Kościuszko, przysięgam w obliczu Boga całemu Narodowi Polskiemu, iż powierzonej mi władzy na niczyj prywatny ucisk nie użyję, lecz jedynie jej dla obrony całości granic, odzyskania samowładności Narodu i ugruntowania powszechnej wolności używać będę. Tak mi Panie Boże dopomóż i niewinna męka Syna Jego.}}\n#### English translation",
"*I, Tadeusz Kościuszko, hereby swear in the face of God to the whole Polish Nation, that I shall not use the power entrusted to me for anyone's personal oppression, but only for the defence of the integrity of the borders, for retaking the sovereignty of the Nation, and for strengthening the universal freedom. So help me God and the innocent Passion of His Son!*\n### Polish Legions in World War I",
"{{Main\\|Oath Crisis}}\nThe oath was prepared by the German authorities and on July 3, 1917 presented to Gen. [Hans Beseler](/wiki/Hans_Beseler \"Hans Beseler\"), then the German governor of [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\") and the highest authority of the planned [Polnische Wehrmacht](/wiki/Polnische_Wehrmacht \"Polnische Wehrmacht\") military formation. He invoked in swearing to the loyalty of the [Polish Legions](/wiki/Polish_Legions_in_World_War_I \"Polish Legions in World War I\") with it, thus putting them under direct German command.",
"However, the Polish Legions were already enraged with the German and Austro\\-Hungarian plans to place limits on Polish independence. In addition, they were angered by and also the Austro\\-Hungarian's dismissal of [Józef Piłsudski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski \"Józef Piłsudski\"), who was the Legions' leader. Therefore, most of the soldiers of the Legions declined to swear allegiance to a non\\-existent king of Poland or to a foreign government, which led to the so\\-called [Oath Crisis](/wiki/Oath_Crisis \"Oath Crisis\").",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Przysięgam Panu Bogu Wszechmogącemu, że Ojczyźnie mojej, Polskiemu Królestwu, i memu przyszłemu Królowi na lądzie i wodzie i na każdym miejscu wiernie i uczciwie służyć będę; że w wojnie obecnej dotrzymam wiernie braterstwa broni wojskom Niemiec i Austro\\-Węgier oraz państw z nimi sprzymierzonych; że będę przełożonych swych i dowódców słuchał, dawane mi rozkazy i przepisy wykonywał i w ogóle tak się zachowywał, abym mógł żyć i umierać jako mężny prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi, Boże, dopomóż!}}\n#### English translation",
"*I hereby swear to God Almighty, that I shall loyally serve my Fatherland, the Kingdom of Poland and my future King, both on water and on land, and in any circumstances; that during this war I shall remain a loyal brother in arms to the soldiers of Germany and Austria\\-Hungary and of the states allied to them; that I shall obey my superiors and commanders, fulfil the orders and generally behave so as to be able to live and die as a brave and just Polish soldier. So help me God!*\n### The Polish Army in France (1918\\)",
"Oath written by General [Józef Haller](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Haller_de_Hallenburg \"Józef Haller de Hallenburg\") and the [Polish National Committee](/wiki/Polish_National_Committee_%281917-1919%29 \"Polish National Committee (1917-1919)\") in 1918\\. It was used by the units of the [Blue Army](/wiki/Blue_Army_%28Poland%29 \"Blue Army (Poland)\"), that is the Polish Army formed in [France](/wiki/France \"France\") at the end of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\").",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Przysięgam przed Panem Bogiem Wszechmogącym, w Trójcy Świętej Jedynym, na wierność Ojczyźnie mojej, Polsce, jednej i niepodzielnej. Przysięgam, iż gotów jestem życie oddać za świętą sprawę jej zjednoczenia i wyzwolenia, bronić sztandaru mego do ostatniej kropli krwi, dochować karności i posłuszeństwa mojej zwierzchności wojskowej, a w całym postępowaniu moim strzec honoru żołnierza polskiego. Tak mi, Panie Boże, dopomóż.}}\n#### English translation",
"*I swear in the sight of God Almighty, who is One in the Holy Trinity, my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Poland, sole and indivisible. I swear that I am ready to give my life for the sacred cause of her unification and liberation, I swear to defend my banner to the last drop of my blood, to remain loyal and obedient to my commanders, and that by all my deeds I will guard the honour of the Polish soldier. So help me God!*\n### Greater Poland Uprising (1919\\)",
"To avoid an open conflict with [Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Republic \"Weimar Republic\"), the forces fighting in the [Greater Poland Uprising](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Uprising_%281918%E2%80%931919%29 \"Greater Poland Uprising (1918–1919)\") formally declared the existence of a separate state, and those forces were then considered separate from the Polish Army. Hence the oath of the armed forces of [Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland \"Greater Poland\") was different from that used by other Polish units elsewhere.",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|W obliczu Boga Wszechmogącego w Trójcy Świętej Jedynego ślubuję, że Polsce, Ojczyźnie mojej i sprawie całego Narodu Polskiego zawsze i wszędzie służyć będę, że kraju Ojczystego i dobra narodowego do ostatniej kropli krwi bronić będę, że Komisarzowi Naczelnej Rady Ludowej w Poznaniu i dowódcom, i przełożonym swoim mianowanym przez tenże Komisariat, zawsze i wszędzie posłuszny będę, że w ogóle tak zachowywać się będę, jak przystoi na mężnego i prawego żołnierza\\-Polaka, że po zjednoczeniu Polski złożę przysięgę żołnierską, ustanowioną przez polską zwierzchność państwową.}}\n#### English translation",
"*In the sight of God Almighty, One in the Holy Trinity, I hereby swear my everlasting allegiance to Poland, my Fatherland and to the whole Polish Nation. I swear to defend the Fatherland and the national good to the last drop of my blood. I swear loyalty and obedience to the Commissioner of the Supreme National Council in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\") and to my commanders, and to my superiors named by the Commission. I swear to always behave as a brave and valiant soldier and Pole, and that when Poland is united I shall take an oath accepted by the Polish military authority.*\n### Second Polish Republic (1924\\)",
"During the interwar period, the unified Polish Army introduced three distinct oaths to accommodate the diverse religious beliefs of its soldiers. These oaths were established by the Basic Duties of a Soldier Act on July 18, 1924, and later reaffirmed by an order from the Ministry of Military Affairs on July 15, 1927\\.",
"#### Polish text",
"**Christians** {{lang\\|pl\\|Przysięgam Panu Bogu Wszechmogącemu, w Trójcy Świętej Jedynemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić. Stać na straży konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego. Prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym. Rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać. Tajemnic wojskowych strzec. Za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach. I w ogóle tak postępować, aby mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg i święta Syna jego męka. Amen.}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw \"Dziennik Ustaw\")* [1927 Nr 68 Poz.603](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19270680603/O/D19270603.pdf)\n **Muslims** {{lang\\|pl\\|Przysięgam Panu Bogu Jedynemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić, stać na straży Konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego, prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym, rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać, tajemnic wojskowych strzec, za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach i w ogóle tak postępować, abym mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Bereetjum Mine Allachivy Veresulini illeclezine a hetdeteum minel masiurkine BilWałłagi, Tałłagi, Amin.}}\n **Other denominations** {{lang\\|pl\\|Przysięgam Bogu Wszechmogącemu być wiernym Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, chorągwi wojskowych nigdy nie odstąpić, stać na Straży Konstytucji i honoru żołnierza polskiego, prawu i Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej być uległym, rozkazy dowódców i przełożonych wiernie wykonywać, tajemnic wojskowych strzec, za sprawę Ojczyzny mej walczyć do ostatniego tchu w piersiach i w ogóle tak postępować abym mógł żyć i umierać jak prawy żołnierz polski. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg. Amen.}}\n#### English translation",
"**Christians** *I swear to God Almighty, One in Holy Trinity, my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, the Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry out the orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, and to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. So help me God and the sacred Passion of His Son! Amen.*\n **Muslims** *I swear to the Only God my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry out the orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. Bereetjum Mine Allachivy Veresulini illeclezine a hetdeteum minel masiurkine BilWałłagi, Tałłagi, Amin.*\n **Other denominations** *I swear to God Almighty my faithful allegiance to my Fatherland, the Republic of Poland. I swear always to stand by the military banners, to uphold the constitution and guard the honour of the Polish soldier, to be obedient to the law and to the President of Poland, to faithfully carry orders of my commanders and superiors, to keep the military secrets, to fight for my Fatherland to the last breath in my breast, to always behave so as to live and die as a true Polish soldier. So help me God! Amen.*\n### Armia Krajowa (WWII)",
"Since the [Armia Krajowa](/wiki/Armia_Krajowa \"Armia Krajowa\") was formed of various smaller resistance organizations, initially the words of the oath used by the Polish underground varied. The following is the text for the Christians serving in the Home Army. Other denominations used different variations of it.",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|W obliczu Boga Wszechmogącego i Najświętszej Maryi Panny, Królowej Korony Polskiej, przysięgam być wierny Ojczyźnie mej, Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Stać nieugięcie na straży jej honoru, o wyzwolenie z niewoli walczyć ze wszystkich sił, aż do ofiary mego życia. Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Naczelnemu Wodzowi i wyznaczonemu przezeń Dowódcy Armii Krajowej będę bezwzględnie posłuszny a tajemnicy niezłomnie dochowam, cokolwiek by mnie spotkać miało. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg.}}\n#### English translation",
"*Before God Almighty and Mary the Blessed Virgin, Queen of the Polish Crown, I pledge allegiance to my Fatherland, the Republic of Poland. I pledge to steadfastly guard Her honour, and to fight for Her liberation with all my strength, even to the extent of sacrificing my own life. I pledge [unconditional obedience](/wiki/Unconditional_obedience \"Unconditional obedience\") to the President of Poland, the Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Republic of Poland, and the Home Army Commander who is appointed. I pledge to resolutely keep secret whatever may happen to me. So help me God!*\n### Polish Armed Forces in the East (1943\\)",
"This oath was first taken on 15 July 1943, in [Sielce](/wiki/Sielce \"Sielce\"), at the [Oka River](/wiki/Oka_River \"Oka River\"). It was used by the Soviet\\-backed military of Poland until the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") and afterwards.",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Składam uroczystą przysięgę ziemi polskiej, broczącej we krwi, narodowi polskiemu, umęczonemu w niemieckim jarzmie, że nie skalam imienia Polaka, że wiernie będę służył Ojczyźnie. \nPrzysięgam ziemi polskiej i narodowi polskiemu rzetelnie pełnić obowiązki żołnierza w obozie, w pochodzie, w boju, w każdej chwili i na każdym miejscu, strzec wojskowej tajemnicy, wypełniać wiernie rozkazy oficerów i dowódców. \nPrzysięgam dochować wierności sojuszniczej Związkowi Radzieckiemu, który dał mi do ręki broń do walki z wspólnym wrogiem, przysięgam dochować braterstwa broni sojuszniczej Czerwonej Armii. \nPrzysięgam ziemi polskiej i narodowi polskiemu, że do ostatniej kropli krwi, do ostatniego tchu nienawidzieć będę wroga \\- Niemca, który zniszczył Polskę, do ostatniej kropli krwi, do ostatniego tchu walczyć będę o wyzwolenie Ojczyzny, abym mógł żyć i umierać jako prawy i uczciwy żołnierz Polski. \nTak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}\n#### English translation",
"*I hereby swear to the blood\\-rinsed Polish land, to the Polish nation tormented by the German yoke, that I will not desecrate the name of a Pole and that I will courageously serve my Fatherland.*\n *I swear to the Polish land and to the Polish people that I will honestly serve the duties of a soldier, on the march and in battle, in the camp and at any other moment, I will guard the secrets and fulfil the orders of my officers and commanders.*\n *I swear to be a loyal ally of the Soviet Union, which gave me the arms to fight our common enemy, and I swear I will preserve the brotherhood of arms with the allied Red Army.*\n *I swear to the Polish land and to the Polish nation that to the last drop of blood, to the last breath shall I hate the enemy \\- the German who destroyed Poland; to the last drop of blood, to the last breath shall I fight for the liberation of my Fatherland, so that I could live and die as a rightful and honest soldier of Poland.*\n *So help me God!*\n### Polish People's Army 1944",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Przysięgam uroczyście skrwawionej Ziemi Polskiej i Narodowi Polskiemu walczyć z niemieckim najeźdźcą o wyzwolenie Ojczyzny oraz utrwalenie wolności, niepodległości i potęgi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Przysięgam rzetelnie i sumiennie wypełniać obowiązki żołnierza polskiego, wiernie wykonywać wydane mi rozkazy i ściśle przestrzegać tajemnicy wojskowej. Przysięgam wiernie służyć Rzeczypospolitej i nigdy nie skalać imienia Polaka. Przysięgam dochować wierności Krajowej Radzie Narodowej, Władzy Naczelnej Narodu Polskiego. Przysięgam nieugięcie stać na straży praw Narodu Polskiego, mieć wszystkich obywateli w równym poszanowaniu oraz niezłomnie bronić swobód demokratycznych. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw \"Dziennik Ustaw\")* [1944 Nr 3 Poz.13](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19440030013/O/D19440013.pdf)\n### Polish People's Army oath (1947 variant)",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Przysięgam uroczyście Narodowi Polskiemu: walczyć do ostatniego tchu w obronie Ojczyzny wyzwolonej z przemocy niemieckiej i niezłomnie strzec wolności, niepodległości i mocy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Przysięgam wypełniać rzetelnie i sumiennie obowiązki żołnierza, wykonywać wiernie rozkazy przełożonych, przestrzegać ściśle regulaminów i dochować tajemnicy wojskowej. Przysięgam służyć ze wszystkich sił Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, bronić niezłomnie Jej ustroju demokratycznego i dochować wierności Prezydentowi Rzeczypospolitej. Przysięgam stać nieugięcie na straży praw Ludu Polskiego, mieć wszystkich obywateli w równym poszanowaniu i nigdy nie splamić godności Polaka. Tak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw \"Dziennik Ustaw\")* [1947 nr 52 Poz.267](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19470520267/O/D19470267.pdf)\n#### English",
"*I pledge to the people of Poland to fight for the last breath in defense of the Fatherland liberated from German violence and steadfastly help in the defense of the freedom, independence and strength of the Republic of Poland. I promise thus to fulfill the duties of a soldier faithfully and conscientiously, to execute faithfully the orders of the superiors above me, to strictly observe the regulations and laws of the armed forces and preserve secrecy within it, to be of service of all the military forces of the Republic of Poland, defend her democratic system undoubtedly and keep my loyalty to the President of the Republic of Poland, and to stand firm in guarding the rights of the Polish people, promote the equality of all its citizens, and to defend the honor and dignity of the Polish nation. So help me God!*\n### Polish People's Army oath (1952\\-1988\\)",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Ja, obywatel Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego, przysięgam Narodowi Polskiemu być uczciwym, zdyscyplinowanym, mężnym i czujnym żołnierzem, wykonywać dokładnie rozkazy przełożonych i przepisy regulaminów, dochować ściśle tajemnicy wojskowej i państwowej, nie splamić nigdy honoru i godności żołnierza polskiego. Przysięgam służyć ze wszystkich sił Ojczyźnie, bronić niezłomnie praw ludu pracującego, zawarowanych w Konstytucji, stać nieugięcie na straży władzy ludowej, dochować wierności Rządowi Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. Przysięgam strzec niezłomnie wolności, niepodległości i granic Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej przed zakusami imperializmu, stać nieugięcie na straży pokoju w braterskim przymierzu z Armią Radziecką i innymi sojuszniczymi armiami i w razie potrzeby nie szczędząc krwi ani życia mężnie walczyć w obronie Ojczyzny, o świętą sprawę niepodległości, wolności i szczęścia ludu. Gdybym nie bacząc na tę moją uroczystą przysięgę obowiązek wierności wobec Ojczyzny złamał, niechaj mnie dosięgnie surowa ręka sprawiedliwości ludowej.}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw \"Dziennik Ustaw\")* [1952 Nr 46 Poz.310](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19520460310/O/D19520310.pdf)\n#### English",
"*I, a citizen of the Polish People's Republic, standing in the ranks of the Polish Army, swear to the Polish Nation to be an honest, disciplined, brave and vigilant soldier, to follow the orders of my superiors and the provisions of the regulations, strictly keep military and state secrets, never taint the honor and dignity of a Polish soldier. I swear to serve my motherland with all my strength, to defend steadfastly the rights of the working people, enshrined in the Constitution, to stand steadfastly in guarding the people's authority, and to be faithful to the Government of the People's Republic of Poland. I swear to steadfastly guard the freedom, independence and borders of the Polish People's Republic against imperialism, to stand steadfastly in guarding peace in a fraternal alliance with the Soviet Army and other allied armies and, if necessary, sparing my blood and life, bravely fight in defense of the Fatherland, for the sacred cause of independence, freedom and the happiness of the people. If, disregarding my solemn oath, I had broken my duty of faithfulness to the Fatherland, let the stern hand of the people's justice reach me.*\n### 1988",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Ja, obywatel Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego, \nPrzysięgam służyć wiernie Ojczyźnie i narodowi swemu, przestrzegać zasad Konstytucji, być godnym chlubnych tradycji oręża polskiego. \nPrzysięgam, iż nie szczędząc trudu, a w potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia, stać będę nieugięcie na straży niepodległości, suwerenności i granic kraju ojczystego, strzec pokoju w braterstwie broni z sojuszniczymi armiami. \nPrzysięgam dbać o honor i dobre imię wojska, sumiennie spełniać powinności żołnierskie, ściśle wykonywać rozkazy przełożonych, być zdyscyplinowanym i mężnym, uczciwym i koleżeńskim żołnierzem. Przysięgam zdobywać wiedzę i umiejętności wojskowe, troszczyć się o powierzoną mi broń, sprzęt i mienie, dochować tajemnicy państwowej i służbowej. \nSkładając tę uroczystą przysięgę, jestem świadom swej odpowiedzialności wobec narodu i praw socjalistycznego państwa polskiego.}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw \"Dziennik Ustaw\")* [1988 Nr 20 Poz.133](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19880200133/O/D19880133.pdf)\n#### English",
"*I, a citizen of the Polish People's Republic, standing in the ranks of the Polish Armed Forces, swear that:*\n *I will serve my homeland and people faithfully, to abide by the principles of the Constitution, to be worthy of the glorious traditions of the Polish armed services.*\n *I swear that I will spare no effort, and in the need of my own blood or my life, I will stand steadfastly guarding the independence, sovereignty and borders of my country, and guarding peace in brotherhood of arms with allied armies*.\n *I swear to care for the honor and good name of the army, to diligently fulfill my military duties, strictly follow the orders of my superiors, to be a disciplined and brave, honest and friendly soldier. I swear to acquire military knowledge and skills, to take care of the weapons, equipment and property entrusted to me, and to keep the state and official secrets.* \n *Taking this solemn oath, I am aware of my responsibility towards the nation and the rights of the socialist Polish state.*\n### 1989",
"Following the establishment of the [Third Polish Republic](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281989%E2%80%93present%29 \"History of Poland (1989–present)\") in 1989 and changing the name of the state: *Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa* to *Rzeczpospolita Polska*, the oath was changed, esp. the reference to \"socialist Polish state\" has been deleted from old text.",
"#### Polish text",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Ja, obywatel Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, stając w szeregach Wojska Polskiego, \nPrzysięgam służyć wiernie Ojczyźnie i narodowi swemu, przestrzegać zasad Konstytucji, być godnym chlubnych tradycji oręża polskiego. \nPrzysięgam, iż nie szczędząc trudu, a w potrzebie krwi własnej ani życia, stać będę nieugięcie na straży niepodległości, suwerenności i granic kraju ojczystego, strzec pokoju w braterstwie broni z sojuszniczymi armiami. \nPrzysięgam dbać o honor i dobre imię wojska, sumiennie spełniać powinności żołnierskie, ściśle wykonywać rozkazy przełożonych, być zdyscyplinowanym i mężnym, uczciwym i koleżeńskim żołnierzem. Przysięgam zdobywać wiedzę i umiejętności wojskowe, troszczyć się o powierzoną mi broń, sprzęt i mienie, dochować tajemnicy państwowej i służbowej. Składając tę uroczystą przysięgę, jestem świadom swej odpowiedzialności wobec narodu i praw Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. \nKu Chwale Ojczyzny, \nNa Sztandar, \nPrzysięgam.}}\n#### English",
"*I, a citizen of the Republic of Poland, standing in the ranks of the Polish Armed Forces, swear thus:*\n *that I pledge to serve my homeland and people faithfully, to abide by the principles of the Constitution, to be worthy of the glorious traditions of the Polish armed services.* \n *I swear that, sparing no effort, and in the need of my own blood and my life, I will stand steadfastly guarding the independence, sovereignty and borders of my homeland, and in guarding peace in the brotherhood of arms with allied armies.* \n *I swear to care for the honor and good name of the armed forces, to diligently fulfill my military duties, strictly follow the orders of my superiors placed above me, to be a disciplined and brave, honest and friendly soldier/sailor/aircraftman. I swear to acquire military knowledge and skills, to take care of the weapons, equipment and property entrusted to me, and to keep state and official secrets. By taking this solemn oath, I am aware of my responsibility towards the nation and the laws of the Republic of Poland.* \n *For the Glory of the Fatherland, To its colours, I therefore pledge, (so help me God).*\n### Modern oath (since 1992\\)",
"In 1992 the oath was changed again and significantly shortened. There is only one oath for all denominations, although each soldier can omit the last line according to their own beliefs.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Poland \\|first\\=Wolters Kluwer \\|title\\=\\[Rota przysięgi woskowej] \\- Art. 1\\. \\- Przysięga wojskowa. \\- Dz.U.1992\\.77\\.386 \\|url\\=https://sip.lex.pl/akty\\-prawne/dzu\\-dziennik\\-ustaw/przysiega\\-wojskowa\\-16794908/art\\-1 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-28 \\|website\\=OpenLEX \\|language\\=pl}}",
"#### Polish",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|Ja żołnierz Wojska Polskiego, \nPrzysięgam, \nSłużyć wiernie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, \nBronić jej niepodległości i granic, \nStać na straży Konstytucji, \nStrzec honoru żołnierza polskiego, \nSztandaru wojskowego bronić, \nZa sprawę mojej Ojczyzny, \nW potrzebie krwi własnej ani \nżycia nie szczędzić, \nTak mi dopomóż Bóg!}}*[Dziennik Ustaw](/wiki/Dziennik_Ustaw \"Dziennik Ustaw\")* [1992 Nr 77 Poz.386](http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19920770386/O/D19920386.pdf)\n#### English",
"*I, a soldier of the Polish Armed Forces*,\nFully swear,\nTo Serve loyally to the Republic of Poland,\nDefend her independence and borders,\nStand on guard of the Constitution,\nDefend the honour of a Polish soldier,\nDefend the military colours and standards of the armed forces,\nIn the sake of my Fatherland,\nEven at the cost of losing my life or blood.\n*So help me God!*"
] |
Holographic reduction
---------------------
A standard technique in complexity theory is a [many\-one reduction](/wiki/Many-one_reduction "Many-one reduction"), where an instance of one problem is reduced to an instance of another (hopefully simpler) problem.
However, holographic reductions between two computational problems preserve the sum of solutions without necessarily preserving correspondences between solutions. For instance, the total number of solutions in both sets can be preserved, even though individual problems do not have matching solutions. The sum can also be weighted, rather than simply counting the number of solutions, using [linear basis vectors](/wiki/Basis_%28linear_algebra%29 "Basis (linear algebra)").{{cite journal
\| last1 \= Cai
\| first1 \= Jin\-Yi
\| last2 \= Lu
\| first2 \= Pinyan
\| year \= 2011
\| title \= Holographic algorithms: From art to science
\| journal \= J. Comput. Syst. Sci.
\| volume \= 77
\| issue \= 1
\| pages \= 41–61
\| doi \= 10\.1016/j.jcss.2010\.06\.005
\| doi\-access \= free
}}
### General example
It is convenient to consider holographic reductions on bipartite graphs. A general graph can always be transformed it into a bipartite graph while preserving the Holant value. This is done by replacing each edge in the graph by a path of length 2, which is also known as the 2\-stretch of the graph. To keep the same Holant value, each new vertex is assigned the binary equality constraint.
Consider a bipartite graph *G*\=(*U*,*V*,*E*) where the constraint assigned to every vertex u \\in U is f\_u and the constraint assigned to every vertex v \\in V is f\_v. Denote this counting problem by \\text{Holant}(G, f\_u, f\_v). If the vertices in *U* are viewed as one large vertex of degree \|*E*\|, then the constraint of this vertex is the [tensor product](/wiki/Tensor_product "Tensor product") of f\_u with itself \|*U*\| times, which is denoted by f\_u^{\\otimes \|U\|}. Likewise, if the vertices in *V* are viewed as one large vertex of degree \|*E*\|, then the constraint of this vertex is f\_v^{\\otimes \|V\|}. Let the constraint f\_u be represented by its weighted [truth table](/wiki/Truth_table "Truth table") as a row vector and the constraint f\_v be represented by its weighted truth table as a column vector. Then the Holant of this constraint graph is simply f\_u^{\\otimes \|U\|} f\_v^{\\otimes \|V\|}.
Now for any complex 2\-by\-2 [invertible matrix](/wiki/Invertible_matrix "Invertible matrix") *T* (the columns of which are the linear basis vectors mentioned above), there is a holographic reduction between \\text{Holant}(G, f\_u, f\_v) and \\text{Holant}(G, f\_u T^{\\otimes (\\deg u)}, (T^{\-1})^{\\otimes (\\deg v)} f\_v). To see this, insert the identity matrix T^{\\otimes \|E\|} (T^{\-1})^{\\otimes \|E\|} in between f\_u^{\\otimes \|U\|} f\_v^{\\otimes \|V\|} to get
f\_u^{\\otimes \|U\|} f\_v^{\\otimes \|V\|}
\= f\_u^{\\otimes \|U\|} T^{\\otimes \|E\|} (T^{\-1})^{\\otimes \|E\|} f\_v^{\\otimes \|V\|}
\= \\left(f\_u T^{\\otimes (\\deg u)}\\right)^{\\otimes \|U\|} \\left(f\_v (T^{\-1})^{\\otimes (\\deg v)}\\right)^{\\otimes \|V\|}.
Thus, \\text{Holant}(G, f\_u, f\_v) and \\text{Holant}(G, f\_u T^{\\otimes (\\deg u)}, (T^{\-1})^{\\otimes (\\deg v)} f\_v) have exactly the same Holant value for every constraint graph. They essentially define the same counting problem.
### Specific examples
#### Vertex covers and independent sets
Let *G* be a graph. There is a 1\-to\-1 correspondence between the [vertex covers](/wiki/Vertex_cover "Vertex cover") of *G* and the [independent sets](/wiki/Independent_set_%28graph_theory%29 "Independent set (graph theory)") of *G*. For any set *S* of vertices of *G*, *S* is a vertex cover in *G* if and only if the [complement](/wiki/Complement_%28set_theory%29 "Complement (set theory)") of *S* is an independent set in *G*. Thus, the number of vertex covers in *G* is exactly the same as the number of independent sets in *G*.
The equivalence of these two counting problems can also be proved using a holographic reduction. For simplicity, let *G* be a 3\-[regular graph](/wiki/Regular_graph "Regular graph"). The 2\-stretch of *G* gives a bipartite graph *H*\=(*U*,*V*,*E*), where *U* corresponds to the edges in *G* and *V* corresponds to the vertices in *G*. The Holant problem that naturally corresponds to counting the number of vertex covers in *G* is \\text{Holant}(H, \\text{OR}\_2, \\text{EQUAL}\_3\). The truth table of OR2 as a row vector is (0,1,1,1\). The truth table of EQUAL3 as a column vector is (1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1\)^T \= \\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\ 0 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3} \+ \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\ 1 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3}. Then under a holographic transformation by \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \& 1 \\\\ 1 \& 0 \\end{bmatrix},
\\text{OR}\_2^{\\otimes \|U\|} \\text{EQUAL}\_3^{\\otimes \|V\|}
\= (0,1,1,1\)^{\\otimes \|U\|} \\left(\\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\ 0 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3} \+ \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\ 1 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3}\\right)^{\\otimes \|V\|}
\= (0,1,1,1\)^{\\otimes \|U\|} \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \& 1 \\\\ 1 \& 0 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes \|E\|} \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \& 1 \\\\ 1 \& 0 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes \|E\|} \\left(\\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\ 0 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3} \+ \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\ 1 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3}\\right)^{\\otimes \|V\|}
\= \\left((0,1,1,1\) \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \& 1 \\\\ 1 \& 0 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 2}\\right)^{\\otimes \|U\|} \\left(\\left(\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \& 1 \\\\ 1 \& 0 \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\ 0 \\end{bmatrix}\\right)^{\\otimes 3} \+ \\left(\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \& 1 \\\\ 1 \& 0 \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\ 1 \\end{bmatrix}\\right)^{\\otimes 3}\\right)^{\\otimes \|V\|}
\= (1,1,1,0\)^{\\otimes \|U\|} \\left(\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\ 1 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3} \+ \\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\ 0 \\end{bmatrix}^{\\otimes 3}\\right)^{\\otimes \|V\|}
\= \\text{NAND}\_2^{\\otimes \|U\|} \\text{EQUAL}\_3^{\\otimes \|V\|},
which is \\text{Holant}(H, \\text{NAND}\_2, \\text{EQUAL}\_3\), the Holant problem that naturally corresponds to counting the number of independent sets in *G*.
|
[
"Holographic reduction\n---------------------",
"A standard technique in complexity theory is a [many\\-one reduction](/wiki/Many-one_reduction \"Many-one reduction\"), where an instance of one problem is reduced to an instance of another (hopefully simpler) problem.\nHowever, holographic reductions between two computational problems preserve the sum of solutions without necessarily preserving correspondences between solutions. For instance, the total number of solutions in both sets can be preserved, even though individual problems do not have matching solutions. The sum can also be weighted, rather than simply counting the number of solutions, using [linear basis vectors](/wiki/Basis_%28linear_algebra%29 \"Basis (linear algebra)\").{{cite journal\n \\| last1 \\= Cai\n \\| first1 \\= Jin\\-Yi\n \\| last2 \\= Lu\n \\| first2 \\= Pinyan\n \\| year \\= 2011\n \\| title \\= Holographic algorithms: From art to science\n \\| journal \\= J. Comput. Syst. Sci.\n \\| volume \\= 77\n \\| issue \\= 1\n \\| pages \\= 41–61\n \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.jcss.2010\\.06\\.005\n\\| doi\\-access \\= free\n }}",
"### General example",
"It is convenient to consider holographic reductions on bipartite graphs. A general graph can always be transformed it into a bipartite graph while preserving the Holant value. This is done by replacing each edge in the graph by a path of length 2, which is also known as the 2\\-stretch of the graph. To keep the same Holant value, each new vertex is assigned the binary equality constraint.",
"Consider a bipartite graph *G*\\=(*U*,*V*,*E*) where the constraint assigned to every vertex u \\\\in U is f\\_u and the constraint assigned to every vertex v \\\\in V is f\\_v. Denote this counting problem by \\\\text{Holant}(G, f\\_u, f\\_v). If the vertices in *U* are viewed as one large vertex of degree \\|*E*\\|, then the constraint of this vertex is the [tensor product](/wiki/Tensor_product \"Tensor product\") of f\\_u with itself \\|*U*\\| times, which is denoted by f\\_u^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|}. Likewise, if the vertices in *V* are viewed as one large vertex of degree \\|*E*\\|, then the constraint of this vertex is f\\_v^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}. Let the constraint f\\_u be represented by its weighted [truth table](/wiki/Truth_table \"Truth table\") as a row vector and the constraint f\\_v be represented by its weighted truth table as a column vector. Then the Holant of this constraint graph is simply f\\_u^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} f\\_v^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}.",
"Now for any complex 2\\-by\\-2 [invertible matrix](/wiki/Invertible_matrix \"Invertible matrix\") *T* (the columns of which are the linear basis vectors mentioned above), there is a holographic reduction between \\\\text{Holant}(G, f\\_u, f\\_v) and \\\\text{Holant}(G, f\\_u T^{\\\\otimes (\\\\deg u)}, (T^{\\-1})^{\\\\otimes (\\\\deg v)} f\\_v). To see this, insert the identity matrix T^{\\\\otimes \\|E\\|} (T^{\\-1})^{\\\\otimes \\|E\\|} in between f\\_u^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} f\\_v^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|} to get\nf\\_u^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} f\\_v^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}\n\\= f\\_u^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} T^{\\\\otimes \\|E\\|} (T^{\\-1})^{\\\\otimes \\|E\\|} f\\_v^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}\n\\= \\\\left(f\\_u T^{\\\\otimes (\\\\deg u)}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} \\\\left(f\\_v (T^{\\-1})^{\\\\otimes (\\\\deg v)}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}.\nThus, \\\\text{Holant}(G, f\\_u, f\\_v) and \\\\text{Holant}(G, f\\_u T^{\\\\otimes (\\\\deg u)}, (T^{\\-1})^{\\\\otimes (\\\\deg v)} f\\_v) have exactly the same Holant value for every constraint graph. They essentially define the same counting problem.",
"### Specific examples",
"#### Vertex covers and independent sets",
"Let *G* be a graph. There is a 1\\-to\\-1 correspondence between the [vertex covers](/wiki/Vertex_cover \"Vertex cover\") of *G* and the [independent sets](/wiki/Independent_set_%28graph_theory%29 \"Independent set (graph theory)\") of *G*. For any set *S* of vertices of *G*, *S* is a vertex cover in *G* if and only if the [complement](/wiki/Complement_%28set_theory%29 \"Complement (set theory)\") of *S* is an independent set in *G*. Thus, the number of vertex covers in *G* is exactly the same as the number of independent sets in *G*.",
"The equivalence of these two counting problems can also be proved using a holographic reduction. For simplicity, let *G* be a 3\\-[regular graph](/wiki/Regular_graph \"Regular graph\"). The 2\\-stretch of *G* gives a bipartite graph *H*\\=(*U*,*V*,*E*), where *U* corresponds to the edges in *G* and *V* corresponds to the vertices in *G*. The Holant problem that naturally corresponds to counting the number of vertex covers in *G* is \\\\text{Holant}(H, \\\\text{OR}\\_2, \\\\text{EQUAL}\\_3\\). The truth table of OR2 as a row vector is (0,1,1,1\\). The truth table of EQUAL3 as a column vector is (1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1\\)^T \\= \\\\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3} \\+ \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3}. Then under a holographic transformation by \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0 \\\\end{bmatrix},\n\\\\text{OR}\\_2^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} \\\\text{EQUAL}\\_3^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}\n\\= (0,1,1,1\\)^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} \\\\left(\\\\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3} \\+ \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}\n\\= (0,1,1,1\\)^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes \\|E\\|} \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes \\|E\\|} \\\\left(\\\\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3} \\+ \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}\n\\= \\\\left((0,1,1,1\\) \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 2}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} \\\\left(\\\\left(\\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0 \\\\end{bmatrix} \\\\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes 3} \\+ \\\\left(\\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0 \\\\end{bmatrix} \\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\\\end{bmatrix}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes 3}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}\n\\= (1,1,1,0\\)^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} \\\\left(\\\\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3} \\+ \\\\begin{bmatrix} 1 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\\\end{bmatrix}^{\\\\otimes 3}\\\\right)^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|}\n\\= \\\\text{NAND}\\_2^{\\\\otimes \\|U\\|} \\\\text{EQUAL}\\_3^{\\\\otimes \\|V\\|},\nwhich is \\\\text{Holant}(H, \\\\text{NAND}\\_2, \\\\text{EQUAL}\\_3\\), the Holant problem that naturally corresponds to counting the number of independent sets in *G*.",
""
] |
Career
------
Apraksina settled in [Leningrad](/wiki/Leningrad "Leningrad") in 1963 and started to live on Apraksin Lane (*Apraksin pereulok*) in 1972\. The music\-inflected unofficial culture of the time began to intersect actively with her life.{{Cite news\|url\=https://coollib.com/b/103552/read\|author\=Kushnir, Alexander. \|title\=Mike, "Sweet N and Others"\|work\=100 Cassette Albums of Soviet Rock }} Moscow: Agraf, Kraft\+, 2003\. {{ISBN\|5\-7784\-0251\-1}}.{{Cite book\|author\=Valieva, Y.M.\|title\=On the History of Unofficial Culture and the Contemporary Russian Diaspora: 1950s\-1990s. Autobiographies. Authors' readings. }} St. Petersburg: Contrast, St. Petersburg State University, 2015\. 600 p. \+ 3 CDs. {{ISBN\|978\-5\-4380\-0099\-0}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.nautilus.co.il/Pages/pgsPress/pgVmakPress.aspx?artID\=753\&menuID\=6\&srcPPack\=ru,0,0\|author\=Mak, Vladimir.\|title\=Apraksin Blues\|work\=Vesti\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212037/http://www.nautilus.co.il/Pages/pgsPress/pgVmakPress.aspx?artID\=753\&menuID\=6\&srcPPack\=ru,0,0\|archivedate\=2016\-03\-03}} Tel Aviv, Israel. Nov. 29, 2012
In 1974, "Apraksina" became her creative pseudonym. Her salon on Apraksin Lane hosted the original members of [Akvarium](/wiki/Akvarium "Akvarium"), as well as nascent songwriter [Mike Naumenko](/wiki/Mike_Naumenko "Mike Naumenko"), who by the early 1980s as the founder of [Zoopark](/wiki/Zoopark_%28band%29 "Zoopark (band)") would gain recognition as a key figure in [Russian rock](/wiki/Russian_rock "Russian rock") and blues music.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action\_id\=2\&story\_id\=35491 \|author\=Chernov, Sergey. \|title\=Unexposed genius: Musicians will gather this week to remember the late Zoopark singer Mike Naumenko. }} The St. Petersburg Times. April 18, 2012Urban, Michael, with Andrei Evdokimov. *Russia Gets the Blues: Music, Culture, and Community in Unsettled Times.* Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2004\. P. 32, 90, 93\. {{ISBN\|0\-8014\-4229\-X}} In one of his late interviews, Mike revealed that "all \[his] songs are dedicated to her."
Primarily self\-taught,{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.pressa.spb.ru/newspapers/anomal/arts/anomal\-159\-art\-7\.html\|author\=Polevich, A. \|title\=The Musical Staff of Tatyana Apraksina.\|work\=Anomalia }} St. Petersburg. No.4 (159\), February 20, 1998\.{{Cite news\|author\=Sagalov, Zinovy. \|title\=California Psalms\|work\=Posrednik }} Philadelphia, Penn. March 5–18, 2003, No. 5 (88\).{{Cite news\|author\=Ismailova, Nadezhda. \|title\=Profile: Letter from Augsburg \- The Artist from Apraksin Dvor\|work\=Zerkalo }} Baku, Azerbaijan. No. 129, July 12, 2003\. P. 33\. Apraksina managed to establish herself as a graphic artist, employed by factories, stores and movie theaters. Themes of early exhibits of her independent creative work included the courtyards of old Leningrad,{{Cite news\|author\=Askerov, Eldar. \|title\=A Source of Inspiration\|work\=Music in the USSR }} Moscow: VAAP\-Inform, January–March 1988, p. 72\-73\. particularly nearby [Apraksin Dvor](/wiki/Apraksin_Dvor "Apraksin Dvor"). She then began to gather material for a new direction in her work by studying the culture of music and musicians.{{Cite news\|author\=Askerov, Eldar. \|title\=Tatyana Apraksina \|work\=Musical Life }} USSR Composers Union and Ministry of Culture, summer 1987\.Tatyana Apraksina. *Soviet Union* magazine, Moscow, June–July 1987\. She received permission to attend rehearsals of what is now the [Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra") and of other ensembles, doing so for four to six hours a day, getting to know musicians and producing hundreds of charcoal sketches, and reading music\-related literature. She exhibited this early music\-related work at what is now the [Saint Petersburg Philharmonia](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Philharmonia "Saint Petersburg Philharmonia"). The hall's director, Dmitry Ivanovich Sollertinsky, facilitated her work by giving her an on\-site studio and a pass granting access to nearly all rehearsals and concerts at the Philharmonia. During this period, Apraksina experienced conflicts with the [KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB"), nominally related to her contacts with foreigners.
Students and relatives of [Dmitri Shostakovich](/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich "Dmitri Shostakovich") assisted in the creation of Apraksina's first portrait of the composer, known for its unusual approach of depicting the composer's face at different ages on the same canvas.Kagan, M.S. *Behold the Man… Life, Death and Immortality in the "Magic Mirror" of Fine Art.* St. Petersburg: Logos Publishing, 2003\. P. 200\. As part of the observances of Shostakovich's 80th birthday, the artist donated the portrait to what is now the [Saint Petersburg Conservatory](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Conservatory "Saint Petersburg Conservatory"), which hung the work in Room 36, where the composer taught his classes. The portrait was later moved to today's Saint Peterburg [Composers' Union](/wiki/Composers%27_Union "Composers' Union"), where it remains on permanent display.
In later years, Apraksina's exploration of classical music continued.[Consonance. Documentary on Tatyana Apraksina.](http://www.tvmuseum.ru/card.asp?ob_no=3188) Lentelefilm, 1989\. Museum of Television and Radio in the Internet{{Cite news\|url\=http://optimalist.narod.ru/gaz05\.htm\|author\=Zlatogurskaya, Ya.\|title\=Red Violinist in White Snow.\|work\=Optimalist\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215030736/http://optimalist.narod.ru/gaz05\.htm\|archivedate\=2013\-12\-15}} Russia. No.1 (5\), 1991\. In 1987, the [Kurchatov Institute](/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute "Kurchatov Institute") and the Glinka Museum of Musical Culture were among institutions in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") to host Apraksina's exhibits. She also worked with the [Borodin Quartet](/wiki/Borodin_Quartet "Borodin Quartet"). Apraksina's relationship with the composer [Aleksandr Lokshin](/wiki/Aleksandr_Lokshin "Aleksandr Lokshin"), occasioned by painting his portrait{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.conversations.org/story.php?sid\=469 \|author\=Apraksina, Tatyana. \|title\=A Face That Held No Riddles (English translation). \|work\=works \& conversations }} Berkeley, Calif., 2016\. just prior to his death, would remain significant in later years as the artist took an active role in rehabilitating the slandered composer's reputation through her writing.{{Cite book\|author\=Myaskovsky, Yudina, Barshai, Tischenko, Apraksina \|title\=On the composer Aleksandr Lokshin \|display\-authors\=etal}} Moscow: Dialog\-Moscow State University Press, 1998[Apraksina, Tatyana. "A Face with No Secrets"](http://lokshin.org/lokshin-life-apraksina-en.htm) (English translation). Lokshin.org.{{Cite book\|author1\=Lokshin, Aleksandr A. \|author2\=Apraksina, T. I. \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|title\=Genius of Evil, Face with No Secrets and Beyond the Requiem }} 2nd edition, expanded. Moscow: MAKS\-Press, 2005\. The writing also embodied a first public statement of the risks to which painting and displaying the portrait had exposed her career.{{Cite news\|url\=http://rudocs.exdat.com/docs/index\-230344\.html?page\=16 \|author\=Alisova\-Lokshina, T.B. \|title\=Brushstrokes of a Portrait }} From *"Genius of Evil" and "A Face That Held No Riddles"*, 1st edition. Moscow: MAKS\-Press, 2003\.
Apraksina first exhibited in the United States as a Soviet artist through the Art League of Chicago and [Soros Foundation](/wiki/Soros_Foundation "Soros Foundation") support. The seven\-month tour, featuring eleven exhibits from the East to the West Coast of the U.S., also included the artist's lectures.
In 1994, 1995 and 1997, Apraksina exhibited and lectured at the [Ivan Sollertinsky](/wiki/Ivan_Sollertinsky "Ivan Sollertinsky") International Music Festival in [Vitebsk](/wiki/Vitebsk "Vitebsk"), [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus").[Chronicle of the I.I. Sollertinsky International Music Festival](http://www.vmigmusic-com.na.by/index.php/component/content/article/79-vitebsk/346-hronica-vitebsk.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213230036/http://www.vmigmusic\-com.na.by/index.php/component/content/article/79\-vitebsk/346\-hronica\-vitebsk.html \|date\=2013\-12\-13 }}(participants, programs, events), 1989\-2007\. Vmigmusic.com. Art and culture project on music in Vitebsk.
In 1998, in the building of the [Twelve Collegia](/wiki/Twelve_Collegia "Twelve Collegia"), [Saint Petersburg State University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University "Saint Petersburg State University")'s Center for Contemporary Art held a retrospective exhibit drawn from Apraksina's body of work in parallel with her "March Solo" festival, organized in partnership with the Center for Cultural Studies at the university's department of philosophy.[Center for Contemporary Art at St. Petersburg State University.](http://www.encspb.ru/ru/article.php?kod=2804728734) *Encyclopedia of St. Petersburg.* Committee for Culture of St. Petersburg, Institute of Peter the Great.[Program of "March Solo" III festival, March 27\-April 2 1998\.](http://cultcentr.philosophy.spbu.ru) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424013213/http://cultcentr.philosophy.spbu.ru/ \|date\=2013\-04\-24 }} St. Petersburg State University Center for Cultural Studies. Her "brief segments" on creativity, *Lessons for 'Orly*, were published in the annual journal of the university's St. Petersburg Philosophical Society in 2000\.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.spho.ru/media/pdf/\_original/9/apraksinamyisl4\.pdf \|author\=Apraksina, Tatyana. \|title\=Lessons for 'Orly. \|work\=Mysl': St. Petersburg Philosophical Society }} St. Petersburg State University. No. 4, 2000\. {{ISBN\|5\-288\-02505\-3}}
In 2008, Apraksina's *California Psalms*, written in [Big Sur](/wiki/Big_Sur "Big Sur"),
Apraksina, Tatyana. *California Psalms/Калифорнийские псалмы* (bilingual edition). Astoria, Ore.: Radiolarian Press, 2013\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-887853\-37\-8}}Gartshore, B. "Russian artist Tatyana Apraksina to read poems tonight." *Monterey County Herald*, Friday, Nov. 17, 2000\."New Frontier Poets." *Monterey County Weekly* Hot Picks, June 8–14, 2000"Russian poet to read at City Art." *Independent Coast Observer*, Gualala, Calif., Dec. 15, 2000"Tatyana Apraksina. Paintings and Poetry." *Henry Miller Library Newsletter*, Big Sur, Calif., May–July 2000"From Russia to Carmel." *Carmel Pine Cone*, Carmel, Calif., 2003 was among the laureates of the international poetry competition held by the [Russian Foreign Ministry](/wiki/Russian_Foreign_Ministry "Russian Foreign Ministry") in partnership with *Literary Gazette*.[Results of the Roszarubezhtsenr poetry contest](http://ricolor.org/news/?read_news_id=1781){{Cite news\|url\=http://www.centreculturelrusse.be/files/images/sbornik%20stihov.doc \|author\=Gloviuk, Sergei. \|title\=The Russian world is my home }} introduction to *I dream in Russian: Poems by Russians living abroad.* Moscow: Roszarubezhtsentr, Moscow Union of Friendship Societies, "Literary Gazette" Publishing, 2007\. She has continued to produce "Apraksin Blues" while based in [California](/wiki/California "California").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.snob.ru/profile/7003/print/5250\|title\=Blues on the Theme of Deserts and Fields of Relevance\|author\=Fedoseev, Alexei.\|work\=Snob}} Aug. 8, 2009\. She is a member of the Prof. V.I. Startsev International Association of Historical Psychology.{{Cite web\|url\=http://russia\-west.ru/viewtopic.php?id\=4994\|title\=Blocking Sound with Sound\|last\=Apraksina\|first\=Tatyana\|date\=December 19, 2016\|website\=russia\-west.ru\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-07}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://russia\-west.ru/viewtopic.php?id\=5103\|title\=Where There is No There\|last\=Apraksina\|first\=Tatyana\|date\=May 18, 2017\|website\=russia\-west.ru\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-07}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://russia\-west.ru/viewtopic.php?id\=5307\|title\=Between Being and Having\|last\=Apraksina\|first\=Tatyana\|date\=December 4, 2017\|website\=russia\-west.ru\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-07}}
In 2023, Apraksina received the Babel Prize for Literature from Mundus Artium Press.{{Cite web \|url\=https://mundusartiumpress.us/2023\-babel\-prize\-for\-literature\-awarded\-to\-tatyana\-apraksina\-for\-interdisciplinary\-writing\-art\-mentorship/ \|title\=2023 BABEL PRIZE FOR LITERATURE AWARDED TO TATYANA APRAKSINA FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY WRITING, ART, MENTORSHIP \|accessdate\=2024\-01\-05 }}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Apraksina settled in [Leningrad](/wiki/Leningrad \"Leningrad\") in 1963 and started to live on Apraksin Lane (*Apraksin pereulok*) in 1972\\. The music\\-inflected unofficial culture of the time began to intersect actively with her life.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://coollib.com/b/103552/read\\|author\\=Kushnir, Alexander. \\|title\\=Mike, \"Sweet N and Others\"\\|work\\=100 Cassette Albums of Soviet Rock }} Moscow: Agraf, Kraft\\+, 2003\\. {{ISBN\\|5\\-7784\\-0251\\-1}}.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Valieva, Y.M.\\|title\\=On the History of Unofficial Culture and the Contemporary Russian Diaspora: 1950s\\-1990s. Autobiographies. Authors' readings. }} St. Petersburg: Contrast, St. Petersburg State University, 2015\\. 600 p. \\+ 3 CDs. {{ISBN\\|978\\-5\\-4380\\-0099\\-0}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.nautilus.co.il/Pages/pgsPress/pgVmakPress.aspx?artID\\=753\\&menuID\\=6\\&srcPPack\\=ru,0,0\\|author\\=Mak, Vladimir.\\|title\\=Apraksin Blues\\|work\\=Vesti\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212037/http://www.nautilus.co.il/Pages/pgsPress/pgVmakPress.aspx?artID\\=753\\&menuID\\=6\\&srcPPack\\=ru,0,0\\|archivedate\\=2016\\-03\\-03}} Tel Aviv, Israel. Nov. 29, 2012",
"In 1974, \"Apraksina\" became her creative pseudonym. Her salon on Apraksin Lane hosted the original members of [Akvarium](/wiki/Akvarium \"Akvarium\"), as well as nascent songwriter [Mike Naumenko](/wiki/Mike_Naumenko \"Mike Naumenko\"), who by the early 1980s as the founder of [Zoopark](/wiki/Zoopark_%28band%29 \"Zoopark (band)\") would gain recognition as a key figure in [Russian rock](/wiki/Russian_rock \"Russian rock\") and blues music.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action\\_id\\=2\\&story\\_id\\=35491 \\|author\\=Chernov, Sergey. \\|title\\=Unexposed genius: Musicians will gather this week to remember the late Zoopark singer Mike Naumenko. }} The St. Petersburg Times. April 18, 2012Urban, Michael, with Andrei Evdokimov. *Russia Gets the Blues: Music, Culture, and Community in Unsettled Times.* Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2004\\. P. 32, 90, 93\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-8014\\-4229\\-X}} In one of his late interviews, Mike revealed that \"all \\[his] songs are dedicated to her.\"",
"Primarily self\\-taught,{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.pressa.spb.ru/newspapers/anomal/arts/anomal\\-159\\-art\\-7\\.html\\|author\\=Polevich, A. \\|title\\=The Musical Staff of Tatyana Apraksina.\\|work\\=Anomalia }} St. Petersburg. No.4 (159\\), February 20, 1998\\.{{Cite news\\|author\\=Sagalov, Zinovy. \\|title\\=California Psalms\\|work\\=Posrednik }} Philadelphia, Penn. March 5–18, 2003, No. 5 (88\\).{{Cite news\\|author\\=Ismailova, Nadezhda. \\|title\\=Profile: Letter from Augsburg \\- The Artist from Apraksin Dvor\\|work\\=Zerkalo }} Baku, Azerbaijan. No. 129, July 12, 2003\\. P. 33\\. Apraksina managed to establish herself as a graphic artist, employed by factories, stores and movie theaters. Themes of early exhibits of her independent creative work included the courtyards of old Leningrad,{{Cite news\\|author\\=Askerov, Eldar. \\|title\\=A Source of Inspiration\\|work\\=Music in the USSR }} Moscow: VAAP\\-Inform, January–March 1988, p. 72\\-73\\. particularly nearby [Apraksin Dvor](/wiki/Apraksin_Dvor \"Apraksin Dvor\"). She then began to gather material for a new direction in her work by studying the culture of music and musicians.{{Cite news\\|author\\=Askerov, Eldar. \\|title\\=Tatyana Apraksina \\|work\\=Musical Life }} USSR Composers Union and Ministry of Culture, summer 1987\\.Tatyana Apraksina. *Soviet Union* magazine, Moscow, June–July 1987\\. She received permission to attend rehearsals of what is now the [Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra\") and of other ensembles, doing so for four to six hours a day, getting to know musicians and producing hundreds of charcoal sketches, and reading music\\-related literature. She exhibited this early music\\-related work at what is now the [Saint Petersburg Philharmonia](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Philharmonia \"Saint Petersburg Philharmonia\"). The hall's director, Dmitry Ivanovich Sollertinsky, facilitated her work by giving her an on\\-site studio and a pass granting access to nearly all rehearsals and concerts at the Philharmonia. During this period, Apraksina experienced conflicts with the [KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\"), nominally related to her contacts with foreigners.",
"Students and relatives of [Dmitri Shostakovich](/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich \"Dmitri Shostakovich\") assisted in the creation of Apraksina's first portrait of the composer, known for its unusual approach of depicting the composer's face at different ages on the same canvas.Kagan, M.S. *Behold the Man… Life, Death and Immortality in the \"Magic Mirror\" of Fine Art.* St. Petersburg: Logos Publishing, 2003\\. P. 200\\. As part of the observances of Shostakovich's 80th birthday, the artist donated the portrait to what is now the [Saint Petersburg Conservatory](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Conservatory \"Saint Petersburg Conservatory\"), which hung the work in Room 36, where the composer taught his classes. The portrait was later moved to today's Saint Peterburg [Composers' Union](/wiki/Composers%27_Union \"Composers' Union\"), where it remains on permanent display.",
"In later years, Apraksina's exploration of classical music continued.[Consonance. Documentary on Tatyana Apraksina.](http://www.tvmuseum.ru/card.asp?ob_no=3188) Lentelefilm, 1989\\. Museum of Television and Radio in the Internet{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://optimalist.narod.ru/gaz05\\.htm\\|author\\=Zlatogurskaya, Ya.\\|title\\=Red Violinist in White Snow.\\|work\\=Optimalist\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215030736/http://optimalist.narod.ru/gaz05\\.htm\\|archivedate\\=2013\\-12\\-15}} Russia. No.1 (5\\), 1991\\. In 1987, the [Kurchatov Institute](/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute \"Kurchatov Institute\") and the Glinka Museum of Musical Culture were among institutions in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") to host Apraksina's exhibits. She also worked with the [Borodin Quartet](/wiki/Borodin_Quartet \"Borodin Quartet\"). Apraksina's relationship with the composer [Aleksandr Lokshin](/wiki/Aleksandr_Lokshin \"Aleksandr Lokshin\"), occasioned by painting his portrait{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.conversations.org/story.php?sid\\=469 \\|author\\=Apraksina, Tatyana. \\|title\\=A Face That Held No Riddles (English translation). \\|work\\=works \\& conversations }} Berkeley, Calif., 2016\\. just prior to his death, would remain significant in later years as the artist took an active role in rehabilitating the slandered composer's reputation through her writing.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Myaskovsky, Yudina, Barshai, Tischenko, Apraksina \\|title\\=On the composer Aleksandr Lokshin \\|display\\-authors\\=etal}} Moscow: Dialog\\-Moscow State University Press, 1998[Apraksina, Tatyana. \"A Face with No Secrets\"](http://lokshin.org/lokshin-life-apraksina-en.htm) (English translation). Lokshin.org.{{Cite book\\|author1\\=Lokshin, Aleksandr A. \\|author2\\=Apraksina, T. I. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|title\\=Genius of Evil, Face with No Secrets and Beyond the Requiem }} 2nd edition, expanded. Moscow: MAKS\\-Press, 2005\\. The writing also embodied a first public statement of the risks to which painting and displaying the portrait had exposed her career.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://rudocs.exdat.com/docs/index\\-230344\\.html?page\\=16 \\|author\\=Alisova\\-Lokshina, T.B. \\|title\\=Brushstrokes of a Portrait }} From *\"Genius of Evil\" and \"A Face That Held No Riddles\"*, 1st edition. Moscow: MAKS\\-Press, 2003\\.",
"Apraksina first exhibited in the United States as a Soviet artist through the Art League of Chicago and [Soros Foundation](/wiki/Soros_Foundation \"Soros Foundation\") support. The seven\\-month tour, featuring eleven exhibits from the East to the West Coast of the U.S., also included the artist's lectures.",
"In 1994, 1995 and 1997, Apraksina exhibited and lectured at the [Ivan Sollertinsky](/wiki/Ivan_Sollertinsky \"Ivan Sollertinsky\") International Music Festival in [Vitebsk](/wiki/Vitebsk \"Vitebsk\"), [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\").[Chronicle of the I.I. Sollertinsky International Music Festival](http://www.vmigmusic-com.na.by/index.php/component/content/article/79-vitebsk/346-hronica-vitebsk.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213230036/http://www.vmigmusic\\-com.na.by/index.php/component/content/article/79\\-vitebsk/346\\-hronica\\-vitebsk.html \\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-13 }}(participants, programs, events), 1989\\-2007\\. Vmigmusic.com. Art and culture project on music in Vitebsk.",
"In 1998, in the building of the [Twelve Collegia](/wiki/Twelve_Collegia \"Twelve Collegia\"), [Saint Petersburg State University](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University \"Saint Petersburg State University\")'s Center for Contemporary Art held a retrospective exhibit drawn from Apraksina's body of work in parallel with her \"March Solo\" festival, organized in partnership with the Center for Cultural Studies at the university's department of philosophy.[Center for Contemporary Art at St. Petersburg State University.](http://www.encspb.ru/ru/article.php?kod=2804728734) *Encyclopedia of St. Petersburg.* Committee for Culture of St. Petersburg, Institute of Peter the Great.[Program of \"March Solo\" III festival, March 27\\-April 2 1998\\.](http://cultcentr.philosophy.spbu.ru) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424013213/http://cultcentr.philosophy.spbu.ru/ \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-24 }} St. Petersburg State University Center for Cultural Studies. Her \"brief segments\" on creativity, *Lessons for 'Orly*, were published in the annual journal of the university's St. Petersburg Philosophical Society in 2000\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.spho.ru/media/pdf/\\_original/9/apraksinamyisl4\\.pdf \\|author\\=Apraksina, Tatyana. \\|title\\=Lessons for 'Orly. \\|work\\=Mysl': St. Petersburg Philosophical Society }} St. Petersburg State University. No. 4, 2000\\. {{ISBN\\|5\\-288\\-02505\\-3}}",
"In 2008, Apraksina's *California Psalms*, written in [Big Sur](/wiki/Big_Sur \"Big Sur\"),\nApraksina, Tatyana. *California Psalms/Калифорнийские псалмы* (bilingual edition). Astoria, Ore.: Radiolarian Press, 2013\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-887853\\-37\\-8}}Gartshore, B. \"Russian artist Tatyana Apraksina to read poems tonight.\" *Monterey County Herald*, Friday, Nov. 17, 2000\\.\"New Frontier Poets.\" *Monterey County Weekly* Hot Picks, June 8–14, 2000\"Russian poet to read at City Art.\" *Independent Coast Observer*, Gualala, Calif., Dec. 15, 2000\"Tatyana Apraksina. Paintings and Poetry.\" *Henry Miller Library Newsletter*, Big Sur, Calif., May–July 2000\"From Russia to Carmel.\" *Carmel Pine Cone*, Carmel, Calif., 2003 was among the laureates of the international poetry competition held by the [Russian Foreign Ministry](/wiki/Russian_Foreign_Ministry \"Russian Foreign Ministry\") in partnership with *Literary Gazette*.[Results of the Roszarubezhtsenr poetry contest](http://ricolor.org/news/?read_news_id=1781){{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.centreculturelrusse.be/files/images/sbornik%20stihov.doc \\|author\\=Gloviuk, Sergei. \\|title\\=The Russian world is my home }} introduction to *I dream in Russian: Poems by Russians living abroad.* Moscow: Roszarubezhtsentr, Moscow Union of Friendship Societies, \"Literary Gazette\" Publishing, 2007\\. She has continued to produce \"Apraksin Blues\" while based in [California](/wiki/California \"California\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.snob.ru/profile/7003/print/5250\\|title\\=Blues on the Theme of Deserts and Fields of Relevance\\|author\\=Fedoseev, Alexei.\\|work\\=Snob}} Aug. 8, 2009\\. She is a member of the Prof. V.I. Startsev International Association of Historical Psychology.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://russia\\-west.ru/viewtopic.php?id\\=4994\\|title\\=Blocking Sound with Sound\\|last\\=Apraksina\\|first\\=Tatyana\\|date\\=December 19, 2016\\|website\\=russia\\-west.ru\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-07}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://russia\\-west.ru/viewtopic.php?id\\=5103\\|title\\=Where There is No There\\|last\\=Apraksina\\|first\\=Tatyana\\|date\\=May 18, 2017\\|website\\=russia\\-west.ru\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-07}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://russia\\-west.ru/viewtopic.php?id\\=5307\\|title\\=Between Being and Having\\|last\\=Apraksina\\|first\\=Tatyana\\|date\\=December 4, 2017\\|website\\=russia\\-west.ru\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-07}}",
"In 2023, Apraksina received the Babel Prize for Literature from Mundus Artium Press.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://mundusartiumpress.us/2023\\-babel\\-prize\\-for\\-literature\\-awarded\\-to\\-tatyana\\-apraksina\\-for\\-interdisciplinary\\-writing\\-art\\-mentorship/ \\|title\\=2023 BABEL PRIZE FOR LITERATURE AWARDED TO TATYANA APRAKSINA FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY WRITING, ART, MENTORSHIP \\|accessdate\\=2024\\-01\\-05 }}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Matthew A. Harkins was born in [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts "Boston, Massachusetts") to Patrick Harkins, an [Irish](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") [immigrant](/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States "Immigration to the United States"), and his wife, Margaret.{{cite news\|work\=\[\[Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence]] \|title\=History \|url\=http://www.dioceseofprovidence.org/?id\=19 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328134937/http://dioceseofprovidence.org/?id\=19 \|archivedate\=2008\-03\-28 }} He received his early education at a primary school on [Tremont Street](/wiki/Tremont_Street "Tremont Street") in Boston and at a grammar school in [Quincy, Massachusetts](/wiki/Quincy%2C_Massachusetts "Quincy, Massachusetts").{{cite news\|work\=History of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations\|title\=Rt. Rev. Matthew HARKINS, D.D.\|url\=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/\~rigenweb/articles/126\.html}}
He attended [Boston Latin School](/wiki/Boston_Latin_School "Boston Latin School") from 1859 to 1862, when he entered the [College of the Holy Cross](/wiki/College_of_the_Holy_Cross "College of the Holy Cross") in Worcester, Massachusetts. After a year at Holy Cross, he went to [France](/wiki/France "France") to study at the [English College, Douai](/wiki/English_College%2C_Douai "English College, Douai"), and the [Église Saint\-Sulpice, Paris](/wiki/%C3%89glise_Saint-Sulpice%2C_Paris "Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris").{{cite news\|work\=\[\[Catholic Encyclopedia]]\|title\=Providence\|accessdate\=March 11, 2017\|url\=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12509a.htm}}
### Priesthood
While in Paris, Harkins was [ordained](/wiki/Holy_Orders "Holy Orders") to the priesthood by Archbishop Henri Maret for the Archdiocese of Boston on May 22, 1869\.["Rt. Rev. Matthew Harkins, D.D.", Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence](https://dioceseofprovidence.org/rt-rev-matthew-harkins-dd) After studying [theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology") and [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Canon law (Catholic Church)") at the [Pontifical Gregorian University](/wiki/Pontifical_Gregorian_University "Pontifical Gregorian University") in Rome, Harkins returned to Massachusetts in 1870\. He was then appointed as [curate](/wiki/Curate "Curate") at the Church of the Immaculate Conception Parish in [Salem, Massachusetts](/wiki/Salem%2C_Massachusetts "Salem, Massachusetts").{{Cite web \|url\=https://thebostonpilot.com/bcd/Bulletins/181230/20279\_181230\.pdf \|title\=Mary, Queen of Apostles \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-03 \|archive\-date\=2019\-01\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103110530/https://thebostonpilot.com/bcd/Bulletins/181230/20279\_181230\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
Harkins then served as [pastor](/wiki/Pastor "Pastor") of St. Malachi Parish in [Arlington, Massachusetts](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Massachusetts "Arlington, Massachusetts")[Cutter, Benjamin and Cutter, William Richard. *History of the Town of Arlington, Massachusetts*, D. Clapp \& Son, 1880, p. 179](https://books.google.com/books?id=F2YUAAAAYAAJ&dq=st.+malachy+church+arlington+ma&pg=PA179) from 1876 to 1884, and then as pastor of St. James Parish in Boston (then the largest parish in [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England")) from 1884 to 1887\.{{cite news\|work\=History of the Catholic Church in Woonsocket and Vicinity\|title\=RIGHT REV. MATTHEW HARKINS, D.D., THE SECOND BISHOP OF PROVIDENCE DIOCESE\|last\=Smyth\|first\=James W.}} In 1884, he accompanied Archbishop [John Williams](/wiki/John_Joseph_Williams "John Joseph Williams") to the [Third Plenary Council of Baltimore](/wiki/Plenary_Councils_of_Baltimore "Plenary Councils of Baltimore") as a theologian.
### Bishop of Providence
On February 11, 1887, Harkins was appointed the second bishop of the Diocese of Providence by [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII "Pope Leo XIII").{{cite news\|work\=Catholic\-Hierarchy.org\|title\=Bishop Matthew A. Harkins\|url\=http://www.catholic\-hierarchy.org/bishop/bharkins.html}} He received his [episcopal consecration](/wiki/Bishop_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Bishop (Catholic Church)") on April 14, 1887 from Archbishop Williams, with Bishops [Patrick O'Reilly](/wiki/Patrick_Thomas_O%27Reilly "Patrick Thomas O'Reilly") and [Lawrence McMahon](/wiki/Lawrence_Stephen_McMahon "Lawrence Stephen McMahon") serving as [co\-consecrators](/wiki/Consecrator "Consecrator"), at the [Cathedral of SS Peter and Paul](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saints_Peter_and_Paul%2C_Providence "Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, Providence") in Providence. During Harkins' tenure, the diocese grew to be among the largest in the country and to have one of the highest percentage of Catholics.
In 1904, the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See") split the [Diocese of Fall River](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Fall_River "Roman Catholic Diocese of Fall River") out of the Diocese of Providence. This left 190,000 Catholics in the Diocese of Providence, which increased to 275,180 by 1920\. Harkins increased the number of parishes from 39 to 95; most of these new parishes were erected in the cities and growing suburbs, and designated for various ethnic groups. He established numerous [charitable organizations](/wiki/Charitable_organization "Charitable organization") and [parochial schools](/wiki/Parochial_school "Parochial school") as well. He was responsible for creating the first Roman Catholic college in the diocese, [Providence College](/wiki/Providence_College "Providence College"), in 1917\.
Due to Harkins' advancing age and declining health, the Vatican appointed two [auxiliary bishops](/wiki/Auxiliary_bishop "Auxiliary bishop") between May 1914 and October 1917, and a [coadjutor bishop](/wiki/Coadjutor_bishop "Coadjutor bishop") in April 1919 to assist him.
### Death and legacy
Matthew Harkins died in Providence on May 25, 1921, at age 75\. Bishop Harkins Hall at Providence College is named for him.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Matthew A. Harkins was born in [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts \"Boston, Massachusetts\") to Patrick Harkins, an [Irish](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") [immigrant](/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States \"Immigration to the United States\"), and his wife, Margaret.{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence]] \\|title\\=History \\|url\\=http://www.dioceseofprovidence.org/?id\\=19 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328134937/http://dioceseofprovidence.org/?id\\=19 \\|archivedate\\=2008\\-03\\-28 }} He received his early education at a primary school on [Tremont Street](/wiki/Tremont_Street \"Tremont Street\") in Boston and at a grammar school in [Quincy, Massachusetts](/wiki/Quincy%2C_Massachusetts \"Quincy, Massachusetts\").{{cite news\\|work\\=History of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations\\|title\\=Rt. Rev. Matthew HARKINS, D.D.\\|url\\=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/\\~rigenweb/articles/126\\.html}}",
"He attended [Boston Latin School](/wiki/Boston_Latin_School \"Boston Latin School\") from 1859 to 1862, when he entered the [College of the Holy Cross](/wiki/College_of_the_Holy_Cross \"College of the Holy Cross\") in Worcester, Massachusetts. After a year at Holy Cross, he went to [France](/wiki/France \"France\") to study at the [English College, Douai](/wiki/English_College%2C_Douai \"English College, Douai\"), and the [Église Saint\\-Sulpice, Paris](/wiki/%C3%89glise_Saint-Sulpice%2C_Paris \"Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris\").{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[Catholic Encyclopedia]]\\|title\\=Providence\\|accessdate\\=March 11, 2017\\|url\\=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12509a.htm}}",
"### Priesthood",
"While in Paris, Harkins was [ordained](/wiki/Holy_Orders \"Holy Orders\") to the priesthood by Archbishop Henri Maret for the Archdiocese of Boston on May 22, 1869\\.[\"Rt. Rev. Matthew Harkins, D.D.\", Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence](https://dioceseofprovidence.org/rt-rev-matthew-harkins-dd) After studying [theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") and [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Canon law (Catholic Church)\") at the [Pontifical Gregorian University](/wiki/Pontifical_Gregorian_University \"Pontifical Gregorian University\") in Rome, Harkins returned to Massachusetts in 1870\\. He was then appointed as [curate](/wiki/Curate \"Curate\") at the Church of the Immaculate Conception Parish in [Salem, Massachusetts](/wiki/Salem%2C_Massachusetts \"Salem, Massachusetts\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://thebostonpilot.com/bcd/Bulletins/181230/20279\\_181230\\.pdf \\|title\\=Mary, Queen of Apostles \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-03 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103110530/https://thebostonpilot.com/bcd/Bulletins/181230/20279\\_181230\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Harkins then served as [pastor](/wiki/Pastor \"Pastor\") of St. Malachi Parish in [Arlington, Massachusetts](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Massachusetts \"Arlington, Massachusetts\")[Cutter, Benjamin and Cutter, William Richard. *History of the Town of Arlington, Massachusetts*, D. Clapp \\& Son, 1880, p. 179](https://books.google.com/books?id=F2YUAAAAYAAJ&dq=st.+malachy+church+arlington+ma&pg=PA179) from 1876 to 1884, and then as pastor of St. James Parish in Boston (then the largest parish in [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\")) from 1884 to 1887\\.{{cite news\\|work\\=History of the Catholic Church in Woonsocket and Vicinity\\|title\\=RIGHT REV. MATTHEW HARKINS, D.D., THE SECOND BISHOP OF PROVIDENCE DIOCESE\\|last\\=Smyth\\|first\\=James W.}} In 1884, he accompanied Archbishop [John Williams](/wiki/John_Joseph_Williams \"John Joseph Williams\") to the [Third Plenary Council of Baltimore](/wiki/Plenary_Councils_of_Baltimore \"Plenary Councils of Baltimore\") as a theologian.",
"### Bishop of Providence",
"On February 11, 1887, Harkins was appointed the second bishop of the Diocese of Providence by [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\").{{cite news\\|work\\=Catholic\\-Hierarchy.org\\|title\\=Bishop Matthew A. Harkins\\|url\\=http://www.catholic\\-hierarchy.org/bishop/bharkins.html}} He received his [episcopal consecration](/wiki/Bishop_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Bishop (Catholic Church)\") on April 14, 1887 from Archbishop Williams, with Bishops [Patrick O'Reilly](/wiki/Patrick_Thomas_O%27Reilly \"Patrick Thomas O'Reilly\") and [Lawrence McMahon](/wiki/Lawrence_Stephen_McMahon \"Lawrence Stephen McMahon\") serving as [co\\-consecrators](/wiki/Consecrator \"Consecrator\"), at the [Cathedral of SS Peter and Paul](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saints_Peter_and_Paul%2C_Providence \"Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, Providence\") in Providence. During Harkins' tenure, the diocese grew to be among the largest in the country and to have one of the highest percentage of Catholics.",
"In 1904, the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See \"Holy See\") split the [Diocese of Fall River](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Fall_River \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Fall River\") out of the Diocese of Providence. This left 190,000 Catholics in the Diocese of Providence, which increased to 275,180 by 1920\\. Harkins increased the number of parishes from 39 to 95; most of these new parishes were erected in the cities and growing suburbs, and designated for various ethnic groups. He established numerous [charitable organizations](/wiki/Charitable_organization \"Charitable organization\") and [parochial schools](/wiki/Parochial_school \"Parochial school\") as well. He was responsible for creating the first Roman Catholic college in the diocese, [Providence College](/wiki/Providence_College \"Providence College\"), in 1917\\.",
"Due to Harkins' advancing age and declining health, the Vatican appointed two [auxiliary bishops](/wiki/Auxiliary_bishop \"Auxiliary bishop\") between May 1914 and October 1917, and a [coadjutor bishop](/wiki/Coadjutor_bishop \"Coadjutor bishop\") in April 1919 to assist him.",
"### Death and legacy",
"Matthew Harkins died in Providence on May 25, 1921, at age 75\\. Bishop Harkins Hall at Providence College is named for him.",
""
] |
Adult life
----------
She lived with [Frederick](/wiki/Frederick_Douglass "Frederick Douglass") and [Anna Douglass](/wiki/Anna_Murray_Douglass "Anna Murray Douglass") in [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts "Lynn, Massachusetts") from 1842 or 1844 until 1847\. Some accounts say that Douglass and Cox first met at an antislavery meeting in [West Chester, Pennsylvania](/wiki/West_Chester%2C_Pennsylvania "West Chester, Pennsylvania") in August 1844, as Cox was fleeing north. While living with them, Cox went by the pseudonym Harriet Bailey, the name of Frederick Douglass's deceased mother and lost younger sister, to avoid the attention of slave catchers. Both Ruth and Douglass originated from the same region of Maryland, and after finding out that Cox had a brother named Leon Bailey, Douglass considered Cox as his sister.{{r\|johnson2022\|pages\=124\-125}} Anna and Cox also considered each other sisters, and Cox helped Anna with running the home. The Douglass children referred to her as "Aunt Harriet". While Douglass was in England from 1845 to 1847, he and Cox maintained a letter correspondence.{{Cite journal \|last\=Fought \|first\=Leigh \|date\=2004 \|title\=Douglass Liaisons: The Female Correspondents of Frederick Douglass, 1842\-52 \|url\=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer\=\&httpsredir\=1\&article\=1328\&context\=docedit \|journal\=Documentary Editing \|volume\=26 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=24–25}} Additionally, because Anna Douglass could not read well, Cox served as an intermediary, reading her the letters Douglass had written to her, and writing Anna's dictated replies.
In 1847, Cox met and became engaged to Perry Frank Adams (b. 1822\), a man from Talbot County, Maryland who was working as a farmer in [Springfield, Massachusetts](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts "Springfield, Massachusetts").{{Cite journal \|last\=Carvalho \|first\=Joseph III \|date\=2012 \|title\=Uncovering the Stories of Black Families in Springfield and Hampden County, Massachusetts: 1650–1865 \|url\=https://www.westfield.ma.edu/historical\-journal/wp\-content/uploads/2019/11/Uncovering\-the\-Stories\-of\-Black\-Families\-in\-Springfield\-and\-Hampden\-County\-Massachusetts\-1650–1865\-by\-Joseph\-Carvalho\-III.pdf \|journal\=Historical Journal of Massachusetts \|volume\=40 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=86–87}} After becoming engaged, she wrote to Douglass to ask him to buy a wedding dress for her.{{r\|johnson2022\|pages\=126}} Douglass, who had not been consulted on her engagement, responded negatively to the news, and the event seemed to strain the two's relationship and ended their regular correspondence.{{r\|johnson2022\|pages\=126}} However, he did buy Cox her wedding dress, and she continued to write to Anna Douglass regularly until around 1861\.
Cox and Adams married on November 11, 1847 at the Douglass household. Following their marriage, Adams moved to join her husband Springfield, Massachusetts, where Perry Adams began work at a gold\-chain factory. The couple lived in a boardinghouse and eventually had three children: Matilda Ann (b. 1849 or 1850\), Ebby B. (1852\-1858\), and Perry Frank Jr. (b. 1854\). In 1859, Adams adopted Samuel Hall (b. 1854\), after his mother, fellow boarder Eliza Hall, died. The family later boarded with abolitionist minister Eli Baptist.
While living in Springfield, both Cox and her husband remained involved with abolitionist organizations. Perry Adams may have been a member of the African\-American self\-defense group the League of Gideonites, founded in 1851 by [John Brown](/wiki/John_Brown_%28abolitionist%29 "John Brown (abolitionist)"), and was a Vice President of the Massachusetts State Council.
In 1861, Adams, her family, and the family of Eli Baptist moved to Drurea, Haiti, arriving in Port\-au\-Prince via the ship the Brig Maria and sponsored by the Haitian Bureau of Immigration. The family remained in Haiti until 1863, when Drurea was hit hard by illness, and returned to Springfield. In 1868, Perry Adams died from [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever "Typhoid fever"), which he had contracted while living in Haiti.
In the 1870s, Adams and her daughter Matilda Ann moved to Providence, Rhode Island, where Matilda married William Vanderzee, a member of a prominent African\-American family from [Lincoln, Nebraska](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska "Lincoln, Nebraska"), in 1878\. In 1884, Adams, Matilda, and William moved to [Norfolk, Nebraska](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Nebraska "Norfolk, Nebraska"), following the advice of a doctor that a "farm environment" might improve Williams health. They moved to Lincoln soon afterwards.
In 1894, Adams and Frederick Douglass reconnected via letter. Douglass had been searching for Adams for several years, and when he wrote her again he sent her money for a rocking chair. The two did not see each other in person before Douglass's death the following year.
After Adams' death in Lincoln in April 1900, she was buried in [Wyuka Cemetery](/wiki/Wyuka_Cemetery "Wyuka Cemetery") without a headstone.
|
[
"Adult life\n----------",
"She lived with [Frederick](/wiki/Frederick_Douglass \"Frederick Douglass\") and [Anna Douglass](/wiki/Anna_Murray_Douglass \"Anna Murray Douglass\") in [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts \"Lynn, Massachusetts\") from 1842 or 1844 until 1847\\. Some accounts say that Douglass and Cox first met at an antislavery meeting in [West Chester, Pennsylvania](/wiki/West_Chester%2C_Pennsylvania \"West Chester, Pennsylvania\") in August 1844, as Cox was fleeing north. While living with them, Cox went by the pseudonym Harriet Bailey, the name of Frederick Douglass's deceased mother and lost younger sister, to avoid the attention of slave catchers. Both Ruth and Douglass originated from the same region of Maryland, and after finding out that Cox had a brother named Leon Bailey, Douglass considered Cox as his sister.{{r\\|johnson2022\\|pages\\=124\\-125}} Anna and Cox also considered each other sisters, and Cox helped Anna with running the home. The Douglass children referred to her as \"Aunt Harriet\". While Douglass was in England from 1845 to 1847, he and Cox maintained a letter correspondence.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Fought \\|first\\=Leigh \\|date\\=2004 \\|title\\=Douglass Liaisons: The Female Correspondents of Frederick Douglass, 1842\\-52 \\|url\\=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer\\=\\&httpsredir\\=1\\&article\\=1328\\&context\\=docedit \\|journal\\=Documentary Editing \\|volume\\=26 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=24–25}} Additionally, because Anna Douglass could not read well, Cox served as an intermediary, reading her the letters Douglass had written to her, and writing Anna's dictated replies.",
"In 1847, Cox met and became engaged to Perry Frank Adams (b. 1822\\), a man from Talbot County, Maryland who was working as a farmer in [Springfield, Massachusetts](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Springfield, Massachusetts\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Carvalho \\|first\\=Joseph III \\|date\\=2012 \\|title\\=Uncovering the Stories of Black Families in Springfield and Hampden County, Massachusetts: 1650–1865 \\|url\\=https://www.westfield.ma.edu/historical\\-journal/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/11/Uncovering\\-the\\-Stories\\-of\\-Black\\-Families\\-in\\-Springfield\\-and\\-Hampden\\-County\\-Massachusetts\\-1650–1865\\-by\\-Joseph\\-Carvalho\\-III.pdf \\|journal\\=Historical Journal of Massachusetts \\|volume\\=40 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=86–87}} After becoming engaged, she wrote to Douglass to ask him to buy a wedding dress for her.{{r\\|johnson2022\\|pages\\=126}} Douglass, who had not been consulted on her engagement, responded negatively to the news, and the event seemed to strain the two's relationship and ended their regular correspondence.{{r\\|johnson2022\\|pages\\=126}} However, he did buy Cox her wedding dress, and she continued to write to Anna Douglass regularly until around 1861\\.",
"Cox and Adams married on November 11, 1847 at the Douglass household. Following their marriage, Adams moved to join her husband Springfield, Massachusetts, where Perry Adams began work at a gold\\-chain factory. The couple lived in a boardinghouse and eventually had three children: Matilda Ann (b. 1849 or 1850\\), Ebby B. (1852\\-1858\\), and Perry Frank Jr. (b. 1854\\). In 1859, Adams adopted Samuel Hall (b. 1854\\), after his mother, fellow boarder Eliza Hall, died. The family later boarded with abolitionist minister Eli Baptist.",
"While living in Springfield, both Cox and her husband remained involved with abolitionist organizations. Perry Adams may have been a member of the African\\-American self\\-defense group the League of Gideonites, founded in 1851 by [John Brown](/wiki/John_Brown_%28abolitionist%29 \"John Brown (abolitionist)\"), and was a Vice President of the Massachusetts State Council.",
"In 1861, Adams, her family, and the family of Eli Baptist moved to Drurea, Haiti, arriving in Port\\-au\\-Prince via the ship the Brig Maria and sponsored by the Haitian Bureau of Immigration. The family remained in Haiti until 1863, when Drurea was hit hard by illness, and returned to Springfield. In 1868, Perry Adams died from [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever \"Typhoid fever\"), which he had contracted while living in Haiti.",
"In the 1870s, Adams and her daughter Matilda Ann moved to Providence, Rhode Island, where Matilda married William Vanderzee, a member of a prominent African\\-American family from [Lincoln, Nebraska](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Nebraska \"Lincoln, Nebraska\"), in 1878\\. In 1884, Adams, Matilda, and William moved to [Norfolk, Nebraska](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Nebraska \"Norfolk, Nebraska\"), following the advice of a doctor that a \"farm environment\" might improve Williams health. They moved to Lincoln soon afterwards.",
"In 1894, Adams and Frederick Douglass reconnected via letter. Douglass had been searching for Adams for several years, and when he wrote her again he sent her money for a rocking chair. The two did not see each other in person before Douglass's death the following year.",
"After Adams' death in Lincoln in April 1900, she was buried in [Wyuka Cemetery](/wiki/Wyuka_Cemetery \"Wyuka Cemetery\") without a headstone.",
""
] |
The SU(2\) family symmetry
--------------------------
The SU(2\)\_{F} family symmetry models were first addressed by [Wilczek](/wiki/Frank_Wilczek "Frank Wilczek") and [Zee](/wiki/Anthony_Zee "Anthony Zee") in 1979 {{cite journal\|author1\=F. Wilczek\|author2\=A. Zee\|title \= Horizontal Interaction and Weak Mixing Angles\|journal\=Phys. Rev. Lett.\|volume\=42\|year\=1979\|issue\=7\|pages\=421–425\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.42\.421\|bibcode\=1979PhRvL..42\..421W}} and then the interest in them was renewed in the 1990s {{cite journal\|author1\=D. S. Shaw\|author2\=R. R. Volkas\|journal\=Phys. Rev. D\|title \=Systematic Study of Fermion Masses and Mixing Angles in Horizontal SU(2\) Gauge Theory\|volume\=47\|year\=1993\|issue\=1\|pages\=241–255\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevD.47\.241\|pmid\=10015395\|arxiv\=hep\-ph/9211209\|bibcode\=1993PhRvD..47\..241S\|s2cid\=14528335}}{{cite journal\|author1\=R. Barbieri\|author2\=L.J. Hall\|author3\=S. Raby\|author4\=A. Romanino\|journal\=Nucl. Phys. B\|title \=Unified theories with U(2\) flavor symmetry\|volume\=493\|year\=1997\|issue\=1–2\|pages\=3–26\|doi\=10\.1016/S0550\-3213(97\)00134\-X\|arxiv\=hep\-ph/9610449\|bibcode\=1997NuPhB.493\....3B\|s2cid\=119362940}} especially in connection with the [Supersymmetric Standard Model](/wiki/Particle_physics "Particle physics").
In the original model the quark\-lepton families fall into the horizontal triplets of the local SU(2\)\_{F} symmetry taken. Fortunately, this symmetry is generically free from the [gauge anomaly](/wiki/Particle_physics "Particle physics") problem which may appear for other local family symmetry candidates. Generally, the model contains the set of the Higgs boson multiplets being scalar, vector and tensor of SU(2\)\_{F}, apart from they all are the doublets of the conventional [electroweak symmetry](/wiki/Particle_physics "Particle physics") SU(2\)\_{W}\\times U(1\)\_{Y}. These scalar multiplets provide the mass matrices for quarks and leptons giving eventually the reasonable weak mixing angles in terms of the fermion mass ratios. In principle, one could hope to reach it in a more economic way when the heavy family masses appears at the tree\-level, while the light families acquire their masses from radiative corrections at the one–loop level and higher ones.
Another and presumably more realistic way of using of the family SU(2\)\_{F} symmetry is based on the picture that, in the absence of flavor mixing, only the particles belonging to the third generation ( t, b, \\tau ) have non\-zero masses. The masses and the mixing angles of the light first and second families being doublets of the SU(2\)\_{F} symmetry appear then as a result of the tree\-level mixings of families, related to spontaneous breaking of this symmetry. The VEV hierarchy of the horizontal scalars are then enhanced by the effective cut\-off scale involved. Again, as in the above U(1\)\_{F} symmetry case, the family mixings are eventually turned out to be proportional to powers of some small parameter, which are determined by the dimensions of the SU(2\)\_{F} family symmetry allowed operators. This finally generate the effective (diagonal and off\-diagonal [Yukawa couplings](/wiki/Yukawa_interaction "Yukawa interaction") for the light families in the framework of the (ordinary or supersymmetric) Standard Model.
In supersymmetric theories there are mass and interaction matrices for the [squarks](/wiki/Squarks "Squarks") and [sleptons](/wiki/Sleptons "Sleptons"), leading to a rich flavor structure. In particular, if fermions and scalars of a given charge have mass matrices which are not diagonalized by the same rotation, new mixing matrices occur at [gaugino](/wiki/Gaugino "Gaugino") vertices. This may lead in general to the dangerous light family flavor changing processes unless the breaking of SU(2\)\_{F} symmetry, which controls the light family sector, together with small fermion masses yields the small mass splittings of their scalar [superpartners](/wiki/Superpartner "Superpartner").
Apart from with all that, there is also the dynamical aspect of the local SU(2\)\_{F} symmetry, related to its horizontal gauge bosons. The point is, however, that these bosons (as well as various Higgs bosons involved) have to be several orders of magnitude more massive than the [Standard Model W and Z bosons](/wiki/Particle_physics "Particle physics") in order to avoid forbidden quark\-flavor\- and lepton\-flavor\-changing transitions. Generally, this requires the introduction of additional [Higgs bosons](/wiki/Higgs_boson "Higgs boson") to give the large masses to the horizontal gauge bosons so as to not disturb the masses of the fermions involved.
|
[
"The SU(2\\) family symmetry\n--------------------------",
"The SU(2\\)\\_{F} family symmetry models were first addressed by [Wilczek](/wiki/Frank_Wilczek \"Frank Wilczek\") and [Zee](/wiki/Anthony_Zee \"Anthony Zee\") in 1979 {{cite journal\\|author1\\=F. Wilczek\\|author2\\=A. Zee\\|title \\= Horizontal Interaction and Weak Mixing Angles\\|journal\\=Phys. Rev. Lett.\\|volume\\=42\\|year\\=1979\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=421–425\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.42\\.421\\|bibcode\\=1979PhRvL..42\\..421W}} and then the interest in them was renewed in the 1990s {{cite journal\\|author1\\=D. S. Shaw\\|author2\\=R. R. Volkas\\|journal\\=Phys. Rev. D\\|title \\=Systematic Study of Fermion Masses and Mixing Angles in Horizontal SU(2\\) Gauge Theory\\|volume\\=47\\|year\\=1993\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=241–255\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevD.47\\.241\\|pmid\\=10015395\\|arxiv\\=hep\\-ph/9211209\\|bibcode\\=1993PhRvD..47\\..241S\\|s2cid\\=14528335}}{{cite journal\\|author1\\=R. Barbieri\\|author2\\=L.J. Hall\\|author3\\=S. Raby\\|author4\\=A. Romanino\\|journal\\=Nucl. Phys. B\\|title \\=Unified theories with U(2\\) flavor symmetry\\|volume\\=493\\|year\\=1997\\|issue\\=1–2\\|pages\\=3–26\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0550\\-3213(97\\)00134\\-X\\|arxiv\\=hep\\-ph/9610449\\|bibcode\\=1997NuPhB.493\\....3B\\|s2cid\\=119362940}} especially in connection with the [Supersymmetric Standard Model](/wiki/Particle_physics \"Particle physics\").",
"In the original model the quark\\-lepton families fall into the horizontal triplets of the local SU(2\\)\\_{F} symmetry taken. Fortunately, this symmetry is generically free from the [gauge anomaly](/wiki/Particle_physics \"Particle physics\") problem which may appear for other local family symmetry candidates. Generally, the model contains the set of the Higgs boson multiplets being scalar, vector and tensor of SU(2\\)\\_{F}, apart from they all are the doublets of the conventional [electroweak symmetry](/wiki/Particle_physics \"Particle physics\") SU(2\\)\\_{W}\\\\times U(1\\)\\_{Y}. These scalar multiplets provide the mass matrices for quarks and leptons giving eventually the reasonable weak mixing angles in terms of the fermion mass ratios. In principle, one could hope to reach it in a more economic way when the heavy family masses appears at the tree\\-level, while the light families acquire their masses from radiative corrections at the one–loop level and higher ones.",
"Another and presumably more realistic way of using of the family SU(2\\)\\_{F} symmetry is based on the picture that, in the absence of flavor mixing, only the particles belonging to the third generation ( t, b, \\\\tau ) have non\\-zero masses. The masses and the mixing angles of the light first and second families being doublets of the SU(2\\)\\_{F} symmetry appear then as a result of the tree\\-level mixings of families, related to spontaneous breaking of this symmetry. The VEV hierarchy of the horizontal scalars are then enhanced by the effective cut\\-off scale involved. Again, as in the above U(1\\)\\_{F} symmetry case, the family mixings are eventually turned out to be proportional to powers of some small parameter, which are determined by the dimensions of the SU(2\\)\\_{F} family symmetry allowed operators. This finally generate the effective (diagonal and off\\-diagonal [Yukawa couplings](/wiki/Yukawa_interaction \"Yukawa interaction\") for the light families in the framework of the (ordinary or supersymmetric) Standard Model.",
"In supersymmetric theories there are mass and interaction matrices for the [squarks](/wiki/Squarks \"Squarks\") and [sleptons](/wiki/Sleptons \"Sleptons\"), leading to a rich flavor structure. In particular, if fermions and scalars of a given charge have mass matrices which are not diagonalized by the same rotation, new mixing matrices occur at [gaugino](/wiki/Gaugino \"Gaugino\") vertices. This may lead in general to the dangerous light family flavor changing processes unless the breaking of SU(2\\)\\_{F} symmetry, which controls the light family sector, together with small fermion masses yields the small mass splittings of their scalar [superpartners](/wiki/Superpartner \"Superpartner\").",
"Apart from with all that, there is also the dynamical aspect of the local SU(2\\)\\_{F} symmetry, related to its horizontal gauge bosons. The point is, however, that these bosons (as well as various Higgs bosons involved) have to be several orders of magnitude more massive than the [Standard Model W and Z bosons](/wiki/Particle_physics \"Particle physics\") in order to avoid forbidden quark\\-flavor\\- and lepton\\-flavor\\-changing transitions. Generally, this requires the introduction of additional [Higgs bosons](/wiki/Higgs_boson \"Higgs boson\") to give the large masses to the horizontal gauge bosons so as to not disturb the masses of the fermions involved.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{Main\|History of Novi Sad}}
{{cleanup\|section\|reason\=History section needs summarization, move of intricate information to \[\[History of Novi Sad]].\|date\=February 2016}}
### Older settlements
[thumb\|upright\|left\|*Roman golden helmet*, [Museum of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Vojvodina "Museum of Vojvodina")](/wiki/File:Casque_orn%C3%A9_4%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_Novi_Sad_Colis%C3%A9e_Rome_Italie.jpg "Casque orné 4ème siècle Musée Novi Sad Colisée Rome Italie.jpg")
{{Quote box
\| width \= 26em
\| align \= left
\| bgcolor \= \#B0C4DE
\| title \= Historical affiliations
\| fontsize \= 90%
\| quote \= {{flagicon image\| Flag of Hungary (11th c. \- 1301\).svg}} \[\[Principality of Hungary]] 895\-1000
{{flagicon image\| Flag of Hungary (13th century).svg}} \[\[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526\)\|Kingdom of Hungary]] 1000–1526
{{flag\|Ottoman Empire}} 1526–1687
{{flagicon image\|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} \[\[Habsburg monarchy]] 1694–1804
{{flag\|Austrian Empire}} 1804–1867
{{flagicon image\| Flag of Hungary (1896\-1915; angels).svg}} \[\[Austro\-Hungarian Empire]] 1867–1918
{{flag\|Kingdom of Serbia}} 1918
{{flagicon image\|Flag of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.svg}} \[\[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]{{refn\|Officially known as the ''Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes'' until 1929}} 1918–1941
{{flagicon image\|Flag of Hungary (1920–1946\).svg}} \[\[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946\)\|Kingdom of Hungary]] 1941–1944
{{flag\|SFR Yugoslavia}}{{refn\|Known as ''Democratic Federal Yugoslavia'' until 1945}} 1944–1992
{{flag\|Serbia and Montenegro}}{{refn\|Officially known as the ''Federal Republic of Yugoslavia'' until 2003}} 1992–2006
{{flag\|Republic of Serbia}} 2006–
}}
Human habitation in the territory of present\-day Novi Sad has been traced as far back as the [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age "Stone Age"). Several settlements and [necropolises](/wiki/Necropolis "Necropolis") dating to 5000 BC were unearthed during the construction of a new boulevard in [Avijatičarsko Naselje](/wiki/Avijaticarsko_Naselje "Avijaticarsko Naselje").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtv.rs/sr\_lat/vojvodina/novi\-sad/arheolosko\-nalaziste\-na\-cetvrtoj\-trasi\-bulevara\-evrope\_322804\.html\|title\=Arheološko nalazište na četvrtoj trasi Bulevara Evrope\|author\=Javna medijska ustanova Radio\-televizija Vojvodine\|work\=Radio\-televizija Vojvodine\|access\-date\=18 March 2015\|language\=sr}} A settlement was also identified on the right bank of the river [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube") in present\-day [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin").
In antiquity, the region was inhabited by [Celtic tribes](/wiki/Celtic_tribes "Celtic tribes"), most notably the [Scordisci](/wiki/Scordisci "Scordisci"). Celts had been present in the area since the 4th century BC and founded the first fortress on the right bank of the Danube. Later, in the 1st century BC, the region was conquered by the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome"). During Roman rule, a larger fortress was built in the 1st century, named *Cusum*, and included in the [Roman province](/wiki/Roman_province "Roman province") of [Pannonia](/wiki/Pannonia "Pannonia").
In the 5th century, Cusum was devastated by [Hunnic invasions](/wiki/Huns "Huns"). By the end of the century, the [Byzantines](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") had rebuilt the town and called it *Petrikon* or *Petrikov* ({{lang\-gr\|Πέτρικον}}) after [Saint Peter](/wiki/Saint_Peter "Saint Peter"). [Slavic](/wiki/Slavs "Slavs") tribes such as the [Severians](/wiki/Severians "Severians"), the [Obotrites](/wiki/Obotrites "Obotrites") and the [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs") (including the subtribes of the [Braničevci](/wiki/Brani%C4%8Devci "Braničevci") and the [Timočani](/wiki/Timo%C4%8Dani "Timočani")) settled the region around Novi Sad, mainly in the 6th and 7th centuries.Sava S. Vujić – Bogdan M. Basarić, *Severni Srbi (ne)zaboravljeni narod,* Beograd, 1998, pg. 36{{unreliable source?\|date\=April 2013}} The Serbs absorbed the aforementioned Slavic groups as well as the [Paleo\-Balkanic](/wiki/Prehistory_of_Southeastern_Europe "Prehistory of Southeastern Europe") peoples of the region.
In the Middle Ages, the area was controlled by the [Ostrogoths](/wiki/Ostrogoths "Ostrogoths"), [Gepids](/wiki/Gepids "Gepids"), [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars "Pannonian Avars"), [Franks](/wiki/Franks "Franks"), [West Slavic groups](/wiki/West_Slavs "West Slavs"), again by the Byzantines, and finally by the [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians "Hungarians"). It was a part of the medieval [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary") from its foundation in 1000 until the Ottoman invasion in the 16th century. Hungarians began to settle in the area, which before that time had been mostly populated by Slavs. The earliest known mention was as the Hungarian variant *Peturwarad* or *Pétervárad* (Serbian: *Petrovaradin*/Петроварадин), derived from the Byzantine variant, found in documents from 1237\. That year, several other settlements were mentioned as existing in the territory of modern\-day urban Novi Sad.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2018}}
From the 13th century to the 16th century, the following settlements existed in the urban territory of the modern\-day Novi Sad:Branko Ćurčin, [Slana Bara](/wiki/Slana_Bara "Slana Bara") nekad i sad, Novi Sad, 2002\.Borovszky Samu: Magyarország vármegyéi és városai, Bács\-Bodrog vármegye I.\-II. kötet, Apolló Irodalmi és Nyomdai Részvénytársaság, 1909\.
* on the right bank of the Danube: *Pétervárad* ({{lang\-sr\|Petrovaradin}}) and *Kamanc* ({{lang\-sr\|Kamenica}}).
* on the left bank of the Danube: *Baksa* or *Baksafalva* ({{lang\-sr\|Bakša, Bakšić}}), *Kűszentmárton* ({{lang\-sr\|Sent Marton}}), *Bivalyos* or *Bivalo* ({{lang\-sr\|Bivaljoš, Bivalo}}), *Vásárosvárad* or *Várad* ({{lang\-sr\|Vašaroš Varad, Varadinci}}), *Zajol I* ({{lang\-sr\|\[\[Gornje Livade, Novi Sad\|Sajlovo I]], Gornje Sajlovo, Gornje Isailovo}}), *Zajol II* ({{lang\-sr\|\[\[Sajlovo]] II, Donje Sajlovo, Donje Isailovo}}), *Bistritz* ({{lang\-sr\|\[\[Bistrica (Novo Naselje)\|Bistrica]]}}). Some other settlements existed in the suburbs of Novi Sad: *Mortályos* (Serbian: *Mrtvaljoš*), *Csenei* ({{lang\-sr\|\[\[Čenej]]}}), *Keménd* ({{lang\-sr\|\[\[Kamendin, Sirig\|Kamendin]]}}), *Rév* ({{lang\-sr\|Rivica}}).{{citation needed\|date\=March 2018}}
An etymology of settlement names reveals that some designations are of [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_languages "Slavic languages") origin, which indicates that the areas were initially inhabited by Slavs, particularly the [West Slavs](/wiki/West_Slavs "West Slavs"). For example, Bivalo (Bivaljoš) had a large Slavic settlement dating from the 5th–6th centuries. Other names are of [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language "Hungarian language") origin (for example Bélakút, Kűszentmárton, Vásárosvárad, Rév), indicating that the settlements were inhabited by Hungarians before the [Ottoman invasion](/wiki/Ottoman_invasion "Ottoman invasion") in the 16th century. Some settlement names are of uncertain origin.
Tax records from 1522 show a mix of Hungarian and Slavic names among the inhabitants of these villages, including Slavic names like Bozso (Božo), Radovan, Radonya (Radonja), Ivo, etc. Following the Ottoman invasion in the 16th–17th centuries, some of these settlements were destroyed. Most of the surviving Hungarian inhabitants retreated from the area. Some of the settlements persisted under Ottoman rule and were populated by ethnic Serbs.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2018}}
Between 1526 and 1687, the region was under [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") rule. In 1590, the population of all villages in the territory of present\-day Novi Sad numbered 105 houses, inhabited exclusively by Serbs. Ottoman records mention only those who paid taxes, so the number of Serbs who lived in the area (for example, those that served in the [Ottoman army](/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire "Military of the Ottoman Empire")) was likely larger than was recorded.{{cite book\|author\=Đorđe Randelj\|title\=Novi Sad slobodan grad\|location\=Novi Sad\|year\=1997\|language\=sr}}
### Founding of Novi Sad
[thumb\|[Habsburgs](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") prohibited Orthodox Christians to settle in [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin"). That policy pushed Serbs to form the *Serb city* which later became Novi Sad. The city was proclaimed to be a free royal city by [Maria Theresa](/wiki/Maria_Theresa "Maria Theresa") by 1748\.](/wiki/File:Kaiserin_Maria_Theresia_%28HRR%29.jpg "Kaiserin Maria Theresia (HRR).jpg")
Habsburg rule was aligned with the Roman Catholic doctrine and, as it took over this area near the end of the 17th century, the government prohibited people of [Orthodox faith](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox "Eastern Orthodox") from residing in [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin"). Unable to build homes there, the Serbs of the area founded a new settlement in 1694 on the left bank of the Danube. They initially called it the 'Serb city' ({{lang\-sr\|Srpski Grad}}, {{lang\-de\|\[\[Rascians\|Ratzen]] Stadt}}). Another name used for the settlement was Petrovaradinski Šanac. In 1718, the inhabitants of the village of [Almaš](/wiki/Alma%C5%A1 "Almaš") were resettled to Petrovaradinski Šanac, where they founded [Almaški Kraj](/wiki/Alma%C5%A1ki_Kraj "Almaški Kraj") ('the Almaš quarter').
According to 1720 data, the population of Ratzen Stadt was composed of 112 Serbian, 14 German, and 5 Hungarian houses. The settlement officially gained the present names *Novi Sad* and *Újvidék* (*Neoplanta* in Latin) in 1748 when it became a 'free royal city', in German language it was called Neusatz.
The edict that made Novi Sad a 'free royal city' was proclaimed on 1 February 1748\. The edict reads:
{{blockquote\|' We, \[\[Maria Theresa of Austria\|Maria Theresa]], by the grace of God \[\[Holy Roman Empress]],
Queen of \[\[Kingdom of Hungary\|Hungary]], \[\[Bohemia]], \[\[Moravia]], \[\[Dalmatia]], \[\[Croatia]], \[\[Slavonia]], \[\[Prozor\-Rama\|Rama]], \[\[Serbia]], \[\[Galicia (Central\-Eastern Europe)\|Galicia]], \[\[Lodomeria]], \[\[Duchy of Carinthia\|Carinthia]], \[...]
cast this proclamation to anyone, whom it might concern... so that the renowned Petrovaradinski Šanac, which lies on the other side of the Danube in the \[\[Bačka]] province on the \[\[Sajlovo]] land, by the might of our divine royal power and prestige...make this town a \[\[Free imperial city\|Free Royal City]] and to fortify, accept and acknowledge it as one of the free royal cities of our \[\[Kingdom of Hungary]] and other territories, by abolishing its previous name of Petrovaradinski Šanac, renaming it Neoplanta (\[\[Latin]]), Új\-Vidégh (\[\[Hungarian language\|Hungarian]]), Neusatz (German) and Novi Sad (\[\[Serbian language\|Serbian]]) '\|sign\=\|source\=}}
In the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy recruited Germans from the southern principalities of the Holy Roman Empire to relocate to the Danube valley. They wanted both to increase the population and to redevelop the river valley for agriculture, which had declined markedly under the Ottomans. To encourage such settlement, the government ensured that the German communities could practice their religion (mostly Catholicism) and use their original German dialect.
### Habsburg monarchy
[thumb\|[Serb uprising of 1848–49](/wiki/Serb_uprising_of_1848%E2%80%9349 "Serb uprising of 1848–49"), Serbian patriarch [Josif Rajačić](/wiki/Josif_Raja%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Josif Rajačić") is giving a blessing to the army of Serbian Vojvodina in 1848\.](/wiki/File:Patrijarh_Rajacic_blagosilja_vojsku.JPG "Patrijarh Rajacic blagosilja vojsku.JPG")
For much of the 18th and 19th centuries, Novi Sad remained the largest city inhabited by Serbs. The reformer of the Serbian language, [Vuk Stefanović Karadžić](/wiki/Vuk_Stefanovi%C4%87_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87 "Vuk Stefanović Karadžić"), wrote in 1817 that Novi Sad was the 'largest Serb municipality in the world'. It was a cultural and political centre for Serbs (see also [Serbian Revival](/wiki/Serbian_Revival "Serbian Revival")), who did not have their own [national state](/wiki/Nation_state "Nation state") at the time. Due to its cultural and political influence, the city became known as the 'Serbian [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens")' (*Srpska Atina* in Serbian). According to 1843 data, Novi Sad had 17,332 inhabitants, of whom 9,675 were [Orthodox Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church"), 5,724 [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), 1,032 [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants "Protestants"), 727 Jews, and 30 adherents of the [Armenian church](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church "Armenian Apostolic Church"). The largest [ethnic group](/wiki/Ethnic_group "Ethnic group") in the city were Serbs, and the second largest were [Germans](/wiki/Germans "Germans").
During the [Revolution of 1848–49](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848 "Revolutions of 1848"), Novi Sad was part of [Serbian Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_Vojvodina "Serbian Vojvodina"), a Serbian [autonomous region](/wiki/Autonomous_area "Autonomous area") within the Austrian Empire. In 1849, the Hungarian garrison, located at the Petrovaradin Fortress, bombarded and devastated the city, which lost much of its population. According to the 1850 census, there were only 7,182 citizens left in the city, compared to 17,332 in 1843\. [Marija Trandafil](/wiki/Marija_Trandafil "Marija Trandafil") and her husband paid for some of the rebuilding including two churches.{{cite web\|title\=Национална Ревија \- National Review\|url\=https://www.nacionalnarevija.com/en/tekstovi/Br%2022/07%20Dobrotvori%20\-%20Marija%20Trandafil.html\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-18\|website\=www.nacionalnarevija.com}} Between 1849 and 1860, Novi Sad was part of a separate Austrian crownland known as the [Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar](/wiki/Voivodeship_of_Serbia_and_Banat_of_Temeschwar "Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar"). After the abolishment of this province, the city was included into the [Batsch\-Bodrog](/wiki/B%C3%A1cs-Bodrog_County "Bács-Bodrog County") County. The post office was opened in 1853\.
Following the [compromise of 1867](/wiki/Compromise_of_1867 "Compromise of 1867"), Novi Sad was located within the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary"), the *[Transleithania](/wiki/Transleithania "Transleithania")*, which comprised half of the new [Austro\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary"). During this time, the [Magyarization](/wiki/Magyarization "Magyarization") policy of the Hungarian government drastically altered the demographic structure of the city as the formerly predominantly Serbian population became one with a more mixed character. In 1880, 41\.2% of the city's inhabitants used the [Serbian language](/wiki/Serbian_language "Serbian language") most frequently and 25\.9% employed Hungarian. In the following decades, the percentage of Serbian\-speakers decreased, while the number of Hungarian\-speakers increased. According to the 1910 census, the city had 33,590 residents, of whom 13,343 (39\.72%) spoke Hungarian, 11,594 (34\.52%) Serbian, 5,918 (17\.62%) German and 1,453 (4\.33%) Slovak. It is not certain whether Hungarians or Serbs were the larger ethnic group in the city in 1910, since the various ethnic groups ([Bunjevci](/wiki/Bunjevci "Bunjevci"), [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people "Romani people"), Jews, other [South Slavic](/wiki/South_Slavs "South Slavs") people, etc.) were classified in census results only according to the language they spoke.Triva Militar, Novi Sad na raskrsnici minulog i sadanjeg veka, Novi Sad, 2000, p. 320
Similar demographic changes can be seen in the religious structure: in 1870, the population of Novi Sad included 8,134 Orthodox Christians, 6,684 Catholics, 1,725 Calvinists, 1,343 Lutherans, and others.Triva Militar, Novi Sad na raskrsnici minulog i sadanjeg veka, Novi Sad, 2000, p. 317 In 1910, the population included 13,383 [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Roman_Catholics "Roman Catholics") and 11,553 Orthodox Christians, while 3,089 declared themselves as [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran "Lutheran"), 2,751 as [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinist "Calvinist"), and 2,326 as Jewish.[Újvidék](http://mek.niif.hu/06700/06758/pdf/revai18_3.pdf). *Révai nagy lexikona, vol. 18\.* p. 612\. Hungarian Electronic Library. (in Hungarian)
### Serbia and Yugoslavia
[thumb\|right\|Great Assembly of [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs"), [Bunjevci](/wiki/Bunjevci "Bunjevci"), and other Slavs proclaimed the unification of Vojvodina region with the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia "Kingdom of Serbia") in Novi Sad in 1918\.](/wiki/File:Velika-narodna-skupstina-1918.jpg "Velika-narodna-skupstina-1918.jpg")
On 25 November 1918, the [Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs](/wiki/Great_People%27s_Assembly_of_Serbs%2C_Bunjevci_and_other_Slavs_in_Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja "Great People's Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs in Banat, Bačka and Baranja") of Vojvodina in Novi Sad proclaimed the union of the region of Vojvodina with the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia "Kingdom of Serbia"). From 1 December 1918, Novi Sad was part of the [Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia "Kingdom of Yugoslavia"); and in 1929, it became the capital of the [Danube Banovina](/wiki/Danube_Banovina "Danube Banovina"), a province of the newly named Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1921, the population of Novi Sad numbered 39,122 inhabitants, 16,293 of whom spoke the Serbian language, 12,991 Hungarian, 6,373 German, 1,117 Slovak, etc.Agneš Ozer, Život i istorija u Novom Sadu, Novi Sad, 2005, p. 15
In 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded and partitioned by the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers"), and its northern parts, including Novi Sad, were annexed by [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary_during_World_War_II "Hungary during World War II"). During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), about 5,000 citizens were murdered and many others were resettled. During the three days of the [Novi Sad raid](/wiki/1942_raid_in_Novi_Sad "1942 raid in Novi Sad") (21–23 January 1942\) alone, Hungarian police killed 1,246 citizens, among them more than 800 Jews, and threw their corpses into the icy waters of the Danube.
The total death toll of the raid was around 2,500\.{{cite book\|title\=Genocide and Rescue: The Holocaust in Hungary 1944\|author\=David Cesarani\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HrK8B0VpFBkC\&pg\=PR7\|page\=13\|publisher\=Berg Publishers\|isbn\=978\-1\-85973\-126\-0\|year\=1997\|access\-date\=4 August 2009}}{{cite journal\|title\=The Former 'Southlands' in Serbia: 1918–1947\|author\=\[\[Enikő A. Sajti]]\|url\=http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no181/9\.html\|volume\=XLVII\|date\=Spring 2006\|journal\=The Hungarian Quarterly\|access\-date\=4 August 2009\|issue\=181\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606021020/http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no181/9\.html\|archive\-date\=6 June 2009}} Citizens of all nationalities—Serbs, Hungarians, Slovaks, and others—fought together against the Axis authorities. In 1975 the whole city was awarded the title [People's Hero of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Order_of_the_People%27s_Hero "Order of the People's Hero").
[thumb\|right\|[*"The Family"*](/wiki/Monument_to_the_victims_of_the_raid_in_Novi_Sad "Monument to the victims of the raid in Novi Sad") by [Jovan Soldatović](/wiki/Jovan_Soldatovi%C4%87 "Jovan Soldatović"), Monument dedicated to the victims of the [Novi Sad raid](/wiki/Novi_Sad_raid "Novi Sad raid"), which took place during the Hungarian occupation in WWII.](/wiki/File:Petrovaradin_i_%C5%BErtve_racije.JPG "Petrovaradin i žrtve racije.JPG")
The [Yugoslav Partisans](/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans "Yugoslav Partisans") of [Syrmia](/wiki/Syrmia "Syrmia") and [Bačka](/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dka "Bačka") entered the city on 23 October 1944\. During the military administration of [Banat, Bačka and Baranja](/wiki/Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja "Banat, Bačka and Baranja") (17 October 1944 – 27 January 1945\), the Partisans [killed tens of thousands](/wiki/1944%E2%80%931945_killings_in_Vojvodina "1944–1945 killings in Vojvodina"), mostly Serbs, Germans, and Hungarians, who were perceived as opponents to the new regime.Večernje Novosti, Utorak, 9\. Jun 2009, strana 11, mapa masovnih grobnica u Srbiji{{better source needed\|date\=June 2016}}
Novi Sad became part of the new [Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia"). Since 1945, Novi Sad has been the capital of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Socialist_Autonomous_Province_of_Vojvodina "Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina"), a province of the [Republic of Serbia](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Serbia "Socialist Republic of Serbia"). The city went through rapid industrialization and its population more than doubled in the period between World War II and the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.
After 1992, Novi Sad became a part of the [Federal Republic of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia"). Devastated by [NATO bombardment](/wiki/1999_NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia "1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia") during the [Kosovo War](/wiki/Kosovo_War "Kosovo War") of 1999, [Novi Sad was left](/wiki/1999_NATO_bombing_of_Novi_Sad "1999 NATO bombing of Novi Sad") without any of its three Danube bridges ([Žeželj Bridge](/wiki/%C5%BDe%C5%BEelj_Bridge "Žeželj Bridge"), [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge "Varadin Bridge") and [Liberty Bridge](/wiki/Liberty_Bridge%2C_Novi_Sad "Liberty Bridge, Novi Sad")), communications, water, and electricity. Residential areas were cluster\-bombed several times while the [oil refinery](/wiki/Oil_refinery "Oil refinery") was bombarded daily, causing severe pollution and widespread ecological damage. In 2003, FR Yugoslavia was transformed into the [state union](/wiki/Political_union "Political union") of [Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro "Serbia and Montenegro"). These two states separated in June 2006 (following the May 2006 [Montenegrin independence referendum](/wiki/Montenegrin_independence_referendum%2C_2006 "Montenegrin independence referendum, 2006")), leaving Novi Sad part of the [Republic of Serbia](/wiki/Republic_of_Serbia "Republic of Serbia").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Main\\|History of Novi Sad}}\n{{cleanup\\|section\\|reason\\=History section needs summarization, move of intricate information to \\[\\[History of Novi Sad]].\\|date\\=February 2016}}",
"### Older settlements",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|*Roman golden helmet*, [Museum of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Vojvodina \"Museum of Vojvodina\")](/wiki/File:Casque_orn%C3%A9_4%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_Novi_Sad_Colis%C3%A9e_Rome_Italie.jpg \"Casque orné 4ème siècle Musée Novi Sad Colisée Rome Italie.jpg\")",
"{{Quote box\n\\| width \\= 26em\n\\| align \\= left\n\\| bgcolor \\= \\#B0C4DE\n\\| title \\= Historical affiliations\n\\| fontsize \\= 90%\n\\| quote \\= {{flagicon image\\| Flag of Hungary (11th c. \\- 1301\\).svg}} \\[\\[Principality of Hungary]] 895\\-1000",
"{{flagicon image\\| Flag of Hungary (13th century).svg}} \\[\\[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526\\)\\|Kingdom of Hungary]] 1000–1526",
"{{flag\\|Ottoman Empire}} 1526–1687",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} \\[\\[Habsburg monarchy]] 1694–1804",
"{{flag\\|Austrian Empire}} 1804–1867",
"{{flagicon image\\| Flag of Hungary (1896\\-1915; angels).svg}} \\[\\[Austro\\-Hungarian Empire]] 1867–1918",
"{{flag\\|Kingdom of Serbia}} 1918",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.svg}} \\[\\[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]{{refn\\|Officially known as the ''Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes'' until 1929}} 1918–1941",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of Hungary (1920–1946\\).svg}} \\[\\[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946\\)\\|Kingdom of Hungary]] 1941–1944",
"{{flag\\|SFR Yugoslavia}}{{refn\\|Known as ''Democratic Federal Yugoslavia'' until 1945}} 1944–1992",
"{{flag\\|Serbia and Montenegro}}{{refn\\|Officially known as the ''Federal Republic of Yugoslavia'' until 2003}} 1992–2006",
"{{flag\\|Republic of Serbia}} 2006–\n}}",
"Human habitation in the territory of present\\-day Novi Sad has been traced as far back as the [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age \"Stone Age\"). Several settlements and [necropolises](/wiki/Necropolis \"Necropolis\") dating to 5000 BC were unearthed during the construction of a new boulevard in [Avijatičarsko Naselje](/wiki/Avijaticarsko_Naselje \"Avijaticarsko Naselje\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtv.rs/sr\\_lat/vojvodina/novi\\-sad/arheolosko\\-nalaziste\\-na\\-cetvrtoj\\-trasi\\-bulevara\\-evrope\\_322804\\.html\\|title\\=Arheološko nalazište na četvrtoj trasi Bulevara Evrope\\|author\\=Javna medijska ustanova Radio\\-televizija Vojvodine\\|work\\=Radio\\-televizija Vojvodine\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015\\|language\\=sr}} A settlement was also identified on the right bank of the river [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\") in present\\-day [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\").",
"In antiquity, the region was inhabited by [Celtic tribes](/wiki/Celtic_tribes \"Celtic tribes\"), most notably the [Scordisci](/wiki/Scordisci \"Scordisci\"). Celts had been present in the area since the 4th century BC and founded the first fortress on the right bank of the Danube. Later, in the 1st century BC, the region was conquered by the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\"). During Roman rule, a larger fortress was built in the 1st century, named *Cusum*, and included in the [Roman province](/wiki/Roman_province \"Roman province\") of [Pannonia](/wiki/Pannonia \"Pannonia\").",
"In the 5th century, Cusum was devastated by [Hunnic invasions](/wiki/Huns \"Huns\"). By the end of the century, the [Byzantines](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") had rebuilt the town and called it *Petrikon* or *Petrikov* ({{lang\\-gr\\|Πέτρικον}}) after [Saint Peter](/wiki/Saint_Peter \"Saint Peter\"). [Slavic](/wiki/Slavs \"Slavs\") tribes such as the [Severians](/wiki/Severians \"Severians\"), the [Obotrites](/wiki/Obotrites \"Obotrites\") and the [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\") (including the subtribes of the [Braničevci](/wiki/Brani%C4%8Devci \"Braničevci\") and the [Timočani](/wiki/Timo%C4%8Dani \"Timočani\")) settled the region around Novi Sad, mainly in the 6th and 7th centuries.Sava S. Vujić – Bogdan M. Basarić, *Severni Srbi (ne)zaboravljeni narod,* Beograd, 1998, pg. 36{{unreliable source?\\|date\\=April 2013}} The Serbs absorbed the aforementioned Slavic groups as well as the [Paleo\\-Balkanic](/wiki/Prehistory_of_Southeastern_Europe \"Prehistory of Southeastern Europe\") peoples of the region.",
"In the Middle Ages, the area was controlled by the [Ostrogoths](/wiki/Ostrogoths \"Ostrogoths\"), [Gepids](/wiki/Gepids \"Gepids\"), [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars \"Pannonian Avars\"), [Franks](/wiki/Franks \"Franks\"), [West Slavic groups](/wiki/West_Slavs \"West Slavs\"), again by the Byzantines, and finally by the [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians \"Hungarians\"). It was a part of the medieval [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary \"Kingdom of Hungary\") from its foundation in 1000 until the Ottoman invasion in the 16th century. Hungarians began to settle in the area, which before that time had been mostly populated by Slavs. The earliest known mention was as the Hungarian variant *Peturwarad* or *Pétervárad* (Serbian: *Petrovaradin*/Петроварадин), derived from the Byzantine variant, found in documents from 1237\\. That year, several other settlements were mentioned as existing in the territory of modern\\-day urban Novi Sad.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2018}}",
"From the 13th century to the 16th century, the following settlements existed in the urban territory of the modern\\-day Novi Sad:Branko Ćurčin, [Slana Bara](/wiki/Slana_Bara \"Slana Bara\") nekad i sad, Novi Sad, 2002\\.Borovszky Samu: Magyarország vármegyéi és városai, Bács\\-Bodrog vármegye I.\\-II. kötet, Apolló Irodalmi és Nyomdai Részvénytársaság, 1909\\.\n* on the right bank of the Danube: *Pétervárad* ({{lang\\-sr\\|Petrovaradin}}) and *Kamanc* ({{lang\\-sr\\|Kamenica}}).\n* on the left bank of the Danube: *Baksa* or *Baksafalva* ({{lang\\-sr\\|Bakša, Bakšić}}), *Kűszentmárton* ({{lang\\-sr\\|Sent Marton}}), *Bivalyos* or *Bivalo* ({{lang\\-sr\\|Bivaljoš, Bivalo}}), *Vásárosvárad* or *Várad* ({{lang\\-sr\\|Vašaroš Varad, Varadinci}}), *Zajol I* ({{lang\\-sr\\|\\[\\[Gornje Livade, Novi Sad\\|Sajlovo I]], Gornje Sajlovo, Gornje Isailovo}}), *Zajol II* ({{lang\\-sr\\|\\[\\[Sajlovo]] II, Donje Sajlovo, Donje Isailovo}}), *Bistritz* ({{lang\\-sr\\|\\[\\[Bistrica (Novo Naselje)\\|Bistrica]]}}). Some other settlements existed in the suburbs of Novi Sad: *Mortályos* (Serbian: *Mrtvaljoš*), *Csenei* ({{lang\\-sr\\|\\[\\[Čenej]]}}), *Keménd* ({{lang\\-sr\\|\\[\\[Kamendin, Sirig\\|Kamendin]]}}), *Rév* ({{lang\\-sr\\|Rivica}}).{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2018}}",
"An etymology of settlement names reveals that some designations are of [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_languages \"Slavic languages\") origin, which indicates that the areas were initially inhabited by Slavs, particularly the [West Slavs](/wiki/West_Slavs \"West Slavs\"). For example, Bivalo (Bivaljoš) had a large Slavic settlement dating from the 5th–6th centuries. Other names are of [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language \"Hungarian language\") origin (for example Bélakút, Kűszentmárton, Vásárosvárad, Rév), indicating that the settlements were inhabited by Hungarians before the [Ottoman invasion](/wiki/Ottoman_invasion \"Ottoman invasion\") in the 16th century. Some settlement names are of uncertain origin.",
"Tax records from 1522 show a mix of Hungarian and Slavic names among the inhabitants of these villages, including Slavic names like Bozso (Božo), Radovan, Radonya (Radonja), Ivo, etc. Following the Ottoman invasion in the 16th–17th centuries, some of these settlements were destroyed. Most of the surviving Hungarian inhabitants retreated from the area. Some of the settlements persisted under Ottoman rule and were populated by ethnic Serbs.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2018}}",
"Between 1526 and 1687, the region was under [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") rule. In 1590, the population of all villages in the territory of present\\-day Novi Sad numbered 105 houses, inhabited exclusively by Serbs. Ottoman records mention only those who paid taxes, so the number of Serbs who lived in the area (for example, those that served in the [Ottoman army](/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire \"Military of the Ottoman Empire\")) was likely larger than was recorded.{{cite book\\|author\\=Đorđe Randelj\\|title\\=Novi Sad slobodan grad\\|location\\=Novi Sad\\|year\\=1997\\|language\\=sr}}",
"### Founding of Novi Sad",
"[thumb\\|[Habsburgs](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") prohibited Orthodox Christians to settle in [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\"). That policy pushed Serbs to form the *Serb city* which later became Novi Sad. The city was proclaimed to be a free royal city by [Maria Theresa](/wiki/Maria_Theresa \"Maria Theresa\") by 1748\\.](/wiki/File:Kaiserin_Maria_Theresia_%28HRR%29.jpg \"Kaiserin Maria Theresia (HRR).jpg\")",
"Habsburg rule was aligned with the Roman Catholic doctrine and, as it took over this area near the end of the 17th century, the government prohibited people of [Orthodox faith](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox \"Eastern Orthodox\") from residing in [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\"). Unable to build homes there, the Serbs of the area founded a new settlement in 1694 on the left bank of the Danube. They initially called it the 'Serb city' ({{lang\\-sr\\|Srpski Grad}}, {{lang\\-de\\|\\[\\[Rascians\\|Ratzen]] Stadt}}). Another name used for the settlement was Petrovaradinski Šanac. In 1718, the inhabitants of the village of [Almaš](/wiki/Alma%C5%A1 \"Almaš\") were resettled to Petrovaradinski Šanac, where they founded [Almaški Kraj](/wiki/Alma%C5%A1ki_Kraj \"Almaški Kraj\") ('the Almaš quarter').",
"According to 1720 data, the population of Ratzen Stadt was composed of 112 Serbian, 14 German, and 5 Hungarian houses. The settlement officially gained the present names *Novi Sad* and *Újvidék* (*Neoplanta* in Latin) in 1748 when it became a 'free royal city', in German language it was called Neusatz.",
"The edict that made Novi Sad a 'free royal city' was proclaimed on 1 February 1748\\. The edict reads:\n{{blockquote\\|' We, \\[\\[Maria Theresa of Austria\\|Maria Theresa]], by the grace of God \\[\\[Holy Roman Empress]], \nQueen of \\[\\[Kingdom of Hungary\\|Hungary]], \\[\\[Bohemia]], \\[\\[Moravia]], \\[\\[Dalmatia]], \\[\\[Croatia]], \\[\\[Slavonia]], \\[\\[Prozor\\-Rama\\|Rama]], \\[\\[Serbia]], \\[\\[Galicia (Central\\-Eastern Europe)\\|Galicia]], \\[\\[Lodomeria]], \\[\\[Duchy of Carinthia\\|Carinthia]], \\[...] \ncast this proclamation to anyone, whom it might concern... so that the renowned Petrovaradinski Šanac, which lies on the other side of the Danube in the \\[\\[Bačka]] province on the \\[\\[Sajlovo]] land, by the might of our divine royal power and prestige...make this town a \\[\\[Free imperial city\\|Free Royal City]] and to fortify, accept and acknowledge it as one of the free royal cities of our \\[\\[Kingdom of Hungary]] and other territories, by abolishing its previous name of Petrovaradinski Šanac, renaming it Neoplanta (\\[\\[Latin]]), Új\\-Vidégh (\\[\\[Hungarian language\\|Hungarian]]), Neusatz (German) and Novi Sad (\\[\\[Serbian language\\|Serbian]]) '\\|sign\\=\\|source\\=}}",
"In the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy recruited Germans from the southern principalities of the Holy Roman Empire to relocate to the Danube valley. They wanted both to increase the population and to redevelop the river valley for agriculture, which had declined markedly under the Ottomans. To encourage such settlement, the government ensured that the German communities could practice their religion (mostly Catholicism) and use their original German dialect.",
"### Habsburg monarchy",
"[thumb\\|[Serb uprising of 1848–49](/wiki/Serb_uprising_of_1848%E2%80%9349 \"Serb uprising of 1848–49\"), Serbian patriarch [Josif Rajačić](/wiki/Josif_Raja%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Josif Rajačić\") is giving a blessing to the army of Serbian Vojvodina in 1848\\.](/wiki/File:Patrijarh_Rajacic_blagosilja_vojsku.JPG \"Patrijarh Rajacic blagosilja vojsku.JPG\")",
"For much of the 18th and 19th centuries, Novi Sad remained the largest city inhabited by Serbs. The reformer of the Serbian language, [Vuk Stefanović Karadžić](/wiki/Vuk_Stefanovi%C4%87_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87 \"Vuk Stefanović Karadžić\"), wrote in 1817 that Novi Sad was the 'largest Serb municipality in the world'. It was a cultural and political centre for Serbs (see also [Serbian Revival](/wiki/Serbian_Revival \"Serbian Revival\")), who did not have their own [national state](/wiki/Nation_state \"Nation state\") at the time. Due to its cultural and political influence, the city became known as the 'Serbian [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\")' (*Srpska Atina* in Serbian). According to 1843 data, Novi Sad had 17,332 inhabitants, of whom 9,675 were [Orthodox Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\"), 5,724 [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), 1,032 [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\"), 727 Jews, and 30 adherents of the [Armenian church](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church \"Armenian Apostolic Church\"). The largest [ethnic group](/wiki/Ethnic_group \"Ethnic group\") in the city were Serbs, and the second largest were [Germans](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\").",
"During the [Revolution of 1848–49](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848 \"Revolutions of 1848\"), Novi Sad was part of [Serbian Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_Vojvodina \"Serbian Vojvodina\"), a Serbian [autonomous region](/wiki/Autonomous_area \"Autonomous area\") within the Austrian Empire. In 1849, the Hungarian garrison, located at the Petrovaradin Fortress, bombarded and devastated the city, which lost much of its population. According to the 1850 census, there were only 7,182 citizens left in the city, compared to 17,332 in 1843\\. [Marija Trandafil](/wiki/Marija_Trandafil \"Marija Trandafil\") and her husband paid for some of the rebuilding including two churches.{{cite web\\|title\\=Национална Ревија \\- National Review\\|url\\=https://www.nacionalnarevija.com/en/tekstovi/Br%2022/07%20Dobrotvori%20\\-%20Marija%20Trandafil.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-18\\|website\\=www.nacionalnarevija.com}} Between 1849 and 1860, Novi Sad was part of a separate Austrian crownland known as the [Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar](/wiki/Voivodeship_of_Serbia_and_Banat_of_Temeschwar \"Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar\"). After the abolishment of this province, the city was included into the [Batsch\\-Bodrog](/wiki/B%C3%A1cs-Bodrog_County \"Bács-Bodrog County\") County. The post office was opened in 1853\\.",
"Following the [compromise of 1867](/wiki/Compromise_of_1867 \"Compromise of 1867\"), Novi Sad was located within the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary \"Kingdom of Hungary\"), the *[Transleithania](/wiki/Transleithania \"Transleithania\")*, which comprised half of the new [Austro\\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\"). During this time, the [Magyarization](/wiki/Magyarization \"Magyarization\") policy of the Hungarian government drastically altered the demographic structure of the city as the formerly predominantly Serbian population became one with a more mixed character. In 1880, 41\\.2% of the city's inhabitants used the [Serbian language](/wiki/Serbian_language \"Serbian language\") most frequently and 25\\.9% employed Hungarian. In the following decades, the percentage of Serbian\\-speakers decreased, while the number of Hungarian\\-speakers increased. According to the 1910 census, the city had 33,590 residents, of whom 13,343 (39\\.72%) spoke Hungarian, 11,594 (34\\.52%) Serbian, 5,918 (17\\.62%) German and 1,453 (4\\.33%) Slovak. It is not certain whether Hungarians or Serbs were the larger ethnic group in the city in 1910, since the various ethnic groups ([Bunjevci](/wiki/Bunjevci \"Bunjevci\"), [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\"), Jews, other [South Slavic](/wiki/South_Slavs \"South Slavs\") people, etc.) were classified in census results only according to the language they spoke.Triva Militar, Novi Sad na raskrsnici minulog i sadanjeg veka, Novi Sad, 2000, p. 320",
"Similar demographic changes can be seen in the religious structure: in 1870, the population of Novi Sad included 8,134 Orthodox Christians, 6,684 Catholics, 1,725 Calvinists, 1,343 Lutherans, and others.Triva Militar, Novi Sad na raskrsnici minulog i sadanjeg veka, Novi Sad, 2000, p. 317 In 1910, the population included 13,383 [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Roman_Catholics \"Roman Catholics\") and 11,553 Orthodox Christians, while 3,089 declared themselves as [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\"), 2,751 as [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinist \"Calvinist\"), and 2,326 as Jewish.[Újvidék](http://mek.niif.hu/06700/06758/pdf/revai18_3.pdf). *Révai nagy lexikona, vol. 18\\.* p. 612\\. Hungarian Electronic Library. (in Hungarian)",
"### Serbia and Yugoslavia",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Great Assembly of [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\"), [Bunjevci](/wiki/Bunjevci \"Bunjevci\"), and other Slavs proclaimed the unification of Vojvodina region with the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia \"Kingdom of Serbia\") in Novi Sad in 1918\\.](/wiki/File:Velika-narodna-skupstina-1918.jpg \"Velika-narodna-skupstina-1918.jpg\")",
"On 25 November 1918, the [Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs](/wiki/Great_People%27s_Assembly_of_Serbs%2C_Bunjevci_and_other_Slavs_in_Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja \"Great People's Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs in Banat, Bačka and Baranja\") of Vojvodina in Novi Sad proclaimed the union of the region of Vojvodina with the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia \"Kingdom of Serbia\"). From 1 December 1918, Novi Sad was part of the [Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"); and in 1929, it became the capital of the [Danube Banovina](/wiki/Danube_Banovina \"Danube Banovina\"), a province of the newly named Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1921, the population of Novi Sad numbered 39,122 inhabitants, 16,293 of whom spoke the Serbian language, 12,991 Hungarian, 6,373 German, 1,117 Slovak, etc.Agneš Ozer, Život i istorija u Novom Sadu, Novi Sad, 2005, p. 15",
"In 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded and partitioned by the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\"), and its northern parts, including Novi Sad, were annexed by [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary_during_World_War_II \"Hungary during World War II\"). During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), about 5,000 citizens were murdered and many others were resettled. During the three days of the [Novi Sad raid](/wiki/1942_raid_in_Novi_Sad \"1942 raid in Novi Sad\") (21–23 January 1942\\) alone, Hungarian police killed 1,246 citizens, among them more than 800 Jews, and threw their corpses into the icy waters of the Danube.",
"The total death toll of the raid was around 2,500\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Genocide and Rescue: The Holocaust in Hungary 1944\\|author\\=David Cesarani\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HrK8B0VpFBkC\\&pg\\=PR7\\|page\\=13\\|publisher\\=Berg Publishers\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85973\\-126\\-0\\|year\\=1997\\|access\\-date\\=4 August 2009}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Former 'Southlands' in Serbia: 1918–1947\\|author\\=\\[\\[Enikő A. Sajti]]\\|url\\=http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no181/9\\.html\\|volume\\=XLVII\\|date\\=Spring 2006\\|journal\\=The Hungarian Quarterly\\|access\\-date\\=4 August 2009\\|issue\\=181\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606021020/http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no181/9\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2009}} Citizens of all nationalities—Serbs, Hungarians, Slovaks, and others—fought together against the Axis authorities. In 1975 the whole city was awarded the title [People's Hero of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Order_of_the_People%27s_Hero \"Order of the People's Hero\").\n[thumb\\|right\\|[*\"The Family\"*](/wiki/Monument_to_the_victims_of_the_raid_in_Novi_Sad \"Monument to the victims of the raid in Novi Sad\") by [Jovan Soldatović](/wiki/Jovan_Soldatovi%C4%87 \"Jovan Soldatović\"), Monument dedicated to the victims of the [Novi Sad raid](/wiki/Novi_Sad_raid \"Novi Sad raid\"), which took place during the Hungarian occupation in WWII.](/wiki/File:Petrovaradin_i_%C5%BErtve_racije.JPG \"Petrovaradin i žrtve racije.JPG\")",
"The [Yugoslav Partisans](/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans \"Yugoslav Partisans\") of [Syrmia](/wiki/Syrmia \"Syrmia\") and [Bačka](/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dka \"Bačka\") entered the city on 23 October 1944\\. During the military administration of [Banat, Bačka and Baranja](/wiki/Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja \"Banat, Bačka and Baranja\") (17 October 1944 – 27 January 1945\\), the Partisans [killed tens of thousands](/wiki/1944%E2%80%931945_killings_in_Vojvodina \"1944–1945 killings in Vojvodina\"), mostly Serbs, Germans, and Hungarians, who were perceived as opponents to the new regime.Večernje Novosti, Utorak, 9\\. Jun 2009, strana 11, mapa masovnih grobnica u Srbiji{{better source needed\\|date\\=June 2016}}",
"Novi Sad became part of the new [Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\"). Since 1945, Novi Sad has been the capital of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Socialist_Autonomous_Province_of_Vojvodina \"Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina\"), a province of the [Republic of Serbia](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Serbia \"Socialist Republic of Serbia\"). The city went through rapid industrialization and its population more than doubled in the period between World War II and the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.",
"After 1992, Novi Sad became a part of the [Federal Republic of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\"). Devastated by [NATO bombardment](/wiki/1999_NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia \"1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia\") during the [Kosovo War](/wiki/Kosovo_War \"Kosovo War\") of 1999, [Novi Sad was left](/wiki/1999_NATO_bombing_of_Novi_Sad \"1999 NATO bombing of Novi Sad\") without any of its three Danube bridges ([Žeželj Bridge](/wiki/%C5%BDe%C5%BEelj_Bridge \"Žeželj Bridge\"), [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge \"Varadin Bridge\") and [Liberty Bridge](/wiki/Liberty_Bridge%2C_Novi_Sad \"Liberty Bridge, Novi Sad\")), communications, water, and electricity. Residential areas were cluster\\-bombed several times while the [oil refinery](/wiki/Oil_refinery \"Oil refinery\") was bombarded daily, causing severe pollution and widespread ecological damage. In 2003, FR Yugoslavia was transformed into the [state union](/wiki/Political_union \"Political union\") of [Serbia and Montenegro](/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro \"Serbia and Montenegro\"). These two states separated in June 2006 (following the May 2006 [Montenegrin independence referendum](/wiki/Montenegrin_independence_referendum%2C_2006 \"Montenegrin independence referendum, 2006\")), leaving Novi Sad part of the [Republic of Serbia](/wiki/Republic_of_Serbia \"Republic of Serbia\").",
""
] |
Settlements
-----------
{{More citations needed section\|date\=June 2020}}
{{See also\|List of buildings in Novi Sad}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|left\|Liman Towers, tallest buildings in Novi Sad since 1990\.](/wiki/File:Kule_na_Limanu.JPG "Kule na Limanu.JPG")
Novi Sad is a typical Central European town in terms of its architecture. The Town Hall and the Court House were built by Emmerich Kitzweger (1868–1917\). The city was almost completely destroyed during the [1848/1849 revolution](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Habsburg_areas "Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas"), so architecture from the 19th century dominates the [city centre](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad "Stari Grad, Novi Sad"). Small, older houses used to surround the centre of town, but they are now being replaced by modern, multi\-story buildings.
During the socialist period, new city blocks with wide streets and multi\-story buildings were constructed around the city core. However, not many [communist\-style](/wiki/Plattenbau "Plattenbau") high\-rise buildings were erected. The total number of [apartment buildings](/wiki/Apartment_building "Apartment building"), with ten or more floors, remained at about 50, the rest having mostly three to six floors. From 1962 to 1964, a new [boulevard](/wiki/Boulevard "Boulevard"), today called *Bulevar oslobođenja*, was cut through the older neighbourhoods, establishing major communication lines. Several more boulevards were subsequently built in a similar manner, creating an [orthogonal](/wiki/Orthogonality "Orthogonality") network which replaced the primarily radial structure of the old town. These interventions paved the way for a relatively unhampered growth of the city, which has almost tripled in population since the 1950s. Despite a huge increase in car ownership, [traffic congestion](/wiki/Traffic_congestion "Traffic congestion") is still relatively mild, apart from a few major arteries.
### Neighbourhoods
{{Main\|Neighborhoods of Novi Sad}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|right\|Dunavska street in [Stari Grad](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad "Stari Grad, Novi Sad"), 2023\.](/wiki/File:20230429.Ansichten_in_Novi_Sad.-015.jpg "20230429.Ansichten in Novi Sad.-015.jpg")
Some of the oldest neighbourhoods in the city are [Stari Grad](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad "Stari Grad, Novi Sad") (Old Town), [Rotkvarija](/wiki/Rotkvarija_%28%C5%BDitni_Trg%29 "Rotkvarija (Žitni Trg)"), [Podbara](/wiki/Podbara "Podbara"), and [Salajka](/wiki/Salajka "Salajka"). The areas of [Sremska Kamenica](/wiki/Sremska_Kamenica "Sremska Kamenica") and [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin"), located on the right bank of the Danube, were separate towns in the past, but today belong to the urban area of Novi Sad. [Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad "Liman, Novi Sad"), as well as [Bistrica](/wiki/Bistrica_%28Novo_Naselje%29 "Bistrica (Novo Naselje)"), are neighbourhoods built during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, with contemporary style buildings and wide boulevards ([Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad "Liman, Novi Sad") was divided into four sections, numbered I–IV).
New neighbourhoods, like [Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad "Liman, Novi Sad"), [Detelinara](/wiki/Detelinara "Detelinara") and [Bistrica](/wiki/Bistrica%2C_Novi_Sad "Bistrica, Novi Sad"), emerged from the fields and forests surrounding the city. Following World War II, tall residential buildings were constructed to house the huge influx of people leaving the country side. Many old houses in the city centre, from the [Rotkvarija](/wiki/Rotkvarija_%28%C5%BDitni_Trg%29 "Rotkvarija (Žitni Trg)") and [Bulevar](/wiki/Bulevar "Bulevar") neighbourhoods, were torn down in the 1950s and 1960s, to be replaced by multi\-story buildings. Since the city has experienced a major construction boom in the last 10 years, some neighbourhoods like [Adamovićevo Naselje](/wiki/Adamovi%C4%87evo_Naselje_%28Novi_Sad%29 "Adamovićevo Naselje (Novi Sad)") have completely been transformed.
Neighbourhoods with single\-family homes are mostly located away from the city centre. [Telep](/wiki/Telep "Telep"), situated in the southwest, and [Klisa](/wiki/Klisa%2C_Serbia "Klisa, Serbia"), in the north, are the oldest such districts. [Adice](/wiki/Adice "Adice") and [Veternik](/wiki/Veternik "Veternik"), both located west of the downtown area, have significantly expanded during the last 15 years, partly due to the influx of Serbian refugees fleeing the [Yugoslav wars](/wiki/Yugoslav_wars "Yugoslav wars").
### Suburbs
While Novi Sad's urban municipalities, which include [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin"), [Sremska Kamenica](/wiki/Sremska_Kamenica "Sremska Kamenica") and Novi Sad proper, have a combined population of about 277,000, its suburban areas have approximately 65,000 inhabitants. Some 23\.7% of the administrative city's total population resides in the suburbs, which consist of 12 settlements and 1 town.{{Serbian census 2011 \|page\=84\-87}} The largest numbers live in [Futog](/wiki/Futog "Futog") (pop. 20,000\) and in [Veternik](/wiki/Veternik "Veternik") (pop. 17,000\) to the west. Both places have grown bigger over the years, especially during the 1990s, and have physically merged with the city.
Suburbs like Futog are officially classified as an '*urban settlement'* (town), while other suburbs are mostly considered to be '*rural''' (village). [Ledinci](/wiki/Ledinci "Ledinci"), [Stari Ledinci](/wiki/Stari_Ledinci "Stari Ledinci") and [Bukovac](/wiki/Bukovac%2C_Novi_Sad "Bukovac, Novi Sad") are all villages located on [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora "Fruška Gora")'s slopes, with the last two having only one paved road. [Stari Ledinci](/wiki/Stari_Ledinci "Stari Ledinci") is the most isolated and least populated village belonging to Novi Sad's suburban areas.*
Towns and villages in the adjacent municipalities of [Sremski Karlovci](/wiki/Sremski_Karlovci "Sremski Karlovci"), [Temerin](/wiki/Temerin "Temerin") and [Beočin](/wiki/Beo%C4%8Din "Beočin") share the same public transportation system and are economically tied to Novi Sad.
[right\|thumb\|300px\|City of Novi Sad:
{{legend\|\#E0E0FF\|City Municipality of Novi Sad}}
{{legend\|\#C9FFE5\|City Municipality of \[\[Petrovaradin]]}}](/wiki/Image:CityNoviSad-map01.PNG "CityNoviSad-map01.PNG")
| No. | Name | Status | City municipality | Population |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Begeč](/wiki/Bege%C4%8D "Begeč") | Village | [Novi Sad](/wiki/City_municipality_of_Novi_Sad "City municipality of Novi Sad") | 3,325 |
| 2 | [Budisava](/wiki/Budisava "Budisava") | 3,656 |
| 3 | [Bukovac](/wiki/Bukovac%2C_Novi_Sad "Bukovac, Novi Sad") | [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin") | 3,936 |
| 4 | [Čenej](/wiki/%C4%8Cenej "Čenej") | Novi Sad | 2,125 |
| 5 | [Futog](/wiki/Futog "Futog") | Town | 18,641 |
| 6 | [Kać](/wiki/Ka%C4%87 "Kać") | 11,740 |
| 7 | [Kisač](/wiki/Kisa%C4%8D "Kisač") | Village | 5,091 |
| 8 | [Kovilj](/wiki/Kovilj "Kovilj") | 5,414 |
| 9 | [Ledinci](/wiki/Ledinci "Ledinci") | Petrovaradin | 1,912 |
| 10 | [Rumenka](/wiki/Rumenka "Rumenka") | Novi Sad | 6,495 |
| 11 | [Stari Ledinci](/wiki/Stari_Ledinci "Stari Ledinci") | Petrovaradin | 934 |
| 12 | [Stepanovićevo](/wiki/Stepanovi%C4%87evo "Stepanovićevo") | Novi Sad | 2,021 |
| 13 | [Veternik](/wiki/Veternik "Veternik") | Town | Novi Sad | 17,454 |
Demographics
------------
{{See also\|Demographic history of Novi Sad}}
{{Historical populations
\|type \=
\|1798\|6890 \|1848\|18530 \|1900\|28763 \|1910\|33089 \|1921\|39122 \|1931\|63985 \|1941\|61731 \|1948\|69431 \|1953\|76752 \|1961\|102469 \|1971\|141375 \|1981\|170020 \|1991\|198326 \|2002\|216583 \|2011\|277522 \|2022\|306,702
\|
}}
{{Historical populations
\| type \=
\| percentages \= pagr
\|1948\|111358 \|1953\|120686 \|1961\|155685 \|1971\|206821 \|1981\|250138 \|1991\|265464 \|2002\|299294 \|2011\|341625 \|2022\|368967
\| source \={{cite web\|title\=2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia \|url\=http://pod2\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Knjiga20\.pdf \|website\=stat.gov.rs \|publisher\=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia \|access\-date\=11 January 2017 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714191241/http://pod2\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Knjiga20\.pdf \|archive\-date\=14 July 2014 }}{{cite web \| title\=2022 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings \| url\=https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2023/PdfE/G20234001\.pdf \| access\-date\=2023\-12\-07}}
}}
Novi Sad is the second largest city in Serbia (after [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade")), and the largest city in [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina "Vojvodina"). Since its founding, the population of the city has been constantly increasing. According to the 1991 census, 56\.2% of the people who came to Novi Sad from 1961 to 1991 were from Vojvodina, while 15\.3% came from [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina") and 11\.7% from rest of Serbia.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the city experienced significant population growth. According to the 2011 census,{{cite web\|url\=http://media.popis2011\.stat.rs/2012/Nacionalna%20pripadnost\-Ethnicity.pdf \|title\=Microsoft Word – tekst, REV.GN.doc \|access\-date\=2 May 2018}} the city's population is 231,798, while in its urban area (including adjacent settlements of Petrovaradin and Sremska Kamenica) there are 277,522 inhabitants. Novi Sad's administrative city limits hold 341,625 inhabitants.
### Ethnic groups
The ethnic composition in the city administrative area (last three censuses):
| Ethnicity | 1991{{cite web\|title\=STANOVNIŠTVO PREMA NACIONALNOJ PRIPADNOSTI (1991\)\|url\=http://pod2\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/G1991/pdf/G19914021\.pdf\|website\=stat.gov.rs\|publisher\=Republički zavod za statistiku\|access\-date\=21 December 2015}} | 2002{{cite web\|title\=Popis stanovnistva, domacinstava i stanova u 2002\|url\=http://pod2\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/G2002/pdf/G20024001\.pdf\|website\=stat.gov.rs\|access\-date\=21 December 2015\|language\=sr}} | 2011{{cite web\|title\=Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011\. у Републици Србији\|url\=http://pod2\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost\-Ethnicity.pdf\|website\=stat.gov.rs\|publisher\=Republički zavod za statistiku\|access\-date\=21 December 2015}} | 2022{{cite web \|date\=28 April 2023 \|title\=Final results of the Census of Population, Households and Dwellings, 2022 \|url\=https://popis2022\.stat.gov.rs/en\-us/5\-vestisaopstenja/news\-events/20230428\-konacnirezpopisa/ \|access\-date\=28 April 2023 \|publisher\=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia \|language\=en}} |
| [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs_in_Vojvodina "Serbs in Vojvodina") |173,420
225,995
269,117
289,119 |
| [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians_in_Serbia "Hungarians in Serbia") |20,245
15,687
13,272
9,792 |
| [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks_in_Serbia "Slovaks in Serbia") |8,165
7,230
6,596
5,458 |
| [Croats](/wiki/Croats_of_Serbia "Croats of Serbia") |8,848
6,263
5,335
3,877 |
| [Yugoslavs](/wiki/Yugoslavs_in_Serbia "Yugoslavs in Serbia") |32,803
9,514
2,355
3,465 |
| [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Serbia "Romani people in Serbia") |1,133
1,740
3,636
3,321 |
| [Russians](/wiki/Russians_in_Serbia "Russians in Serbia") |\-
\-
329
2,766 |
| [Montenegrins](/wiki/Montenegrins_of_Serbia "Montenegrins of Serbia") |6,226
5,040
3,444
2,225 |
| [Rusyns](/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyns "Pannonian Rusyns") |\-
2,032
2,160
1,836 |
| [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims_%28nationality%29 "Muslims (nationality)") |1,737
1,015
1,138
886 |
| [Gorani](/wiki/Gorani_people "Gorani people") |\-
358
709
821 |
| [Macedonians](/wiki/Macedonians_in_Serbia "Macedonians in Serbia") |\-
1,144
1,111
819 |
| [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians_of_Serbia "Romanians of Serbia") |902
860
891
706 |
| [Albanians](/wiki/Albanians_in_Serbia "Albanians in Serbia") |\-
\-
356
476 |
| [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Serbia "Ukrainians in Serbia") |\-
\-
484
454 |
| [Slovenians](/wiki/Slovene_people "Slovene people") |\-
\-
412
365 |
| [Germans](/wiki/Germans_of_Serbia "Germans of Serbia") |\-
\-
429
294 |
| Others |18,211
22,416
31,861
44,287 |
|**Total**
265,464
299,294
341,625
368,967 |
All of the inhabited places in the municipalities have an ethnic Serb majority, while the village of [Kisač](/wiki/Kisa%C4%8D "Kisač") has an ethnic Slovak majority.
### Religion
{{See also\|Religious architecture in Novi Sad}}
According to the 2011 census, the population of the administrative area of Novi Sad (comprising both municipalities) included 270,831 [Orthodox Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church"), 21,530 [Catholics](/wiki/Catholics "Catholics"), 8,499 [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants "Protestants"), 4,760 [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims"), 84 Jews, and others. The city is the seat of the [Serbian Orthodox](/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox "Serbian Orthodox") [Eparchy of Bačka](/wiki/Eparchy_of_Ba%C4%8Dka "Eparchy of Bačka"), the seat of the Bishop of the [Slovak Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Serbia](/wiki/Slovak_Evangelical_Church_of_the_Augsburg_Confession_in_Serbia "Slovak Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Serbia") and of the [Muftiship of Novi Sad](/wiki/Muftiship_of_Novi_Sad "Muftiship of Novi Sad") of the Islamic Community in Serbia.
Culture
-------
[thumb\|[Serbian National Theatre](/wiki/Serbian_National_Theatre "Serbian National Theatre")](/wiki/File:Serbian_National_Theatre%2C_January_2022.jpg "Serbian National Theatre, January 2022.jpg")
In the 19th and early 20th century, Novi Sad was the capital of [Serbian culture](/wiki/Serbian_culture "Serbian culture"), earning it the nickname Serbian Athens*.{{cite book \|last1\=Jelena Sredanović \|first1\=Jelena \|editor1\-last\=Noyce \|editor1\-first\=Richard \|title\=Critical Mass: Printmaking Beyond the Edge \|date\=2010 \|publisher\=A \& C Black \|isbn\=9781408109397 \|page\=86 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=36oRGNvIfpkC\&pg\=PA86}} During that time, many Serbian novelists, poets, jurists, and publishers had lived or worked in Novi Sad at some point in their career, including [Vuk Stefanović Karadžić](/wiki/Vuk_Stefanovi%C4%87_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87 "Vuk Stefanović Karadžić"), [Mika Antić](/wiki/Mika_Anti%C4%87 "Mika Antić"), [Đura Jakšić](/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Đura Jakšić") and [Jovan Jovanović Zmaj](/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj "Jovan Jovanović Zmaj"), among others. [Matica srpska](/wiki/Matica_srpska "Matica srpska"), the oldest cultural\-scientific institution in Serbia, was moved from [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest") to Novi Sad in 1864, and now contains the second\-largest library in the country, the Library of Matica srpska, with over 3\.5 million volumes. The [Serbian National Theatre](/wiki/Serbian_National_Theatre "Serbian National Theatre"), one of the oldest professional theatre among the [South Slavs](/wiki/South_Slavs "South Slavs"), was founded in Novi Sad in 1861\.{{cite book \|last1\=Nagy \|first1\=Peter \|last2\=Rouyer \|first2\=Philippe \|title\=World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Volume 1: Europe, Volume 1 \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=9781136118043 \|page\=951 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=klGvBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA951}}*
Today, Novi Sad is the second largest cultural centre in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia"), after [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"). Municipal officials have made the city more attractive with numerous cultural events and music concerts. Since 2000, Novi Sad is home to the [EXIT festival](/wiki/Exit_%28festival%29 "Exit (festival)"), one of the biggest music summer festivals in Europe. Other important cultural events include the [Sterijino pozorje](/wiki/Sterijino_pozorje "Sterijino pozorje") theatre festival, [Zmaj Children Games](/wiki/Zmaj_Children_Games "Zmaj Children Games"), [International Novi Sad Literature Festival](/wiki/International_Novi_Sad_Literature_Festival "International Novi Sad Literature Festival"), [Novi Sad Jazz Festival](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Jazz_Festival "Novi Sad Jazz Festival"), and many others.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.novisadtourism.org.yu/FMCultural.aspx?id\=7\&jez\=2\&selection\=5\&podselection\=0\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928082957/http://www.novisadtourism.org.yu/FMCultural.aspx?id\=7\&jez\=2\&selection\=5\&podselection\=0\|title\=Festivali, manifestacije, kulturne, cultural, music, muzicke\|archive\-date\=28 September 2007\|access\-date\=18 March 2015}} Novi Sad also hosts a fashion show twice a year, attracting local and international designers. Called [Serbia Fashion Week](/wiki/Serbia_Fashion_Week "Serbia Fashion Week"), the event also features the works of applied artists, musicians, interior decorators, multimedia experts and architects.{{Cite web\|url\=https://novisad.travel/en/events/serbia\-fashion\-week\-2/\|title\=Serbia Fashion Week\|website\=TONS}}
In addition to the [Serbian National Theatre](/wiki/Serbian_National_Theatre "Serbian National Theatre"), other prominent playhouses consist of the [Novi Sad Theatre](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Theatre "Novi Sad Theatre"), [Novi Sad Youth Theatre](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Youth_Theatre "Novi Sad Youth Theatre"), and the Cultural Centre of Novi Sad. The [Novi Sad Synagogue](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Synagogue "Novi Sad Synagogue") also houses many cultural events. Other [cultural institutions](/wiki/Cultural_institutions "Cultural institutions") include the Detachment of the Serbian Academy of Science and Art, Library of Matica Srpska, Novi Sad City Library and [Azbukum](/wiki/Azbukum "Azbukum"). The city is also home to the Archive of Vojvodina, which has collected numerous documents from the [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina "Vojvodina") region{{cite web\|url\=https://vojvodina.travel/en/historical\-archive\-of\-vojvodina\-novi\-sad/ \|title\=Historical Archive Of Vojvodina \- Novi Sad \|publisher\=Vojvodina Travel \|date\= \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-11}} dating back to 1565\.
Novi Sad has several folk song societies, which are known as kulturno\-umetničko društvo *or KUD. The best known societies in the city are: KUD Svetozar Marković, AKUD Sonja Marinković, SKUD Željezničar, FA Vila and the oldest SZPD [Neven](/wiki/NEVEN_Serbian_Craftsmen_Singing_Society "NEVEN Serbian Craftsmen Singing Society"), established in 1892\.*
National minorities express their own traditions, folklore and songs through various societies such as the Hungarian MKUD Petőfi Sándor, Slovak SKUD Pavel Jozef Šafárik, and Ruthenian RKC Novi Sad.
Novi Sad was chosen to be the [European Capital of Culture](/wiki/European_Capital_of_Culture "European Capital of Culture") for 2021,{{cite web \|title\=Novi Sad to be European Capital of Culture in 2021 \|url\=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/representations/items/35705/en \|website\=ec.europa.eu \|publisher\=European Commission \|date\=14 October 2016}} however its mandate was moved to 2022 due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").{{cite web \|title\=Novi Sad: European Capital of Culture 2022 \|url\=https://www.sustaineurope.com/novi\-sad\-european\-capital\-of\-culture\-2022\-20230110\.html \|website\=sustaineurope.com \|date\=10 January 2023}} From this mandate, the industrial zone in Liman neighborhood was repurposed as an artist quarter known as Distrikt*. Due the continued efforts of local artists, the city became a [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") [Creative City](/wiki/Creative_Cities_Network "Creative Cities Network") of [Media Arts](/wiki/City_of_Media_Arts "City of Media Arts") in 2023\.*
### Cuisine
Typical [Serbian food](/wiki/Serbian_food "Serbian food") can be found in Novi Sad, including traditional dishes like [ćevapi](/wiki/%C4%86evapi "Ćevapi"), [burek](/wiki/Burek "Burek"), [kajmak](/wiki/Kajmak "Kajmak"), [kiseli kupus](/wiki/Whole_sour_cabbage "Whole sour cabbage"), [kiflice](/wiki/Kifli "Kifli") and [pasulj](/wiki/Pasulj "Pasulj"), as well as fish dishes, local cheeses and charcuterie.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coolhunting.com/travel/novi\-sad\-serbia\|title \= Word of Mouth: Novi Sad, Serbia\|date \= 17 April 2018}} Restaurants and farmsteads offer fresh produce from local farmers and also [regional vintages](/wiki/Serbian_wine "Serbian wine") from [Fruska Gora](/wiki/Fruska_Gora "Fruska Gora")'s wineries.{{cite web\|url\=https://noizz.rs/noizz\-travel/cnn\-preporucio\-americkim\-turistima\-11\-destinacija\-u\-srbiji/x17sgle\|title\=CNN preporučio američkim turistima 11 destinacija u Srbiji\|date\=4 May 2018}} Modern alternatives are available at some of the city's top restaurants, which prepare traditional fare with an updated twist.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.travelweekly.co.uk/articles/295040/serbia\-a\-country\-full\-of\-surprises\|title \= Serbia: A country full of surprises}}{{cite web\|url\=https://theculturetrip.com/europe/serbia/articles/the\-10\-best\-restaurants\-in\-novi\-sad/\|title \= The 10 Best Restaurants in Novi Sad, Serbia\|date \= 2 May 2018}} Pastry shops serve local specialties such as layered cakes made from ground nuts and cream, referred to as 'torta' in Serbian. Desserts also often include raspberries, one of the region's largest exports, and historic Dunavska Street is home to many ice cream parlors.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.irishnews.com/lifestyle/2017/09/02/news/danube\-city\-novi\-sad\-is\-the\-jewel\-in\-serbia\-s\-crown\-1123565/\|title \= Danube city Novi Sad is the jewel in Serbia's crown\|date \= 2 September 2017}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tv3\.ie/xpose/article/lifestyle/249884/An\-essential\-guide\-to\-Serbias\-coolest\-city\-Novi\-Sad \|title\=An essential guide to Serbia's coolest city, Novi Sad \- TV3 Xposé \|access\-date\=21 July 2018 \|archive\-date\=21 July 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721221725/http://www.tv3\.ie/xpose/article/lifestyle/249884/An\-essential\-guide\-to\-Serbias\-coolest\-city\-Novi\-Sad \|url\-status\=dead }}
Index sandwich, named after university student index books, is a popular local street food since the 1980s.{{cite web\|last1\=Jovanović\|first1\= Aleksandar\|url\=https://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/istrazujemo\-gde\-se\-u\-gradu\-jedu\-najbolji\-index\-sendvici\-foto\-id22753\.html\|title \=ISTRAŽUJEMO: Gde se u gradu jedu najbolji Index sendviči\|work\=mojnovisad.com\|date \= 4 July 2018\|access\-date\=23 September 2023\|language\=Serbian}} It is made out of a bread roll stuffed with melted cheese, ham, mushrooms and lashings of sauce.{{cite web\|last1\=Natošević Milovanović\|first1\= Ljiljana\|url\=https://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/omiljeni\-zalogaj\-novosadjana\-10\-lokala\-brze\-hrane\-u\-kojima\-mozete\-da\-pojedete\-index\-sendvic\-id46856\.html\|title \=OMILJENI ZALOGAJ NOVOSAĐANA: 10 lokala brze hrane u kojima možete da pojedete index sendvič\|work\=mojnovisad.com\|date \= 1 May 2022\|access\-date\=23 September 2023\|language\=Serbian}}{{cite web\|last1\=Natošević Milovanović\|first1\= Ljiljana\|url\=https://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/omiljena\-fast\-food\-hrana\-evo\-sta\-novosadjani\-vole\-da\-jedu\-kad\-ne\-kuvaju\-id49598\.html\|title \=OMILJENA FAST FOOD HRANA: Evo šta Novosađani vole da jedu kad ne kuvaju\|work\=mojnovisad.com\|date \= 19 September 2022\|access\-date\=23 September 2023\|language\=Serbian}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/storyworks/travel/experience\-serbia/10\-reasons\-why\-novi\-sad\|title \=10 reasons why you should visit Novi Sad this year\|work\=bbc.com\|access\-date\=23 September 2023\|language\=English}}
### Museums
[thumb\|[Museum of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Vojvodina "Museum of Vojvodina") is an [art](/wiki/Art_museum "Art museum") and [natural history museum](/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums "List of natural history museums").](/wiki/File:Museum_of_Vojvodina_in_Novi_Sad_-_street_view.jpg "Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad - street view.jpg")
The city has several museums and galleries, both public and privately owned. The best known institution in the city is the [Museum of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Vojvodina "Museum of Vojvodina"), founded in 1847,{{cite book \|last1\=Popović\-Živančević \|first1\=Mila \|title\=Condition of the Cultural and Natural Heritage in the Balkan Region: Proceedings of the Regional Conference Held in Kladovo, Serbia from 23th to 27th October 2006, Volume 1 \|date\=2007 \|publisher\=National Museum Belgrade \|isbn\=9788672690903 \|page\=242}} which houses a permanent collection of [Serbian culture](/wiki/Serbian_culture "Serbian culture") and life in [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina "Vojvodina") since ancient times. The Museum of Novi Sad, located in the [Petrovaradin Fortress](/wiki/Petrovaradin_Fortress "Petrovaradin Fortress"),{{cite book \|title\=Natural Resources and Beauties of the Socialist Republic of Serbia \|date\=1973 \|publisher\=Eksport\-Press \|page\=104 \|quote\=..the museum \[of Novi Sad] organizes exhibitions in the hall of Topovnjača in Petrovaradin Fortress where the Museum itself is located..}} has a permanent collection featuring the history of the old fortress.
The [Gallery of Matica Srpska](/wiki/Gallery_of_Matica_Srpska "Gallery of Matica Srpska") is the largest and most respected exhibition space in the city, with two galleries in the city centre. Other museums include [Museum of Contemporary Art of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Contemporary_Art_of_Vojvodina "Museum of Contemporary Art of Vojvodina"), [The Gallery of Fine Arts – Gift Collection of Rajko Mamuzić](/wiki/The_Gallery_of_Fine_Arts_%E2%80%93_Gift_Collection_of_Rajko_Mamuzi%C4%87 "The Gallery of Fine Arts – Gift Collection of Rajko Mamuzić") and [The Pavle Beljanski Memorial Collection](/wiki/The_Pavle_Beljanski_Memorial_Collection "The Pavle Beljanski Memorial Collection"), featuring one of the most extensive collections of [Serbian art](/wiki/Serbian_art "Serbian art") from the 1900s until the 1970s.
### Tourism
[thumb\|[Petrovaradin Fortress](/wiki/Petrovaradin_Fortress "Petrovaradin Fortress") during the Exit festival](/wiki/File:Fireworks_at_EXIT_Festival_2018.jpg "Fireworks at EXIT Festival 2018.jpg")
Since 2000, the number of tourists visiting Novi Sad each year has steadily risen. During the annual [EXIT music festival](/wiki/Exit_%28festival%29 "Exit (festival)") in July, the city is full of young people from all over Europe. In 2017, over 200,000 visitors from 60 countries came to the festival, attending about 35 concerts.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-44697302\|title\=Music festivals: What's the world's biggest?\|work\=BBC News\|date\=4 July 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=http://eng.exitfest.org/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=blogcategory\&id\=17\&Itemid\=99\|title\=EXIT Adventure: EXIT Festival, Serbia, 9 – 12 July 2015 / SEA DANCE Festival, Montenegro, 16 – 18 July 2015\|work\=EXIT Adventure: EXIT Festival, Serbia, 9–12 July 2015 / SEA DANCE Festival, Montenegro, 16–18 July 2015\|access\-date\=18 March 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210172015/http://eng.exitfest.org/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=blogcategory\&id\=17\&Itemid\=99\|archive\-date\=10 February 2012}}
Other events include shows and congresses organized by [Novi Sad Fair](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Fair "Novi Sad Fair"), a local management company, bringing in many businesspersons and entrepreneurs to the city. Every May, Novi Sad is home to the largest [agricultural show](/wiki/Agricultural_show "Agricultural show") in the region, having attracted 600,000 attendees in 2005\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nsfair.com/live/Kalendar\_sajmova/2006/Medjunarodni\_poljoprivredni\_sajam/Vesti?contentId\=1873\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928084527/http://www.nsfair.com/live/Kalendar\_sajmova/2006/Medjunarodni\_poljoprivredni\_sajam/Vesti?contentId\=1873\|title\=Novosadski sajam – News – Međunarodni poljoprivredni sajam videlo 600\.000 posetilaca\|archive\-date\=28 September 2007\|access\-date\=18 March 2015}} The tourist port, near [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge "Varadin Bridge") in the city centre, welcomes cruise boats from across Europe that travel the Danube river.
The most recognized structure in Novi Sad is the [Petrovaradin Fortress](/wiki/Petrovaradin_Fortress "Petrovaradin Fortress"), which dominates the skyline and also offers scenic views of the city. The nearby historic neighbourhood of [Stari Grad](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad "Stari Grad, Novi Sad") has many monuments, museums, cafes, restaurants and shops. Also in the vicinity, is the [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora "Fruška Gora") National Park, approximately {{convert\|20\|km\|0\|abbr\=on}} from the city centre.
According to the data of the Republic Institute of Statistics of Serbia, a total of 234,708 tourist arrivals were realized in the territory of the City in 2023, which represents an increase compared to the same period in 2022 by 7\.2 percent. Also, last year a total of 567,926 overnight stays were realized, which represents a growth of 1\.2 percent.
Economy
-------
Novi Sad is the economic centre of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina "Vojvodina"), the most fertile agricultural region in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia"). The city also represents one of the largest economic and cultural hubs in Serbia.
Novi Sad had always been a developed city within the former [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia"). In 1981, its GDP per capita was 172% of the Yugoslav average.{{cite book \| title\=Atlas svijeta: Novi pogled na Zemlju \| year\=1984 \| edition\=3rd \| publisher\=Sveučilišna naklada Liber \| location\=Zagreb \| language\=hr \| editor1\-first\=Radovan \| editor1\-last\=Radovinović \| editor2\-first\=Ivan \| editor2\-last\=Bertić}} During the 1990s, the city, like the rest of Serbia, was severely affected by an internationally imposed [trade embargo](/wiki/Embargo "Embargo") and hyperinflation of the [Yugoslav dinar](/wiki/Yugoslav_dinar "Yugoslav dinar"). The embargo, along with economic mismanagement, led to a decay or demise of once important industrial combines, such as Novkabel *(electric cable industry),* Pobeda *(metal industry),* Jugoalat *(tools),* Albus *and* HINS *(chemical industry). Practically the only viable large facilities remaining today are the oil refinery, located northeast of the city, and the [thermal power plant](/wiki/Thermal_power_station "Thermal power station").*
The economy of Novi Sad has mostly recovered from that period and grown strongly since 2001, shifting from an industry\-driven economy to the [tertiary sector](/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy "Tertiary sector of the economy"). The processes involved in [privatizing](/wiki/Privatization "Privatization") state and society\-owned enterprises, as well as strong private incentives, have increased the share of privately owned companies to over 95% in the district, with small and medium\-size enterprises dominating the city's [economic development](/wiki/Economic_development "Economic development").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rpkns.com/eng/oregionu.php?opstine\=7\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112194104/http://www.rpkns.com/eng/oregionu.php?opstine\=7\|title\=Regional Chamber Of Commerce Novi Sad\|archive\-date\=12 January 2008\|access\-date\=18 March 2015}}
The significance of Novi Sad as a financial centre is already proven, by being home to the national headquarters of numerous banks, such as [Erste Bank](/wiki/Erste_Bank_Novi_Sad "Erste Bank Novi Sad"), [Vojvođanska banka](/wiki/Vojvo%C4%91anska_banka_a.d. "Vojvođanska banka a.d."), and [Crédit Agricole](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9dit_Agricole_Srbija "Crédit Agricole Srbija");[National Bank of Serbia](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Serbia "National Bank of Serbia") – [List of Banks](http://www.nbs.rs/english/banks/index.htm){{dead link\|date\=November 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} operating in Serbia. as well as the third largest insurance company in Serbia, [DDOR Novi Sad](/wiki/DDOR_Novi_Sad "DDOR Novi Sad"). Furthermore, the city is home to major energy companies like [Naftna Industrija Srbije](/wiki/Naftna_Industrija_Srbije "Naftna Industrija Srbije") oil company and [Srbijagas](/wiki/Srbijagas "Srbijagas") gas company. It is also the seat of many farms for wheat production and [trade](/wiki/Trade "Trade").
{{Multiple image
\| align \= center
\| direction \= horizontal
\| width \=
\| image1 \= NIS\-ova zgrada \- panoramio (1\).jpg
\| width1 \= 190
\| alt1 \= NIS building
\| caption1 \= \[\[Naftna Industrija Srbije\|Petroleum Industry of Serbia]]
\| image2 \= Master Centar \- panoramio.jpg
\| width2 \= 190
\| alt2 \= Novi Sad Fair
\| caption2 \= \[\[Novi Sad Fair]] Convention Center
\| image3 \= Novi Sad, Bulevar Oslobođenija, Aleksandar group.jpg
\| width3 \= 214
\| alt3 \= Bulevar Centar
\| caption3 \= Aleksandar Bulevar Centar
}}
Novi Sad is also a growing information technology centre within Serbia, second only to [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"). As many as 900 IT companies operate in Novi Sad out of a total of 2,500 registered in the territory of the Republic of Serbia with over 11,500 employees. As of September 2017, Novi Sad has one of 14 [free economic zones](/wiki/Free_economic_zone "Free economic zone") established in Serbia.{{cite news \|last1\=Mikavica \|first1\=A. \|title\=Slobodne zone mamac za investitore \|url\=http://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/388105/Slobodne\-zone\-mamac\-za\-investitore \|access\-date\=17 March 2019 \|work\=politika.rs \|date\=3 September 2017 \|language\=sr}}
The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2022\):{{cite web\|title\=MUNICIPALITIES AND REGIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA, 2023\.\|url\=https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2023/PdfE/G202313050\.pdf\|website\=stat.gov.rs\|publisher\=\[\[Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia]]\|access\-date\=20 September 2024}}
| Activity | Total |
| --- | --- |
| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |1,633
| Mining and quarrying |749
| Manufacturing |25,675
| Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply |1,474
| Water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation activities |1,769
| Construction |10,624
| Wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles |28,527
| Transportation and storage |8,904
| Accommodation and food services |7,229
| Information and communication |13,086
| Financial and insurance activities |4,717
| Real estate activities |845
| Professional, scientific and technical activities |13,115
| Administrative and support service activities |6,902
| Public administration and defense; compulsory social security |8,080
| Education |14,068
| Human health and social work activities |12,752
| Arts, entertainment and recreation |3,928
| Other service activities |3,899
| Individual agricultural workers |578
| **Total** |**168,556**
Politics
--------
{{Main\|Politics of Novi Sad\|List of mayors of Novi Sad}}
[thumb\|[Banovina Palace](/wiki/Banovina_Palace "Banovina Palace"), seat of the provincial institutions of AP Vojvodina](/wiki/File:Kompleks_Banovine.jpg "Kompleks Banovine.jpg")
Novi Sad is the administrative centre of the [Autonomous Province](/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Serbia "Subdivisions of Serbia") of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina "Vojvodina"), and as such, home to Vojvodina's [Government](/wiki/Government_of_Vojvodina "Government of Vojvodina") and [Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Assembly_of_Vojvodina "Assembly of Vojvodina").
The city's administrative bodies include the city [assembly](/wiki/Deliberative_assembly "Deliberative assembly") as the representative body, as well as the mayor and [city government](/wiki/Local_government "Local government") defining the executive bodies. The mayor and city assembly members are chosen through direct elections. The city assembly has 78 seats,{{cite web\|url\=https://skupstina.novisad.rs/o\-gik\-u/\|title \= О ГИК\-у \| Скупштина Града Новог Сада}} while the city government consists of 11 members. The mayor and members of the city's assembly are elected to four\-year terms. The city government is elected by the city assembly at the proposal of the mayor.
As of 2022, the mayor of Novi Sad is [Milan Đurić](/wiki/Milan_%C4%90uri%C4%87_%28politician%29 "Milan Đurić (politician)") of the [Serbian Progressive Party](/wiki/Serbian_Progressive_Party "Serbian Progressive Party").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-10\-26 \|title\=Milan Đurić novi gradonačelnik Novog Sada \|url\=http://www.rts.rs/page/stories/sr/story/9/politika/4998054/novi\-sad\-gradonacelnik.html \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-26 \|website\=Radio Television of Serbia \|language\=sr}} While his party holds the majority of seats in the city assembly, the [Socialist Party of Serbia](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Serbia "Socialist Party of Serbia"), the [Democratic Party of Serbia](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Serbia "Democratic Party of Serbia"), as well as other parties and groups, are also represented.
The city of Novi Sad is divided into 47 [local communities](/wiki/List_of_local_communities_in_Novi_Sad "List of local communities in Novi Sad") within two city municipalities, Novi Sad and [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin"), which are separated by the Danube river.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.novisad.rs/lat/mesne\-zajednice\-u\-novom\-sadu\|title\=Mesne zajednice u Novom Sadu \| Novi Sad\|website\=www.novisad.rs}}
City holidays
| 1 February | On this day, in 1748, Novi Sad gained 'free royal city' status. |
| --- | --- |
| 23 October | The partisan forces from [Srem](/wiki/Syrmia "Syrmia") and [Bačka](/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dka "Bačka") entered and liberated the city from occupation on this day, in 1944\. |
| 9 November | Troops of the Kingdom of Serbia entered the city on this day, in 1918, led by commandant [Petar Bojović](/wiki/Petar_Bojovi%C4%87 "Petar Bojović"). |
| 25 November | In 1918, the [Assembly](/wiki/Great_People%27s_Assembly_of_Serbs%2C_Bunjevci_and_other_Slavs_in_Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja "Great People's Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs in Banat, Bačka and Baranja") of [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs"), [Bunjevci](/wiki/Bunjevci "Bunjevci"), and other [Slavs](/wiki/Slavs "Slavs") of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina "Vojvodina") ([Banat, Bačka and Baranja](/wiki/Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja "Banat, Bačka and Baranja")) in Novi Sad proclaimed the unification of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina "Vojvodina") region with the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia "Kingdom of Serbia"). |
The city commemorates the year 1694, when it was established.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.novisad.rs/lat/dan\-novog\-sada\-0\|title\=Dan Novog Sada \| Novi Sad\|website\=www.novisad.rs}}
Coat of arms
The design consists of three white towers placed in the centre, set against a blue sky. A white dove holding an olive branch flies above the larger middle tower. All three structures have rooftops with crenellations, as well as opened windows and closed gates. Below the towers lies a green background, with a wavy white line depicting the [Danube River](/wiki/Danube_River "Danube River").
Society
-------
### Education
{{Main\|Education in Novi Sad}}
[thumb\|[University of Novi Sad](/wiki/University_of_Novi_Sad "University of Novi Sad")](/wiki/File:Univerzitet_u_Novom_Sadu.jpg "Univerzitet u Novom Sadu.jpg")
Novi Sad is one of the most important centres of higher education and research in Serbia, with four universities overall and numerous professional, technical, and private colleges and [research institutes](/wiki/Research_institute "Research institute"), including a law school with its own publication.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mp.gov.rs/ustanove/visoke.php\|title\=Ministry of education, list of private universities and faculties\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516070558/http://www.mp.gov.rs/ustanove/visoke.php\|archive\-date\=16 May 2010}} The largest educational institution in the city is the [University of Novi Sad](/wiki/University_of_Novi_Sad "University of Novi Sad"), a public school established in 1960\. {{As of\|2012}}, it has 14 faculties, 9 of which are located on the main [university campus](/wiki/University_campus_in_Novi_Sad "University campus in Novi Sad").{{citation \|url\=http://www.uns.ac.rs/sr/o\_univerzitetu.htm \|title\=O Univerzitetu \|publisher\=University of Novi Sad \|year\=2012 \|language\=sr \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528085001/http://www.uns.ac.rs/sr/o\_univerzitetu.htm \|archive\-date\=28 May 2012 }} It is attended by more than 50,000 students and has a total staff of nearly 5,000\.
Business Academy University and EducoNS University are private schools also located in the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.studyinserbia.rs/en/institutions?utf8\=%E2%9C%93\&q%5Bby\_title%5D\=\&q%5Bby\_type%5D\=1\&q%5Bby\_field\_of\_studies%5D\=\&q%5Bby\_education\_level%5D\=\&q%5Bby\_city\_or\_location%5D\=150\&q%5Binclude\_public%5D\=0\&q%5Binclude\_private%5D\=0\&q%5Binclude\_private%5D\=1\&q%5Benglish\_programmes%5D\=0\&q%5Bwith\_additional\_opportunities%5D\=0\&q%5Bserbian\_programmes%5D\=0\&q%5Bforeign\_languages\_programmes%5D\=0\&q%5Bdistance\_education%5D\=0 \|title\=Institutions \| StudyInSerbia \|publisher\=Studyinserbia.rs \|date\= \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-11}}{{cite web\|url\=https://stomatoloskifakultet.rs/en/university/\|title\=University business academy in Novi Sad\|access\-date\=7 July 2018\|archive\-date\=7 July 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707035835/https://stomatoloskifakultet.rs/en/university/\|url\-status\=dead}} Other educational institutions include [Novi Sad Open University](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Open_University "Novi Sad Open University"), offering professional courses in [adult education](/wiki/Adult_education "Adult education"), and the [Protestant Theological Seminary](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Theological_College "Novi Sad Theological College").
{{As of\|2022}}, there are 37 elementary schools (33 public and 4 private) with about 26,000 students.{{Cite web\|url\=http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/pok.php?god\=2005\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225154800/http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/pok.php?god\=2005\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Serbian statistical office\|archive\-date\=25 February 2009}} The [secondary school](/wiki/High_school_%28upper_secondary%29 "High school (upper secondary)") system consists of 25 vocational schools (12 public and 13 private) and 4 [gymnasiums](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 "Gymnasium (school)") with almost 18,000 students.
### Media
Novi Sad has one major daily newspaper, [Dnevnik](/wiki/Dnevnik_%28Novi_Sad%29 "Dnevnik (Novi Sad)")*, and among the periodicals, the monthly magazine* [Vojvodjanski magazin](/wiki/Vojvodjanski_magazin "Vojvodjanski magazin") *stands out. The city is also home to the headquarters of regional public broadcaster,* [Radio Television of Vojvodina](/wiki/Radio_Television_of_Vojvodina "Radio Television of Vojvodina") (RTV)*, and municipal public broadcaster,* Novosadska televizija*,{{cite web\|url\=http://novosadska.tv/\|title\=Новосадска ТВ\|access\-date\=18 March 2015}} as well as a few commercial TV stations such as* Kanal 9*,[Kanal9ns.com](http://www.kanal9ns.com/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101024112044/http://www.kanal9ns.com/ \|date\=24 October 2010 }}* Panonija*{{cite web\|url\=http://www.panonija.tv/\|title\=RTV Panonija\|website\=www.panonija.tv\|access\-date\=17 September 2007\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211065836/http://panonija.tv/\|archive\-date\=11 December 2018\|url\-status\=dead}} and* RTV Most*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtvmost.co.rs/\|title\=TV MOST\|access\-date\=18 March 2015\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318003455/http://www.rtvmost.co.rs/\|archive\-date\=18 March 2015}} Major local commercial radio stations include* [Radio AS](/wiki/Radio_AS "Radio AS") FM *and* [Radio 021](/wiki/Radio_021 "Radio 021")*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.021\.rs/\|title\=021 – Novosadski informativni portal\|access\-date\=18 March 2015}}*Novi Sad is also known as a publishing centre. The most important publishing houses are Matica srpska*,* Stilos *and* Prometej*. Well\-known journals, in literature and art, include* [Letopis Matice srpske](/wiki/Letopis_Matice_srpske "Letopis Matice srpske")*, the oldest Serbian Journal,* Polja*,{{cite web \| url\=http://polja.eunet.rs/ \| title\=urednik POLjA \| publisher\=POLjA \| access\-date\=4 January 2013 \| author\=\[\[Laslo Blašković]] \| language\=sr \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712014844/http://polja.eunet.rs/ \| archive\-date\=12 July 2012 }} which is issued by the [Cultural centre of Novi Sad](/wiki/Cultural_Center_of_Novi_Sad "Cultural Center of Novi Sad"), and* Zlatna greda*, published by the Association of Writers of Vojvodina.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dkv.org.rs/\|title\=Drustvo knjizevnika Vojvodine – Íàñëîâíà \-\|access\-date\=18 March 2015}}*
The city hosts an annual literature conference, [Book Talk](/wiki/Book_Talk "Book Talk").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.rts.rs/page/magazine/ci/kulturno/story/3149/vest/3976383/book\-talk\-novi\-sad\-konferencija.html\|title\=Конференција "Book Talk" крајем септембра у Новом Саду\|first\=RTS, Radio televizija Srbije, Radio Television of\|last\=Serbia\|website\=www.rts.rs}}
### Sports
Founded in 1790, the 'City Marksmen Association' *became the first sporting organization in Novi Sad. Founded on 28 March 1885, [VK Danubius 1885](/wiki/VK_Danubius_1885 "VK Danubius 1885") is the oldest rowing club in former Yugoslavia.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.danubius1885\.org/istorijat/ \|title\=Историјат, danubius1885\.org \|access\-date\=31 December 2010\|language\=Serbian}} A more widespread interest in competitive sports developed after the* Municipal Association of Physical Culture *was created in 1959 and when the [Spens Sports center](/wiki/SPC_Vojvodina "SPC Vojvodina") was built in 1981\. Today, about 220 sports organizations are active in Novi Sad.*
Professional sports in Novi Sad mostly revolve around the [Vojvodina](/wiki/SD_Vojvodina "SD Vojvodina") multi\-sport association. Having won two championships in 1966 and 1989, the [FK Vojvodina](/wiki/FK_Vojvodina "FK Vojvodina") football club represents the 3rd all\-time best team in Serbia, right behind its two Belgrade rivals, [Red Star](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade "Red Star Belgrade") and [Partizan](/wiki/FK_Partizan "FK Partizan"). With 13 championship titles, [OK Vojvodina](/wiki/OK_Vojvodina "OK Vojvodina") is the top volleyball team in the country. As for handball, [RK Vojvodina](/wiki/RK_Vojvodina "RK Vojvodina") has won the national championship on multiple occasions.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rkv.rs/?page\_id\=8490\|title\=Istorijat – Rukometni klub Vojvodina\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=18 June 2020}}
Athletes from Novi Sad had the honour of participating in the first [Olympic Games](/wiki/1896_Summer_Olympics "1896 Summer Olympics") in Athens. The largest number of Novi Sad competitors, to participate in the Olympics, was at the [Atlanta Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics "Yugoslavia at the 1996 Summer Olympics"). Eleven athletes won 6 medals there. Three also competed at the 1980 [Moscow Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1980_Summer_Olympics "Yugoslavia at the 1980 Summer Olympics"), while two participated in the 1976 [Montreal Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1976_Summer_Olympics "Yugoslavia at the 1976 Summer Olympics") and the 1956 [Melbourne Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1956_Summer_Olympics "Yugoslavia at the 1956 Summer Olympics").
[thumb\|right\|[Spens Sports centre](/wiki/Spens_Sports_Center "Spens Sports Center")](/wiki/File:Spens.jpg "Spens.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Karađorđe Stadium](/wiki/Kara%C4%91or%C4%91e_Stadium "Karađorđe Stadium")](/wiki/File:2009_European_Athletics_Junior_Championships.JPG "2009 European Athletics Junior Championships.JPG")
Many national and international competitions are held in the city. Novi Sad played host to the European and World Championships in [table tennis](/wiki/Table_tennis "Table tennis") in 1981{{cite web\|url\=http://www.spens.rs/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=24\&Itemid\=40\|title\=Почетна – SPENS\|website\=SPENS}} and the [29th Chess Olympiad](/wiki/Chess_Olympiad "Chess Olympiad") in 1990\. It also welcomed the European and World Championships in [sambo](/wiki/Sambo_%28martial_art%29 "Sambo (martial art)"), the Balkan and European Championships in [judo](/wiki/Judo "Judo"), the 1987 final match of the [Saporta Cup](/wiki/Saporta_Cup "Saporta Cup") in European basketball,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.linguasport.com/baloncesto/internacional/clubes/c2/C2\_87\.htm\|title\=Cup Winners' Cup 1986–87\|access\-date\=18 March 2015}} and the final tournament of the European volleyball cup. Furthermore, Novi Sad co\-hosted the [2005 European Basketball Championship](/wiki/EuroBasket_2005 "EuroBasket 2005"), as well as hosting the 2017 [Volleyball World League](/wiki/Volleyball_World_League "Volleyball World League") matches.{{Cite web \|title\=53rd EKF Senior Championships Novi Sad, Serbia 10\-13 May 2018 Bulletin Nr. 2 \|url\=https://wkf.net/imagenes/campeonatos/ekf\-senior\-boletin\-53rd\-ekf\-senior\-championships\-novi\-sad\-serbia\-may\-10\-13\-001\.pdf \|website\=\[\[World Karate Federation]]}} The year 2018 saw the city welcome the Senior European Fencing Championships and the European Senior Karate Championships.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.eurofencingns2018\.com/index.php/en/ \|title\=Senior European Fencing Championship \| Novi Sad 2018 \|access\-date\=21 July 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113164331/http://www.eurofencingns2018\.com/index.php/en/ \|archive\-date\=13 November 2018 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/fencing/44191342\|title\=Britain's Kruse wins Shanghai title\|work\=BBC Sport}}
The city also holds traditional sporting events such as the Novi Sad marathon, international swimming competitions and many other events. The very first 'MTB Petrovaradin Fortress Cup' took place in 2018, allowing national and regional cyclists to compete. It is also the first mountain bike competition to be held in Serbia.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/foto\-odrzan\-prvi\-mtb\-petrovaradin\-fortress\-cup\-id22704\.html \|title\=FOTO: Održan prvi "MTB Petrovaradin Fortress cup" \| (Vesti \- 02\.07\.2018\) Novi Sad \|access\-date\=7 July 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109161820/http://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/foto\-odrzan\-prvi\-mtb\-petrovaradin\-fortress\-cup\-id22704\.html \|archive\-date\=9 January 2019 \|url\-status\=dead }}
| Club | Sport | Founded | League | Venue |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [VK Danubius](/wiki/VK_Danubius_1885 "VK Danubius 1885") | [Rowing](/wiki/Rowing_%28sport%29 "Rowing (sport)") | 1885 | | |
| [FK Vojvodina](/wiki/FK_Vojvodina "FK Vojvodina") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") | 1914 | [Serbian Superliga](/wiki/Serbian_Superliga "Serbian Superliga") | [Karađorđe Stadium](/wiki/Kara%C4%91or%C4%91e_Stadium "Karađorđe Stadium") |
| [RFK Novi Sad](/wiki/RFK_Novi_Sad "RFK Novi Sad") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") | 1921 | [Serbian League](/wiki/Serbian_League "Serbian League") | [Detelinara Stadium](/wiki/Detelinara_Stadium "Detelinara Stadium") |
| [FK Slavija Novi Sad](/wiki/FK_Slavija_Novi_Sad "FK Slavija Novi Sad") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") | 1926 | | Stadion Salajka |
| [FK Kabel](/wiki/FK_Kabel "FK Kabel") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") | 1932 | [Serbian League Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_League_Vojvodina "Serbian League Vojvodina") | Stadion FK Kabel |
| [VK Vojvodina](/wiki/VK_Vojvodina "VK Vojvodina") | [Water polo](/wiki/Water_polo "Water polo") | 1938 | [Serbian League](/wiki/Serbian_Water_Polo_League_A "Serbian Water Polo League A"), [Regional League A2](/wiki/Regional_Water_Polo_League "Regional Water Polo League") | Slana Bara Sports center |
| [OK Vojvodina](/wiki/NIS_Vojvodina_Novi_Sad "NIS Vojvodina Novi Sad") | [Volleyball](/wiki/Volleyball "Volleyball") | 1946 | [Serbian volley league](/wiki/Serbian_volley_league "Serbian volley league") | [Spens Sports center](/wiki/SPC_Vojvodina "SPC Vojvodina") |
| [KKK Vojvodina](/wiki/KKK_Vojvodina "KKK Vojvodina") | [Kayak](/wiki/Kayak "Kayak") and [Canoe](/wiki/Canoe "Canoe") | 1947 | |
| [KK Vojvodina](/wiki/KK_Vojvodina "KK Vojvodina") | [Basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball") | 1948 | [League B](/wiki/Basketball_League_of_Serbia_B "Basketball League of Serbia B") | Spens Sports center |
| [RK Vojvodina](/wiki/RK_Vojvodina "RK Vojvodina") | [Handball](/wiki/Handball "Handball") | 1949 | [Handball League of Serbia](/wiki/Handball_League_of_Serbia "Handball League of Serbia") | Slana Bara Sports center |
| [FK Proleter](/wiki/FK_Proleter_Novi_Sad "FK Proleter Novi Sad") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") | 1951 | Dissolved in 2022, merger with RFK Novi Sad | Slana Bara Stadium |
| [HK Vojvodina](/wiki/HK_Vojvodina "HK Vojvodina") | [Ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey "Ice hockey") | 1957 | [Serbian Hockey League](/wiki/Serbian_Hockey_League "Serbian Hockey League") | Spens Sports center |
| [FK Mladost](/wiki/FK_Mladost_Novi_Sad "FK Mladost Novi Sad") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") | 1972 | [Serbian First League](/wiki/Serbian_First_League "Serbian First League") | GAT Arena |
| [ŽFK Fruškogorac](/wiki/%C5%BDFK_Fru%C5%A1kogorac "ŽFK Fruškogorac") | [Women's football](/wiki/Women%27s_association_football "Women's association football") | 1998 | [Druga Liga Srbije Sever](/wiki/Druga_Liga_Srbije_Sever "Druga Liga Srbije Sever") | GAT Arena |
### Recreation
[thumb\|right\|[Štrand](/wiki/%C5%A0trand "Štrand"), popular beach on the Danube river](/wiki/File:Strand_Novi_Sad.jpg "Strand Novi Sad.jpg")
The inhabitants of Novi Sad engage in a wide range of recreational and leisure activities. With regards to [team sports](/wiki/Team_sport "Team sport"), [football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") and [basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball") have the highest numbers of participants. Cycling is also popular due to the city's flat terrain and the extensive off\-road network, found in nearby mountainous [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora "Fruška Gora"). Hundreds of commuters cycle the roads, [bike lanes and bike paths](/wiki/Segregated_cycle_facilities "Segregated cycle facilities") daily.
Proximity to the [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora "Fruška Gora") National Park attracts many city dwellers on the weekends. They enjoy the numerous hiking trails, restaurants and monasteries located in and around the mountain area. Occurring on the first weekend of every May, the [Fruška Gora Marathon](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1kogorski_maraton "Fruškogorski maraton") *lets hikers, runners and cyclists take advantage of the many hiking trails.[Fruška Gora Marathon](http://www.psdzeleznicarns.org.rs/frmaraton/fruskogorski_maraton.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318001729/http://www.psdzeleznicarns.org.rs/frmaraton/fruskogorski\_maraton.htm \|date\=18 March 2009 }} During the summer months, citizens from Novi Sad visit [Lake Ledinci](/wiki/Lake_Ledinci "Lake Ledinci") in Fruška Gora, as well as the numerous beaches situated along the [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube"), the largest being [Štrand](/wiki/%C5%A0trand "Štrand") in the [Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad "Liman, Novi Sad") neighbourhood. There are also several recreational marinas bordering the river.*
Transportation
--------------
{{Main\|Transport in Novi Sad}}
[thumb\|[Liberty Bridge](/wiki/Liberty_Bridge%2C_Novi_Sad "Liberty Bridge, Novi Sad")](/wiki/File:Most_Slobode_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5_-_panoramio.jpg "Most Slobode - Мост Слободе - panoramio.jpg")
Air transport
Novi Sad currently does not have its own civil airport. The city is roughly a one\-hour drive from [Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport](/wiki/Belgrade_Nikola_Tesla_Airport "Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport"), which connects it with capitals across Europe. The small [Čenej Airport](/wiki/%C4%8Cenej_Airport "Čenej Airport") to the north of the city is used for sporting and agricultural purposes. There are plans to upgrade it to serve for cargo and small\-scale public transport,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.danas.rs/vesti/srbija/novi\_sad/betonska\_pista\_i\_toranj\_neophodni\_za\_sletanje\_aviona\_.40\.html?news\_id\=151159 \|title\=Betonska pista i toranj neophodni za sletanje aviona \|publisher\=Danas \|date\=20 January 2009 \|language\=sr}} but the future of this initiative is uncertain.
City transport
[thumb\|right\|City bus](/wiki/File:Wiki.Vojvodina_III_Transport_in_Novi_Sad_360.jpg "Wiki.Vojvodina III Transport in Novi Sad 360.jpg")
The main public transportation system in Novi Sad consists of bus lines, operated by the public company [JGSP Novi Sad](/wiki/JGSP_Novi_Sad "JGSP Novi Sad"). There are twenty\-one urban lines and thirty\-five suburban lines, with the main bus terminal being at the northern end of the [Liberation Boulevard](/wiki/Bulevar "Bulevar") (Bulevar oslobođenja) next to the [Novi Sad railway station](/wiki/Novi_Sad_railway_station "Novi Sad railway station"), in addition to a smaller terminal in the town center. There are numerous taxi companies serving the city.
The city used to have [a tram system](/wiki/Novi_Sad_tram_system "Novi Sad tram system"), but it was decommissioned in 1957\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rtv.rs/sr\_lat/magazin/prohujalo\-vreme\-novosadskih\-tramvaja\_118629\.html\|title\=Prohujalo vreme novosadskih tramvaja\|last\=Vojvodine\|first\=Javna medijska ustanova JMU Radio\-televizija\|website\=JMU Radio\-televizija Vojvodine\|access\-date\=18 June 2020}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/novi\-sad/novosadska\-hronologija\-9\|title\=Новосадска хронологија\|website\=Дневник\|language\=sr\|access\-date\=18 June 2020}}
Rail and road transport
Novi Sad lies on branch B of the [Pan\-European Corridor X](/wiki/Pan-European_Corridor_X "Pan-European Corridor X"). The [A1 motorway](/wiki/A1_motorway_%28Serbia%29 "A1 motorway (Serbia)") connects the city with [Subotica](/wiki/Subotica "Subotica") and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") to the north and the capital city of [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade") to the south. It runs parallel to the [Budapest–Belgrade railroad](/wiki/Budapest%E2%80%93Belgrade_railway "Budapest–Belgrade railway"), which connects it to major European cities. On 19 March 2022 the "Soko" (meaning "falcon") high\-speed line between Novi Sad and Belgrade opened and runs with 18 departures daily. Its maximum speed is 200 km/h and the 75 kilometres between Belgrade and Novi Sad are covered in 35 minutes. Between Belgrade and Novi Sad there are a total of 60 departures per day. There are three types of trains in total. "Intercity" (SOKO), "Regio\-ekspres" and "Regio". Novi Sad is connected with [Zrenjanin](/wiki/Zrenjanin "Zrenjanin") and [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara "Timișoara") on the northeast and [Ruma](/wiki/Ruma "Ruma") on south with a regional highway; there are plans to upgrade it to a motorway or an expressway, with a tunnel under the [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora "Fruška Gora") shortcutting the Iriški Venac *mountain pass.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.b92\.net/putovanja/vesti.php?nav\_id\=423315 \|title\="Poluautoput" Novi Sad – Temišvar? \|publisher\=B92 \|date\=9 April 2010 \|language\=sr}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.blic.rs/Vesti/Vojvodina/192755/Tunel\-kroz\-Frusku\-goru \|title\=Tunel kroz Frušku goru \|publisher\=Blic\|date\=7 June 2010 \|language\=sr}}*Three bridges cross the Danube in Novi Sad (as of 2020\): [Liberty Bridge](/wiki/Liberty_Bridge%2C_Novi_Sad "Liberty Bridge, Novi Sad") (Most Slobode) connects [Sremska Kamenica](/wiki/Sremska_Kamenica "Sremska Kamenica") with the city proper. [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge "Varadin Bridge") (Varadinski most) and [Žeželj Bridge](/wiki/%C5%BDe%C5%BEelj_Bridge "Žeželj Bridge") (Žeželjev most), connects Petrovaradin with city centre, and used for railway and heavy truck traffic. Many bridges also span the Danube\-Tisa\-Danube canal, running north of the city centre. Currently, two bridges over the Danube are being built, along with two new railway bridges over the Danube\-Tisa\-Danube canal.
Water transport
[thumb\|right\|[Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal](/wiki/Danube%E2%80%93Tisa%E2%80%93Danube_Canal "Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal")](/wiki/File:Kanal_DTD_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg "Kanal DTD - panoramio (1).jpg")
The [Port of Novi Sad](/wiki/Port_of_Novi_Sad "Port of Novi Sad") is located on the outskirts of the city on [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube") river. Since May 2019 it has been owned by DP WORLD from the UAE. With over a million tonnes of load turnover, it is the largest cargo port in Serbia.{{cite news \|title\=Rekordna godina Luke Novi Sad – U 2016\. pretovareno 1\.180\.000 tona robe \|url\=https://www.ekapija.com/news/1635759/rekordna\-godina\-luke\-novi\-sad\-u\-2016\-pretovareno\-1180000\-tona\-robe \|access\-date\=27 March 2019 \|work\=ekapija.com \|language\=sr}}
International relations
-----------------------
### Twin towns – sister cities
{{See also\|List of twin towns and sister cities in Serbia}}
Novi Sad has relationships with several [twin](/wiki/Town_twinning "Town twinning") towns and [twin](/wiki/Sister_city "Sister city") cities. One of the main streets in its [city centre](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad "Stari Grad, Novi Sad") is named after [Modena](/wiki/Modena "Modena") in Italy; and likewise Modena has named a park in its town centre Parco di Piazza d'Armi Novi Sad. A city square near the [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge "Varadin Bridge") is named after [Dortmund](/wiki/Dortmund "Dortmund") in Germany; and likewise Dortmund has named a city square Platz von Novi Sad.{{cite web \|title\=Gradovi pobratimi: Predstavnici Novog Sada u poseti Dortmundu, trg u Novom Sadu nosiće ime Trg Dortmunda\|url\=https://nsuzivo.rs/novi\-sad/gradovi\-pobratimi\-predstavnici\-novog\-sada\-u\-poseti\-dortmundu\-trg\-u\-novom\-sadu\-nosice\-ime\-trg\-dortmunda\|website\=nsuzivo.rs\|language\=Serbian\|date\=27 May 2022\|access\-date\=6 June 2020}} The [Novi Sad Friendship Bridge](/wiki/River_Wensum "River Wensum") in [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich "Norwich"), United Kingdom, by [Buro Happold](/wiki/Buro_Happold "Buro Happold"), was also named in honour of Novi Sad. As of October 2023, there plans to establish twin city cooperation with [Klagenfurt](/wiki/Klagenfurt "Klagenfurt") and [Busan](/wiki/Busan "Busan").{{cite web \|title\=ТЕМА "ДНЕВНИКА": САРАДЊА КОЈОМ СТВАРАМО ИМИЏ У СВЕТУ Нови Сад има 24 побратима, ускоро још три\|url\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/novi\-sad/tema\-dnevnika\-saradna\-kojom\-stvaramo\-imid\-u\-svetu\-novi\-sad\-ima\-24\-pobratima\-uskoro\-jos\-tri\|website\=dnevnik.rs\|language\=Serbian\|date\=7 October 2023\|access\-date\=6 June 2020}}
Novi Sad is [twinned](/wiki/Sister_city "Sister city") with:{{cite web \|title\=Međunarodna saradnja\|url\=https://skupstina.novisad.rs/medjunarodna\-saradnja/47/?lang\=lat\|website\=skupstina.novisad.rs\|publisher\=Novi Sad\|language\=sr\|access\-date\=6 June 2020}}
{{div col\|colwidth\=25em}}
{{flagicon\|EGY}} [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"), Egypt (2021\){{cite web \|title\=Gradovi pobratimi: Potpisan sporazum o saradnji između Novog Sada i Aleksandrije\|url\=https://www.021\.rs/story/Novi\-Sad/Vesti/285419/Gradovi\-pobratimi\-Potpisan\-sporazum\-o\-saradnji\-izmedju\-Novog\-Sada\-i\-Aleksandrije.html\|website\=021\.rs \|language\=Serbian\|date\=21 September 2021\|access\-date\=5 November 2023}}{{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – АЛЕКСАНДРИЈА\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-aleksandrija\-28\-07\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=28 July 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|MNE}} [Budva](/wiki/Budva "Budva"), Montenegro (1996\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА − БУДВА\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-budva\-22\-01\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=22 January 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|CHN}} [Changchun](/wiki/Changchun "Changchun"), China (1981\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ЧАНГЧУН, НР КИНА\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-cangcun\-nr\-kina\-15\-11\-2021/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=15 November 2021\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|USA}} [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), Ohio, United States (2023\){{cite web \|title\=Srpska Atina nastavlja da nižе pobratimstva i to sa tri kontinеnta! REKORDERI U JAČANjU SARADNjE: Grad Novi Sad ima čak 24 grada pobratima, poslеdnji u nizu Klivlеnd koji ima jaku srpsku dijasporu\|url\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/lat/novi\-sad/srpska\-atina\-nastavla\-da\-nize\-pobratimstva\-i\-sa\-tri\-kontinenta\-rekorderi\-u\-jacanu\-saradne\-grad\-novi\-03\-11\-2023\|website\=dnevnik.rs\|language\=Serbian\|date\=3 November 2023\|access\-date\=5 November 2023}}
{{flagicon\|GER}} [Dortmund](/wiki/Dortmund "Dortmund"), Germany (1982\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА − ДОРТМУНД\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-%e2%88%92\-dortmund\-30\-11\-2021/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=30 November 2021\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|BLR}} [Gomel](/wiki/Gomel "Gomel"), Belarus (2013\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ГОМЕЉ\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-gomelj\-30\-04\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=30 April 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|GRC}} [Ilioupoli](/wiki/Ilioupoli "Ilioupoli"), Greece (1994\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА − ИЛИУПОЛИ\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-%e2%88%92\-iliupoli\-10\-01\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=10 January 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|BIH}} [Istočno Sarajevo](/wiki/Isto%C4%8Dno_Sarajevo "Istočno Sarajevo"), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2021\){{cite web\|title\=Upoznajemo gradove pobratime Novog Sada – Grad Istočno Sarajevo\|url\=https://vojvodinauzivo.rs/upoznajemo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-grad\-istocno\-sarajevo/\|publisher\=vojvodinauzivo.rs\|date\=3 September 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|MKD}} [Kumanovo](/wiki/Kumanovo "Kumanovo"), North Macedonia (2019\){{cite web\|title\=Kumanovo i Novi Sad postali gradovi pobratimi\|url\=https://www.danas.rs/vesti/drustvo/kumanovo\-i\-novi\-sad\-postali\-gradovi\-pobratimi/\|publisher\=danas.rs\|date\=10 November 2019\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|ITA}} [Modena](/wiki/Modena "Modena"), Italy (1964\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – НИЖЊИ НОВГОРОД\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-modena\-07\-11\-2021/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=23 February 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|RUS}} [Nizhny Novgorod](/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod "Nizhny Novgorod"), Russia (2006\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – МОДЕНА\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-niznji\-novgorod\-23\-02\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=7 November 2021\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|UK}} [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich "Norwich"), England, United Kingdom (1989\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – НОРИЧ\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-noric\-27\-12\-2021/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=27 December 2021\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|HUN}} [Pécs](/wiki/P%C3%A9cs "Pécs"), Hungary (2009\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ ГРАДА НОВОГ САДА – ПЕЧУЈ\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-grada\-novog\-sada\-pecuj\-24\-03\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=24 March 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|FRA}} [Taverny](/wiki/Taverny "Taverny"), France (2020\){{cite web\|title\=The Ambassador of France Visits Novi Sad\|url\=http://www.novisadinvest.rs/en/ambassador\-france\-visits\-novi\-sad\|publisher\=novisadinvest.rs\|date\=25 May 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=English}}{{cite web\|title\=Novi Sad – Serbie\|url\=https://www.ville\-taverny.fr/novi\-sad\-serbie\|publisher\=Taverny\|language\=fr\|access\-date\=2023\-05\-12}}
{{flagicon\|ROU}} [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara "Timișoara"), Romania (2005\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ТЕМИШВАР\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-temisvar\-05\-02\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=5 February 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|MNE}} [Tivat](/wiki/Tivat "Tivat"), Montenegro (2023\){{cite web\|last1\=Luković\|first1\=Siniša\|title\=Pobratimili se gradovi Tivat i Novi Sad\|url\=https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/drustvo/664394/pobratimili\-se\-gradovi\-tivat\-i\-novi\-sad\|publisher\=vijesti.me\|date\=7 July 2023\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}{{cite web\|title\=Upoznajmo gradove pobratime Novog Sada – Tivat\|url\=https://nsuzivo.rs/novi\-sad/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-tivat\|publisher\=nsuzivo.rs\|date\=16 July 2023\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|MEX}} [Toluca](/wiki/Toluca "Toluca"), Mexico (2015\){{cite web\|title\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ТОЛУКА\|url\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\-gradove\-pobratime\-novog\-sada\-toluka\-12\-06\-2022/\|publisher\=gradskeinfo.rs\|date\=12 April 2022\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{div col end}}
### Partner cities
Most frequent cooperation is done with [Budva](/wiki/Budva "Budva"), [Dortmund](/wiki/Dortmund "Dortmund"), [Taverny](/wiki/Taverny "Taverny"), [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara "Timișoara"), [Tivat](/wiki/Tivat "Tivat") and [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm "Ulm") in the fields of culture, tourism and sports. Besides twin cities, Novi Sad has many signed agreements on joint cooperation with other cities, some of which could potential lead to twin city agreements. (* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + see also: [Politics of Novi Sad](/wiki/Politics_of_Novi_Sad%23Twin_cities "Politics of Novi Sad#Twin cities")*).*
Novi Sad has signed agreements on joint cooperation with cities:
{{div col\|colwidth\=25em}}
{{flagicon\|BIH}} [Banja Luka](/wiki/Banja_Luka "Banja Luka"), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2006\)
{{flagicon\|GRC}} [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu "Corfu"), Greece (2017\){{cite web\|title\=Нови Сад и Крф побратими и пријатељи\|url\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/politika/novi\-sad\-i\-krf\-pobratimi\-i\-prijateli\-21\-05\-2017publisher\=dnevnik.rs\|date\=21 May 2017\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|FRA}} [Enghien\-les\-Bains](/wiki/Enghien-les-Bains "Enghien-les-Bains"), France (2020\)
{{flagicon\|RUS}} [Frunzensky District](/wiki/Frunzensky_District%2C_Saint_Petersburg "Frunzensky District, Saint Petersburg"), Russia (2003\){{cite web\|title\=Vučević: Saradnja Novog Sada i Sankt Peterburga\|url\=https://rtv.rs/sr\_lat/vojvodina/novi\-sad/vucevic\-saradnja\-novog\-sada\-i\-sankt\-peterburga\_1245313\.html\|publisher\=rtv.rs\|date\=3 June 2021\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|SWE}} [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg_Municipality "Gothenburg Municipality"), Sweden (2002\)
{{flagicon\|SLO}} [Kranj](/wiki/Kranj "Kranj"), [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia") (2004\)
{{flagicon\|RUS}} [Krasnodar](/wiki/Krasnodar "Krasnodar"), Russia
{{flagicon\|UKR}} [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv "Lviv"), Ukraine (1999\)
{{flagicon\|FRA}} [Nant](/wiki/Nant%2C_Aveyron "Nant, Aveyron"), France (2002\)
{{flagicon\|CRO}} [Osijek](/wiki/Osijek "Osijek"), Croatia (2002\)
{{flagicon\|RUS}} [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol "Oryol"), Russia (2017\){{cite web\|title\=Potpisan sporazum o saradnji sa Orelom\|url\=https://www.kanal9tv.com/potpisan\-sporazum\-o\-saradnji\-sa\-orelom/\|publisher\=kanal9tv.com\|date\=1 February 2017\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|FRA}} [Saint\-Leu\-la\-Forêt](/wiki/Saint-Leu-la-For%C3%AAt "Saint-Leu-la-Forêt"), France (2020\)
{{flagicon\|IRN}} [Shiraz](/wiki/Shiraz "Shiraz"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") (2023\){{cite web\|title\=Novi Sad uspostavlja saradnju sa iranskim gradom Širazom\|url\=https://www.021\.rs/story/Novi\-Sad/Vesti/345091/Novi\-Sad\-uspostavlja\-saradnju\-sa\-iranskim\-gradom\-Sirazom.html\|publisher\=kanal9tv.com\|date\=27 June 2023\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{flagicon\|HUN}} [Szeged](/wiki/Szeged "Szeged"), Hungary (2001\)
{{flagicon\|BIH}} [Tuzla](/wiki/Tuzla "Tuzla"), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2002\)
{{flagicon\|GER}} [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm "Ulm"), Germany (2000\){{cite web\|last1\=Kadrić\|first1\=Milana\|title\=Sporazum o saradnji Novog Sada i Ulma\|url\=https://rtv.rs/sr\_lat/vojvodina/novi\-sad/sporazum\-o\-saradnji\-novog\-sada\-i\-ulma\_796543\.html\|publisher\=rtv.rs\|date\=1 February 2017\|access\-date\=5 November 2023\|language\=Serbian}}
{{div col end}}
Novi Sad is an associate member of [Eurocities](/wiki/Eurocities "Eurocities").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eurocities.eu\|title\=EUROCITIES – the network of major European cities\|publisher\=Eurocities\|access\-date\=8 November 2011}}
See also
--------
[List of people from Novi Sad](/wiki/List_of_people_from_Novi_Sad "List of people from Novi Sad")
[List of places in Serbia](/wiki/List_of_cities%2C_towns_and_villages_in_Serbia_%28A-M%29 "List of cities, towns and villages in Serbia (A-M)")
[List of cities, towns and villages in Vojvodina](/wiki/List_of_cities%2C_towns_and_villages_in_Vojvodina "List of cities, towns and villages in Vojvodina")
[List of cities and towns on the Danube river](/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_on_the_Danube_river "List of cities and towns on the Danube river")
[Clinical centre of Vojvodina](/wiki/Clinical_Center_of_Vojvodina "Clinical Center of Vojvodina")
[Festival of Street Musicians](/wiki/Festival_of_Street_Musicians "Festival of Street Musicians")
References
----------
{{reflist}}
Bibliography
------------
{{refbegin\|30em}}
Agneš Ozer, * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + Petrovaradinska tvrđava – vodič kroz vreme i prostor*, Novi Sad, 2002
Agneš Ozer,*
* Petrovaradin fortress – a guide through time and space*, Novi Sad, 2002
Boško Petrović – Živan Milisavac,*
* Novi Sad – monografija*, Novi Sad, 1987
Branko Ćurčin,*
* Slana Bara – nekad i sad*, Novi Sad, 2002
Branko Ćurčin,*
* Novosadsko naselje Šangaj – nekad i sad*, Novi Sad, 2004
Đorđe Randelj,*
* Novi Sad – slobodan grad*, Novi Sad, 1997
Jovan Mirosavljević,*
* Brevijar ulica Novog Sada 1745–2001*, Novi Sad, 2002
Jovan Mirosavljević,*
* Novi Sad – atlas ulica*, Novi Sad, 1998
Milorad Grujić,*
* Vodič kroz Novi Sad i okolinu*, Novi Sad, 2004
Mirjana Džepina,*
* Društveni i zabavni život starih Novosađana*, Novi Sad, 1982
Petar Jonović,*
* Knjižare Novog Sada 1790–1990*, Novi Sad, 1990
Petar Jonović – Dr Milan Vranić – Dr Dušan Popov,*
* Znameniti knjižari i izdavači Novog Sada*, Novi Sad, 1993
Radenko Gajić,*
* Petrovaradinska tvrđava – Gibraltar na Dunavu*, Novi Sad, 1994
Veljko Milković,*
* Petrovaradin kroz legendu i stvarnost*, Novi Sad, 2001
Veljko Milković,*
* Petrovaradin i Srem – misterija prošlosti*, Novi Sad, 2003
Veljko Milković,*
* Petrovaradinska tvrđava – podzemlje i nadzemlje*, Novi Sad, 2005
Veljko Milković,*
* Petrovaradinska tvrđava – kosmički lavirint otkrića*, Novi Sad, 2007
Zoran Knežev,*
* Novi Sad : Priče iz prošlosti*, Novi Sad, 2017
Zoran Knežev,*
* Vojvodina : Hronike i legende*, Novi Sad, 2018
Zoran Knežev,*
* Novi Sad : Kafanoloija i prostitucija*, Novi Sad, 2018
Zoran Knežev,*
* Novi Sad: Prošlost u pričama*, Novi Sad, 2019
Zoran Knežev,*
* Turistički vodič kroz stari Novi Sad*, Novi Sad, 2019
Zoran Knežev,*
* Vojvodina: Kazivanja i sećanja*, Novi Sad, 2021
Zoran Rapajić,*
* Novi Sad bez tajni*, Beograd, 2002
Zvonimir Golubović,*
* Racija u Južnoj Bačkoj 1942\. godine*, Novi Sad, 1991*
* 30 godina mesne zajednice "7\. Juli" u Novom Sadu 1974–2004 – monografija*, Novi Sad, 2004*
* Enciklopedija Novog Sada*, sveske 1–26, Novi Sad, 1993–2005*
* Sveske za istoriju Novog Sada*, sveske 4–5, Novi Sad, 1993–1994*
* Ustav za čitaonicu srpsku u Novom Sadu'', Novi Sad, 1993
{{refend}}
|
[
"Settlements\n-----------",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=June 2020}}\n{{See also\\|List of buildings in Novi Sad}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|left\\|Liman Towers, tallest buildings in Novi Sad since 1990\\.](/wiki/File:Kule_na_Limanu.JPG \"Kule na Limanu.JPG\")",
"Novi Sad is a typical Central European town in terms of its architecture. The Town Hall and the Court House were built by Emmerich Kitzweger (1868–1917\\). The city was almost completely destroyed during the [1848/1849 revolution](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Habsburg_areas \"Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas\"), so architecture from the 19th century dominates the [city centre](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad \"Stari Grad, Novi Sad\"). Small, older houses used to surround the centre of town, but they are now being replaced by modern, multi\\-story buildings.",
"During the socialist period, new city blocks with wide streets and multi\\-story buildings were constructed around the city core. However, not many [communist\\-style](/wiki/Plattenbau \"Plattenbau\") high\\-rise buildings were erected. The total number of [apartment buildings](/wiki/Apartment_building \"Apartment building\"), with ten or more floors, remained at about 50, the rest having mostly three to six floors. From 1962 to 1964, a new [boulevard](/wiki/Boulevard \"Boulevard\"), today called *Bulevar oslobođenja*, was cut through the older neighbourhoods, establishing major communication lines. Several more boulevards were subsequently built in a similar manner, creating an [orthogonal](/wiki/Orthogonality \"Orthogonality\") network which replaced the primarily radial structure of the old town. These interventions paved the way for a relatively unhampered growth of the city, which has almost tripled in population since the 1950s. Despite a huge increase in car ownership, [traffic congestion](/wiki/Traffic_congestion \"Traffic congestion\") is still relatively mild, apart from a few major arteries.",
"### Neighbourhoods",
"{{Main\\|Neighborhoods of Novi Sad}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|right\\|Dunavska street in [Stari Grad](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad \"Stari Grad, Novi Sad\"), 2023\\.](/wiki/File:20230429.Ansichten_in_Novi_Sad.-015.jpg \"20230429.Ansichten in Novi Sad.-015.jpg\")",
"Some of the oldest neighbourhoods in the city are [Stari Grad](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad \"Stari Grad, Novi Sad\") (Old Town), [Rotkvarija](/wiki/Rotkvarija_%28%C5%BDitni_Trg%29 \"Rotkvarija (Žitni Trg)\"), [Podbara](/wiki/Podbara \"Podbara\"), and [Salajka](/wiki/Salajka \"Salajka\"). The areas of [Sremska Kamenica](/wiki/Sremska_Kamenica \"Sremska Kamenica\") and [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\"), located on the right bank of the Danube, were separate towns in the past, but today belong to the urban area of Novi Sad. [Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad \"Liman, Novi Sad\"), as well as [Bistrica](/wiki/Bistrica_%28Novo_Naselje%29 \"Bistrica (Novo Naselje)\"), are neighbourhoods built during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, with contemporary style buildings and wide boulevards ([Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad \"Liman, Novi Sad\") was divided into four sections, numbered I–IV).",
"New neighbourhoods, like [Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad \"Liman, Novi Sad\"), [Detelinara](/wiki/Detelinara \"Detelinara\") and [Bistrica](/wiki/Bistrica%2C_Novi_Sad \"Bistrica, Novi Sad\"), emerged from the fields and forests surrounding the city. Following World War II, tall residential buildings were constructed to house the huge influx of people leaving the country side. Many old houses in the city centre, from the [Rotkvarija](/wiki/Rotkvarija_%28%C5%BDitni_Trg%29 \"Rotkvarija (Žitni Trg)\") and [Bulevar](/wiki/Bulevar \"Bulevar\") neighbourhoods, were torn down in the 1950s and 1960s, to be replaced by multi\\-story buildings. Since the city has experienced a major construction boom in the last 10 years, some neighbourhoods like [Adamovićevo Naselje](/wiki/Adamovi%C4%87evo_Naselje_%28Novi_Sad%29 \"Adamovićevo Naselje (Novi Sad)\") have completely been transformed.",
"Neighbourhoods with single\\-family homes are mostly located away from the city centre. [Telep](/wiki/Telep \"Telep\"), situated in the southwest, and [Klisa](/wiki/Klisa%2C_Serbia \"Klisa, Serbia\"), in the north, are the oldest such districts. [Adice](/wiki/Adice \"Adice\") and [Veternik](/wiki/Veternik \"Veternik\"), both located west of the downtown area, have significantly expanded during the last 15 years, partly due to the influx of Serbian refugees fleeing the [Yugoslav wars](/wiki/Yugoslav_wars \"Yugoslav wars\").",
"### Suburbs",
"While Novi Sad's urban municipalities, which include [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\"), [Sremska Kamenica](/wiki/Sremska_Kamenica \"Sremska Kamenica\") and Novi Sad proper, have a combined population of about 277,000, its suburban areas have approximately 65,000 inhabitants. Some 23\\.7% of the administrative city's total population resides in the suburbs, which consist of 12 settlements and 1 town.{{Serbian census 2011 \\|page\\=84\\-87}} The largest numbers live in [Futog](/wiki/Futog \"Futog\") (pop. 20,000\\) and in [Veternik](/wiki/Veternik \"Veternik\") (pop. 17,000\\) to the west. Both places have grown bigger over the years, especially during the 1990s, and have physically merged with the city.",
"Suburbs like Futog are officially classified as an '*urban settlement'* (town), while other suburbs are mostly considered to be '*rural''' (village). [Ledinci](/wiki/Ledinci \"Ledinci\"), [Stari Ledinci](/wiki/Stari_Ledinci \"Stari Ledinci\") and [Bukovac](/wiki/Bukovac%2C_Novi_Sad \"Bukovac, Novi Sad\") are all villages located on [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora \"Fruška Gora\")'s slopes, with the last two having only one paved road. [Stari Ledinci](/wiki/Stari_Ledinci \"Stari Ledinci\") is the most isolated and least populated village belonging to Novi Sad's suburban areas.*",
"Towns and villages in the adjacent municipalities of [Sremski Karlovci](/wiki/Sremski_Karlovci \"Sremski Karlovci\"), [Temerin](/wiki/Temerin \"Temerin\") and [Beočin](/wiki/Beo%C4%8Din \"Beočin\") share the same public transportation system and are economically tied to Novi Sad.\n[right\\|thumb\\|300px\\|City of Novi Sad:\n{{legend\\|\\#E0E0FF\\|City Municipality of Novi Sad}}\n{{legend\\|\\#C9FFE5\\|City Municipality of \\[\\[Petrovaradin]]}}](/wiki/Image:CityNoviSad-map01.PNG \"CityNoviSad-map01.PNG\")",
"| No. | Name | Status | City municipality | Population |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Begeč](/wiki/Bege%C4%8D \"Begeč\") | Village | [Novi Sad](/wiki/City_municipality_of_Novi_Sad \"City municipality of Novi Sad\") | 3,325 |\n| 2 | [Budisava](/wiki/Budisava \"Budisava\") | 3,656 |\n| 3 | [Bukovac](/wiki/Bukovac%2C_Novi_Sad \"Bukovac, Novi Sad\") | [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\") | 3,936 |\n| 4 | [Čenej](/wiki/%C4%8Cenej \"Čenej\") | Novi Sad | 2,125 |\n| 5 | [Futog](/wiki/Futog \"Futog\") | Town | 18,641 |\n| 6 | [Kać](/wiki/Ka%C4%87 \"Kać\") | 11,740 |\n| 7 | [Kisač](/wiki/Kisa%C4%8D \"Kisač\") | Village | 5,091 |\n| 8 | [Kovilj](/wiki/Kovilj \"Kovilj\") | 5,414 |\n| 9 | [Ledinci](/wiki/Ledinci \"Ledinci\") | Petrovaradin | 1,912 |\n| 10 | [Rumenka](/wiki/Rumenka \"Rumenka\") | Novi Sad | 6,495 |\n| 11 | [Stari Ledinci](/wiki/Stari_Ledinci \"Stari Ledinci\") | Petrovaradin | 934 |\n| 12 | [Stepanovićevo](/wiki/Stepanovi%C4%87evo \"Stepanovićevo\") | Novi Sad | 2,021 |\n| 13 | [Veternik](/wiki/Veternik \"Veternik\") | Town | Novi Sad | 17,454 |",
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{See also\\|Demographic history of Novi Sad}}\n{{Historical populations\n\\|type \\=\n\\|1798\\|6890 \\|1848\\|18530 \\|1900\\|28763 \\|1910\\|33089 \\|1921\\|39122 \\|1931\\|63985 \\|1941\\|61731 \\|1948\\|69431 \\|1953\\|76752 \\|1961\\|102469 \\|1971\\|141375 \\|1981\\|170020 \\|1991\\|198326 \\|2002\\|216583 \\|2011\\|277522 \\|2022\\|306,702\n\\|\n}}\n{{Historical populations\n\\| type \\= \n\\| percentages \\= pagr\n\\|1948\\|111358 \\|1953\\|120686 \\|1961\\|155685 \\|1971\\|206821 \\|1981\\|250138 \\|1991\\|265464 \\|2002\\|299294 \\|2011\\|341625 \\|2022\\|368967\n\\| source \\={{cite web\\|title\\=2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia \\|url\\=http://pod2\\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Knjiga20\\.pdf \\|website\\=stat.gov.rs \\|publisher\\=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia \\|access\\-date\\=11 January 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714191241/http://pod2\\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Knjiga20\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2014 }}{{cite web \\| title\\=2022 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings \\| url\\=https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2023/PdfE/G20234001\\.pdf \\| access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-07}}\n}}\nNovi Sad is the second largest city in Serbia (after [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\")), and the largest city in [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina \"Vojvodina\"). Since its founding, the population of the city has been constantly increasing. According to the 1991 census, 56\\.2% of the people who came to Novi Sad from 1961 to 1991 were from Vojvodina, while 15\\.3% came from [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\") and 11\\.7% from rest of Serbia.\nIn the 1990s and 2000s, the city experienced significant population growth. According to the 2011 census,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://media.popis2011\\.stat.rs/2012/Nacionalna%20pripadnost\\-Ethnicity.pdf \\|title\\=Microsoft Word – tekst, REV.GN.doc \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2018}} the city's population is 231,798, while in its urban area (including adjacent settlements of Petrovaradin and Sremska Kamenica) there are 277,522 inhabitants. Novi Sad's administrative city limits hold 341,625 inhabitants.\n### Ethnic groups",
"The ethnic composition in the city administrative area (last three censuses):",
"| Ethnicity | 1991{{cite web\\|title\\=STANOVNIŠTVO PREMA NACIONALNOJ PRIPADNOSTI (1991\\)\\|url\\=http://pod2\\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/G1991/pdf/G19914021\\.pdf\\|website\\=stat.gov.rs\\|publisher\\=Republički zavod za statistiku\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2015}} | 2002{{cite web\\|title\\=Popis stanovnistva, domacinstava i stanova u 2002\\|url\\=http://pod2\\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/G2002/pdf/G20024001\\.pdf\\|website\\=stat.gov.rs\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2015\\|language\\=sr}} | 2011{{cite web\\|title\\=Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011\\. у Републици Србији\\|url\\=http://pod2\\.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost\\-Ethnicity.pdf\\|website\\=stat.gov.rs\\|publisher\\=Republički zavod za statistiku\\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2015}} | 2022{{cite web \\|date\\=28 April 2023 \\|title\\=Final results of the Census of Population, Households and Dwellings, 2022 \\|url\\=https://popis2022\\.stat.gov.rs/en\\-us/5\\-vestisaopstenja/news\\-events/20230428\\-konacnirezpopisa/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 April 2023 \\|publisher\\=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia \\|language\\=en}} |\n| [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs_in_Vojvodina \"Serbs in Vojvodina\") |173,420",
"225,995",
"269,117",
"289,119 |\n| [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians_in_Serbia \"Hungarians in Serbia\") |20,245",
"15,687",
"13,272",
"9,792 |\n| [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks_in_Serbia \"Slovaks in Serbia\") |8,165",
"7,230",
"6,596",
"5,458 |\n| [Croats](/wiki/Croats_of_Serbia \"Croats of Serbia\") |8,848",
"6,263",
"5,335",
"3,877 |\n| [Yugoslavs](/wiki/Yugoslavs_in_Serbia \"Yugoslavs in Serbia\") |32,803",
"9,514",
"2,355",
"3,465 |\n| [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Serbia \"Romani people in Serbia\") |1,133",
"1,740",
"3,636",
"3,321 |\n| [Russians](/wiki/Russians_in_Serbia \"Russians in Serbia\") |\\-",
"\\-",
"329",
"2,766 |\n| [Montenegrins](/wiki/Montenegrins_of_Serbia \"Montenegrins of Serbia\") |6,226",
"5,040",
"3,444",
"2,225 |\n| [Rusyns](/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyns \"Pannonian Rusyns\") |\\-",
"2,032",
"2,160",
"1,836 |\n| [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims_%28nationality%29 \"Muslims (nationality)\") |1,737",
"1,015",
"1,138",
"886 |\n| [Gorani](/wiki/Gorani_people \"Gorani people\") |\\-",
"358",
"709",
"821 |\n| [Macedonians](/wiki/Macedonians_in_Serbia \"Macedonians in Serbia\") |\\-",
"1,144",
"1,111",
"819 |\n| [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians_of_Serbia \"Romanians of Serbia\") |902",
"860",
"891",
"706 |\n| [Albanians](/wiki/Albanians_in_Serbia \"Albanians in Serbia\") |\\-",
"\\-",
"356",
"476 |\n| [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Serbia \"Ukrainians in Serbia\") |\\-",
"\\-",
"484",
"454 |\n| [Slovenians](/wiki/Slovene_people \"Slovene people\") |\\-",
"\\-",
"412",
"365 |\n| [Germans](/wiki/Germans_of_Serbia \"Germans of Serbia\") |\\-",
"\\-",
"429",
"294 |\n| Others |18,211",
"22,416",
"31,861",
"44,287 |\n|**Total**",
"265,464",
"299,294",
"341,625",
"368,967 |",
"All of the inhabited places in the municipalities have an ethnic Serb majority, while the village of [Kisač](/wiki/Kisa%C4%8D \"Kisač\") has an ethnic Slovak majority.\n### Religion",
"{{See also\\|Religious architecture in Novi Sad}}\nAccording to the 2011 census, the population of the administrative area of Novi Sad (comprising both municipalities) included 270,831 [Orthodox Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\"), 21,530 [Catholics](/wiki/Catholics \"Catholics\"), 8,499 [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\"), 4,760 [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\"), 84 Jews, and others. The city is the seat of the [Serbian Orthodox](/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox \"Serbian Orthodox\") [Eparchy of Bačka](/wiki/Eparchy_of_Ba%C4%8Dka \"Eparchy of Bačka\"), the seat of the Bishop of the [Slovak Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Serbia](/wiki/Slovak_Evangelical_Church_of_the_Augsburg_Confession_in_Serbia \"Slovak Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Serbia\") and of the [Muftiship of Novi Sad](/wiki/Muftiship_of_Novi_Sad \"Muftiship of Novi Sad\") of the Islamic Community in Serbia.\nCulture\n-------",
"[thumb\\|[Serbian National Theatre](/wiki/Serbian_National_Theatre \"Serbian National Theatre\")](/wiki/File:Serbian_National_Theatre%2C_January_2022.jpg \"Serbian National Theatre, January 2022.jpg\")\nIn the 19th and early 20th century, Novi Sad was the capital of [Serbian culture](/wiki/Serbian_culture \"Serbian culture\"), earning it the nickname Serbian Athens*.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jelena Sredanović \\|first1\\=Jelena \\|editor1\\-last\\=Noyce \\|editor1\\-first\\=Richard \\|title\\=Critical Mass: Printmaking Beyond the Edge \\|date\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=A \\& C Black \\|isbn\\=9781408109397 \\|page\\=86 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=36oRGNvIfpkC\\&pg\\=PA86}} During that time, many Serbian novelists, poets, jurists, and publishers had lived or worked in Novi Sad at some point in their career, including [Vuk Stefanović Karadžić](/wiki/Vuk_Stefanovi%C4%87_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87 \"Vuk Stefanović Karadžić\"), [Mika Antić](/wiki/Mika_Anti%C4%87 \"Mika Antić\"), [Đura Jakšić](/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Đura Jakšić\") and [Jovan Jovanović Zmaj](/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj \"Jovan Jovanović Zmaj\"), among others. [Matica srpska](/wiki/Matica_srpska \"Matica srpska\"), the oldest cultural\\-scientific institution in Serbia, was moved from [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\") to Novi Sad in 1864, and now contains the second\\-largest library in the country, the Library of Matica srpska, with over 3\\.5 million volumes. The [Serbian National Theatre](/wiki/Serbian_National_Theatre \"Serbian National Theatre\"), one of the oldest professional theatre among the [South Slavs](/wiki/South_Slavs \"South Slavs\"), was founded in Novi Sad in 1861\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Nagy \\|first1\\=Peter \\|last2\\=Rouyer \\|first2\\=Philippe \\|title\\=World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Volume 1: Europe, Volume 1 \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=9781136118043 \\|page\\=951 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=klGvBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA951}}*",
"Today, Novi Sad is the second largest cultural centre in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\"), after [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"). Municipal officials have made the city more attractive with numerous cultural events and music concerts. Since 2000, Novi Sad is home to the [EXIT festival](/wiki/Exit_%28festival%29 \"Exit (festival)\"), one of the biggest music summer festivals in Europe. Other important cultural events include the [Sterijino pozorje](/wiki/Sterijino_pozorje \"Sterijino pozorje\") theatre festival, [Zmaj Children Games](/wiki/Zmaj_Children_Games \"Zmaj Children Games\"), [International Novi Sad Literature Festival](/wiki/International_Novi_Sad_Literature_Festival \"International Novi Sad Literature Festival\"), [Novi Sad Jazz Festival](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Jazz_Festival \"Novi Sad Jazz Festival\"), and many others.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.novisadtourism.org.yu/FMCultural.aspx?id\\=7\\&jez\\=2\\&selection\\=5\\&podselection\\=0\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928082957/http://www.novisadtourism.org.yu/FMCultural.aspx?id\\=7\\&jez\\=2\\&selection\\=5\\&podselection\\=0\\|title\\=Festivali, manifestacije, kulturne, cultural, music, muzicke\\|archive\\-date\\=28 September 2007\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015}} Novi Sad also hosts a fashion show twice a year, attracting local and international designers. Called [Serbia Fashion Week](/wiki/Serbia_Fashion_Week \"Serbia Fashion Week\"), the event also features the works of applied artists, musicians, interior decorators, multimedia experts and architects.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://novisad.travel/en/events/serbia\\-fashion\\-week\\-2/\\|title\\=Serbia Fashion Week\\|website\\=TONS}}\nIn addition to the [Serbian National Theatre](/wiki/Serbian_National_Theatre \"Serbian National Theatre\"), other prominent playhouses consist of the [Novi Sad Theatre](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Theatre \"Novi Sad Theatre\"), [Novi Sad Youth Theatre](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Youth_Theatre \"Novi Sad Youth Theatre\"), and the Cultural Centre of Novi Sad. The [Novi Sad Synagogue](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Synagogue \"Novi Sad Synagogue\") also houses many cultural events. Other [cultural institutions](/wiki/Cultural_institutions \"Cultural institutions\") include the Detachment of the Serbian Academy of Science and Art, Library of Matica Srpska, Novi Sad City Library and [Azbukum](/wiki/Azbukum \"Azbukum\"). The city is also home to the Archive of Vojvodina, which has collected numerous documents from the [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina \"Vojvodina\") region{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vojvodina.travel/en/historical\\-archive\\-of\\-vojvodina\\-novi\\-sad/ \\|title\\=Historical Archive Of Vojvodina \\- Novi Sad \\|publisher\\=Vojvodina Travel \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-11}} dating back to 1565\\.\nNovi Sad has several folk song societies, which are known as kulturno\\-umetničko društvo *or KUD. The best known societies in the city are: KUD Svetozar Marković, AKUD Sonja Marinković, SKUD Željezničar, FA Vila and the oldest SZPD [Neven](/wiki/NEVEN_Serbian_Craftsmen_Singing_Society \"NEVEN Serbian Craftsmen Singing Society\"), established in 1892\\.*",
"National minorities express their own traditions, folklore and songs through various societies such as the Hungarian MKUD Petőfi Sándor, Slovak SKUD Pavel Jozef Šafárik, and Ruthenian RKC Novi Sad.\nNovi Sad was chosen to be the [European Capital of Culture](/wiki/European_Capital_of_Culture \"European Capital of Culture\") for 2021,{{cite web \\|title\\=Novi Sad to be European Capital of Culture in 2021 \\|url\\=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/representations/items/35705/en \\|website\\=ec.europa.eu \\|publisher\\=European Commission \\|date\\=14 October 2016}} however its mandate was moved to 2022 due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Novi Sad: European Capital of Culture 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.sustaineurope.com/novi\\-sad\\-european\\-capital\\-of\\-culture\\-2022\\-20230110\\.html \\|website\\=sustaineurope.com \\|date\\=10 January 2023}} From this mandate, the industrial zone in Liman neighborhood was repurposed as an artist quarter known as Distrikt*. Due the continued efforts of local artists, the city became a [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") [Creative City](/wiki/Creative_Cities_Network \"Creative Cities Network\") of [Media Arts](/wiki/City_of_Media_Arts \"City of Media Arts\") in 2023\\.*",
"### Cuisine",
"Typical [Serbian food](/wiki/Serbian_food \"Serbian food\") can be found in Novi Sad, including traditional dishes like [ćevapi](/wiki/%C4%86evapi \"Ćevapi\"), [burek](/wiki/Burek \"Burek\"), [kajmak](/wiki/Kajmak \"Kajmak\"), [kiseli kupus](/wiki/Whole_sour_cabbage \"Whole sour cabbage\"), [kiflice](/wiki/Kifli \"Kifli\") and [pasulj](/wiki/Pasulj \"Pasulj\"), as well as fish dishes, local cheeses and charcuterie.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coolhunting.com/travel/novi\\-sad\\-serbia\\|title \\= Word of Mouth: Novi Sad, Serbia\\|date \\= 17 April 2018}} Restaurants and farmsteads offer fresh produce from local farmers and also [regional vintages](/wiki/Serbian_wine \"Serbian wine\") from [Fruska Gora](/wiki/Fruska_Gora \"Fruska Gora\")'s wineries.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://noizz.rs/noizz\\-travel/cnn\\-preporucio\\-americkim\\-turistima\\-11\\-destinacija\\-u\\-srbiji/x17sgle\\|title\\=CNN preporučio američkim turistima 11 destinacija u Srbiji\\|date\\=4 May 2018}} Modern alternatives are available at some of the city's top restaurants, which prepare traditional fare with an updated twist.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.travelweekly.co.uk/articles/295040/serbia\\-a\\-country\\-full\\-of\\-surprises\\|title \\= Serbia: A country full of surprises}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://theculturetrip.com/europe/serbia/articles/the\\-10\\-best\\-restaurants\\-in\\-novi\\-sad/\\|title \\= The 10 Best Restaurants in Novi Sad, Serbia\\|date \\= 2 May 2018}} Pastry shops serve local specialties such as layered cakes made from ground nuts and cream, referred to as 'torta' in Serbian. Desserts also often include raspberries, one of the region's largest exports, and historic Dunavska Street is home to many ice cream parlors.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.irishnews.com/lifestyle/2017/09/02/news/danube\\-city\\-novi\\-sad\\-is\\-the\\-jewel\\-in\\-serbia\\-s\\-crown\\-1123565/\\|title \\= Danube city Novi Sad is the jewel in Serbia's crown\\|date \\= 2 September 2017}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tv3\\.ie/xpose/article/lifestyle/249884/An\\-essential\\-guide\\-to\\-Serbias\\-coolest\\-city\\-Novi\\-Sad \\|title\\=An essential guide to Serbia's coolest city, Novi Sad \\- TV3 Xposé \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721221725/http://www.tv3\\.ie/xpose/article/lifestyle/249884/An\\-essential\\-guide\\-to\\-Serbias\\-coolest\\-city\\-Novi\\-Sad \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\nIndex sandwich, named after university student index books, is a popular local street food since the 1980s.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Jovanović\\|first1\\= Aleksandar\\|url\\=https://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/istrazujemo\\-gde\\-se\\-u\\-gradu\\-jedu\\-najbolji\\-index\\-sendvici\\-foto\\-id22753\\.html\\|title \\=ISTRAŽUJEMO: Gde se u gradu jedu najbolji Index sendviči\\|work\\=mojnovisad.com\\|date \\= 4 July 2018\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}} It is made out of a bread roll stuffed with melted cheese, ham, mushrooms and lashings of sauce.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Natošević Milovanović\\|first1\\= Ljiljana\\|url\\=https://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/omiljeni\\-zalogaj\\-novosadjana\\-10\\-lokala\\-brze\\-hrane\\-u\\-kojima\\-mozete\\-da\\-pojedete\\-index\\-sendvic\\-id46856\\.html\\|title \\=OMILJENI ZALOGAJ NOVOSAĐANA: 10 lokala brze hrane u kojima možete da pojedete index sendvič\\|work\\=mojnovisad.com\\|date \\= 1 May 2022\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Natošević Milovanović\\|first1\\= Ljiljana\\|url\\=https://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/omiljena\\-fast\\-food\\-hrana\\-evo\\-sta\\-novosadjani\\-vole\\-da\\-jedu\\-kad\\-ne\\-kuvaju\\-id49598\\.html\\|title \\=OMILJENA FAST FOOD HRANA: Evo šta Novosađani vole da jedu kad ne kuvaju\\|work\\=mojnovisad.com\\|date \\= 19 September 2022\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/storyworks/travel/experience\\-serbia/10\\-reasons\\-why\\-novi\\-sad\\|title \\=10 reasons why you should visit Novi Sad this year\\|work\\=bbc.com\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2023\\|language\\=English}}\n### Museums",
"[thumb\\|[Museum of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Vojvodina \"Museum of Vojvodina\") is an [art](/wiki/Art_museum \"Art museum\") and [natural history museum](/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums \"List of natural history museums\").](/wiki/File:Museum_of_Vojvodina_in_Novi_Sad_-_street_view.jpg \"Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad - street view.jpg\")\nThe city has several museums and galleries, both public and privately owned. The best known institution in the city is the [Museum of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Vojvodina \"Museum of Vojvodina\"), founded in 1847,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Popović\\-Živančević \\|first1\\=Mila \\|title\\=Condition of the Cultural and Natural Heritage in the Balkan Region: Proceedings of the Regional Conference Held in Kladovo, Serbia from 23th to 27th October 2006, Volume 1 \\|date\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=National Museum Belgrade \\|isbn\\=9788672690903 \\|page\\=242}} which houses a permanent collection of [Serbian culture](/wiki/Serbian_culture \"Serbian culture\") and life in [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina \"Vojvodina\") since ancient times. The Museum of Novi Sad, located in the [Petrovaradin Fortress](/wiki/Petrovaradin_Fortress \"Petrovaradin Fortress\"),{{cite book \\|title\\=Natural Resources and Beauties of the Socialist Republic of Serbia \\|date\\=1973 \\|publisher\\=Eksport\\-Press \\|page\\=104 \\|quote\\=..the museum \\[of Novi Sad] organizes exhibitions in the hall of Topovnjača in Petrovaradin Fortress where the Museum itself is located..}} has a permanent collection featuring the history of the old fortress.\nThe [Gallery of Matica Srpska](/wiki/Gallery_of_Matica_Srpska \"Gallery of Matica Srpska\") is the largest and most respected exhibition space in the city, with two galleries in the city centre. Other museums include [Museum of Contemporary Art of Vojvodina](/wiki/Museum_of_Contemporary_Art_of_Vojvodina \"Museum of Contemporary Art of Vojvodina\"), [The Gallery of Fine Arts – Gift Collection of Rajko Mamuzić](/wiki/The_Gallery_of_Fine_Arts_%E2%80%93_Gift_Collection_of_Rajko_Mamuzi%C4%87 \"The Gallery of Fine Arts – Gift Collection of Rajko Mamuzić\") and [The Pavle Beljanski Memorial Collection](/wiki/The_Pavle_Beljanski_Memorial_Collection \"The Pavle Beljanski Memorial Collection\"), featuring one of the most extensive collections of [Serbian art](/wiki/Serbian_art \"Serbian art\") from the 1900s until the 1970s.\n### Tourism",
"[thumb\\|[Petrovaradin Fortress](/wiki/Petrovaradin_Fortress \"Petrovaradin Fortress\") during the Exit festival](/wiki/File:Fireworks_at_EXIT_Festival_2018.jpg \"Fireworks at EXIT Festival 2018.jpg\")\nSince 2000, the number of tourists visiting Novi Sad each year has steadily risen. During the annual [EXIT music festival](/wiki/Exit_%28festival%29 \"Exit (festival)\") in July, the city is full of young people from all over Europe. In 2017, over 200,000 visitors from 60 countries came to the festival, attending about 35 concerts.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-44697302\\|title\\=Music festivals: What's the world's biggest?\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=4 July 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://eng.exitfest.org/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=blogcategory\\&id\\=17\\&Itemid\\=99\\|title\\=EXIT Adventure: EXIT Festival, Serbia, 9 – 12 July 2015 / SEA DANCE Festival, Montenegro, 16 – 18 July 2015\\|work\\=EXIT Adventure: EXIT Festival, Serbia, 9–12 July 2015 / SEA DANCE Festival, Montenegro, 16–18 July 2015\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210172015/http://eng.exitfest.org/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=blogcategory\\&id\\=17\\&Itemid\\=99\\|archive\\-date\\=10 February 2012}}\nOther events include shows and congresses organized by [Novi Sad Fair](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Fair \"Novi Sad Fair\"), a local management company, bringing in many businesspersons and entrepreneurs to the city. Every May, Novi Sad is home to the largest [agricultural show](/wiki/Agricultural_show \"Agricultural show\") in the region, having attracted 600,000 attendees in 2005\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nsfair.com/live/Kalendar\\_sajmova/2006/Medjunarodni\\_poljoprivredni\\_sajam/Vesti?contentId\\=1873\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928084527/http://www.nsfair.com/live/Kalendar\\_sajmova/2006/Medjunarodni\\_poljoprivredni\\_sajam/Vesti?contentId\\=1873\\|title\\=Novosadski sajam – News – Međunarodni poljoprivredni sajam videlo 600\\.000 posetilaca\\|archive\\-date\\=28 September 2007\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015}} The tourist port, near [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge \"Varadin Bridge\") in the city centre, welcomes cruise boats from across Europe that travel the Danube river.\nThe most recognized structure in Novi Sad is the [Petrovaradin Fortress](/wiki/Petrovaradin_Fortress \"Petrovaradin Fortress\"), which dominates the skyline and also offers scenic views of the city. The nearby historic neighbourhood of [Stari Grad](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad \"Stari Grad, Novi Sad\") has many monuments, museums, cafes, restaurants and shops. Also in the vicinity, is the [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora \"Fruška Gora\") National Park, approximately {{convert\\|20\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} from the city centre.\nAccording to the data of the Republic Institute of Statistics of Serbia, a total of 234,708 tourist arrivals were realized in the territory of the City in 2023, which represents an increase compared to the same period in 2022 by 7\\.2 percent. Also, last year a total of 567,926 overnight stays were realized, which represents a growth of 1\\.2 percent.\nEconomy\n-------",
"Novi Sad is the economic centre of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina \"Vojvodina\"), the most fertile agricultural region in [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\"). The city also represents one of the largest economic and cultural hubs in Serbia.\nNovi Sad had always been a developed city within the former [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\"). In 1981, its GDP per capita was 172% of the Yugoslav average.{{cite book \\| title\\=Atlas svijeta: Novi pogled na Zemlju \\| year\\=1984 \\| edition\\=3rd \\| publisher\\=Sveučilišna naklada Liber \\| location\\=Zagreb \\| language\\=hr \\| editor1\\-first\\=Radovan \\| editor1\\-last\\=Radovinović \\| editor2\\-first\\=Ivan \\| editor2\\-last\\=Bertić}} During the 1990s, the city, like the rest of Serbia, was severely affected by an internationally imposed [trade embargo](/wiki/Embargo \"Embargo\") and hyperinflation of the [Yugoslav dinar](/wiki/Yugoslav_dinar \"Yugoslav dinar\"). The embargo, along with economic mismanagement, led to a decay or demise of once important industrial combines, such as Novkabel *(electric cable industry),* Pobeda *(metal industry),* Jugoalat *(tools),* Albus *and* HINS *(chemical industry). Practically the only viable large facilities remaining today are the oil refinery, located northeast of the city, and the [thermal power plant](/wiki/Thermal_power_station \"Thermal power station\").*",
"The economy of Novi Sad has mostly recovered from that period and grown strongly since 2001, shifting from an industry\\-driven economy to the [tertiary sector](/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy \"Tertiary sector of the economy\"). The processes involved in [privatizing](/wiki/Privatization \"Privatization\") state and society\\-owned enterprises, as well as strong private incentives, have increased the share of privately owned companies to over 95% in the district, with small and medium\\-size enterprises dominating the city's [economic development](/wiki/Economic_development \"Economic development\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rpkns.com/eng/oregionu.php?opstine\\=7\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112194104/http://www.rpkns.com/eng/oregionu.php?opstine\\=7\\|title\\=Regional Chamber Of Commerce Novi Sad\\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2008\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015}}\nThe significance of Novi Sad as a financial centre is already proven, by being home to the national headquarters of numerous banks, such as [Erste Bank](/wiki/Erste_Bank_Novi_Sad \"Erste Bank Novi Sad\"), [Vojvođanska banka](/wiki/Vojvo%C4%91anska_banka_a.d. \"Vojvođanska banka a.d.\"), and [Crédit Agricole](/wiki/Cr%C3%A9dit_Agricole_Srbija \"Crédit Agricole Srbija\");[National Bank of Serbia](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Serbia \"National Bank of Serbia\") – [List of Banks](http://www.nbs.rs/english/banks/index.htm){{dead link\\|date\\=November 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} operating in Serbia. as well as the third largest insurance company in Serbia, [DDOR Novi Sad](/wiki/DDOR_Novi_Sad \"DDOR Novi Sad\"). Furthermore, the city is home to major energy companies like [Naftna Industrija Srbije](/wiki/Naftna_Industrija_Srbije \"Naftna Industrija Srbije\") oil company and [Srbijagas](/wiki/Srbijagas \"Srbijagas\") gas company. It is also the seat of many farms for wheat production and [trade](/wiki/Trade \"Trade\").\n{{Multiple image\n\\| align \\= center\n\\| direction \\= horizontal\n\\| width \\= \n\\| image1 \\= NIS\\-ova zgrada \\- panoramio (1\\).jpg\n\\| width1 \\= 190\n\\| alt1 \\= NIS building\n\\| caption1 \\= \\[\\[Naftna Industrija Srbije\\|Petroleum Industry of Serbia]]\n\\| image2 \\= Master Centar \\- panoramio.jpg\n\\| width2 \\= 190\n\\| alt2 \\= Novi Sad Fair\n\\| caption2 \\= \\[\\[Novi Sad Fair]] Convention Center\n\\| image3 \\= Novi Sad, Bulevar Oslobođenija, Aleksandar group.jpg\n\\| width3 \\= 214\n\\| alt3 \\= Bulevar Centar\n\\| caption3 \\= Aleksandar Bulevar Centar\n}}\nNovi Sad is also a growing information technology centre within Serbia, second only to [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"). As many as 900 IT companies operate in Novi Sad out of a total of 2,500 registered in the territory of the Republic of Serbia with over 11,500 employees. As of September 2017, Novi Sad has one of 14 [free economic zones](/wiki/Free_economic_zone \"Free economic zone\") established in Serbia.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Mikavica \\|first1\\=A. \\|title\\=Slobodne zone mamac za investitore \\|url\\=http://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/388105/Slobodne\\-zone\\-mamac\\-za\\-investitore \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2019 \\|work\\=politika.rs \\|date\\=3 September 2017 \\|language\\=sr}}\nThe following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2022\\):{{cite web\\|title\\=MUNICIPALITIES AND REGIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA, 2023\\.\\|url\\=https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2023/PdfE/G202313050\\.pdf\\|website\\=stat.gov.rs\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia]]\\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2024}}",
"| Activity | Total |\n| --- | --- |\n| Agriculture, forestry and fishing |1,633",
"| Mining and quarrying |749",
"| Manufacturing |25,675",
"| Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply |1,474",
"| Water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation activities |1,769",
"| Construction |10,624",
"| Wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles |28,527",
"| Transportation and storage |8,904",
"| Accommodation and food services |7,229",
"| Information and communication |13,086",
"| Financial and insurance activities |4,717",
"| Real estate activities |845",
"| Professional, scientific and technical activities |13,115",
"| Administrative and support service activities |6,902",
"| Public administration and defense; compulsory social security |8,080",
"| Education |14,068",
"| Human health and social work activities |12,752",
"| Arts, entertainment and recreation |3,928",
"| Other service activities |3,899",
"| Individual agricultural workers |578",
"| **Total** |**168,556**",
"",
"Politics\n--------",
"{{Main\\|Politics of Novi Sad\\|List of mayors of Novi Sad}}\n[thumb\\|[Banovina Palace](/wiki/Banovina_Palace \"Banovina Palace\"), seat of the provincial institutions of AP Vojvodina](/wiki/File:Kompleks_Banovine.jpg \"Kompleks Banovine.jpg\")\nNovi Sad is the administrative centre of the [Autonomous Province](/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Serbia \"Subdivisions of Serbia\") of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina \"Vojvodina\"), and as such, home to Vojvodina's [Government](/wiki/Government_of_Vojvodina \"Government of Vojvodina\") and [Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Assembly_of_Vojvodina \"Assembly of Vojvodina\").\nThe city's administrative bodies include the city [assembly](/wiki/Deliberative_assembly \"Deliberative assembly\") as the representative body, as well as the mayor and [city government](/wiki/Local_government \"Local government\") defining the executive bodies. The mayor and city assembly members are chosen through direct elections. The city assembly has 78 seats,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://skupstina.novisad.rs/o\\-gik\\-u/\\|title \\= О ГИК\\-у \\| Скупштина Града Новог Сада}} while the city government consists of 11 members. The mayor and members of the city's assembly are elected to four\\-year terms. The city government is elected by the city assembly at the proposal of the mayor.\nAs of 2022, the mayor of Novi Sad is [Milan Đurić](/wiki/Milan_%C4%90uri%C4%87_%28politician%29 \"Milan Đurić (politician)\") of the [Serbian Progressive Party](/wiki/Serbian_Progressive_Party \"Serbian Progressive Party\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-26 \\|title\\=Milan Đurić novi gradonačelnik Novog Sada \\|url\\=http://www.rts.rs/page/stories/sr/story/9/politika/4998054/novi\\-sad\\-gradonacelnik.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-26 \\|website\\=Radio Television of Serbia \\|language\\=sr}} While his party holds the majority of seats in the city assembly, the [Socialist Party of Serbia](/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Serbia \"Socialist Party of Serbia\"), the [Democratic Party of Serbia](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Serbia \"Democratic Party of Serbia\"), as well as other parties and groups, are also represented.\nThe city of Novi Sad is divided into 47 [local communities](/wiki/List_of_local_communities_in_Novi_Sad \"List of local communities in Novi Sad\") within two city municipalities, Novi Sad and [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\"), which are separated by the Danube river.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.novisad.rs/lat/mesne\\-zajednice\\-u\\-novom\\-sadu\\|title\\=Mesne zajednice u Novom Sadu \\| Novi Sad\\|website\\=www.novisad.rs}}\nCity holidays",
"| 1 February | On this day, in 1748, Novi Sad gained 'free royal city' status. |\n| --- | --- |\n| 23 October | The partisan forces from [Srem](/wiki/Syrmia \"Syrmia\") and [Bačka](/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dka \"Bačka\") entered and liberated the city from occupation on this day, in 1944\\. |\n| 9 November | Troops of the Kingdom of Serbia entered the city on this day, in 1918, led by commandant [Petar Bojović](/wiki/Petar_Bojovi%C4%87 \"Petar Bojović\"). |\n| 25 November | In 1918, the [Assembly](/wiki/Great_People%27s_Assembly_of_Serbs%2C_Bunjevci_and_other_Slavs_in_Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja \"Great People's Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs in Banat, Bačka and Baranja\") of [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\"), [Bunjevci](/wiki/Bunjevci \"Bunjevci\"), and other [Slavs](/wiki/Slavs \"Slavs\") of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina \"Vojvodina\") ([Banat, Bačka and Baranja](/wiki/Banat%2C_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja \"Banat, Bačka and Baranja\")) in Novi Sad proclaimed the unification of [Vojvodina](/wiki/Vojvodina \"Vojvodina\") region with the [Kingdom of Serbia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia \"Kingdom of Serbia\"). |",
"The city commemorates the year 1694, when it was established.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.novisad.rs/lat/dan\\-novog\\-sada\\-0\\|title\\=Dan Novog Sada \\| Novi Sad\\|website\\=www.novisad.rs}}\nCoat of arms\nThe design consists of three white towers placed in the centre, set against a blue sky. A white dove holding an olive branch flies above the larger middle tower. All three structures have rooftops with crenellations, as well as opened windows and closed gates. Below the towers lies a green background, with a wavy white line depicting the [Danube River](/wiki/Danube_River \"Danube River\").\nSociety\n-------",
"### Education",
"{{Main\\|Education in Novi Sad}}\n[thumb\\|[University of Novi Sad](/wiki/University_of_Novi_Sad \"University of Novi Sad\")](/wiki/File:Univerzitet_u_Novom_Sadu.jpg \"Univerzitet u Novom Sadu.jpg\")\nNovi Sad is one of the most important centres of higher education and research in Serbia, with four universities overall and numerous professional, technical, and private colleges and [research institutes](/wiki/Research_institute \"Research institute\"), including a law school with its own publication.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mp.gov.rs/ustanove/visoke.php\\|title\\=Ministry of education, list of private universities and faculties\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516070558/http://www.mp.gov.rs/ustanove/visoke.php\\|archive\\-date\\=16 May 2010}} The largest educational institution in the city is the [University of Novi Sad](/wiki/University_of_Novi_Sad \"University of Novi Sad\"), a public school established in 1960\\. {{As of\\|2012}}, it has 14 faculties, 9 of which are located on the main [university campus](/wiki/University_campus_in_Novi_Sad \"University campus in Novi Sad\").{{citation \\|url\\=http://www.uns.ac.rs/sr/o\\_univerzitetu.htm \\|title\\=O Univerzitetu \\|publisher\\=University of Novi Sad \\|year\\=2012 \\|language\\=sr \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528085001/http://www.uns.ac.rs/sr/o\\_univerzitetu.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=28 May 2012 }} It is attended by more than 50,000 students and has a total staff of nearly 5,000\\.\nBusiness Academy University and EducoNS University are private schools also located in the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.studyinserbia.rs/en/institutions?utf8\\=%E2%9C%93\\&q%5Bby\\_title%5D\\=\\&q%5Bby\\_type%5D\\=1\\&q%5Bby\\_field\\_of\\_studies%5D\\=\\&q%5Bby\\_education\\_level%5D\\=\\&q%5Bby\\_city\\_or\\_location%5D\\=150\\&q%5Binclude\\_public%5D\\=0\\&q%5Binclude\\_private%5D\\=0\\&q%5Binclude\\_private%5D\\=1\\&q%5Benglish\\_programmes%5D\\=0\\&q%5Bwith\\_additional\\_opportunities%5D\\=0\\&q%5Bserbian\\_programmes%5D\\=0\\&q%5Bforeign\\_languages\\_programmes%5D\\=0\\&q%5Bdistance\\_education%5D\\=0 \\|title\\=Institutions \\| StudyInSerbia \\|publisher\\=Studyinserbia.rs \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-11}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://stomatoloskifakultet.rs/en/university/\\|title\\=University business academy in Novi Sad\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707035835/https://stomatoloskifakultet.rs/en/university/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Other educational institutions include [Novi Sad Open University](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Open_University \"Novi Sad Open University\"), offering professional courses in [adult education](/wiki/Adult_education \"Adult education\"), and the [Protestant Theological Seminary](/wiki/Novi_Sad_Theological_College \"Novi Sad Theological College\").\n{{As of\\|2022}}, there are 37 elementary schools (33 public and 4 private) with about 26,000 students.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/pok.php?god\\=2005\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225154800/http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/pok.php?god\\=2005\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Serbian statistical office\\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2009}} The [secondary school](/wiki/High_school_%28upper_secondary%29 \"High school (upper secondary)\") system consists of 25 vocational schools (12 public and 13 private) and 4 [gymnasiums](/wiki/Gymnasium_%28school%29 \"Gymnasium (school)\") with almost 18,000 students.\n### Media",
"Novi Sad has one major daily newspaper, [Dnevnik](/wiki/Dnevnik_%28Novi_Sad%29 \"Dnevnik (Novi Sad)\")*, and among the periodicals, the monthly magazine* [Vojvodjanski magazin](/wiki/Vojvodjanski_magazin \"Vojvodjanski magazin\") *stands out. The city is also home to the headquarters of regional public broadcaster,* [Radio Television of Vojvodina](/wiki/Radio_Television_of_Vojvodina \"Radio Television of Vojvodina\") (RTV)*, and municipal public broadcaster,* Novosadska televizija*,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://novosadska.tv/\\|title\\=Новосадска ТВ\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015}} as well as a few commercial TV stations such as* Kanal 9*,[Kanal9ns.com](http://www.kanal9ns.com/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101024112044/http://www.kanal9ns.com/ \\|date\\=24 October 2010 }}* Panonija*{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.panonija.tv/\\|title\\=RTV Panonija\\|website\\=www.panonija.tv\\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2007\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211065836/http://panonija.tv/\\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and* RTV Most*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtvmost.co.rs/\\|title\\=TV MOST\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318003455/http://www.rtvmost.co.rs/\\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2015}} Major local commercial radio stations include* [Radio AS](/wiki/Radio_AS \"Radio AS\") FM *and* [Radio 021](/wiki/Radio_021 \"Radio 021\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.021\\.rs/\\|title\\=021 – Novosadski informativni portal\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015}}*Novi Sad is also known as a publishing centre. The most important publishing houses are Matica srpska*,* Stilos *and* Prometej*. Well\\-known journals, in literature and art, include* [Letopis Matice srpske](/wiki/Letopis_Matice_srpske \"Letopis Matice srpske\")*, the oldest Serbian Journal,* Polja*,{{cite web \\| url\\=http://polja.eunet.rs/ \\| title\\=urednik POLjA \\| publisher\\=POLjA \\| access\\-date\\=4 January 2013 \\| author\\=\\[\\[Laslo Blašković]] \\| language\\=sr \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712014844/http://polja.eunet.rs/ \\| archive\\-date\\=12 July 2012 }} which is issued by the [Cultural centre of Novi Sad](/wiki/Cultural_Center_of_Novi_Sad \"Cultural Center of Novi Sad\"), and* Zlatna greda*, published by the Association of Writers of Vojvodina.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dkv.org.rs/\\|title\\=Drustvo knjizevnika Vojvodine – Íàñëîâíà \\-\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015}}*",
"The city hosts an annual literature conference, [Book Talk](/wiki/Book_Talk \"Book Talk\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rts.rs/page/magazine/ci/kulturno/story/3149/vest/3976383/book\\-talk\\-novi\\-sad\\-konferencija.html\\|title\\=Конференција \"Book Talk\" крајем септембра у Новом Саду\\|first\\=RTS, Radio televizija Srbije, Radio Television of\\|last\\=Serbia\\|website\\=www.rts.rs}}\n### Sports",
"Founded in 1790, the 'City Marksmen Association' *became the first sporting organization in Novi Sad. Founded on 28 March 1885, [VK Danubius 1885](/wiki/VK_Danubius_1885 \"VK Danubius 1885\") is the oldest rowing club in former Yugoslavia.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.danubius1885\\.org/istorijat/ \\|title\\=Историјат, danubius1885\\.org \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2010\\|language\\=Serbian}} A more widespread interest in competitive sports developed after the* Municipal Association of Physical Culture *was created in 1959 and when the [Spens Sports center](/wiki/SPC_Vojvodina \"SPC Vojvodina\") was built in 1981\\. Today, about 220 sports organizations are active in Novi Sad.*",
"Professional sports in Novi Sad mostly revolve around the [Vojvodina](/wiki/SD_Vojvodina \"SD Vojvodina\") multi\\-sport association. Having won two championships in 1966 and 1989, the [FK Vojvodina](/wiki/FK_Vojvodina \"FK Vojvodina\") football club represents the 3rd all\\-time best team in Serbia, right behind its two Belgrade rivals, [Red Star](/wiki/Red_Star_Belgrade \"Red Star Belgrade\") and [Partizan](/wiki/FK_Partizan \"FK Partizan\"). With 13 championship titles, [OK Vojvodina](/wiki/OK_Vojvodina \"OK Vojvodina\") is the top volleyball team in the country. As for handball, [RK Vojvodina](/wiki/RK_Vojvodina \"RK Vojvodina\") has won the national championship on multiple occasions.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rkv.rs/?page\\_id\\=8490\\|title\\=Istorijat – Rukometni klub Vojvodina\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2020}}\nAthletes from Novi Sad had the honour of participating in the first [Olympic Games](/wiki/1896_Summer_Olympics \"1896 Summer Olympics\") in Athens. The largest number of Novi Sad competitors, to participate in the Olympics, was at the [Atlanta Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics \"Yugoslavia at the 1996 Summer Olympics\"). Eleven athletes won 6 medals there. Three also competed at the 1980 [Moscow Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1980_Summer_Olympics \"Yugoslavia at the 1980 Summer Olympics\"), while two participated in the 1976 [Montreal Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1976_Summer_Olympics \"Yugoslavia at the 1976 Summer Olympics\") and the 1956 [Melbourne Games](/wiki/Yugoslavia_at_the_1956_Summer_Olympics \"Yugoslavia at the 1956 Summer Olympics\").\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Spens Sports centre](/wiki/Spens_Sports_Center \"Spens Sports Center\")](/wiki/File:Spens.jpg \"Spens.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Karađorđe Stadium](/wiki/Kara%C4%91or%C4%91e_Stadium \"Karađorđe Stadium\")](/wiki/File:2009_European_Athletics_Junior_Championships.JPG \"2009 European Athletics Junior Championships.JPG\")\nMany national and international competitions are held in the city. Novi Sad played host to the European and World Championships in [table tennis](/wiki/Table_tennis \"Table tennis\") in 1981{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spens.rs/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=24\\&Itemid\\=40\\|title\\=Почетна – SPENS\\|website\\=SPENS}} and the [29th Chess Olympiad](/wiki/Chess_Olympiad \"Chess Olympiad\") in 1990\\. It also welcomed the European and World Championships in [sambo](/wiki/Sambo_%28martial_art%29 \"Sambo (martial art)\"), the Balkan and European Championships in [judo](/wiki/Judo \"Judo\"), the 1987 final match of the [Saporta Cup](/wiki/Saporta_Cup \"Saporta Cup\") in European basketball,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.linguasport.com/baloncesto/internacional/clubes/c2/C2\\_87\\.htm\\|title\\=Cup Winners' Cup 1986–87\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2015}} and the final tournament of the European volleyball cup. Furthermore, Novi Sad co\\-hosted the [2005 European Basketball Championship](/wiki/EuroBasket_2005 \"EuroBasket 2005\"), as well as hosting the 2017 [Volleyball World League](/wiki/Volleyball_World_League \"Volleyball World League\") matches.{{Cite web \\|title\\=53rd EKF Senior Championships Novi Sad, Serbia 10\\-13 May 2018 Bulletin Nr. 2 \\|url\\=https://wkf.net/imagenes/campeonatos/ekf\\-senior\\-boletin\\-53rd\\-ekf\\-senior\\-championships\\-novi\\-sad\\-serbia\\-may\\-10\\-13\\-001\\.pdf \\|website\\=\\[\\[World Karate Federation]]}} The year 2018 saw the city welcome the Senior European Fencing Championships and the European Senior Karate Championships.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.eurofencingns2018\\.com/index.php/en/ \\|title\\=Senior European Fencing Championship \\| Novi Sad 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113164331/http://www.eurofencingns2018\\.com/index.php/en/ \\|archive\\-date\\=13 November 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/fencing/44191342\\|title\\=Britain's Kruse wins Shanghai title\\|work\\=BBC Sport}}\nThe city also holds traditional sporting events such as the Novi Sad marathon, international swimming competitions and many other events. The very first 'MTB Petrovaradin Fortress Cup' took place in 2018, allowing national and regional cyclists to compete. It is also the first mountain bike competition to be held in Serbia.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/foto\\-odrzan\\-prvi\\-mtb\\-petrovaradin\\-fortress\\-cup\\-id22704\\.html \\|title\\=FOTO: Održan prvi \"MTB Petrovaradin Fortress cup\" \\| (Vesti \\- 02\\.07\\.2018\\) Novi Sad \\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109161820/http://www.mojnovisad.com/vesti/foto\\-odrzan\\-prvi\\-mtb\\-petrovaradin\\-fortress\\-cup\\-id22704\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=9 January 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"| Club | Sport | Founded | League | Venue |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [VK Danubius](/wiki/VK_Danubius_1885 \"VK Danubius 1885\") | [Rowing](/wiki/Rowing_%28sport%29 \"Rowing (sport)\") | 1885 | | |\n| [FK Vojvodina](/wiki/FK_Vojvodina \"FK Vojvodina\") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") | 1914 | [Serbian Superliga](/wiki/Serbian_Superliga \"Serbian Superliga\") | [Karađorđe Stadium](/wiki/Kara%C4%91or%C4%91e_Stadium \"Karađorđe Stadium\") |\n| [RFK Novi Sad](/wiki/RFK_Novi_Sad \"RFK Novi Sad\") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") | 1921 | [Serbian League](/wiki/Serbian_League \"Serbian League\") | [Detelinara Stadium](/wiki/Detelinara_Stadium \"Detelinara Stadium\") |\n| [FK Slavija Novi Sad](/wiki/FK_Slavija_Novi_Sad \"FK Slavija Novi Sad\") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") | 1926 | | Stadion Salajka |\n| [FK Kabel](/wiki/FK_Kabel \"FK Kabel\") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") | 1932 | [Serbian League Vojvodina](/wiki/Serbian_League_Vojvodina \"Serbian League Vojvodina\") | Stadion FK Kabel |\n| [VK Vojvodina](/wiki/VK_Vojvodina \"VK Vojvodina\") | [Water polo](/wiki/Water_polo \"Water polo\") | 1938 | [Serbian League](/wiki/Serbian_Water_Polo_League_A \"Serbian Water Polo League A\"), [Regional League A2](/wiki/Regional_Water_Polo_League \"Regional Water Polo League\") | Slana Bara Sports center |\n| [OK Vojvodina](/wiki/NIS_Vojvodina_Novi_Sad \"NIS Vojvodina Novi Sad\") | [Volleyball](/wiki/Volleyball \"Volleyball\") | 1946 | [Serbian volley league](/wiki/Serbian_volley_league \"Serbian volley league\") | [Spens Sports center](/wiki/SPC_Vojvodina \"SPC Vojvodina\") |\n| [KKK Vojvodina](/wiki/KKK_Vojvodina \"KKK Vojvodina\") | [Kayak](/wiki/Kayak \"Kayak\") and [Canoe](/wiki/Canoe \"Canoe\") | 1947 | |\n| [KK Vojvodina](/wiki/KK_Vojvodina \"KK Vojvodina\") | [Basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\") | 1948 | [League B](/wiki/Basketball_League_of_Serbia_B \"Basketball League of Serbia B\") | Spens Sports center |\n| [RK Vojvodina](/wiki/RK_Vojvodina \"RK Vojvodina\") | [Handball](/wiki/Handball \"Handball\") | 1949 | [Handball League of Serbia](/wiki/Handball_League_of_Serbia \"Handball League of Serbia\") | Slana Bara Sports center |\n| [FK Proleter](/wiki/FK_Proleter_Novi_Sad \"FK Proleter Novi Sad\") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") | 1951 | Dissolved in 2022, merger with RFK Novi Sad | Slana Bara Stadium |\n| [HK Vojvodina](/wiki/HK_Vojvodina \"HK Vojvodina\") | [Ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\") | 1957 | [Serbian Hockey League](/wiki/Serbian_Hockey_League \"Serbian Hockey League\") | Spens Sports center |\n| [FK Mladost](/wiki/FK_Mladost_Novi_Sad \"FK Mladost Novi Sad\") | [Football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") | 1972 | [Serbian First League](/wiki/Serbian_First_League \"Serbian First League\") | GAT Arena |\n| [ŽFK Fruškogorac](/wiki/%C5%BDFK_Fru%C5%A1kogorac \"ŽFK Fruškogorac\") | [Women's football](/wiki/Women%27s_association_football \"Women's association football\") | 1998 | [Druga Liga Srbije Sever](/wiki/Druga_Liga_Srbije_Sever \"Druga Liga Srbije Sever\") | GAT Arena |",
"### Recreation",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Štrand](/wiki/%C5%A0trand \"Štrand\"), popular beach on the Danube river](/wiki/File:Strand_Novi_Sad.jpg \"Strand Novi Sad.jpg\")\nThe inhabitants of Novi Sad engage in a wide range of recreational and leisure activities. With regards to [team sports](/wiki/Team_sport \"Team sport\"), [football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") and [basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\") have the highest numbers of participants. Cycling is also popular due to the city's flat terrain and the extensive off\\-road network, found in nearby mountainous [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora \"Fruška Gora\"). Hundreds of commuters cycle the roads, [bike lanes and bike paths](/wiki/Segregated_cycle_facilities \"Segregated cycle facilities\") daily.\nProximity to the [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora \"Fruška Gora\") National Park attracts many city dwellers on the weekends. They enjoy the numerous hiking trails, restaurants and monasteries located in and around the mountain area. Occurring on the first weekend of every May, the [Fruška Gora Marathon](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1kogorski_maraton \"Fruškogorski maraton\") *lets hikers, runners and cyclists take advantage of the many hiking trails.[Fruška Gora Marathon](http://www.psdzeleznicarns.org.rs/frmaraton/fruskogorski_maraton.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318001729/http://www.psdzeleznicarns.org.rs/frmaraton/fruskogorski\\_maraton.htm \\|date\\=18 March 2009 }} During the summer months, citizens from Novi Sad visit [Lake Ledinci](/wiki/Lake_Ledinci \"Lake Ledinci\") in Fruška Gora, as well as the numerous beaches situated along the [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\"), the largest being [Štrand](/wiki/%C5%A0trand \"Štrand\") in the [Liman](/wiki/Liman%2C_Novi_Sad \"Liman, Novi Sad\") neighbourhood. There are also several recreational marinas bordering the river.*",
"Transportation\n--------------",
"{{Main\\|Transport in Novi Sad}}\n[thumb\\|[Liberty Bridge](/wiki/Liberty_Bridge%2C_Novi_Sad \"Liberty Bridge, Novi Sad\")](/wiki/File:Most_Slobode_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5_-_panoramio.jpg \"Most Slobode - Мост Слободе - panoramio.jpg\")\nAir transport\nNovi Sad currently does not have its own civil airport. The city is roughly a one\\-hour drive from [Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport](/wiki/Belgrade_Nikola_Tesla_Airport \"Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport\"), which connects it with capitals across Europe. The small [Čenej Airport](/wiki/%C4%8Cenej_Airport \"Čenej Airport\") to the north of the city is used for sporting and agricultural purposes. There are plans to upgrade it to serve for cargo and small\\-scale public transport,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.danas.rs/vesti/srbija/novi\\_sad/betonska\\_pista\\_i\\_toranj\\_neophodni\\_za\\_sletanje\\_aviona\\_.40\\.html?news\\_id\\=151159 \\|title\\=Betonska pista i toranj neophodni za sletanje aviona \\|publisher\\=Danas \\|date\\=20 January 2009 \\|language\\=sr}} but the future of this initiative is uncertain.\nCity transport\n[thumb\\|right\\|City bus](/wiki/File:Wiki.Vojvodina_III_Transport_in_Novi_Sad_360.jpg \"Wiki.Vojvodina III Transport in Novi Sad 360.jpg\")\nThe main public transportation system in Novi Sad consists of bus lines, operated by the public company [JGSP Novi Sad](/wiki/JGSP_Novi_Sad \"JGSP Novi Sad\"). There are twenty\\-one urban lines and thirty\\-five suburban lines, with the main bus terminal being at the northern end of the [Liberation Boulevard](/wiki/Bulevar \"Bulevar\") (Bulevar oslobođenja) next to the [Novi Sad railway station](/wiki/Novi_Sad_railway_station \"Novi Sad railway station\"), in addition to a smaller terminal in the town center. There are numerous taxi companies serving the city.\nThe city used to have [a tram system](/wiki/Novi_Sad_tram_system \"Novi Sad tram system\"), but it was decommissioned in 1957\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rtv.rs/sr\\_lat/magazin/prohujalo\\-vreme\\-novosadskih\\-tramvaja\\_118629\\.html\\|title\\=Prohujalo vreme novosadskih tramvaja\\|last\\=Vojvodine\\|first\\=Javna medijska ustanova JMU Radio\\-televizija\\|website\\=JMU Radio\\-televizija Vojvodine\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2020}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/novi\\-sad/novosadska\\-hronologija\\-9\\|title\\=Новосадска хронологија\\|website\\=Дневник\\|language\\=sr\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2020}}\nRail and road transport\nNovi Sad lies on branch B of the [Pan\\-European Corridor X](/wiki/Pan-European_Corridor_X \"Pan-European Corridor X\"). The [A1 motorway](/wiki/A1_motorway_%28Serbia%29 \"A1 motorway (Serbia)\") connects the city with [Subotica](/wiki/Subotica \"Subotica\") and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\") to the north and the capital city of [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\") to the south. It runs parallel to the [Budapest–Belgrade railroad](/wiki/Budapest%E2%80%93Belgrade_railway \"Budapest–Belgrade railway\"), which connects it to major European cities. On 19 March 2022 the \"Soko\" (meaning \"falcon\") high\\-speed line between Novi Sad and Belgrade opened and runs with 18 departures daily. Its maximum speed is 200 km/h and the 75 kilometres between Belgrade and Novi Sad are covered in 35 minutes. Between Belgrade and Novi Sad there are a total of 60 departures per day. There are three types of trains in total. \"Intercity\" (SOKO), \"Regio\\-ekspres\" and \"Regio\". Novi Sad is connected with [Zrenjanin](/wiki/Zrenjanin \"Zrenjanin\") and [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara \"Timișoara\") on the northeast and [Ruma](/wiki/Ruma \"Ruma\") on south with a regional highway; there are plans to upgrade it to a motorway or an expressway, with a tunnel under the [Fruška Gora](/wiki/Fru%C5%A1ka_Gora \"Fruška Gora\") shortcutting the Iriški Venac *mountain pass.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.b92\\.net/putovanja/vesti.php?nav\\_id\\=423315 \\|title\\=\"Poluautoput\" Novi Sad – Temišvar? \\|publisher\\=B92 \\|date\\=9 April 2010 \\|language\\=sr}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blic.rs/Vesti/Vojvodina/192755/Tunel\\-kroz\\-Frusku\\-goru \\|title\\=Tunel kroz Frušku goru \\|publisher\\=Blic\\|date\\=7 June 2010 \\|language\\=sr}}*Three bridges cross the Danube in Novi Sad (as of 2020\\): [Liberty Bridge](/wiki/Liberty_Bridge%2C_Novi_Sad \"Liberty Bridge, Novi Sad\") (Most Slobode) connects [Sremska Kamenica](/wiki/Sremska_Kamenica \"Sremska Kamenica\") with the city proper. [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge \"Varadin Bridge\") (Varadinski most) and [Žeželj Bridge](/wiki/%C5%BDe%C5%BEelj_Bridge \"Žeželj Bridge\") (Žeželjev most), connects Petrovaradin with city centre, and used for railway and heavy truck traffic. Many bridges also span the Danube\\-Tisa\\-Danube canal, running north of the city centre. Currently, two bridges over the Danube are being built, along with two new railway bridges over the Danube\\-Tisa\\-Danube canal.\nWater transport\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal](/wiki/Danube%E2%80%93Tisa%E2%80%93Danube_Canal \"Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal\")](/wiki/File:Kanal_DTD_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg \"Kanal DTD - panoramio (1).jpg\")\nThe [Port of Novi Sad](/wiki/Port_of_Novi_Sad \"Port of Novi Sad\") is located on the outskirts of the city on [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\") river. Since May 2019 it has been owned by DP WORLD from the UAE. With over a million tonnes of load turnover, it is the largest cargo port in Serbia.{{cite news \\|title\\=Rekordna godina Luke Novi Sad – U 2016\\. pretovareno 1\\.180\\.000 tona robe \\|url\\=https://www.ekapija.com/news/1635759/rekordna\\-godina\\-luke\\-novi\\-sad\\-u\\-2016\\-pretovareno\\-1180000\\-tona\\-robe \\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2019 \\|work\\=ekapija.com \\|language\\=sr}}\nInternational relations\n-----------------------",
"### Twin towns – sister cities",
"{{See also\\|List of twin towns and sister cities in Serbia}}\nNovi Sad has relationships with several [twin](/wiki/Town_twinning \"Town twinning\") towns and [twin](/wiki/Sister_city \"Sister city\") cities. One of the main streets in its [city centre](/wiki/Stari_Grad%2C_Novi_Sad \"Stari Grad, Novi Sad\") is named after [Modena](/wiki/Modena \"Modena\") in Italy; and likewise Modena has named a park in its town centre Parco di Piazza d'Armi Novi Sad. A city square near the [Varadin Bridge](/wiki/Varadin_Bridge \"Varadin Bridge\") is named after [Dortmund](/wiki/Dortmund \"Dortmund\") in Germany; and likewise Dortmund has named a city square Platz von Novi Sad.{{cite web \\|title\\=Gradovi pobratimi: Predstavnici Novog Sada u poseti Dortmundu, trg u Novom Sadu nosiće ime Trg Dortmunda\\|url\\=https://nsuzivo.rs/novi\\-sad/gradovi\\-pobratimi\\-predstavnici\\-novog\\-sada\\-u\\-poseti\\-dortmundu\\-trg\\-u\\-novom\\-sadu\\-nosice\\-ime\\-trg\\-dortmunda\\|website\\=nsuzivo.rs\\|language\\=Serbian\\|date\\=27 May 2022\\|access\\-date\\=6 June 2020}} The [Novi Sad Friendship Bridge](/wiki/River_Wensum \"River Wensum\") in [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich \"Norwich\"), United Kingdom, by [Buro Happold](/wiki/Buro_Happold \"Buro Happold\"), was also named in honour of Novi Sad. As of October 2023, there plans to establish twin city cooperation with [Klagenfurt](/wiki/Klagenfurt \"Klagenfurt\") and [Busan](/wiki/Busan \"Busan\").{{cite web \\|title\\=ТЕМА \"ДНЕВНИКА\": САРАДЊА КОЈОМ СТВАРАМО ИМИЏ У СВЕТУ Нови Сад има 24 побратима, ускоро још три\\|url\\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/novi\\-sad/tema\\-dnevnika\\-saradna\\-kojom\\-stvaramo\\-imid\\-u\\-svetu\\-novi\\-sad\\-ima\\-24\\-pobratima\\-uskoro\\-jos\\-tri\\|website\\=dnevnik.rs\\|language\\=Serbian\\|date\\=7 October 2023\\|access\\-date\\=6 June 2020}}\nNovi Sad is [twinned](/wiki/Sister_city \"Sister city\") with:{{cite web \\|title\\=Međunarodna saradnja\\|url\\=https://skupstina.novisad.rs/medjunarodna\\-saradnja/47/?lang\\=lat\\|website\\=skupstina.novisad.rs\\|publisher\\=Novi Sad\\|language\\=sr\\|access\\-date\\=6 June 2020}}\n{{div col\\|colwidth\\=25em}}\n{{flagicon\\|EGY}} [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"), Egypt (2021\\){{cite web \\|title\\=Gradovi pobratimi: Potpisan sporazum o saradnji između Novog Sada i Aleksandrije\\|url\\=https://www.021\\.rs/story/Novi\\-Sad/Vesti/285419/Gradovi\\-pobratimi\\-Potpisan\\-sporazum\\-o\\-saradnji\\-izmedju\\-Novog\\-Sada\\-i\\-Aleksandrije.html\\|website\\=021\\.rs \\|language\\=Serbian\\|date\\=21 September 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023}}{{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – АЛЕКСАНДРИЈА\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-aleksandrija\\-28\\-07\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=28 July 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|MNE}} [Budva](/wiki/Budva \"Budva\"), Montenegro (1996\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА − БУДВА\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-budva\\-22\\-01\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=22 January 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|CHN}} [Changchun](/wiki/Changchun \"Changchun\"), China (1981\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ЧАНГЧУН, НР КИНА\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-cangcun\\-nr\\-kina\\-15\\-11\\-2021/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=15 November 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|USA}} [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), Ohio, United States (2023\\){{cite web \\|title\\=Srpska Atina nastavlja da nižе pobratimstva i to sa tri kontinеnta! REKORDERI U JAČANjU SARADNjE: Grad Novi Sad ima čak 24 grada pobratima, poslеdnji u nizu Klivlеnd koji ima jaku srpsku dijasporu\\|url\\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/lat/novi\\-sad/srpska\\-atina\\-nastavla\\-da\\-nize\\-pobratimstva\\-i\\-sa\\-tri\\-kontinenta\\-rekorderi\\-u\\-jacanu\\-saradne\\-grad\\-novi\\-03\\-11\\-2023\\|website\\=dnevnik.rs\\|language\\=Serbian\\|date\\=3 November 2023\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023}}\n{{flagicon\\|GER}} [Dortmund](/wiki/Dortmund \"Dortmund\"), Germany (1982\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА − ДОРТМУНД\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-%e2%88%92\\-dortmund\\-30\\-11\\-2021/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=30 November 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|BLR}} [Gomel](/wiki/Gomel \"Gomel\"), Belarus (2013\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ГОМЕЉ\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-gomelj\\-30\\-04\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=30 April 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|GRC}} [Ilioupoli](/wiki/Ilioupoli \"Ilioupoli\"), Greece (1994\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА − ИЛИУПОЛИ\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-%e2%88%92\\-iliupoli\\-10\\-01\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=10 January 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|BIH}} [Istočno Sarajevo](/wiki/Isto%C4%8Dno_Sarajevo \"Istočno Sarajevo\"), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2021\\){{cite web\\|title\\=Upoznajemo gradove pobratime Novog Sada – Grad Istočno Sarajevo\\|url\\=https://vojvodinauzivo.rs/upoznajemo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-grad\\-istocno\\-sarajevo/\\|publisher\\=vojvodinauzivo.rs\\|date\\=3 September 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|MKD}} [Kumanovo](/wiki/Kumanovo \"Kumanovo\"), North Macedonia (2019\\){{cite web\\|title\\=Kumanovo i Novi Sad postali gradovi pobratimi\\|url\\=https://www.danas.rs/vesti/drustvo/kumanovo\\-i\\-novi\\-sad\\-postali\\-gradovi\\-pobratimi/\\|publisher\\=danas.rs\\|date\\=10 November 2019\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|ITA}} [Modena](/wiki/Modena \"Modena\"), Italy (1964\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – НИЖЊИ НОВГОРОД\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-modena\\-07\\-11\\-2021/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=23 February 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|RUS}} [Nizhny Novgorod](/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod \"Nizhny Novgorod\"), Russia (2006\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – МОДЕНА\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-niznji\\-novgorod\\-23\\-02\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=7 November 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|UK}} [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich \"Norwich\"), England, United Kingdom (1989\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – НОРИЧ\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-noric\\-27\\-12\\-2021/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=27 December 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|HUN}} [Pécs](/wiki/P%C3%A9cs \"Pécs\"), Hungary (2009\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ ГРАДА НОВОГ САДА – ПЕЧУЈ\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-grada\\-novog\\-sada\\-pecuj\\-24\\-03\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=24 March 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|FRA}} [Taverny](/wiki/Taverny \"Taverny\"), France (2020\\){{cite web\\|title\\=The Ambassador of France Visits Novi Sad\\|url\\=http://www.novisadinvest.rs/en/ambassador\\-france\\-visits\\-novi\\-sad\\|publisher\\=novisadinvest.rs\\|date\\=25 May 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=English}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Novi Sad – Serbie\\|url\\=https://www.ville\\-taverny.fr/novi\\-sad\\-serbie\\|publisher\\=Taverny\\|language\\=fr\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-12}}\n{{flagicon\\|ROU}} [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara \"Timișoara\"), Romania (2005\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ТЕМИШВАР\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-temisvar\\-05\\-02\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=5 February 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|MNE}} [Tivat](/wiki/Tivat \"Tivat\"), Montenegro (2023\\){{cite web\\|last1\\=Luković\\|first1\\=Siniša\\|title\\=Pobratimili se gradovi Tivat i Novi Sad\\|url\\=https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/drustvo/664394/pobratimili\\-se\\-gradovi\\-tivat\\-i\\-novi\\-sad\\|publisher\\=vijesti.me\\|date\\=7 July 2023\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Upoznajmo gradove pobratime Novog Sada – Tivat\\|url\\=https://nsuzivo.rs/novi\\-sad/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-tivat\\|publisher\\=nsuzivo.rs\\|date\\=16 July 2023\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|MEX}} [Toluca](/wiki/Toluca \"Toluca\"), Mexico (2015\\){{cite web\\|title\\=УПОЗНАЈМО ГРАДОВЕ ПОБРАТИМЕ НОВОГ САДА – ТОЛУКА\\|url\\=https://gradskeinfo.rs/upoznajmo\\-gradove\\-pobratime\\-novog\\-sada\\-toluka\\-12\\-06\\-2022/\\|publisher\\=gradskeinfo.rs\\|date\\=12 April 2022\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{div col end}}\n### Partner cities",
"Most frequent cooperation is done with [Budva](/wiki/Budva \"Budva\"), [Dortmund](/wiki/Dortmund \"Dortmund\"), [Taverny](/wiki/Taverny \"Taverny\"), [Timișoara](/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara \"Timișoara\"), [Tivat](/wiki/Tivat \"Tivat\") and [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm \"Ulm\") in the fields of culture, tourism and sports. Besides twin cities, Novi Sad has many signed agreements on joint cooperation with other cities, some of which could potential lead to twin city agreements. (* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + see also: [Politics of Novi Sad](/wiki/Politics_of_Novi_Sad%23Twin_cities \"Politics of Novi Sad#Twin cities\")*).*\nNovi Sad has signed agreements on joint cooperation with cities:\n{{div col\\|colwidth\\=25em}}\n{{flagicon\\|BIH}} [Banja Luka](/wiki/Banja_Luka \"Banja Luka\"), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2006\\)\n{{flagicon\\|GRC}} [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu \"Corfu\"), Greece (2017\\){{cite web\\|title\\=Нови Сад и Крф побратими и пријатељи\\|url\\=https://www.dnevnik.rs/politika/novi\\-sad\\-i\\-krf\\-pobratimi\\-i\\-prijateli\\-21\\-05\\-2017publisher\\=dnevnik.rs\\|date\\=21 May 2017\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|FRA}} [Enghien\\-les\\-Bains](/wiki/Enghien-les-Bains \"Enghien-les-Bains\"), France (2020\\)\n{{flagicon\\|RUS}} [Frunzensky District](/wiki/Frunzensky_District%2C_Saint_Petersburg \"Frunzensky District, Saint Petersburg\"), Russia (2003\\){{cite web\\|title\\=Vučević: Saradnja Novog Sada i Sankt Peterburga\\|url\\=https://rtv.rs/sr\\_lat/vojvodina/novi\\-sad/vucevic\\-saradnja\\-novog\\-sada\\-i\\-sankt\\-peterburga\\_1245313\\.html\\|publisher\\=rtv.rs\\|date\\=3 June 2021\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|SWE}} [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg_Municipality \"Gothenburg Municipality\"), Sweden (2002\\)\n{{flagicon\\|SLO}} [Kranj](/wiki/Kranj \"Kranj\"), [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia \"Slovenia\") (2004\\)\n{{flagicon\\|RUS}} [Krasnodar](/wiki/Krasnodar \"Krasnodar\"), Russia\n{{flagicon\\|UKR}} [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv \"Lviv\"), Ukraine (1999\\)\n{{flagicon\\|FRA}} [Nant](/wiki/Nant%2C_Aveyron \"Nant, Aveyron\"), France (2002\\)\n{{flagicon\\|CRO}} [Osijek](/wiki/Osijek \"Osijek\"), Croatia (2002\\)\n{{flagicon\\|RUS}} [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol \"Oryol\"), Russia (2017\\){{cite web\\|title\\=Potpisan sporazum o saradnji sa Orelom\\|url\\=https://www.kanal9tv.com/potpisan\\-sporazum\\-o\\-saradnji\\-sa\\-orelom/\\|publisher\\=kanal9tv.com\\|date\\=1 February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|FRA}} [Saint\\-Leu\\-la\\-Forêt](/wiki/Saint-Leu-la-For%C3%AAt \"Saint-Leu-la-Forêt\"), France (2020\\)\n{{flagicon\\|IRN}} [Shiraz](/wiki/Shiraz \"Shiraz\"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") (2023\\){{cite web\\|title\\=Novi Sad uspostavlja saradnju sa iranskim gradom Širazom\\|url\\=https://www.021\\.rs/story/Novi\\-Sad/Vesti/345091/Novi\\-Sad\\-uspostavlja\\-saradnju\\-sa\\-iranskim\\-gradom\\-Sirazom.html\\|publisher\\=kanal9tv.com\\|date\\=27 June 2023\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{flagicon\\|HUN}} [Szeged](/wiki/Szeged \"Szeged\"), Hungary (2001\\)\n{{flagicon\\|BIH}} [Tuzla](/wiki/Tuzla \"Tuzla\"), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2002\\)\n{{flagicon\\|GER}} [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm \"Ulm\"), Germany (2000\\){{cite web\\|last1\\=Kadrić\\|first1\\=Milana\\|title\\=Sporazum o saradnji Novog Sada i Ulma\\|url\\=https://rtv.rs/sr\\_lat/vojvodina/novi\\-sad/sporazum\\-o\\-saradnji\\-novog\\-sada\\-i\\-ulma\\_796543\\.html\\|publisher\\=rtv.rs\\|date\\=1 February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2023\\|language\\=Serbian}}\n{{div col end}}\nNovi Sad is an associate member of [Eurocities](/wiki/Eurocities \"Eurocities\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eurocities.eu\\|title\\=EUROCITIES – the network of major European cities\\|publisher\\=Eurocities\\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2011}}\nSee also\n--------",
"[List of people from Novi Sad](/wiki/List_of_people_from_Novi_Sad \"List of people from Novi Sad\")\n[List of places in Serbia](/wiki/List_of_cities%2C_towns_and_villages_in_Serbia_%28A-M%29 \"List of cities, towns and villages in Serbia (A-M)\")\n[List of cities, towns and villages in Vojvodina](/wiki/List_of_cities%2C_towns_and_villages_in_Vojvodina \"List of cities, towns and villages in Vojvodina\")\n[List of cities and towns on the Danube river](/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_on_the_Danube_river \"List of cities and towns on the Danube river\")\n[Clinical centre of Vojvodina](/wiki/Clinical_Center_of_Vojvodina \"Clinical Center of Vojvodina\")\n[Festival of Street Musicians](/wiki/Festival_of_Street_Musicians \"Festival of Street Musicians\")\nReferences\n----------",
"{{reflist}}\nBibliography\n------------",
"{{refbegin\\|30em}}\nAgneš Ozer, * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + Petrovaradinska tvrđava – vodič kroz vreme i prostor*, Novi Sad, 2002\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAgneš Ozer,*\n* Petrovaradin fortress – a guide through time and space*, Novi Sad, 2002\nBoško Petrović – Živan Milisavac,*\n* Novi Sad – monografija*, Novi Sad, 1987\nBranko Ćurčin,*\n* Slana Bara – nekad i sad*, Novi Sad, 2002\nBranko Ćurčin,*\n* Novosadsko naselje Šangaj – nekad i sad*, Novi Sad, 2004\nĐorđe Randelj,*\n* Novi Sad – slobodan grad*, Novi Sad, 1997\nJovan Mirosavljević,*\n* Brevijar ulica Novog Sada 1745–2001*, Novi Sad, 2002\nJovan Mirosavljević,*\n* Novi Sad – atlas ulica*, Novi Sad, 1998\nMilorad Grujić,*\n* Vodič kroz Novi Sad i okolinu*, Novi Sad, 2004\nMirjana Džepina,*\n* Društveni i zabavni život starih Novosađana*, Novi Sad, 1982\nPetar Jonović,*\n* Knjižare Novog Sada 1790–1990*, Novi Sad, 1990\nPetar Jonović – Dr Milan Vranić – Dr Dušan Popov,*\n* Znameniti knjižari i izdavači Novog Sada*, Novi Sad, 1993\nRadenko Gajić,*\n* Petrovaradinska tvrđava – Gibraltar na Dunavu*, Novi Sad, 1994\nVeljko Milković,*\n* Petrovaradin kroz legendu i stvarnost*, Novi Sad, 2001\nVeljko Milković,*\n* Petrovaradin i Srem – misterija prošlosti*, Novi Sad, 2003\nVeljko Milković,*\n* Petrovaradinska tvrđava – podzemlje i nadzemlje*, Novi Sad, 2005\nVeljko Milković,*\n* Petrovaradinska tvrđava – kosmički lavirint otkrića*, Novi Sad, 2007\nZoran Knežev,*\n* Novi Sad : Priče iz prošlosti*, Novi Sad, 2017\nZoran Knežev,*\n* Vojvodina : Hronike i legende*, Novi Sad, 2018\nZoran Knežev,*\n* Novi Sad : Kafanoloija i prostitucija*, Novi Sad, 2018\nZoran Knežev,*\n* Novi Sad: Prošlost u pričama*, Novi Sad, 2019\nZoran Knežev,*\n* Turistički vodič kroz stari Novi Sad*, Novi Sad, 2019\nZoran Knežev,*\n* Vojvodina: Kazivanja i sećanja*, Novi Sad, 2021\nZoran Rapajić,*\n* Novi Sad bez tajni*, Beograd, 2002\nZvonimir Golubović,*\n* Racija u Južnoj Bačkoj 1942\\. godine*, Novi Sad, 1991*\n* 30 godina mesne zajednice \"7\\. Juli\" u Novom Sadu 1974–2004 – monografija*, Novi Sad, 2004*\n* Enciklopedija Novog Sada*, sveske 1–26, Novi Sad, 1993–2005*\n* Sveske za istoriju Novog Sada*, sveske 4–5, Novi Sad, 1993–1994*\n* Ustav za čitaonicu srpsku u Novom Sadu'', Novi Sad, 1993\n{{refend}}"
] |
Variants
--------
### Distribution
Greek scholars Anna Angelopoulou and Aigle Broskou locate variants of type AaTh 425G in Greece, Turkey, Southern Italy, Sicily, Spain, North Africa (among the Berbers) and even in Poland.Angelopoulou, Anna; Broskou, Aigle. "ΕΠΕΞΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΜΥΘΙΑΚΩΝ ΤΥΠΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΑΓΩΝ AT 300\-499". Tome B: AT 400\-499\. Athens, Greece: ΚΕΝΤΡΟ ΝΕΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΩΝ ΕΡΕΥΝΩΝ Ε.Ι.Ε. 1999\. pp. 775\-776\.
Israeli professor [Dov Noy](/wiki/Dov_Noy "Dov Noy") reported that the tale type 894 was "very popular in Oriental literature", with variants found in India, Iran, Egypt and regionally in Europe (southern and eastern).Noy, Dov. *Folktales of Israel*. University of Chicago Press. 1963\. p. 117\.
As for type 437, [Richard Dorson](/wiki/Richard_Dorson "Richard Dorson") stated that it appears "sporadically in Europe", but it is "better known in India".Dorson, Richard M. *Folktales told around the world*. Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press. 1978\. p. 238\. {{ISBN\|0\-226\-15874\-8}}. Indian scholar A. K. Ramanujan states that the tale type is known in Europe as "The Needle Prince".Ramanujan, A. K. *[A Flowering Tree and Other Oral Tales from India](https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft067n99wt&chunk.id=ch12&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch12&brand=eschol)*. University of California Press, 1997\. p. 218\. {{ISBN\|9780520203990}}. In this regard, according to *[Enzyklopädie des Märchens](/wiki/Enzyklop%C3%A4die_des_M%C3%A4rchens "Enzyklopädie des Märchens")*, type 437 is reported in Europe (South, Southeastern, Eastern and Northeast), in the Caucasus, Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia and India.{{cite book \|last\=Schmitt \|first\=Annika \|chapter\=Nadelprinz (AaTh 437\) \|trans\-chapter\=Needle Prince (ATU 894\) \|title\=\[\[Enzyklopädie des Märchens\|Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online]] \|editor1\=Rolf Wilhelm Brednich \|editor2\=Heidrun Alzheimer \|editor3\=Hermann Bausinger \|editor4\=Wolfgang Brückner \|editor5\=Daniel Drascek \|editor6\=Helge Gerndt \|editor7\=Ines Köhler\-Zülch \|editor8\=Klaus Roth \|editor9\=Hans\-Jörg Uther \|location\=Berlin, Boston \|publisher\=De Gruyter \|date\=2016 \|orig\-year\=1999 \|page\=1142 \|doi\=10\.1515/emo.9\.228}}
### Europe
Scholars [Ibrahim Muhawi](/wiki/Ibrahim_Muhawi "Ibrahim Muhawi") and Sharif Kanaana stated that "in European tradition" type AaTh 894 is found in association with the story of "The Sleeping Prince".Muhawi, Ibrahim, and Sharif Kanaana. *[Speak, Bird, Speak Again](/wiki/Speak%2C_Bird%2C_Speak_Again "Speak, Bird, Speak Again"): [Palestinian Arab Folktales](https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4s2005r4&chunk.id=d0e14539&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e1818&brand=ucpress)*. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1989\. p. 365\. {{ISBN\|0\-520\-06292\-2}}. Professor Jack V. Haney stated that type 437 is more common in [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"), but "uncommon" in [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe").Haney, Jack, V. *An Anthology of Russian Folktales*. London and New York: Routledge. 2015 \[2009]. p. 74\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7656\-2305\-8}}.
#### Italy
A [Sicilian](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") variant was collected by [Laura Gonzenbach](/wiki/Laura_Gonzenbach "Laura Gonzenbach") with the title *Der böse Schulmeister und die wandernde Königstochter* ("The Evil Schoolmaster and the Wandering Princess").Gonzenbach, Laura. *Sicilianische Märchen*. Leipzig: Engelmann. 1870\. pp. 59\-64\.
#### Greek
According to scholars Anna Angélopoulos and Marianthi Kaplanoglou, the tale type AaTh 425G (now included in the general subtype ATU 425A after 2004\) is the "most widely disseminated subtype in Greece, with 118 versions".Angelopoulos, Anna and Kaplanoglou, Marianthi. "Greek Magic Tales: aspects of research in Folklore Studies and Anthropology". In: *FF Network*. 2013; Vol. 43\. p. 15\.Angélopoulos, Anna. "Le conte d'Eros et Psyché dans la littérature orale". In: *Topique* 2001/2 (no 75\), pp. 155\-169\. [https://doi.org/10\.3917/top.075\.0155](https://doi.org/10.3917/top.075.0155)Angelopoulou, Anna; Broskou, Aigle. "ΕΠΕΞΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΜΥΘΙΑΚΩΝ ΤΥΠΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΑΓΩΝ AT 300\-499". Tome B: AT 400\-499\. Athens, Greece: ΚΕΝΤΡΟ ΝΕΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΩΝ ΕΡΕΥΝΩΝ Ε.Ι.Ε. 1999\. pp. 775\-776, 783\.
In another Greek variant, *The Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle*, a girl is broidering when a bird chirps that she is to marry a "lifeless man". One day, she enters a neighbouring house and sees the body of a prince holding a letter in his hand, telling for someone to hold a vigil for three nights, three days and three weeks. Nearing the end of the vigil, she takes in a gypsy as a companion, who takes the credit for the vigil. After the prince and the gypsy marry, she asks the prince to bring her the titular items: the Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle.Geldart, Edmund Martin. *[Folk\-lore of modern Greece: the tales of the people](https://archive.org/details/folkloreofmodern00geld/page/62/mode/1up)*. London: W. Swan Sonnenschein \& Co., 1884\. pp. 62\-65\.
#### Spain
Hispanist {{ill\|Ralph Steele Boggs\|de\|Ralph Steele Boggs}} located a Spanish tale he numbered as type \*445B (a number not added to the revision of the international index, at the time). In this story, the princess holds a vigil on a king that will only awake on St. John's Day. She buys a slave woman for company, who takes her place at the king's bed and passes herself as his saviour. The despondent princess asks the prince to bring her two objects: a hard stone and the branch of bitterness. The king learns these are objects requested by people who are on the verge on taking their own lives.Boggs, Ralph Steele. *[Index of Spanish folktales, classified according to Antti Aarne's "Types of the folktale"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Index_of_Spanish_Folktales)*. Chicago: University of Chicago. 1930\. pp. 61\-62\. Scholars Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav considered this story so close to the Turkish tales that they believed it to be a version that developed locally.Eberhard, Wolfram; Boratav, Pertev Nailî. *Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1953\. p. 213\.
#### Armenia
According to Armenian scholarship, Armenia also registers similar tales about the heroine's confession to the object of patience.{{cite journal \|title\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \|trans\-title\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \|first\=Tamar \|last\=Hayrapetyan \|journal\=Historical\-Philological Journal \|volume\=1 \|date\=2016 \|pages\=91–103 \[91] \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \|lang\=hy}}Avard Jivanyan. "Anthropomorphic Dolls as Otherworldly Helpers in the International Folk Tale". In: *8th International Toy Research Association World Conference*. International Toy Research Association (ITRA), Jul 2018, Paris, France. pp. 2\-4\. ffhal\-02114234 In Armenian tales, the object is called *Sabri Xrcig* or *Doll of Patience*, related to the cycle of stories called *Le Prince endormi* ("The Sleeping Prince").Hayrapetyan Tamar. "[Combinaisons archétipales dans les epopees orales et les contes merveilleux armeniens](https://www.academia.edu/52429207/11_Hayrapetyan_Tamar_Combinaisons_arch%C3%A9tipales_dans_les_epopees_orales_et_les_contes_merveilleux_armeniens_traduction_L%C3%A9on_Ketcheyan_)". Traduction par Léon Ketcheyan. In: *Revue des etudes Arméniennes* tome 39 (2020\). pp. 547\-565\. The "Doll of Patience" ([Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_language "Armenian language"): *Սաբրի խրծիկ*; *Sabri khrtsik*) is a dowry gift, given to the newlywed bride and which acts as her confidante as she moves to an unknown household after marriage.{{cite journal \|title\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \|trans\-title\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \|first\=Tamar \|last\=Hayrapetyan \|journal\=Historical\-Philological Journal \|volume\=1 \|date\=2016 \|pages\=91\-103 \[91, 98, 100, 102] \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \|lang\=hy}}
Professor Susan Hoogasian\-Villa collected two variants from Armenian tellers in Detroit. In the first, titled *Saber Dashee*, during a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, a girl loses her way from her family and enters an abandoned house. Inside, a man under a cursed sleep, on whom she has to bear ten years on a vigil. She gets replaced by a gypsy girl, who marries the prince after the vigil. The heroine asks for the *Saber Dashee* and pours out her story to it.Hoogasian\-Villa, Susie. *[100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance](/wiki/100_Armenian_Tales_and_Their_Folkloristic_Relevance "100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance")*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\. p. 444\. In a second story, *The Dead Bridegroom*, the trees and the river predict that a girl will marry a dead man. The girl enters a palace that locks behind her, then sees a man in a cursed\-like sleep. Hoogasian\-Villa noted that it follows very closely the outline of the first variant.Hoogasian\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\. p. 444\.
#### Albania
In an [Albanian](/wiki/Albania "Albania") tale published by [Lucy Garnett](/wiki/Lucy_Garnett "Lucy Garnett") with the title *The Maiden who was Promised to the Sun*, a queen prays to the Sun to give her one daughter, and the Sun agrees, with the condition that she relinquishes the girl to him when she is of age. It does happen and the girl is taken to the Sun. At the Sun's abode, there lives a Koutchedra ([kulshedra](/wiki/Kulshedra "Kulshedra")) that hungers to devour the maiden. She escapes with the help of a stag and returns home (tale type ATU 898, "[The Girl Promised to the Sun](/wiki/Maroula "Maroula")"). In the second part of the story, the girl enters a garden and opens a locked gate that closes itself behind her. She discovers the petrified body of a prince and she decides to release him from this curse, by holding a vigil for three days, three nights and three weeks without sleeping. Nearing the end of the trial, and feing tired, she hires a slave woman to continue the vigil in her place, when the girl with reassume her position by the prince's side. The slave woman ends up replacing the princess as the man's saviour and marries him. The girl laments her fate to the "Stone of Patience" and the prince overhears her story.Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane and Stuart\-Glennie, John S. *[The Women of Turkey and Their Folk\-lore](https://archive.org/details/cu31924100210222/page/314/mode/1up)*. Vol. 2: The Jewish and Moslem Women. London: David Nutt. 1891\. pp. 314\-319\.Hoogasian\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\. p. 443\.
#### Lithuania
Lithuanian folklorist {{ill\|Jonas Balys\|lt\|Jonas Balys}}, in his analysis of Lithuanian folktales (published in 1936\), listed one variant of type \*446 (a type not indexed in the international classification, at the time), under the banner *Miegas karalaitis* ("The Sleeping Prince"). In the only recorded tale, the princess finds the coffin of the sleeping prince and a note to hold a vigil for three nights.Balys, Jonas. *Lietuvių pasakojamosios tautosakos motyvų katalogas* \[Motif\-index of Lithuanian narrative folk\-lore]. Tautosakos darbai \[Folklore studies] Vol. II. Kaunas: Lietuvių tautosakos archyvo leidinys, 1936\. p. 41\.
#### Latvia
According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, in type 437, *Neīstā līgava* ("The False Bride"), the heroine helps break the curse on the whole kingdom, until a girl comes and [takes the credit](/wiki/False_hero "False hero") for the deed. The true heroine asks the prince to bring her a stone or a doll, to which she tells her story.Arājs, Kārlis; Medne, A. *Latviešu pasaku tipu rādītājs*. Zinātne, 1977\. p. 67\.
### Asia
#### Turkey
According to [Dov Noy](/wiki/Dov_Noy "Dov Noy"), the Turkish Folktale Catalogue (*Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*, or *TTV*) by [Wolfram Eberhard](/wiki/Wolfram_Eberhard "Wolfram Eberhard") and [Pertev Naili Boratav](/wiki/Pertev_Naili_Boratav "Pertev Naili Boratav") registered 38 variants in the country.Noy, Dov. *Folktales of Israel*. University of Chicago Press. 1963\. p. 117\. In their joint work, the Turkish tales were grouped under type TTV 185, {{ill\|"Der Geduldstein II"\|nl\|De geduldsteen}}.Eberhard, Wolfram; Boratav, Pertev Nailî. *Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1953\. pp. 212\-213\.
In a Turkish variant collected by folklorist [Ignác Kúnos](/wiki/Ign%C3%A1c_K%C3%BAnos "Ignác Kúnos") with the title *Stone\-Patience and Knife\-Patience*, a poor woman's daughter stays at home when a bird chirps that "death" is her *kismet* ('fate', 'destiny'). The situation repeats itself, to the mother's concern. She decides to let her daughter walk a bit with the neighbour's daughters to put her mind at ease. When walking with the girls, a huge wall rises out of the ground to isolate the poor woman's daughter from the other, who return to the village to inform the old woman of the occurrence. Back to the girl: she finds a door on the wall, opens it and is transported to a grand palace. The girl opens all doors, filled with treasures and gems, and behind the fortieth door, lies a [Bey](/wiki/Bey "Bey") on a bed holding a note that says a damsel must stay by his side for 40 days to find her kismet. So she decides to follow the note. Time passes, the girl meets a black woman outside of the palace and brings her in to help her vigil. The Bey awakes, sees the black girl and thinks she is his saviour. At the end of the tale, the girl asks the Bey to bring her a stone\-of\-patience of a yellow colour and a knife\-of\-patience with brown handle. She gets both items: she tells her woes to the stone, but chooses the knife. The Bey appears in the nick of time to stop her attempt.Kúnos, Ignaz. *[Turkish fairy tales and folk tales](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/64807/64807-h/64807-h.htm#STONE-PATIENCE_AND_KNIFE-PATIENCE)*. Translated from the Hungarian version by R. [Nisbet Bain](/wiki/Nisbet_Bain "Nisbet Bain"). London: A. H. Bullen, 1901\. pp. 188\-196\.
#### Iran
According to a study by Russian scholar [Vladimir Minorsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Minorsky "Vladimir Minorsky"), the tale type appears in Iran as type 437, *Sang\-e Sabur*, with varied starting episodes: either a voice predicts the heroine's destiny lies with a dead man, or the heroine and her family are in a desert. Either way, the heroine enters a palace alone, the door locks her in, and she meets a prince lying on a slab, his body full of needles. She removes the needles for 40 days, but a Gypsy girl replaces her and marries the prince. At the end of the tale, the heroine tells her woes to a stone of patience and is overheard by the prince.{{cite book \|editor1\-first\=Mojtaba \|editor1\-last\=Minovi \|editor2\-first\=Iraj \|editor2\-last\=Afshar \|title\=Yād\-nāme\-ye īrānī\-ye Minorsky \|series\=Publications of Tehran University \|volume\=1241 \|location\=Tehran \|publisher\=University of Tehran \|date\=1969 \|pages\=43–44 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=300rAAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22the\+needle\+prince%22\+sang}} Later, German scholar {{ill\|Ulrich Marzolph\|de\|Ulrich Marzolph}} reported 22 variants of tale type 894, *Der Geduldstein*, across Iranian sources. In the Iranian tale, the heroine's destiny is predicted to be an unhappy one; she drifts away until she reaches a garden and enters a palace, where a youth is lying as if dead, his body prickled with several pins; the heroine helps the youth for almost 40 days, until she tires herself and buys a slavewoman to cover for her. This causes the youth, now awake, to mistake the slavewoman for his true saviour, and marries her, taking the heroine as their maidservant. At the end of the tale, the heroine asks the prince to bring a patience stone, which she tells her woes to.Marzolph, Ulrich. *[Typologie des persischen Volksmärchens](https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/inhouse/content/pageview/1470067)*. Beirut: Orient\-Inst. der Deutschen Morgenländischen Ges.; Wiesbaden: Steiner \[in Komm.], 1984\. pp. 164\-166\.
In a Persian tale collected by [Emily Lorimer](/wiki/Emily_Lorimer "Emily Lorimer") and [David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer](/wiki/David_Lockhart_Robertson_Lorimer "David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer"), from Kermani, *The Story of the Marten\-Stone*, a king's daughter finds a castle with a sleeping prince inside, his body covered with needles. She begins a long and strenuous vigil, picking each needle for the next 40 days and 40 nights. After her slave girl replaces her as the prince's saviour, she asks for a marten\-stone to pour out her woes to.Lorimer, David Lockhart Robertson; Lorimer, Emily Overend. *Persian tales*. London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1919\. pp. 19\-24\.
#### Uzbekistan
In an [Uzbek](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan") tale titled *Der brennende Stein* or "Горючий камень" ("The Burning Stone"), a girl named Rose Bloom is fetching flowers, when she follows a trail deep into a mansion. Inside it, there lies the body of a man, all riddled with pins. The girl extracts each pin carefully, until she begins to get tired. She hires a servant girl from a passing caravan to continue the vigil on him. The man wakes up and mistakes the servant girl for Rose Bloom. At the end of the tale, Rose Bloom asks the prince to get her a burning stone: she plans to tell her sorrows to the stone until it bursts into a pyre, and intends to throw herself into it."Узбекские народные сказки" \[Uzbek Folk Tales]. Tom 2\. Tashkent: 1972\. Tale nr. 8\.{{cite book \|title\=Die Märchenkarawane, aus dem usbekischen Märchenschatz \|publisher\=Kultur und Fortschritt \|location\=Berlin \|date\=1959 \|pages\=208–211 \|lang\=DE}}
|
[
"Variants\n--------",
"### Distribution",
"Greek scholars Anna Angelopoulou and Aigle Broskou locate variants of type AaTh 425G in Greece, Turkey, Southern Italy, Sicily, Spain, North Africa (among the Berbers) and even in Poland.Angelopoulou, Anna; Broskou, Aigle. \"ΕΠΕΞΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΜΥΘΙΑΚΩΝ ΤΥΠΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΑΓΩΝ AT 300\\-499\". Tome B: AT 400\\-499\\. Athens, Greece: ΚΕΝΤΡΟ ΝΕΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΩΝ ΕΡΕΥΝΩΝ Ε.Ι.Ε. 1999\\. pp. 775\\-776\\.",
"Israeli professor [Dov Noy](/wiki/Dov_Noy \"Dov Noy\") reported that the tale type 894 was \"very popular in Oriental literature\", with variants found in India, Iran, Egypt and regionally in Europe (southern and eastern).Noy, Dov. *Folktales of Israel*. University of Chicago Press. 1963\\. p. 117\\.",
"As for type 437, [Richard Dorson](/wiki/Richard_Dorson \"Richard Dorson\") stated that it appears \"sporadically in Europe\", but it is \"better known in India\".Dorson, Richard M. *Folktales told around the world*. Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press. 1978\\. p. 238\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-226\\-15874\\-8}}. Indian scholar A. K. Ramanujan states that the tale type is known in Europe as \"The Needle Prince\".Ramanujan, A. K. *[A Flowering Tree and Other Oral Tales from India](https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft067n99wt&chunk.id=ch12&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch12&brand=eschol)*. University of California Press, 1997\\. p. 218\\. {{ISBN\\|9780520203990}}. In this regard, according to *[Enzyklopädie des Märchens](/wiki/Enzyklop%C3%A4die_des_M%C3%A4rchens \"Enzyklopädie des Märchens\")*, type 437 is reported in Europe (South, Southeastern, Eastern and Northeast), in the Caucasus, Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia and India.{{cite book \\|last\\=Schmitt \\|first\\=Annika \\|chapter\\=Nadelprinz (AaTh 437\\) \\|trans\\-chapter\\=Needle Prince (ATU 894\\) \\|title\\=\\[\\[Enzyklopädie des Märchens\\|Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online]] \\|editor1\\=Rolf Wilhelm Brednich \\|editor2\\=Heidrun Alzheimer \\|editor3\\=Hermann Bausinger \\|editor4\\=Wolfgang Brückner \\|editor5\\=Daniel Drascek \\|editor6\\=Helge Gerndt \\|editor7\\=Ines Köhler\\-Zülch \\|editor8\\=Klaus Roth \\|editor9\\=Hans\\-Jörg Uther \\|location\\=Berlin, Boston \\|publisher\\=De Gruyter \\|date\\=2016 \\|orig\\-year\\=1999 \\|page\\=1142 \\|doi\\=10\\.1515/emo.9\\.228}}",
"### Europe",
"Scholars [Ibrahim Muhawi](/wiki/Ibrahim_Muhawi \"Ibrahim Muhawi\") and Sharif Kanaana stated that \"in European tradition\" type AaTh 894 is found in association with the story of \"The Sleeping Prince\".Muhawi, Ibrahim, and Sharif Kanaana. *[Speak, Bird, Speak Again](/wiki/Speak%2C_Bird%2C_Speak_Again \"Speak, Bird, Speak Again\"): [Palestinian Arab Folktales](https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4s2005r4&chunk.id=d0e14539&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e1818&brand=ucpress)*. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1989\\. p. 365\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-520\\-06292\\-2}}. Professor Jack V. Haney stated that type 437 is more common in [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"), but \"uncommon\" in [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe \"Western Europe\").Haney, Jack, V. *An Anthology of Russian Folktales*. London and New York: Routledge. 2015 \\[2009]. p. 74\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7656\\-2305\\-8}}.",
"#### Italy",
"A [Sicilian](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") variant was collected by [Laura Gonzenbach](/wiki/Laura_Gonzenbach \"Laura Gonzenbach\") with the title *Der böse Schulmeister und die wandernde Königstochter* (\"The Evil Schoolmaster and the Wandering Princess\").Gonzenbach, Laura. *Sicilianische Märchen*. Leipzig: Engelmann. 1870\\. pp. 59\\-64\\.",
"#### Greek",
"According to scholars Anna Angélopoulos and Marianthi Kaplanoglou, the tale type AaTh 425G (now included in the general subtype ATU 425A after 2004\\) is the \"most widely disseminated subtype in Greece, with 118 versions\".Angelopoulos, Anna and Kaplanoglou, Marianthi. \"Greek Magic Tales: aspects of research in Folklore Studies and Anthropology\". In: *FF Network*. 2013; Vol. 43\\. p. 15\\.Angélopoulos, Anna. \"Le conte d'Eros et Psyché dans la littérature orale\". In: *Topique* 2001/2 (no 75\\), pp. 155\\-169\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.3917/top.075\\.0155](https://doi.org/10.3917/top.075.0155)Angelopoulou, Anna; Broskou, Aigle. \"ΕΠΕΞΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΜΥΘΙΑΚΩΝ ΤΥΠΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΑΓΩΝ AT 300\\-499\". Tome B: AT 400\\-499\\. Athens, Greece: ΚΕΝΤΡΟ ΝΕΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΩΝ ΕΡΕΥΝΩΝ Ε.Ι.Ε. 1999\\. pp. 775\\-776, 783\\.",
"In another Greek variant, *The Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle*, a girl is broidering when a bird chirps that she is to marry a \"lifeless man\". One day, she enters a neighbouring house and sees the body of a prince holding a letter in his hand, telling for someone to hold a vigil for three nights, three days and three weeks. Nearing the end of the vigil, she takes in a gypsy as a companion, who takes the credit for the vigil. After the prince and the gypsy marry, she asks the prince to bring her the titular items: the Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle.Geldart, Edmund Martin. *[Folk\\-lore of modern Greece: the tales of the people](https://archive.org/details/folkloreofmodern00geld/page/62/mode/1up)*. London: W. Swan Sonnenschein \\& Co., 1884\\. pp. 62\\-65\\.",
"#### Spain",
"Hispanist {{ill\\|Ralph Steele Boggs\\|de\\|Ralph Steele Boggs}} located a Spanish tale he numbered as type \\*445B (a number not added to the revision of the international index, at the time). In this story, the princess holds a vigil on a king that will only awake on St. John's Day. She buys a slave woman for company, who takes her place at the king's bed and passes herself as his saviour. The despondent princess asks the prince to bring her two objects: a hard stone and the branch of bitterness. The king learns these are objects requested by people who are on the verge on taking their own lives.Boggs, Ralph Steele. *[Index of Spanish folktales, classified according to Antti Aarne's \"Types of the folktale\"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Index_of_Spanish_Folktales)*. Chicago: University of Chicago. 1930\\. pp. 61\\-62\\. Scholars Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav considered this story so close to the Turkish tales that they believed it to be a version that developed locally.Eberhard, Wolfram; Boratav, Pertev Nailî. *Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1953\\. p. 213\\.",
"#### Armenia",
"According to Armenian scholarship, Armenia also registers similar tales about the heroine's confession to the object of patience.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \\|trans\\-title\\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \\|first\\=Tamar \\|last\\=Hayrapetyan \\|journal\\=Historical\\-Philological Journal \\|volume\\=1 \\|date\\=2016 \\|pages\\=91–103 \\[91] \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \\|lang\\=hy}}Avard Jivanyan. \"Anthropomorphic Dolls as Otherworldly Helpers in the International Folk Tale\". In: *8th International Toy Research Association World Conference*. International Toy Research Association (ITRA), Jul 2018, Paris, France. pp. 2\\-4\\. ffhal\\-02114234 In Armenian tales, the object is called *Sabri Xrcig* or *Doll of Patience*, related to the cycle of stories called *Le Prince endormi* (\"The Sleeping Prince\").Hayrapetyan Tamar. \"[Combinaisons archétipales dans les epopees orales et les contes merveilleux armeniens](https://www.academia.edu/52429207/11_Hayrapetyan_Tamar_Combinaisons_arch%C3%A9tipales_dans_les_epopees_orales_et_les_contes_merveilleux_armeniens_traduction_L%C3%A9on_Ketcheyan_)\". Traduction par Léon Ketcheyan. In: *Revue des etudes Arméniennes* tome 39 (2020\\). pp. 547\\-565\\. The \"Doll of Patience\" ([Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_language \"Armenian language\"): *Սաբրի խրծիկ*; *Sabri khrtsik*) is a dowry gift, given to the newlywed bride and which acts as her confidante as she moves to an unknown household after marriage.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \\|trans\\-title\\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \\|first\\=Tamar \\|last\\=Hayrapetyan \\|journal\\=Historical\\-Philological Journal \\|volume\\=1 \\|date\\=2016 \\|pages\\=91\\-103 \\[91, 98, 100, 102] \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \\|lang\\=hy}}",
"Professor Susan Hoogasian\\-Villa collected two variants from Armenian tellers in Detroit. In the first, titled *Saber Dashee*, during a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, a girl loses her way from her family and enters an abandoned house. Inside, a man under a cursed sleep, on whom she has to bear ten years on a vigil. She gets replaced by a gypsy girl, who marries the prince after the vigil. The heroine asks for the *Saber Dashee* and pours out her story to it.Hoogasian\\-Villa, Susie. *[100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance](/wiki/100_Armenian_Tales_and_Their_Folkloristic_Relevance \"100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance\")*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\\. p. 444\\. In a second story, *The Dead Bridegroom*, the trees and the river predict that a girl will marry a dead man. The girl enters a palace that locks behind her, then sees a man in a cursed\\-like sleep. Hoogasian\\-Villa noted that it follows very closely the outline of the first variant.Hoogasian\\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\\. p. 444\\.",
"#### Albania",
"In an [Albanian](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\") tale published by [Lucy Garnett](/wiki/Lucy_Garnett \"Lucy Garnett\") with the title *The Maiden who was Promised to the Sun*, a queen prays to the Sun to give her one daughter, and the Sun agrees, with the condition that she relinquishes the girl to him when she is of age. It does happen and the girl is taken to the Sun. At the Sun's abode, there lives a Koutchedra ([kulshedra](/wiki/Kulshedra \"Kulshedra\")) that hungers to devour the maiden. She escapes with the help of a stag and returns home (tale type ATU 898, \"[The Girl Promised to the Sun](/wiki/Maroula \"Maroula\")\"). In the second part of the story, the girl enters a garden and opens a locked gate that closes itself behind her. She discovers the petrified body of a prince and she decides to release him from this curse, by holding a vigil for three days, three nights and three weeks without sleeping. Nearing the end of the trial, and feing tired, she hires a slave woman to continue the vigil in her place, when the girl with reassume her position by the prince's side. The slave woman ends up replacing the princess as the man's saviour and marries him. The girl laments her fate to the \"Stone of Patience\" and the prince overhears her story.Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane and Stuart\\-Glennie, John S. *[The Women of Turkey and Their Folk\\-lore](https://archive.org/details/cu31924100210222/page/314/mode/1up)*. Vol. 2: The Jewish and Moslem Women. London: David Nutt. 1891\\. pp. 314\\-319\\.Hoogasian\\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\\. p. 443\\.",
"#### Lithuania",
"Lithuanian folklorist {{ill\\|Jonas Balys\\|lt\\|Jonas Balys}}, in his analysis of Lithuanian folktales (published in 1936\\), listed one variant of type \\*446 (a type not indexed in the international classification, at the time), under the banner *Miegas karalaitis* (\"The Sleeping Prince\"). In the only recorded tale, the princess finds the coffin of the sleeping prince and a note to hold a vigil for three nights.Balys, Jonas. *Lietuvių pasakojamosios tautosakos motyvų katalogas* \\[Motif\\-index of Lithuanian narrative folk\\-lore]. Tautosakos darbai \\[Folklore studies] Vol. II. Kaunas: Lietuvių tautosakos archyvo leidinys, 1936\\. p. 41\\.",
"#### Latvia",
"According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, in type 437, *Neīstā līgava* (\"The False Bride\"), the heroine helps break the curse on the whole kingdom, until a girl comes and [takes the credit](/wiki/False_hero \"False hero\") for the deed. The true heroine asks the prince to bring her a stone or a doll, to which she tells her story.Arājs, Kārlis; Medne, A. *Latviešu pasaku tipu rādītājs*. Zinātne, 1977\\. p. 67\\.",
"### Asia",
"#### Turkey",
"According to [Dov Noy](/wiki/Dov_Noy \"Dov Noy\"), the Turkish Folktale Catalogue (*Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*, or *TTV*) by [Wolfram Eberhard](/wiki/Wolfram_Eberhard \"Wolfram Eberhard\") and [Pertev Naili Boratav](/wiki/Pertev_Naili_Boratav \"Pertev Naili Boratav\") registered 38 variants in the country.Noy, Dov. *Folktales of Israel*. University of Chicago Press. 1963\\. p. 117\\. In their joint work, the Turkish tales were grouped under type TTV 185, {{ill\\|\"Der Geduldstein II\"\\|nl\\|De geduldsteen}}.Eberhard, Wolfram; Boratav, Pertev Nailî. *Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1953\\. pp. 212\\-213\\.",
"In a Turkish variant collected by folklorist [Ignác Kúnos](/wiki/Ign%C3%A1c_K%C3%BAnos \"Ignác Kúnos\") with the title *Stone\\-Patience and Knife\\-Patience*, a poor woman's daughter stays at home when a bird chirps that \"death\" is her *kismet* ('fate', 'destiny'). The situation repeats itself, to the mother's concern. She decides to let her daughter walk a bit with the neighbour's daughters to put her mind at ease. When walking with the girls, a huge wall rises out of the ground to isolate the poor woman's daughter from the other, who return to the village to inform the old woman of the occurrence. Back to the girl: she finds a door on the wall, opens it and is transported to a grand palace. The girl opens all doors, filled with treasures and gems, and behind the fortieth door, lies a [Bey](/wiki/Bey \"Bey\") on a bed holding a note that says a damsel must stay by his side for 40 days to find her kismet. So she decides to follow the note. Time passes, the girl meets a black woman outside of the palace and brings her in to help her vigil. The Bey awakes, sees the black girl and thinks she is his saviour. At the end of the tale, the girl asks the Bey to bring her a stone\\-of\\-patience of a yellow colour and a knife\\-of\\-patience with brown handle. She gets both items: she tells her woes to the stone, but chooses the knife. The Bey appears in the nick of time to stop her attempt.Kúnos, Ignaz. *[Turkish fairy tales and folk tales](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/64807/64807-h/64807-h.htm#STONE-PATIENCE_AND_KNIFE-PATIENCE)*. Translated from the Hungarian version by R. [Nisbet Bain](/wiki/Nisbet_Bain \"Nisbet Bain\"). London: A. H. Bullen, 1901\\. pp. 188\\-196\\.",
"#### Iran",
"According to a study by Russian scholar [Vladimir Minorsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Minorsky \"Vladimir Minorsky\"), the tale type appears in Iran as type 437, *Sang\\-e Sabur*, with varied starting episodes: either a voice predicts the heroine's destiny lies with a dead man, or the heroine and her family are in a desert. Either way, the heroine enters a palace alone, the door locks her in, and she meets a prince lying on a slab, his body full of needles. She removes the needles for 40 days, but a Gypsy girl replaces her and marries the prince. At the end of the tale, the heroine tells her woes to a stone of patience and is overheard by the prince.{{cite book \\|editor1\\-first\\=Mojtaba \\|editor1\\-last\\=Minovi \\|editor2\\-first\\=Iraj \\|editor2\\-last\\=Afshar \\|title\\=Yād\\-nāme\\-ye īrānī\\-ye Minorsky \\|series\\=Publications of Tehran University \\|volume\\=1241 \\|location\\=Tehran \\|publisher\\=University of Tehran \\|date\\=1969 \\|pages\\=43–44 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=300rAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22the\\+needle\\+prince%22\\+sang}} Later, German scholar {{ill\\|Ulrich Marzolph\\|de\\|Ulrich Marzolph}} reported 22 variants of tale type 894, *Der Geduldstein*, across Iranian sources. In the Iranian tale, the heroine's destiny is predicted to be an unhappy one; she drifts away until she reaches a garden and enters a palace, where a youth is lying as if dead, his body prickled with several pins; the heroine helps the youth for almost 40 days, until she tires herself and buys a slavewoman to cover for her. This causes the youth, now awake, to mistake the slavewoman for his true saviour, and marries her, taking the heroine as their maidservant. At the end of the tale, the heroine asks the prince to bring a patience stone, which she tells her woes to.Marzolph, Ulrich. *[Typologie des persischen Volksmärchens](https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/inhouse/content/pageview/1470067)*. Beirut: Orient\\-Inst. der Deutschen Morgenländischen Ges.; Wiesbaden: Steiner \\[in Komm.], 1984\\. pp. 164\\-166\\.",
"In a Persian tale collected by [Emily Lorimer](/wiki/Emily_Lorimer \"Emily Lorimer\") and [David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer](/wiki/David_Lockhart_Robertson_Lorimer \"David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer\"), from Kermani, *The Story of the Marten\\-Stone*, a king's daughter finds a castle with a sleeping prince inside, his body covered with needles. She begins a long and strenuous vigil, picking each needle for the next 40 days and 40 nights. After her slave girl replaces her as the prince's saviour, she asks for a marten\\-stone to pour out her woes to.Lorimer, David Lockhart Robertson; Lorimer, Emily Overend. *Persian tales*. London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1919\\. pp. 19\\-24\\.",
"#### Uzbekistan",
"In an [Uzbek](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\") tale titled *Der brennende Stein* or \"Горючий камень\" (\"The Burning Stone\"), a girl named Rose Bloom is fetching flowers, when she follows a trail deep into a mansion. Inside it, there lies the body of a man, all riddled with pins. The girl extracts each pin carefully, until she begins to get tired. She hires a servant girl from a passing caravan to continue the vigil on him. The man wakes up and mistakes the servant girl for Rose Bloom. At the end of the tale, Rose Bloom asks the prince to get her a burning stone: she plans to tell her sorrows to the stone until it bursts into a pyre, and intends to throw herself into it.\"Узбекские народные сказки\" \\[Uzbek Folk Tales]. Tom 2\\. Tashkent: 1972\\. Tale nr. 8\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Die Märchenkarawane, aus dem usbekischen Märchenschatz \\|publisher\\=Kultur und Fortschritt \\|location\\=Berlin \\|date\\=1959 \\|pages\\=208–211 \\|lang\\=DE}}",
""
] |
### Europe
Scholars [Ibrahim Muhawi](/wiki/Ibrahim_Muhawi "Ibrahim Muhawi") and Sharif Kanaana stated that "in European tradition" type AaTh 894 is found in association with the story of "The Sleeping Prince".Muhawi, Ibrahim, and Sharif Kanaana. *[Speak, Bird, Speak Again](/wiki/Speak%2C_Bird%2C_Speak_Again "Speak, Bird, Speak Again"): [Palestinian Arab Folktales](https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4s2005r4&chunk.id=d0e14539&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e1818&brand=ucpress)*. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1989\. p. 365\. {{ISBN\|0\-520\-06292\-2}}. Professor Jack V. Haney stated that type 437 is more common in [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"), but "uncommon" in [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe").Haney, Jack, V. *An Anthology of Russian Folktales*. London and New York: Routledge. 2015 \[2009]. p. 74\. {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7656\-2305\-8}}.
#### Italy
A [Sicilian](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") variant was collected by [Laura Gonzenbach](/wiki/Laura_Gonzenbach "Laura Gonzenbach") with the title *Der böse Schulmeister und die wandernde Königstochter* ("The Evil Schoolmaster and the Wandering Princess").Gonzenbach, Laura. *Sicilianische Märchen*. Leipzig: Engelmann. 1870\. pp. 59\-64\.
#### Greek
According to scholars Anna Angélopoulos and Marianthi Kaplanoglou, the tale type AaTh 425G (now included in the general subtype ATU 425A after 2004\) is the "most widely disseminated subtype in Greece, with 118 versions".Angelopoulos, Anna and Kaplanoglou, Marianthi. "Greek Magic Tales: aspects of research in Folklore Studies and Anthropology". In: *FF Network*. 2013; Vol. 43\. p. 15\.Angélopoulos, Anna. "Le conte d'Eros et Psyché dans la littérature orale". In: *Topique* 2001/2 (no 75\), pp. 155\-169\. [https://doi.org/10\.3917/top.075\.0155](https://doi.org/10.3917/top.075.0155)Angelopoulou, Anna; Broskou, Aigle. "ΕΠΕΞΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΜΥΘΙΑΚΩΝ ΤΥΠΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΑΓΩΝ AT 300\-499". Tome B: AT 400\-499\. Athens, Greece: ΚΕΝΤΡΟ ΝΕΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΩΝ ΕΡΕΥΝΩΝ Ε.Ι.Ε. 1999\. pp. 775\-776, 783\.
In another Greek variant, *The Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle*, a girl is broidering when a bird chirps that she is to marry a "lifeless man". One day, she enters a neighbouring house and sees the body of a prince holding a letter in his hand, telling for someone to hold a vigil for three nights, three days and three weeks. Nearing the end of the vigil, she takes in a gypsy as a companion, who takes the credit for the vigil. After the prince and the gypsy marry, she asks the prince to bring her the titular items: the Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle.Geldart, Edmund Martin. *[Folk\-lore of modern Greece: the tales of the people](https://archive.org/details/folkloreofmodern00geld/page/62/mode/1up)*. London: W. Swan Sonnenschein \& Co., 1884\. pp. 62\-65\.
#### Spain
Hispanist {{ill\|Ralph Steele Boggs\|de\|Ralph Steele Boggs}} located a Spanish tale he numbered as type \*445B (a number not added to the revision of the international index, at the time). In this story, the princess holds a vigil on a king that will only awake on St. John's Day. She buys a slave woman for company, who takes her place at the king's bed and passes herself as his saviour. The despondent princess asks the prince to bring her two objects: a hard stone and the branch of bitterness. The king learns these are objects requested by people who are on the verge on taking their own lives.Boggs, Ralph Steele. *[Index of Spanish folktales, classified according to Antti Aarne's "Types of the folktale"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Index_of_Spanish_Folktales)*. Chicago: University of Chicago. 1930\. pp. 61\-62\. Scholars Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav considered this story so close to the Turkish tales that they believed it to be a version that developed locally.Eberhard, Wolfram; Boratav, Pertev Nailî. *Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1953\. p. 213\.
#### Armenia
According to Armenian scholarship, Armenia also registers similar tales about the heroine's confession to the object of patience.{{cite journal \|title\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \|trans\-title\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \|first\=Tamar \|last\=Hayrapetyan \|journal\=Historical\-Philological Journal \|volume\=1 \|date\=2016 \|pages\=91–103 \[91] \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \|lang\=hy}}Avard Jivanyan. "Anthropomorphic Dolls as Otherworldly Helpers in the International Folk Tale". In: *8th International Toy Research Association World Conference*. International Toy Research Association (ITRA), Jul 2018, Paris, France. pp. 2\-4\. ffhal\-02114234 In Armenian tales, the object is called *Sabri Xrcig* or *Doll of Patience*, related to the cycle of stories called *Le Prince endormi* ("The Sleeping Prince").Hayrapetyan Tamar. "[Combinaisons archétipales dans les epopees orales et les contes merveilleux armeniens](https://www.academia.edu/52429207/11_Hayrapetyan_Tamar_Combinaisons_arch%C3%A9tipales_dans_les_epopees_orales_et_les_contes_merveilleux_armeniens_traduction_L%C3%A9on_Ketcheyan_)". Traduction par Léon Ketcheyan. In: *Revue des etudes Arméniennes* tome 39 (2020\). pp. 547\-565\. The "Doll of Patience" ([Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_language "Armenian language"): *Սաբրի խրծիկ*; *Sabri khrtsik*) is a dowry gift, given to the newlywed bride and which acts as her confidante as she moves to an unknown household after marriage.{{cite journal \|title\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \|trans\-title\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \|first\=Tamar \|last\=Hayrapetyan \|journal\=Historical\-Philological Journal \|volume\=1 \|date\=2016 \|pages\=91\-103 \[91, 98, 100, 102] \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \|lang\=hy}}
Professor Susan Hoogasian\-Villa collected two variants from Armenian tellers in Detroit. In the first, titled *Saber Dashee*, during a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, a girl loses her way from her family and enters an abandoned house. Inside, a man under a cursed sleep, on whom she has to bear ten years on a vigil. She gets replaced by a gypsy girl, who marries the prince after the vigil. The heroine asks for the *Saber Dashee* and pours out her story to it.Hoogasian\-Villa, Susie. *[100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance](/wiki/100_Armenian_Tales_and_Their_Folkloristic_Relevance "100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance")*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\. p. 444\. In a second story, *The Dead Bridegroom*, the trees and the river predict that a girl will marry a dead man. The girl enters a palace that locks behind her, then sees a man in a cursed\-like sleep. Hoogasian\-Villa noted that it follows very closely the outline of the first variant.Hoogasian\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\. p. 444\.
#### Albania
In an [Albanian](/wiki/Albania "Albania") tale published by [Lucy Garnett](/wiki/Lucy_Garnett "Lucy Garnett") with the title *The Maiden who was Promised to the Sun*, a queen prays to the Sun to give her one daughter, and the Sun agrees, with the condition that she relinquishes the girl to him when she is of age. It does happen and the girl is taken to the Sun. At the Sun's abode, there lives a Koutchedra ([kulshedra](/wiki/Kulshedra "Kulshedra")) that hungers to devour the maiden. She escapes with the help of a stag and returns home (tale type ATU 898, "[The Girl Promised to the Sun](/wiki/Maroula "Maroula")"). In the second part of the story, the girl enters a garden and opens a locked gate that closes itself behind her. She discovers the petrified body of a prince and she decides to release him from this curse, by holding a vigil for three days, three nights and three weeks without sleeping. Nearing the end of the trial, and feing tired, she hires a slave woman to continue the vigil in her place, when the girl with reassume her position by the prince's side. The slave woman ends up replacing the princess as the man's saviour and marries him. The girl laments her fate to the "Stone of Patience" and the prince overhears her story.Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane and Stuart\-Glennie, John S. *[The Women of Turkey and Their Folk\-lore](https://archive.org/details/cu31924100210222/page/314/mode/1up)*. Vol. 2: The Jewish and Moslem Women. London: David Nutt. 1891\. pp. 314\-319\.Hoogasian\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\. p. 443\.
#### Lithuania
Lithuanian folklorist {{ill\|Jonas Balys\|lt\|Jonas Balys}}, in his analysis of Lithuanian folktales (published in 1936\), listed one variant of type \*446 (a type not indexed in the international classification, at the time), under the banner *Miegas karalaitis* ("The Sleeping Prince"). In the only recorded tale, the princess finds the coffin of the sleeping prince and a note to hold a vigil for three nights.Balys, Jonas. *Lietuvių pasakojamosios tautosakos motyvų katalogas* \[Motif\-index of Lithuanian narrative folk\-lore]. Tautosakos darbai \[Folklore studies] Vol. II. Kaunas: Lietuvių tautosakos archyvo leidinys, 1936\. p. 41\.
#### Latvia
According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, in type 437, *Neīstā līgava* ("The False Bride"), the heroine helps break the curse on the whole kingdom, until a girl comes and [takes the credit](/wiki/False_hero "False hero") for the deed. The true heroine asks the prince to bring her a stone or a doll, to which she tells her story.Arājs, Kārlis; Medne, A. *Latviešu pasaku tipu rādītājs*. Zinātne, 1977\. p. 67\.
|
[
"### Europe",
"Scholars [Ibrahim Muhawi](/wiki/Ibrahim_Muhawi \"Ibrahim Muhawi\") and Sharif Kanaana stated that \"in European tradition\" type AaTh 894 is found in association with the story of \"The Sleeping Prince\".Muhawi, Ibrahim, and Sharif Kanaana. *[Speak, Bird, Speak Again](/wiki/Speak%2C_Bird%2C_Speak_Again \"Speak, Bird, Speak Again\"): [Palestinian Arab Folktales](https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4s2005r4&chunk.id=d0e14539&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e1818&brand=ucpress)*. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1989\\. p. 365\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-520\\-06292\\-2}}. Professor Jack V. Haney stated that type 437 is more common in [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"), but \"uncommon\" in [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe \"Western Europe\").Haney, Jack, V. *An Anthology of Russian Folktales*. London and New York: Routledge. 2015 \\[2009]. p. 74\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7656\\-2305\\-8}}.",
"#### Italy",
"A [Sicilian](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") variant was collected by [Laura Gonzenbach](/wiki/Laura_Gonzenbach \"Laura Gonzenbach\") with the title *Der böse Schulmeister und die wandernde Königstochter* (\"The Evil Schoolmaster and the Wandering Princess\").Gonzenbach, Laura. *Sicilianische Märchen*. Leipzig: Engelmann. 1870\\. pp. 59\\-64\\.",
"#### Greek",
"According to scholars Anna Angélopoulos and Marianthi Kaplanoglou, the tale type AaTh 425G (now included in the general subtype ATU 425A after 2004\\) is the \"most widely disseminated subtype in Greece, with 118 versions\".Angelopoulos, Anna and Kaplanoglou, Marianthi. \"Greek Magic Tales: aspects of research in Folklore Studies and Anthropology\". In: *FF Network*. 2013; Vol. 43\\. p. 15\\.Angélopoulos, Anna. \"Le conte d'Eros et Psyché dans la littérature orale\". In: *Topique* 2001/2 (no 75\\), pp. 155\\-169\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.3917/top.075\\.0155](https://doi.org/10.3917/top.075.0155)Angelopoulou, Anna; Broskou, Aigle. \"ΕΠΕΞΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΜΥΘΙΑΚΩΝ ΤΥΠΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΠΑΡΑΛΛΑΓΩΝ AT 300\\-499\". Tome B: AT 400\\-499\\. Athens, Greece: ΚΕΝΤΡΟ ΝΕΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΩΝ ΕΡΕΥΝΩΝ Ε.Ι.Ε. 1999\\. pp. 775\\-776, 783\\.",
"In another Greek variant, *The Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle*, a girl is broidering when a bird chirps that she is to marry a \"lifeless man\". One day, she enters a neighbouring house and sees the body of a prince holding a letter in his hand, telling for someone to hold a vigil for three nights, three days and three weeks. Nearing the end of the vigil, she takes in a gypsy as a companion, who takes the credit for the vigil. After the prince and the gypsy marry, she asks the prince to bring her the titular items: the Knife of Slaughter, the Whet\\-stone of Patience and the Unmelting Candle.Geldart, Edmund Martin. *[Folk\\-lore of modern Greece: the tales of the people](https://archive.org/details/folkloreofmodern00geld/page/62/mode/1up)*. London: W. Swan Sonnenschein \\& Co., 1884\\. pp. 62\\-65\\.",
"#### Spain",
"Hispanist {{ill\\|Ralph Steele Boggs\\|de\\|Ralph Steele Boggs}} located a Spanish tale he numbered as type \\*445B (a number not added to the revision of the international index, at the time). In this story, the princess holds a vigil on a king that will only awake on St. John's Day. She buys a slave woman for company, who takes her place at the king's bed and passes herself as his saviour. The despondent princess asks the prince to bring her two objects: a hard stone and the branch of bitterness. The king learns these are objects requested by people who are on the verge on taking their own lives.Boggs, Ralph Steele. *[Index of Spanish folktales, classified according to Antti Aarne's \"Types of the folktale\"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Index_of_Spanish_Folktales)*. Chicago: University of Chicago. 1930\\. pp. 61\\-62\\. Scholars Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav considered this story so close to the Turkish tales that they believed it to be a version that developed locally.Eberhard, Wolfram; Boratav, Pertev Nailî. *Typen türkischer Volksmärchen*. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1953\\. p. 213\\.",
"#### Armenia",
"According to Armenian scholarship, Armenia also registers similar tales about the heroine's confession to the object of patience.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \\|trans\\-title\\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \\|first\\=Tamar \\|last\\=Hayrapetyan \\|journal\\=Historical\\-Philological Journal \\|volume\\=1 \\|date\\=2016 \\|pages\\=91–103 \\[91] \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \\|lang\\=hy}}Avard Jivanyan. \"Anthropomorphic Dolls as Otherworldly Helpers in the International Folk Tale\". In: *8th International Toy Research Association World Conference*. International Toy Research Association (ITRA), Jul 2018, Paris, France. pp. 2\\-4\\. ffhal\\-02114234 In Armenian tales, the object is called *Sabri Xrcig* or *Doll of Patience*, related to the cycle of stories called *Le Prince endormi* (\"The Sleeping Prince\").Hayrapetyan Tamar. \"[Combinaisons archétipales dans les epopees orales et les contes merveilleux armeniens](https://www.academia.edu/52429207/11_Hayrapetyan_Tamar_Combinaisons_arch%C3%A9tipales_dans_les_epopees_orales_et_les_contes_merveilleux_armeniens_traduction_L%C3%A9on_Ketcheyan_)\". Traduction par Léon Ketcheyan. In: *Revue des etudes Arméniennes* tome 39 (2020\\). pp. 547\\-565\\. The \"Doll of Patience\" ([Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_language \"Armenian language\"): *Սաբրի խրծիկ*; *Sabri khrtsik*) is a dowry gift, given to the newlywed bride and which acts as her confidante as she moves to an unknown household after marriage.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Չխոսկանության սովորույթի վերապրուկները «Սաբրի Խրծիգ» (Համբերության տիկնիկ) հեքիաթախմբում \\|trans\\-title\\=The Survivals of the Tradition of Taciturnity in the “Sabri Khrdzik” (Doll of Patience) Fairy Tale Cycle \\|first\\=Tamar \\|last\\=Hayrapetyan \\|journal\\=Historical\\-Philological Journal \\|volume\\=1 \\|date\\=2016 \\|pages\\=91\\-103 \\[91, 98, 100, 102] \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/26623726 \\|lang\\=hy}}",
"Professor Susan Hoogasian\\-Villa collected two variants from Armenian tellers in Detroit. In the first, titled *Saber Dashee*, during a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, a girl loses her way from her family and enters an abandoned house. Inside, a man under a cursed sleep, on whom she has to bear ten years on a vigil. She gets replaced by a gypsy girl, who marries the prince after the vigil. The heroine asks for the *Saber Dashee* and pours out her story to it.Hoogasian\\-Villa, Susie. *[100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance](/wiki/100_Armenian_Tales_and_Their_Folkloristic_Relevance \"100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance\")*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\\. p. 444\\. In a second story, *The Dead Bridegroom*, the trees and the river predict that a girl will marry a dead man. The girl enters a palace that locks behind her, then sees a man in a cursed\\-like sleep. Hoogasian\\-Villa noted that it follows very closely the outline of the first variant.Hoogasian\\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\\. p. 444\\.",
"#### Albania",
"In an [Albanian](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\") tale published by [Lucy Garnett](/wiki/Lucy_Garnett \"Lucy Garnett\") with the title *The Maiden who was Promised to the Sun*, a queen prays to the Sun to give her one daughter, and the Sun agrees, with the condition that she relinquishes the girl to him when she is of age. It does happen and the girl is taken to the Sun. At the Sun's abode, there lives a Koutchedra ([kulshedra](/wiki/Kulshedra \"Kulshedra\")) that hungers to devour the maiden. She escapes with the help of a stag and returns home (tale type ATU 898, \"[The Girl Promised to the Sun](/wiki/Maroula \"Maroula\")\"). In the second part of the story, the girl enters a garden and opens a locked gate that closes itself behind her. She discovers the petrified body of a prince and she decides to release him from this curse, by holding a vigil for three days, three nights and three weeks without sleeping. Nearing the end of the trial, and feing tired, she hires a slave woman to continue the vigil in her place, when the girl with reassume her position by the prince's side. The slave woman ends up replacing the princess as the man's saviour and marries him. The girl laments her fate to the \"Stone of Patience\" and the prince overhears her story.Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane and Stuart\\-Glennie, John S. *[The Women of Turkey and Their Folk\\-lore](https://archive.org/details/cu31924100210222/page/314/mode/1up)*. Vol. 2: The Jewish and Moslem Women. London: David Nutt. 1891\\. pp. 314\\-319\\.Hoogasian\\-Villa, Susie. *100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966\\. p. 443\\.",
"#### Lithuania",
"Lithuanian folklorist {{ill\\|Jonas Balys\\|lt\\|Jonas Balys}}, in his analysis of Lithuanian folktales (published in 1936\\), listed one variant of type \\*446 (a type not indexed in the international classification, at the time), under the banner *Miegas karalaitis* (\"The Sleeping Prince\"). In the only recorded tale, the princess finds the coffin of the sleeping prince and a note to hold a vigil for three nights.Balys, Jonas. *Lietuvių pasakojamosios tautosakos motyvų katalogas* \\[Motif\\-index of Lithuanian narrative folk\\-lore]. Tautosakos darbai \\[Folklore studies] Vol. II. Kaunas: Lietuvių tautosakos archyvo leidinys, 1936\\. p. 41\\.",
"#### Latvia",
"According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, in type 437, *Neīstā līgava* (\"The False Bride\"), the heroine helps break the curse on the whole kingdom, until a girl comes and [takes the credit](/wiki/False_hero \"False hero\") for the deed. The true heroine asks the prince to bring her a stone or a doll, to which she tells her story.Arājs, Kārlis; Medne, A. *Latviešu pasaku tipu rādītājs*. Zinātne, 1977\\. p. 67\\.",
""
] |
Key aspects
-----------
### Disclosure
Funds engaged in SFTs and total return swaps have a detailed reporting requirement on these operations, both in the regular reports of funds and in pre\-investment documents.
### Reporting
Any EU financial or non\-financial entity will be required to report. This includes banks, brokers, funds, insurance companies, pension funds, other financing companies and non\-financial companies.
The European System of Central Banks, the Bank for International Settlements and public bodies managing public debt are exempted from reporting in order not to jeopardise their discretionary policies.
To minimise the compliance burden for the industry, ESMA was asked to achieve consistency with the reporting already required under the [European Markets Infrastructure Regulation (EMIR)](/wiki/European_Market_Infrastructure_Regulation "European Market Infrastructure Regulation") for derivatives.
The reports shall contain the composition of the collateral used in a SFT, whether that collateral is available for re\-use and has been re\-used, or whether any haircuts have been applied to it.
The rules are deployed in four phases:
1. banks and broker\-dealers (11 April 2020\),
2. financial markets infrastructures (11 July 2020\),
3. insurers and asset managers (11 October 2020\) and
4. non\-financial entities (11 January 2021\).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pwc.co.uk/financial\-services/assets/pdf/esma\-publishes\-feedback\-on\-sftr\-reporting\-is\-the\-industry\-ready.pdf\|title\=ESMA publishes feedback on SFTR reporting: Is the industry ready ?\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|website\=PwC\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=}}
To support firms’ implementation, ESMA produced draft guidelines, setting out guidance on how to fill the main field and including base scenarios.{{Cite web \|title\=Precise and reliable trading signals with robust risk management \|url\=https://fxgenix.com/ \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-03 \|language\=en}}
They cover seven aspects of the reporting requirements, including the number of reportable SFTs, how to link SFT collateral with SFT loans, or how to reconcile breaks or rejections between counterparties.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.esma.europa.eu/press\-news/esma\-news/esma\-consults\-future\-reporting\-guidelines\-under\-sftr\|title\=ESMA consults on future reporting guidelines under SFTR\|website\=www.esma.europa.eu\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-16}}
### Consent to re\-use collateral
The Regulation seeks to improve the transparency of the reuse (any pre\-default use of collateral by the collateral taker for their own purposes) of financial instruments by setting minimum conditions to be met by the parties involved, including written agreement and prior consent. Clients or counterparties have to give their consent before reuse can take place and that they make that decision based on clear information on the risks that it might entail.{{Cite web\|url\=https://europa.eu/rapid/press\-release\_MEMO\-15\-5931\_en.htm\|title\=European Commission \- PRESS RELEASES \- Press release \- Regulation on transparency of securities financing transactions and of reuse: Frequently Asked Questions\|website\=europa.eu\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-16}}
|
[
"Key aspects\n-----------",
"### Disclosure",
"Funds engaged in SFTs and total return swaps have a detailed reporting requirement on these operations, both in the regular reports of funds and in pre\\-investment documents.",
"### Reporting",
"Any EU financial or non\\-financial entity will be required to report. This includes banks, brokers, funds, insurance companies, pension funds, other financing companies and non\\-financial companies.",
"The European System of Central Banks, the Bank for International Settlements and public bodies managing public debt are exempted from reporting in order not to jeopardise their discretionary policies.",
"To minimise the compliance burden for the industry, ESMA was asked to achieve consistency with the reporting already required under the [European Markets Infrastructure Regulation (EMIR)](/wiki/European_Market_Infrastructure_Regulation \"European Market Infrastructure Regulation\") for derivatives.",
"The reports shall contain the composition of the collateral used in a SFT, whether that collateral is available for re\\-use and has been re\\-used, or whether any haircuts have been applied to it.",
"The rules are deployed in four phases:",
"1. banks and broker\\-dealers (11 April 2020\\),\n2. financial markets infrastructures (11 July 2020\\),\n3. insurers and asset managers (11 October 2020\\) and\n4. non\\-financial entities (11 January 2021\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pwc.co.uk/financial\\-services/assets/pdf/esma\\-publishes\\-feedback\\-on\\-sftr\\-reporting\\-is\\-the\\-industry\\-ready.pdf\\|title\\=ESMA publishes feedback on SFTR reporting: Is the industry ready ?\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|website\\=PwC\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=}}",
"To support firms’ implementation, ESMA produced draft guidelines, setting out guidance on how to fill the main field and including base scenarios.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Precise and reliable trading signals with robust risk management \\|url\\=https://fxgenix.com/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-03 \\|language\\=en}}",
"They cover seven aspects of the reporting requirements, including the number of reportable SFTs, how to link SFT collateral with SFT loans, or how to reconcile breaks or rejections between counterparties.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.esma.europa.eu/press\\-news/esma\\-news/esma\\-consults\\-future\\-reporting\\-guidelines\\-under\\-sftr\\|title\\=ESMA consults on future reporting guidelines under SFTR\\|website\\=www.esma.europa.eu\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-16}}",
"### Consent to re\\-use collateral",
"The Regulation seeks to improve the transparency of the reuse (any pre\\-default use of collateral by the collateral taker for their own purposes) of financial instruments by setting minimum conditions to be met by the parties involved, including written agreement and prior consent. Clients or counterparties have to give their consent before reuse can take place and that they make that decision based on clear information on the risks that it might entail.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://europa.eu/rapid/press\\-release\\_MEMO\\-15\\-5931\\_en.htm\\|title\\=European Commission \\- PRESS RELEASES \\- Press release \\- Regulation on transparency of securities financing transactions and of reuse: Frequently Asked Questions\\|website\\=europa.eu\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-16}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Jean\-François Cars was born in Lyons on 16 October 1661, the son of François Cars *père* \[Senior], and his wife, Virginie Chesne.{{in lang\|fr}} Rondot, *Les gravers d’estampes sur cuivre à Lyon: au XVIIe siècle*, [page 111](https://books.google.com/books?id=YrAUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA111) His father was an engraver and printseller who had come from Paris to settle in Lyon, at [*rue* \[Street] Mercière](/wiki/Rue_Merci%C3%A8re "Rue Mercière"), with his brother, Gabriel, also an engraver.{{in lang\|fr}} Martin\-de Vesvrotte, *et al.*, *Dictionnaire des graveurs à Lyon*, [pages 30\-34](https://books.google.com/books?id=P317zP85RtQC&pg=PA30). They were the sons of Jean Cars, an artisan and a sculptor{{in lang\|fr}} *Societé de l’Histoire de l’Art Français* \[Society of the History of French Art], *Actes d'État\-Civil d’artistes français, peintres, graveurs, architectes, etc.: extraits des registres de l’Hotel\-de\-Ville de Paris* \[*Civil Registers of French Artists, Artisans, Engravers, Architects, etc.: Extracts from the Registers of the City Hall of Paris*] (Orléans: H. Herlusion, Libraire, and Paris: J. Baur, Libraire, 1873\), [page 65](https://books.google.com/books?id=L0tNdr_3YlsC&pg=PA65). Jean was described as an artisan and sculptor by his widow’s death certificate, dated 14 November 1651\. “*de peu de notoriété*” \[“of little notoriety”]{{in lang\|fr}} [Baron \[Melchoir\-]Roger Portalis](/wiki/Roger_Portalis "Roger Portalis") and [Henri Béraldi](/wiki/Henri_B%C3%A9raldi "Henri Béraldi"), “CARS (Laurent)”, *Les graveurs du dix\-huitième siècle, tome premier: Adam–Dossier* \[*The Engravers of the Eighteenth Century, First Volume: Adam–Dossier*] (Paris: Damascène Morgand et Charles Fatout, 1880\), [page 301](https://archive.org/stream/gri_graveursdudi01port#page/n321/mode/2up) of Paris, and his wife, Maria Firans, the daughter of an engraver.Pierre Firens (c. 1580–1638\) was one of the major Flemish engravers and publishers at the beginning of the 17th century. So Jean\-François and his brothers, François *fils* \[Junior] (1682–1763\) and Joseph,{{in lang\|fr}} Maxime Préaud, *et al.*, “Jean\-François Cars”, *Dictionnaire des éditeurs d'estampes à Paris sous l'Ancien Régime* pages 73\-74\. were the fourth generation of engravers in their family. Baptized on the next day, Jean\-François had as his godfather another engraver, François Demasso of Lyon, who also worked as a merchant of prints and figurines.
Jean\-François learned his craft in the workshop of his father, as well as from the maker of [intaglios](/wiki/Intaglio_%28printmaking%29 "Intaglio (printmaking)"), Pierre Husson (1675–1676\), and the printer of intaglios, Chabrilland. However, his earliest prints by hand dated only from 1693, when, in the wake of his father, he provided the plates for the illustrations of the works being published in Lyon.
On 18 October 1695 in Lyon, Jean\-François married a Parisian, Marie Barbery, the sister of the engraver Louis Barbery. They had seven children, including [Laurent Cars](/wiki/Laurent_Cars "Laurent Cars") and a daughter, Agatha, who married the King's printer Gabriel\-François Quillau. The family lived with François Cars at first and then settled, under their own sign, “*A Saint\-Hubert*”, at *rue* Mercière, in 1698\. At this shop, Jean\-François engraved portraits of local notables as well as vignettes for the works that were being published in Lyon. He also engraved the titles and frontispieces of the books for the libraries of Lyon.
He had several presses and employed several Lyonnaise engravers, including Claude Séraucourt and especially his own brother, François Cars *fils*.
Jean\-François moved to Paris at the beginning of the 18th century, followed by his younger brother, François. However, for nearly ten years, the brothers stayed active in both cities. In Paris, Jean\-François had had his shop at *rue de la* Savonnerie since 1702 yet his youngest son was born in Lyon in December 1704\. In 1711, he extended his lease of the Lyonnaise home for five years. In 1720, he bought his own Parisian house at [*rue* Saint\-Jacques](/wiki/Rue_Saint-Jacques%2C_Paris "Rue Saint-Jacques, Paris"), where he had already been renting since 1712\. It was adjacent to either the [Sorbonne](/wiki/Sorbonne_%28building%29 "Sorbonne (building)") or the [Collège du Plessis](/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_du_Plessis "Collège du Plessis"). He changed his shop's sign to “*Au Nom de Jésus*” \[Latin, “At the Name of Jesus”], and, in 1726, he expanded his shop to a bigger building, probably to move his operations. He continued not only to make engravings (an activity he gradually abandoned) but also work as a publisher and seller of prints. He specialized, among other things, the placards for the theses for the Jesuit colleges, especially the ones in Paris and [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux "Bordeaux").
Jean\-François kept a workshop where many apprentices, especially [François Boucher](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Boucher "François Boucher") and [Jean\-Baptiste Perronneau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Perronneau "Jean-Baptiste Perronneau") learned and worked; in 1730, it had six presses for making the intaglios. But he also found the time to serve his parish church, [Church of Saint\-Benoît\-le\-Bétourné](/wiki/Eglise_Saint-Beno%C3%AEt-le-B%C3%A9tourn%C3%A9 "Eglise Saint-Benoît-le-Bétourné"), just down the street from his house, as a commissioner of the poor and a churchwarden.{{in lang\|fr}} *Actes d'État\-Civil d’artistes français*, *op. cit.*, [page 66](https://books.google.com/books?id=L0tNdr_3YlsC&pg=PA66).
Jean\-François died on 30 August 1738 at his home on rue Saint\-Jacques in Paris. He was buried on the next day at the Church of Saint\-Benoît\-le\-Bétourné.The church and its cemetery no longer exist. They were razed in 1854 to make room for the expansion of the Sorbonne and of the *[rue des Écoles](/wiki/Rue_des_%C3%89coles "Rue des Écoles")* \[Street of the Schools]. The church itself got its nickname, *le Bétourné* \[“Turned the Wrong Way”], because, when it was built in the 14th century, the altar was placed at the wrong end – in the west. In English, the church would be properly called by the British, “The Church of St. Benedict\-of\-the\-Wrong\-End”. Today, a [marker](http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=61462) commemorates the church as well as the adopted father of [François Villon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Villon "François Villon").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Jean\\-François Cars was born in Lyons on 16 October 1661, the son of François Cars *père* \\[Senior], and his wife, Virginie Chesne.{{in lang\\|fr}} Rondot, *Les gravers d’estampes sur cuivre à Lyon: au XVIIe siècle*, [page 111](https://books.google.com/books?id=YrAUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA111) His father was an engraver and printseller who had come from Paris to settle in Lyon, at [*rue* \\[Street] Mercière](/wiki/Rue_Merci%C3%A8re \"Rue Mercière\"), with his brother, Gabriel, also an engraver.{{in lang\\|fr}} Martin\\-de Vesvrotte, *et al.*, *Dictionnaire des graveurs à Lyon*, [pages 30\\-34](https://books.google.com/books?id=P317zP85RtQC&pg=PA30). They were the sons of Jean Cars, an artisan and a sculptor{{in lang\\|fr}} *Societé de l’Histoire de l’Art Français* \\[Society of the History of French Art], *Actes d'État\\-Civil d’artistes français, peintres, graveurs, architectes, etc.: extraits des registres de l’Hotel\\-de\\-Ville de Paris* \\[*Civil Registers of French Artists, Artisans, Engravers, Architects, etc.: Extracts from the Registers of the City Hall of Paris*] (Orléans: H. Herlusion, Libraire, and Paris: J. Baur, Libraire, 1873\\), [page 65](https://books.google.com/books?id=L0tNdr_3YlsC&pg=PA65). Jean was described as an artisan and sculptor by his widow’s death certificate, dated 14 November 1651\\. “*de peu de notoriété*” \\[“of little notoriety”]{{in lang\\|fr}} [Baron \\[Melchoir\\-]Roger Portalis](/wiki/Roger_Portalis \"Roger Portalis\") and [Henri Béraldi](/wiki/Henri_B%C3%A9raldi \"Henri Béraldi\"), “CARS (Laurent)”, *Les graveurs du dix\\-huitième siècle, tome premier: Adam–Dossier* \\[*The Engravers of the Eighteenth Century, First Volume: Adam–Dossier*] (Paris: Damascène Morgand et Charles Fatout, 1880\\), [page 301](https://archive.org/stream/gri_graveursdudi01port#page/n321/mode/2up) of Paris, and his wife, Maria Firans, the daughter of an engraver.Pierre Firens (c. 1580–1638\\) was one of the major Flemish engravers and publishers at the beginning of the 17th century. So Jean\\-François and his brothers, François *fils* \\[Junior] (1682–1763\\) and Joseph,{{in lang\\|fr}} Maxime Préaud, *et al.*, “Jean\\-François Cars”, *Dictionnaire des éditeurs d'estampes à Paris sous l'Ancien Régime* pages 73\\-74\\. were the fourth generation of engravers in their family. Baptized on the next day, Jean\\-François had as his godfather another engraver, François Demasso of Lyon, who also worked as a merchant of prints and figurines.",
"Jean\\-François learned his craft in the workshop of his father, as well as from the maker of [intaglios](/wiki/Intaglio_%28printmaking%29 \"Intaglio (printmaking)\"), Pierre Husson (1675–1676\\), and the printer of intaglios, Chabrilland. However, his earliest prints by hand dated only from 1693, when, in the wake of his father, he provided the plates for the illustrations of the works being published in Lyon.",
"On 18 October 1695 in Lyon, Jean\\-François married a Parisian, Marie Barbery, the sister of the engraver Louis Barbery. They had seven children, including [Laurent Cars](/wiki/Laurent_Cars \"Laurent Cars\") and a daughter, Agatha, who married the King's printer Gabriel\\-François Quillau. The family lived with François Cars at first and then settled, under their own sign, “*A Saint\\-Hubert*”, at *rue* Mercière, in 1698\\. At this shop, Jean\\-François engraved portraits of local notables as well as vignettes for the works that were being published in Lyon. He also engraved the titles and frontispieces of the books for the libraries of Lyon.",
"He had several presses and employed several Lyonnaise engravers, including Claude Séraucourt and especially his own brother, François Cars *fils*.",
"Jean\\-François moved to Paris at the beginning of the 18th century, followed by his younger brother, François. However, for nearly ten years, the brothers stayed active in both cities. In Paris, Jean\\-François had had his shop at *rue de la* Savonnerie since 1702 yet his youngest son was born in Lyon in December 1704\\. In 1711, he extended his lease of the Lyonnaise home for five years. In 1720, he bought his own Parisian house at [*rue* Saint\\-Jacques](/wiki/Rue_Saint-Jacques%2C_Paris \"Rue Saint-Jacques, Paris\"), where he had already been renting since 1712\\. It was adjacent to either the [Sorbonne](/wiki/Sorbonne_%28building%29 \"Sorbonne (building)\") or the [Collège du Plessis](/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_du_Plessis \"Collège du Plessis\"). He changed his shop's sign to “*Au Nom de Jésus*” \\[Latin, “At the Name of Jesus”], and, in 1726, he expanded his shop to a bigger building, probably to move his operations. He continued not only to make engravings (an activity he gradually abandoned) but also work as a publisher and seller of prints. He specialized, among other things, the placards for the theses for the Jesuit colleges, especially the ones in Paris and [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux \"Bordeaux\").",
"Jean\\-François kept a workshop where many apprentices, especially [François Boucher](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Boucher \"François Boucher\") and [Jean\\-Baptiste Perronneau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Perronneau \"Jean-Baptiste Perronneau\") learned and worked; in 1730, it had six presses for making the intaglios. But he also found the time to serve his parish church, [Church of Saint\\-Benoît\\-le\\-Bétourné](/wiki/Eglise_Saint-Beno%C3%AEt-le-B%C3%A9tourn%C3%A9 \"Eglise Saint-Benoît-le-Bétourné\"), just down the street from his house, as a commissioner of the poor and a churchwarden.{{in lang\\|fr}} *Actes d'État\\-Civil d’artistes français*, *op. cit.*, [page 66](https://books.google.com/books?id=L0tNdr_3YlsC&pg=PA66).",
"Jean\\-François died on 30 August 1738 at his home on rue Saint\\-Jacques in Paris. He was buried on the next day at the Church of Saint\\-Benoît\\-le\\-Bétourné.The church and its cemetery no longer exist. They were razed in 1854 to make room for the expansion of the Sorbonne and of the *[rue des Écoles](/wiki/Rue_des_%C3%89coles \"Rue des Écoles\")* \\[Street of the Schools]. The church itself got its nickname, *le Bétourné* \\[“Turned the Wrong Way”], because, when it was built in the 14th century, the altar was placed at the wrong end – in the west. In English, the church would be properly called by the British, “The Church of St. Benedict\\-of\\-the\\-Wrong\\-End”. Today, a [marker](http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=61462) commemorates the church as well as the adopted father of [François Villon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Villon \"François Villon\").",
""
] |
Background
----------
[thumb\|Berlioz when a student at the [Villa Medici](/wiki/Villa_Medici "Villa Medici"), 1832](/wiki/File:Berlioz_young.jpg "Berlioz young.jpg")
Berlioz was still composing his mass late in 1824, when he made arrangements to have it performed at the Church of Saint\-Roch. He felt he needed a conductor for the large forces required. His teacher, [Jean\-François Le Sueur](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Sueur "Jean-François Le Sueur"), was co\-director of the [Chapel Royale](/wiki/Chapelle_royale "Chapelle royale"), where [Henri Valentino](/wiki/Henri_Valentino "Henri Valentino"), a violinist at the Chapel, but also one of the two chief conductors of the [Paris Opera](/wiki/Paris_Opera "Paris Opera") orchestra, had recently applied for the conducting post at the Chapel. Berlioz approached Valentino, who examined the score and agreed to conduct the performance, despite grave doubts concerning the forces at his disposal. The parts were being copied by [choirboys](/wiki/Choirboy "Choirboy") from Saint\-Roch when Berlioz celebrated his 21st birthday on 11 December. The concert was scheduled for 28 December, and the church sent invitations on behalf of the choirboys to newspapers, friends and likely patrons. The general rehearsal was scheduled for 27 December.Cairns 1999, pp. 164–165\. Berlioz described it in his memoirs:Cairns 1969, pp. 29–30\.
{{Quote\|On the day of the full rehearsal our 'huge forces' assembled and proved to consist of a chorus of twenty (fifteen tenors and five basses), a dozen choirboys, nine violins, a viola, an oboe, a horn and a bassoon. My shame and despair at offering the celebrated conductor of one of the world's leading orchestras such a rabble of musicians may be imagined. 'It's all right,' Masson \[choirmaster of Saint\-Roch] kept on saying, 'everybody will turn up for the performance tomorrow. Come along, start rehearsing!' Valentino, with a resigned air, gave the signal and they began; but after a few moments a halt had to be called. The parts were a mass of mistakes and everyone was pointing them out at once: key signatures without flats and sharps, ten bars' rest missing, thirty bars of music left out. All was confusion. I suffered the torments of the damned; and my long\-cherished vision of a full orchestral performance had, for the moment, to be abandoned.}}
Berlioz had heard enough to make important revisions to the score, after which he copied out all the new parts himself.Cairns 1999, p. 167\. He also realized he needed to hire professional musicians, if his work was to be performed properly, but had little idea of how to finance such a performance. Nevertheless, Valentino remained supportive and agreed to conduct, when circumstances improved.Holoman 1989, p. 33\.
Berlioz's friend, Humbert Ferrand, suggested Berlioz ask for a loan from [François\-René de Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand "François-René de Chateaubriand"), one of Berlioz's literary heroes, whose *[Génie du Christianisme](/wiki/G%C3%A9nie_du_Christianisme "Génie du Christianisme")* later served as inspiration for the [program](/wiki/Program_music "Program music") of the *[Symphonie fantastique](/wiki/Symphonie_fantastique "Symphonie fantastique")*. Berlioz wrote a letter asking him for 1,200 francs (or possibly 1,500\), or in lieu of that to put in a good word with the authorities, but he received only a prompt and courteous reply, which arrived on 1 January 1825:Cairns 1999, pp. 55–58, 165; Holoman 1989, p. 32\.Quoted in Berlioz's memoirs and translated by Cairns 1969, p. 31\.
{{Quote\|
Paris, 31 December 1824
You ask me, sir, for twelve hundred francs. I have not got them. If I had, they would be yours. I have no means, either, of being useful to you with the Government. I sympathize keenly with your difficulties. I love art and honour artists. But sometimes talent owes its success to the trials it has had to endure, and the hour of triumph compensates for all that one has suffered. My dear sir, please accept my regrets—they are very real.
}}
In late January 1825 he tried without success to arrange a performance at the Church of Sainte\-Geneviève (today the [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on "Panthéon")), with [Henri\-Étienne Dérivis](/wiki/Henri-%C3%89tienne_D%C3%A9rivis "Henri-Étienne Dérivis"), a bass at the Paris Opera, to sing the solos.Cairns 1999, p. 172\.
Berlioz wrote home to his sister Nanci about the failed rehearsal, and his father, who staunchly opposed his son's pursuit of a career as a composer, learned of it and cut off his son's allowance on 24 February, beginning a period of financial hardship for Berlioz that lasted until the end of the 1820s.
The curé of Saint\-Roch had selected 10 July, the [feast of the Sacred Heart](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Sacred_Heart "Feast of the Sacred Heart"), for a performance of the Mass, and some musicians and singers from the Chapel Royale were recruited to form the core of the orchestra and chorus. They became unavailable when [King Charles X](/wiki/Charles_X_of_France "Charles X of France") decided to go to [Saint\-Cloud](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Saint-Cloud "Château de Saint-Cloud") on the day of the premiere. Berlioz's friend, Albert Du Boys, used his contacts to obtain an interview between Berlioz and [Sosthènes I de La Rochefoucauld](/wiki/Sosth%C3%A8nes_I_de_La_Rochefoucauld "Sosthènes I de La Rochefoucauld"), the head of the newly created Department of the Arts, but despite two visits, all Berlioz received was permission to hire the Paris Opera orchestra, at a cost of a thousand francs.Cairns 1999, pp. 174–175\.
A month before the scheduled concert, he ran into his friend Augustin de Pons in the foyer of the Paris Opera house, the [Salle Le Peletier](/wiki/Salle_Le_Peletier "Salle Le Peletier"). De Pons had been at the rehearsal in December and asked Berlioz about his Mass. When he learned of the situation he promised to arrange for funding to hire the Opéra chorus and a professional orchestra.Quoted in Berlioz's memoirs and translated by Cairns 1969, p. 32\. The orchestra was formed from the Opera orchestra and the best of the players at the [Théâtre\-Italien](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre-Italien "Théâtre-Italien"). Berlioz even sought and received the endorsement of Raphaël Duplantys, the Opera's Director.Cairns 1999, p. 175\.
A few days before the premiere, Berlioz and his friend Ferrand visited the offices of some newspapers and journals, giving invitations to send a critic and to print announcements of the concert. Berlioz knew the staff at the *Corsaire*, and Ferrand, those at the *[Gazette de France](/wiki/Gazette_de_France "Gazette de France")*, the *Diable boiteux*, and *[Le Globe](/wiki/Le_Globe "Le Globe")*.Cairns 1999, p. 176\.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"[thumb\\|Berlioz when a student at the [Villa Medici](/wiki/Villa_Medici \"Villa Medici\"), 1832](/wiki/File:Berlioz_young.jpg \"Berlioz young.jpg\")\nBerlioz was still composing his mass late in 1824, when he made arrangements to have it performed at the Church of Saint\\-Roch. He felt he needed a conductor for the large forces required. His teacher, [Jean\\-François Le Sueur](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Sueur \"Jean-François Le Sueur\"), was co\\-director of the [Chapel Royale](/wiki/Chapelle_royale \"Chapelle royale\"), where [Henri Valentino](/wiki/Henri_Valentino \"Henri Valentino\"), a violinist at the Chapel, but also one of the two chief conductors of the [Paris Opera](/wiki/Paris_Opera \"Paris Opera\") orchestra, had recently applied for the conducting post at the Chapel. Berlioz approached Valentino, who examined the score and agreed to conduct the performance, despite grave doubts concerning the forces at his disposal. The parts were being copied by [choirboys](/wiki/Choirboy \"Choirboy\") from Saint\\-Roch when Berlioz celebrated his 21st birthday on 11 December. The concert was scheduled for 28 December, and the church sent invitations on behalf of the choirboys to newspapers, friends and likely patrons. The general rehearsal was scheduled for 27 December.Cairns 1999, pp. 164–165\\. Berlioz described it in his memoirs:Cairns 1969, pp. 29–30\\.\n{{Quote\\|On the day of the full rehearsal our 'huge forces' assembled and proved to consist of a chorus of twenty (fifteen tenors and five basses), a dozen choirboys, nine violins, a viola, an oboe, a horn and a bassoon. My shame and despair at offering the celebrated conductor of one of the world's leading orchestras such a rabble of musicians may be imagined. 'It's all right,' Masson \\[choirmaster of Saint\\-Roch] kept on saying, 'everybody will turn up for the performance tomorrow. Come along, start rehearsing!' Valentino, with a resigned air, gave the signal and they began; but after a few moments a halt had to be called. The parts were a mass of mistakes and everyone was pointing them out at once: key signatures without flats and sharps, ten bars' rest missing, thirty bars of music left out. All was confusion. I suffered the torments of the damned; and my long\\-cherished vision of a full orchestral performance had, for the moment, to be abandoned.}}",
"Berlioz had heard enough to make important revisions to the score, after which he copied out all the new parts himself.Cairns 1999, p. 167\\. He also realized he needed to hire professional musicians, if his work was to be performed properly, but had little idea of how to finance such a performance. Nevertheless, Valentino remained supportive and agreed to conduct, when circumstances improved.Holoman 1989, p. 33\\.",
"Berlioz's friend, Humbert Ferrand, suggested Berlioz ask for a loan from [François\\-René de Chateaubriand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand \"François-René de Chateaubriand\"), one of Berlioz's literary heroes, whose *[Génie du Christianisme](/wiki/G%C3%A9nie_du_Christianisme \"Génie du Christianisme\")* later served as inspiration for the [program](/wiki/Program_music \"Program music\") of the *[Symphonie fantastique](/wiki/Symphonie_fantastique \"Symphonie fantastique\")*. Berlioz wrote a letter asking him for 1,200 francs (or possibly 1,500\\), or in lieu of that to put in a good word with the authorities, but he received only a prompt and courteous reply, which arrived on 1 January 1825:Cairns 1999, pp. 55–58, 165; Holoman 1989, p. 32\\.Quoted in Berlioz's memoirs and translated by Cairns 1969, p. 31\\.\n{{Quote\\|\nParis, 31 December 1824",
"You ask me, sir, for twelve hundred francs. I have not got them. If I had, they would be yours. I have no means, either, of being useful to you with the Government. I sympathize keenly with your difficulties. I love art and honour artists. But sometimes talent owes its success to the trials it has had to endure, and the hour of triumph compensates for all that one has suffered. My dear sir, please accept my regrets—they are very real.\n}}",
"In late January 1825 he tried without success to arrange a performance at the Church of Sainte\\-Geneviève (today the [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on \"Panthéon\")), with [Henri\\-Étienne Dérivis](/wiki/Henri-%C3%89tienne_D%C3%A9rivis \"Henri-Étienne Dérivis\"), a bass at the Paris Opera, to sing the solos.Cairns 1999, p. 172\\.",
"Berlioz wrote home to his sister Nanci about the failed rehearsal, and his father, who staunchly opposed his son's pursuit of a career as a composer, learned of it and cut off his son's allowance on 24 February, beginning a period of financial hardship for Berlioz that lasted until the end of the 1820s.",
"The curé of Saint\\-Roch had selected 10 July, the [feast of the Sacred Heart](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Sacred_Heart \"Feast of the Sacred Heart\"), for a performance of the Mass, and some musicians and singers from the Chapel Royale were recruited to form the core of the orchestra and chorus. They became unavailable when [King Charles X](/wiki/Charles_X_of_France \"Charles X of France\") decided to go to [Saint\\-Cloud](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Saint-Cloud \"Château de Saint-Cloud\") on the day of the premiere. Berlioz's friend, Albert Du Boys, used his contacts to obtain an interview between Berlioz and [Sosthènes I de La Rochefoucauld](/wiki/Sosth%C3%A8nes_I_de_La_Rochefoucauld \"Sosthènes I de La Rochefoucauld\"), the head of the newly created Department of the Arts, but despite two visits, all Berlioz received was permission to hire the Paris Opera orchestra, at a cost of a thousand francs.Cairns 1999, pp. 174–175\\.",
"A month before the scheduled concert, he ran into his friend Augustin de Pons in the foyer of the Paris Opera house, the [Salle Le Peletier](/wiki/Salle_Le_Peletier \"Salle Le Peletier\"). De Pons had been at the rehearsal in December and asked Berlioz about his Mass. When he learned of the situation he promised to arrange for funding to hire the Opéra chorus and a professional orchestra.Quoted in Berlioz's memoirs and translated by Cairns 1969, p. 32\\. The orchestra was formed from the Opera orchestra and the best of the players at the [Théâtre\\-Italien](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre-Italien \"Théâtre-Italien\"). Berlioz even sought and received the endorsement of Raphaël Duplantys, the Opera's Director.Cairns 1999, p. 175\\.",
"A few days before the premiere, Berlioz and his friend Ferrand visited the offices of some newspapers and journals, giving invitations to send a critic and to print announcements of the concert. Berlioz knew the staff at the *Corsaire*, and Ferrand, those at the *[Gazette de France](/wiki/Gazette_de_France \"Gazette de France\")*, the *Diable boiteux*, and *[Le Globe](/wiki/Le_Globe \"Le Globe\")*.Cairns 1999, p. 176\\.",
"",
""
] |
Overview
--------
A balise typically needs no wayside power source. Coupling between the balise and the vehicle\-mounted antenna is by magnetic induction, similar to a [transformer](/wiki/Transformer "Transformer") \- although operating at frequencies typical of [radio](/wiki/Radio "Radio"), it is not a radio system. In response to "telepowering" by means of a 27 MHz, CW\-modulated magnetic field transmitted by a {{Interlanguage link multi\|Balise Transmission Module\|2\=de\|preserve\=1}} (BTM and its associated antenna) mounted under a passing train, the balise transmits information to the train (*uplink*) by means of a 4\.234 MHz [FSK](/wiki/FSK "FSK")\-modulated magnetic field. The original provisions for Eurobalises to receive information from the train (*downlink*) have been removed from the specification. The transmission rate is sufficient to transmit at least three copies of a 'telegram' to be received by a train passing at any speed up to 500 km/h. The BTM may be integrated into the on\-board antenna or a separate electronic module, according to the preference of the system vendor.
[thumb\|Balises on the Orivesi–[Jyväskylä](/wiki/Jyv%C3%A4skyl%C3%A4 "Jyväskylä") railway in [Muurame](/wiki/Muurame "Muurame"), Finland](/wiki/Image:Balises_in_Finland.jpg "Balises in Finland.jpg")
Eurobalises are typically placed in pairs on two [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie "Railroad tie") in the center of the track. For ETCS they are typically spaced three metres apart. With the balises being numbered the train will know whether it travels in nominal (1→2\) or reverse direction (2→1\). Singular balises exist only when linked to a previous balise group or when their function is reduced to provide only the exact position. There may be up to 8 balises in a balise group.
Balises are differentiated as being either *fixed\-data*, transmitting the same data to every train, or *transparent data*, *switchable*, or *controllable*, transmitting variable data. (Note that the word *fixed* refers to the information transmitted by the balise, not to its physical location; all balises are immobile.)
### Fixed\-data balise
A fixed\-data balise is programmed to transmit the same data to every train. Information transmitted by a fixed balise typically includes: the location of the balise; the [geometry of the line](/wiki/Track_geometry "Track geometry"), such as curves and gradients; and any speed restrictions. The programming is performed using a wireless programming device. Thus a fixed balise can notify a train of its exact location, and the distance to the next signal, and can warn of any permanent speed restrictions.
### Transparent data balise
[thumb\|Two Eurobalises with the upper one being a transparent data balise (with cable to the lineside electronic unit, the grey box on a post), the lower one a fixed\-data balise](/wiki/File:Eurobalises_%28Fixed_and_Transparent_Data%29_at_Berlin-Sch%C3%B6neberg_S-Bahnhof.jpg "Eurobalises (Fixed and Transparent Data) at Berlin-Schöneberg S-Bahnhof.jpg")
A transparent data balise is connected to a lineside electronics unit (LEU), which transmits dynamic data to the train, such as signal indications and temporary speed restrictions. Balises forming part of an [ETCS](/wiki/ETCS "ETCS") Level 1{{cite web\| title\=ERTMS Levels\| url\=http://www.ertms.com/media/2428/fact\-3\.pdf\| archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813015343/http://www.ertms.com/media/2428/fact\-3\.pdf\| archivedate\=13 August 2011\| series\=ERTMS Factsheets\| author\=UNIFE\| date\=2010}} signalling system employ this capability. The LEU integrates with the conventional (national) signal system either by connecting to the lineside [railway signal](/wiki/Railway_signal "Railway signal") or to the [signalling control](/wiki/Signalling_control "Signalling control") tower.
### Euroloop
A balise transmits telegrams at a specific site. To allow a continuous transmission the telegrams may be sent along [leaky feeder](/wiki/Leaky_feeder "Leaky feeder") cable being up to 1000 metres long. The Euroloop cable is always connected with a balise at its end which serves as the end\-of\-loop marker (EOLM). The telegram structure is the same as for the balise it is connected to. Originally the Euroloop used the same frequency as the Eurobalises but that was changed for specification 2\.0\.1 in September 2004\. Euroloops had been used in Switzerland which completed the change in July 2010\.
### Safety Considerations
ETCS and other applications using Eurobalise technology typically include protection against failure and theft of balises. Balises identify themselves to the trainborne equipment as being "linked" or "unlinked". Linked balises may send data (the "link list") to the trainborne equipment containing the identity of and distance to the following balise group or groups. By this means, the trainborne equipment is able to determine where to expect a balise and thus to identify if a balise has failed. Alternatively, in ETCS application levels 2 and 3, the "link list" may be transmitted to the trainborne equipment from the Radio Block Centre ([RBC](/wiki/RBC "RBC")). The reaction that the trainborne equipment shall apply in case of a missing or failed balise is itself defined by data transmitted with the link list and could typically be to make an enforced brake application or to display a message to the train driver.
Balises also provide a set of fixed position references to the ETCS onboard equipment, allowing the latter to correct its odometry system for cumulative errors accrued during travel from one balise group to the next and maintain accurate tracking of its position relative to the end point of the current movement authority. These errors typically result from slippage and sliding of the train wheels on damp rails, or from controlled\-creep traction.
Balise designs usually include multiple redundant electronic circuitry, allowing them to continue providing normal service for many years despite partial failure.
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"A balise typically needs no wayside power source. Coupling between the balise and the vehicle\\-mounted antenna is by magnetic induction, similar to a [transformer](/wiki/Transformer \"Transformer\") \\- although operating at frequencies typical of [radio](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\"), it is not a radio system. In response to \"telepowering\" by means of a 27 MHz, CW\\-modulated magnetic field transmitted by a {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Balise Transmission Module\\|2\\=de\\|preserve\\=1}} (BTM and its associated antenna) mounted under a passing train, the balise transmits information to the train (*uplink*) by means of a 4\\.234 MHz [FSK](/wiki/FSK \"FSK\")\\-modulated magnetic field. The original provisions for Eurobalises to receive information from the train (*downlink*) have been removed from the specification. The transmission rate is sufficient to transmit at least three copies of a 'telegram' to be received by a train passing at any speed up to 500 km/h. The BTM may be integrated into the on\\-board antenna or a separate electronic module, according to the preference of the system vendor.",
"[thumb\\|Balises on the Orivesi–[Jyväskylä](/wiki/Jyv%C3%A4skyl%C3%A4 \"Jyväskylä\") railway in [Muurame](/wiki/Muurame \"Muurame\"), Finland](/wiki/Image:Balises_in_Finland.jpg \"Balises in Finland.jpg\")",
"Eurobalises are typically placed in pairs on two [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie \"Railroad tie\") in the center of the track. For ETCS they are typically spaced three metres apart. With the balises being numbered the train will know whether it travels in nominal (1→2\\) or reverse direction (2→1\\). Singular balises exist only when linked to a previous balise group or when their function is reduced to provide only the exact position. There may be up to 8 balises in a balise group.",
"Balises are differentiated as being either *fixed\\-data*, transmitting the same data to every train, or *transparent data*, *switchable*, or *controllable*, transmitting variable data. (Note that the word *fixed* refers to the information transmitted by the balise, not to its physical location; all balises are immobile.)",
"### Fixed\\-data balise",
"A fixed\\-data balise is programmed to transmit the same data to every train. Information transmitted by a fixed balise typically includes: the location of the balise; the [geometry of the line](/wiki/Track_geometry \"Track geometry\"), such as curves and gradients; and any speed restrictions. The programming is performed using a wireless programming device. Thus a fixed balise can notify a train of its exact location, and the distance to the next signal, and can warn of any permanent speed restrictions.",
"### Transparent data balise",
"[thumb\\|Two Eurobalises with the upper one being a transparent data balise (with cable to the lineside electronic unit, the grey box on a post), the lower one a fixed\\-data balise](/wiki/File:Eurobalises_%28Fixed_and_Transparent_Data%29_at_Berlin-Sch%C3%B6neberg_S-Bahnhof.jpg \"Eurobalises (Fixed and Transparent Data) at Berlin-Schöneberg S-Bahnhof.jpg\")\nA transparent data balise is connected to a lineside electronics unit (LEU), which transmits dynamic data to the train, such as signal indications and temporary speed restrictions. Balises forming part of an [ETCS](/wiki/ETCS \"ETCS\") Level 1{{cite web\\| title\\=ERTMS Levels\\| url\\=http://www.ertms.com/media/2428/fact\\-3\\.pdf\\| archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813015343/http://www.ertms.com/media/2428/fact\\-3\\.pdf\\| archivedate\\=13 August 2011\\| series\\=ERTMS Factsheets\\| author\\=UNIFE\\| date\\=2010}} signalling system employ this capability. The LEU integrates with the conventional (national) signal system either by connecting to the lineside [railway signal](/wiki/Railway_signal \"Railway signal\") or to the [signalling control](/wiki/Signalling_control \"Signalling control\") tower.",
"### Euroloop",
"A balise transmits telegrams at a specific site. To allow a continuous transmission the telegrams may be sent along [leaky feeder](/wiki/Leaky_feeder \"Leaky feeder\") cable being up to 1000 metres long. The Euroloop cable is always connected with a balise at its end which serves as the end\\-of\\-loop marker (EOLM). The telegram structure is the same as for the balise it is connected to. Originally the Euroloop used the same frequency as the Eurobalises but that was changed for specification 2\\.0\\.1 in September 2004\\. Euroloops had been used in Switzerland which completed the change in July 2010\\.",
"### Safety Considerations",
"ETCS and other applications using Eurobalise technology typically include protection against failure and theft of balises. Balises identify themselves to the trainborne equipment as being \"linked\" or \"unlinked\". Linked balises may send data (the \"link list\") to the trainborne equipment containing the identity of and distance to the following balise group or groups. By this means, the trainborne equipment is able to determine where to expect a balise and thus to identify if a balise has failed. Alternatively, in ETCS application levels 2 and 3, the \"link list\" may be transmitted to the trainborne equipment from the Radio Block Centre ([RBC](/wiki/RBC \"RBC\")). The reaction that the trainborne equipment shall apply in case of a missing or failed balise is itself defined by data transmitted with the link list and could typically be to make an enforced brake application or to display a message to the train driver.",
"Balises also provide a set of fixed position references to the ETCS onboard equipment, allowing the latter to correct its odometry system for cumulative errors accrued during travel from one balise group to the next and maintain accurate tracking of its position relative to the end point of the current movement authority. These errors typically result from slippage and sliding of the train wheels on damp rails, or from controlled\\-creep traction.",
"Balise designs usually include multiple redundant electronic circuitry, allowing them to continue providing normal service for many years despite partial failure.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|300px\|Map of the Trace](/wiki/Image:Buffalo_Trace_Indiana_map.jpg "Buffalo Trace Indiana map.jpg")
The Trace was created by millions of migrating bison that were numerous in the region from the Great Lakes to the Piedmont of North Carolina.{{cite journal \| last\=Wilson \|first\=George R. \|author2\=Gayle Thornbrough \|author2\-link\=Gayle Thornbrough \| title\=The Buffalo Trace \| journal \= Indiana Historical Society Publications \| volume \=15 \| issue \=2 \| page \=184 \| publisher\=\[\[Indiana Historical Society]] \| location\=Indianapolis \| year \= 1946}} It was part of a greater buffalo migration route that extended from present\-day [Big Bone Lick State Park](/wiki/Big_Bone_Lick_State_Park "Big Bone Lick State Park") in Kentucky, through [Bullitt's Lick](/wiki/Bullitt%27s_Lick "Bullitt's Lick"), south of present\-day Louisville, and across the [Falls of the Ohio River](/wiki/Falls_of_the_Ohio_River "Falls of the Ohio River") to Indiana, then northwest to Vincennes, before crossing the Wabash River into Illinois.{{cite journal \| last\=Wilson \|first\=George R. \| title \= Early Indiana Trails and Surveys \| journal \= Indiana Historical Society Publications \| volume \=6 \| issue \=3 \| page \=349 and 370 \| publisher\=\[\[Indiana Historical Society]] \| location\=Indianapolis \| year \= 1919\| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=js87AAAAIAAJ \| access\-date \=2013\-01\-23}} The trail was well known among the area's natives and used for centuries. It later became known and used by European traders and white settlers who crossed the Ohio River at the Falls and followed the Trace overland to the western territories.Wilson, "Early Indiana Trails and Surveys," p. 372–73\. It is considered to be the most important of the early traces leading to the Illinois country.{{cite book \| last \=Barnhart \| first \=John D.\|author2\=Dorothy L. Riker \| title \=Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period \| publisher \=Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society \| series \=The History of Indiana \| volume \= 1 \| year \=1971 \| location \=Indianapolis \| page \=363\| isbn \=0\-87195\-108\-8}}
In Indiana the Trace's main line split into several smaller trails that converged north of [Jasper](/wiki/Jasper%2C_Indiana "Jasper, Indiana"), near several large ponds, or mud holes, where buffalo would wallow.{{cite book \| last \= McCafferty \| first \= Michael\| title \=Native American Place Names of Indiana \| publisher \= University of Illinois Press \| year \=2008 \| location \=Urbana and Chicago \| page \=172 \| isbn \=978\-0\-252\-03268\-4 }} Due to the large number of buffalo that used the Trace, the well\-worn path was twelve to twenty feet wide in places.Wilson, "Early Indiana Trails and Surveys," p. 349\.{{cite web\| title \=Buffalo Trace\| publisher \=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service \| location \=Washington, D.C. \| url \= http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/hoosier/specialplaces/?cid\=fsbdev3\_017492\| access\-date \=2013\-01\-22}} Various trails also converged around a major salt lick, probably near present\-day [French Lick, Indiana](/wiki/French_Lick%2C_Indiana "French Lick, Indiana").Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 185–86\. The Trace crossed the [White River](/wiki/White_River_%28Indiana%29 "White River (Indiana)") at several points, including places near the present\-day towns of [Petersburg](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Indiana "Petersburg, Indiana") and [Portersville, Indiana](/wiki/Portersville%2C_Indiana "Portersville, Indiana").Wilson, "Early Indiana Trails and Surveys," p. 350\. After a major crossing at the Wabash River, the Trace split into separate trails that led west across [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") to the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River"){{cite web \|author\=Bryant, Bob \|title\=The Lost and Almost Lost \|url\=http://www.scottcountyiowa.com/conservation/pub/wren/2004/200401\_Winter.pdf \|page\=5 \|date\=Winter 2004 \|access\-date\=14 January 2008}} or north to what would become Chicago. In Chicago, the Trace is called Vincennes Avenue, and after state\-funded improvements and straightening, parts became [State Street](/wiki/State_Street_%28Chicago%29 "State Street (Chicago)").
The Trace across southern Indiana became integral to early development. Two main areas of early settlement in the Indiana Territory were made along it: Vincennes to the west and Clark's Grant in the south. In the early 18th century, the French developed colonial posts in the Illinois Country by moving down the Mississippi and into its tributaries. In 1732 [François\-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Bissot%2C_Sieur_de_Vincennes "François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes"), founded a trading post near the Trace's Wabash River crossing; it developed as the town of Vincennes.{{cite book\|author\=Derleth, August \|title\=Vincennes: Portal to The West \|url\=https://archive.org/details/vincennesportalt00derl \|url\-access\=registration \|year\=1968 \|publisher\=\[\[Prentice\-Hall]] \| location\=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. \|lccn\=68020537 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/vincennesportalt00derl/page/8 8]}} After the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War"), in the late 1780s the U.S. government granted land in New York, Ohio and Indiana to veterans as payment for service. The US granted "so many acres of land" to [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark "George Rogers Clark") and his men for their military service in the [Illinois campaign](/wiki/Illinois_Campaign "Illinois Campaign") against the British during the [Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War").Barnhart and Riker, p. 252\. It became known as Clark's Grant. [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark "George Rogers Clark") used the Trace to return to the Louisville area after his [Illinois Campaign](/wiki/Illinois_Campaign "Illinois Campaign").
As the Continentals took control of the Illinois country during the Revolutionary War, the Trace became a busy overland route, which made it a target for Indian war parties. Clark's memoirs mentioned the Trace in describing an early Indian attack on traders in 1779, after Hamilton surrendered at [Fort Sackville](/wiki/Fort_Sackville "Fort Sackville") and Clark's militia controlled Vincennes.Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 188\. He led his force against the Indians in the [Battle of the White River Forks](/wiki/Battle_of_the_White_River_Forks "Battle of the White River Forks"). Richard "Dickie" Clark (1760–c. 1784\), the younger brother of General [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark "George Rogers Clark") and Captain [William Clark](/wiki/William_Clark_%28explorer%29 "William Clark (explorer)"), disappeared while traveling along the Trace in 1784\. He had left [Clarksville](/wiki/Clarksville%2C_Indiana "Clarksville, Indiana"), to travel alone to Vincennes. Accounts varied: one said that his horse had been found with saddlebags bearing his initials. Another account said his horse's bones were found with Clark's bags nearby. His remains were never found. There was speculation that he was killed by Indians or thieves in the area, but historian [William Hayden English](/wiki/William_Hayden_English "William Hayden English") concluded that he probably drowned while crossing a river.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.in.gov/history/2955\.htm \|title\=George Rogers Clark \- Siblings \|publisher\=Indiana Historical Bureau \|access\-date\=30 January 2013}}
Several written accounts by explorers, the military, and settlers document the Trace's use as an overland route. In 1785 and 1786 explorer [John Filson](/wiki/John_Filson "John Filson") travelled by river to Vincennes and returned to the Falls of the Ohio via the Trace; he documented his travels along the road. Filson's overland route took nine days.Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 190\. General [Josiah Harmar](/wiki/Josiah_Harmar "Josiah Harmar"), Commander of the Army of the Ohio, kept a log when he led the [First American Regiment](/wiki/First_American_Regiment "First American Regiment") on a return march from Vincennes in 1786\.Initially, Harmar went to Vincennes by way of the Red Banks Trace, a north\-south trail connecting Vincennes to [Henderson, Kentucky](/wiki/Henderson%2C_Kentucky "Henderson, Kentucky"). See Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 200\. Following the [Treaty of Greenville](/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville "Treaty of Greenville") in 1795, settlers poured into the western territories. Many of them kept journals, recording their observations along the Trace.See Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 207–15\.
In late 1799 U.S. postmaster [Joseph Habersham](/wiki/Joseph_Habersham "Joseph Habersham") established a mail route from Louisville through Vincennes to [Kaskaskia, Illinois](/wiki/Kaskaskia%2C_Illinois "Kaskaskia, Illinois") at the Mississippi River along the Trace.Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 217\. The route began on 22 March 1800 and ran every four weeks. It was extended to [Cahokia, Illinois](/wiki/Cahokia%2C_Illinois "Cahokia, Illinois") the following year. Both of these were former French colonial settlements from the early 18th century.Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 218\.
In 1802 [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison "William Henry Harrison"), governor of the Indiana Territory, recommended that the Trace be improved as a road suitable for wagon travel, with inns developed for travelers every thirty to forty miles.Cayton, Andrew. *Frontier Indiana* (Indiana University Press, 1998\) p. 184\. By 1804 the Trace was so well known that Harrison used it as a treaty boundary with Indians.Wilson, "Early Indiana Trails and Surveys," p. 349 and 423\. The Vincennes treaty of 1804 gave the U.S. government possession of Indiana land from south of the Trace to the Ohio River, including the Trace itself. William Rector was hired to survey the treaty land in 1805\. His survey notes provide an important record of the Buffalo Trace's route.Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 223–24\. Survey maps and field notes identified forty\-three miles of the old trace road from Clark's Grant to the White River in southern Indiana.
[thumb\|right\|A road built on top of the old Trace in [Morgan Township, Harrison County, Indiana](/wiki/Morgan_Township%2C_Harrison_County%2C_Indiana "Morgan Township, Harrison County, Indiana")](/wiki/Image:Buffalotraceroadsign.jpg "Buffalotraceroadsign.jpg")
The Buffalo Trace was the primary travel route between the [Louisville](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky "Louisville, Kentucky") area and Vincennes; two\-thirds of settlers traveling from the Louisville area into the interior of Indiana used the trace.Robinson, p. 38–39\. [Rangers](/wiki/Indiana_Rangers "Indiana Rangers") were hired to protect travelers using the road, eventually doing so on horseback in 1812\. During the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"), Harrison assigned 150 men to patrol the Trace between Vincennes and Louisville, "so as to completely protect the citizens and the road."Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 238\.
Because the Trace remained the primary road across southern Indiana after the territory became a state in 1816, the state legislature had a road paved from [New Albany](/wiki/New_Albany%2C_Indiana "New Albany, Indiana") to Vincennes as part of its [internal improvements](/wiki/Internal_improvements "Internal improvements") program. The road "approximated" the Trace's route. It was extended to [Paoli, Indiana](/wiki/Paoli%2C_Indiana "Paoli, Indiana"), after the state government leased operation of the road to a private organization as part of their negotiations to avoid bankruptcy.Kleber, John E. *The Encyclopedia of Louisville*. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001\). p. 302\. The paved road was called the "New Albany\-Paoli Turnpike." The first [stagecoach](/wiki/Stagecoach "Stagecoach") service in the state started in 1820 along the Trace; the route was from [New Albany](/wiki/New_Albany%2C_Indiana "New Albany, Indiana") to [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana "Vincennes, Indiana"). The route served [Floyd County, Indiana](/wiki/Floyd_County%2C_Indiana "Floyd County, Indiana"); the towns of [Greenville](/wiki/Greenville%2C_Indiana "Greenville, Indiana"), [Galena](/wiki/Galena%2C_Indiana "Galena, Indiana"), and [Floyds Knobs](/wiki/Floyds_Knobs%2C_Indiana "Floyds Knobs, Indiana") in particular.
Other names for the Trace through its history have been *Lan\-an\-zo\-ki\-mi\-wi* (or *lenaswihkanawea*, an Indian name meaning "bison trail" or "buffalo road"), the "Old Indian Road," the "Clarksville Trace," "Harrison's Road," the "Kentucky Road," the "Vincennes Trace," and the "Louisville Trace."Robinson, p. 38\.Wilson, "The Buffalo Trace," p. 187McCafferty, p. 173\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Map of the Trace](/wiki/Image:Buffalo_Trace_Indiana_map.jpg \"Buffalo Trace Indiana map.jpg\")",
"The Trace was created by millions of migrating bison that were numerous in the region from the Great Lakes to the Piedmont of North Carolina.{{cite journal \\| last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=George R. \\|author2\\=Gayle Thornbrough \\|author2\\-link\\=Gayle Thornbrough \\| title\\=The Buffalo Trace \\| journal \\= Indiana Historical Society Publications \\| volume \\=15 \\| issue \\=2 \\| page \\=184 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Indiana Historical Society]] \\| location\\=Indianapolis \\| year \\= 1946}} It was part of a greater buffalo migration route that extended from present\\-day [Big Bone Lick State Park](/wiki/Big_Bone_Lick_State_Park \"Big Bone Lick State Park\") in Kentucky, through [Bullitt's Lick](/wiki/Bullitt%27s_Lick \"Bullitt's Lick\"), south of present\\-day Louisville, and across the [Falls of the Ohio River](/wiki/Falls_of_the_Ohio_River \"Falls of the Ohio River\") to Indiana, then northwest to Vincennes, before crossing the Wabash River into Illinois.{{cite journal \\| last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=George R. \\| title \\= Early Indiana Trails and Surveys \\| journal \\= Indiana Historical Society Publications \\| volume \\=6 \\| issue \\=3 \\| page \\=349 and 370 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Indiana Historical Society]] \\| location\\=Indianapolis \\| year \\= 1919\\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=js87AAAAIAAJ \\| access\\-date \\=2013\\-01\\-23}} The trail was well known among the area's natives and used for centuries. It later became known and used by European traders and white settlers who crossed the Ohio River at the Falls and followed the Trace overland to the western territories.Wilson, \"Early Indiana Trails and Surveys,\" p. 372–73\\. It is considered to be the most important of the early traces leading to the Illinois country.{{cite book \\| last \\=Barnhart \\| first \\=John D.\\|author2\\=Dorothy L. Riker \\| title \\=Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period \\| publisher \\=Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society \\| series \\=The History of Indiana \\| volume \\= 1 \\| year \\=1971 \\| location \\=Indianapolis \\| page \\=363\\| isbn \\=0\\-87195\\-108\\-8}}",
"In Indiana the Trace's main line split into several smaller trails that converged north of [Jasper](/wiki/Jasper%2C_Indiana \"Jasper, Indiana\"), near several large ponds, or mud holes, where buffalo would wallow.{{cite book \\| last \\= McCafferty \\| first \\= Michael\\| title \\=Native American Place Names of Indiana \\| publisher \\= University of Illinois Press \\| year \\=2008 \\| location \\=Urbana and Chicago \\| page \\=172 \\| isbn \\=978\\-0\\-252\\-03268\\-4 }} Due to the large number of buffalo that used the Trace, the well\\-worn path was twelve to twenty feet wide in places.Wilson, \"Early Indiana Trails and Surveys,\" p. 349\\.{{cite web\\| title \\=Buffalo Trace\\| publisher \\=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service \\| location \\=Washington, D.C. \\| url \\= http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/hoosier/specialplaces/?cid\\=fsbdev3\\_017492\\| access\\-date \\=2013\\-01\\-22}} Various trails also converged around a major salt lick, probably near present\\-day [French Lick, Indiana](/wiki/French_Lick%2C_Indiana \"French Lick, Indiana\").Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 185–86\\. The Trace crossed the [White River](/wiki/White_River_%28Indiana%29 \"White River (Indiana)\") at several points, including places near the present\\-day towns of [Petersburg](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Indiana \"Petersburg, Indiana\") and [Portersville, Indiana](/wiki/Portersville%2C_Indiana \"Portersville, Indiana\").Wilson, \"Early Indiana Trails and Surveys,\" p. 350\\. After a major crossing at the Wabash River, the Trace split into separate trails that led west across [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\") to the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\"){{cite web \\|author\\=Bryant, Bob \\|title\\=The Lost and Almost Lost \\|url\\=http://www.scottcountyiowa.com/conservation/pub/wren/2004/200401\\_Winter.pdf \\|page\\=5 \\|date\\=Winter 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2008}} or north to what would become Chicago. In Chicago, the Trace is called Vincennes Avenue, and after state\\-funded improvements and straightening, parts became [State Street](/wiki/State_Street_%28Chicago%29 \"State Street (Chicago)\").",
"The Trace across southern Indiana became integral to early development. Two main areas of early settlement in the Indiana Territory were made along it: Vincennes to the west and Clark's Grant in the south. In the early 18th century, the French developed colonial posts in the Illinois Country by moving down the Mississippi and into its tributaries. In 1732 [François\\-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Bissot%2C_Sieur_de_Vincennes \"François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes\"), founded a trading post near the Trace's Wabash River crossing; it developed as the town of Vincennes.{{cite book\\|author\\=Derleth, August \\|title\\=Vincennes: Portal to The West \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/vincennesportalt00derl \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|year\\=1968 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Prentice\\-Hall]] \\| location\\=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. \\|lccn\\=68020537 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/vincennesportalt00derl/page/8 8]}} After the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"), in the late 1780s the U.S. government granted land in New York, Ohio and Indiana to veterans as payment for service. The US granted \"so many acres of land\" to [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark \"George Rogers Clark\") and his men for their military service in the [Illinois campaign](/wiki/Illinois_Campaign \"Illinois Campaign\") against the British during the [Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\").Barnhart and Riker, p. 252\\. It became known as Clark's Grant. [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark \"George Rogers Clark\") used the Trace to return to the Louisville area after his [Illinois Campaign](/wiki/Illinois_Campaign \"Illinois Campaign\").",
"As the Continentals took control of the Illinois country during the Revolutionary War, the Trace became a busy overland route, which made it a target for Indian war parties. Clark's memoirs mentioned the Trace in describing an early Indian attack on traders in 1779, after Hamilton surrendered at [Fort Sackville](/wiki/Fort_Sackville \"Fort Sackville\") and Clark's militia controlled Vincennes.Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 188\\. He led his force against the Indians in the [Battle of the White River Forks](/wiki/Battle_of_the_White_River_Forks \"Battle of the White River Forks\"). Richard \"Dickie\" Clark (1760–c. 1784\\), the younger brother of General [George Rogers Clark](/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark \"George Rogers Clark\") and Captain [William Clark](/wiki/William_Clark_%28explorer%29 \"William Clark (explorer)\"), disappeared while traveling along the Trace in 1784\\. He had left [Clarksville](/wiki/Clarksville%2C_Indiana \"Clarksville, Indiana\"), to travel alone to Vincennes. Accounts varied: one said that his horse had been found with saddlebags bearing his initials. Another account said his horse's bones were found with Clark's bags nearby. His remains were never found. There was speculation that he was killed by Indians or thieves in the area, but historian [William Hayden English](/wiki/William_Hayden_English \"William Hayden English\") concluded that he probably drowned while crossing a river.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.in.gov/history/2955\\.htm \\|title\\=George Rogers Clark \\- Siblings \\|publisher\\=Indiana Historical Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2013}}",
"Several written accounts by explorers, the military, and settlers document the Trace's use as an overland route. In 1785 and 1786 explorer [John Filson](/wiki/John_Filson \"John Filson\") travelled by river to Vincennes and returned to the Falls of the Ohio via the Trace; he documented his travels along the road. Filson's overland route took nine days.Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 190\\. General [Josiah Harmar](/wiki/Josiah_Harmar \"Josiah Harmar\"), Commander of the Army of the Ohio, kept a log when he led the [First American Regiment](/wiki/First_American_Regiment \"First American Regiment\") on a return march from Vincennes in 1786\\.Initially, Harmar went to Vincennes by way of the Red Banks Trace, a north\\-south trail connecting Vincennes to [Henderson, Kentucky](/wiki/Henderson%2C_Kentucky \"Henderson, Kentucky\"). See Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 200\\. Following the [Treaty of Greenville](/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville \"Treaty of Greenville\") in 1795, settlers poured into the western territories. Many of them kept journals, recording their observations along the Trace.See Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 207–15\\.",
"In late 1799 U.S. postmaster [Joseph Habersham](/wiki/Joseph_Habersham \"Joseph Habersham\") established a mail route from Louisville through Vincennes to [Kaskaskia, Illinois](/wiki/Kaskaskia%2C_Illinois \"Kaskaskia, Illinois\") at the Mississippi River along the Trace.Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 217\\. The route began on 22 March 1800 and ran every four weeks. It was extended to [Cahokia, Illinois](/wiki/Cahokia%2C_Illinois \"Cahokia, Illinois\") the following year. Both of these were former French colonial settlements from the early 18th century.Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 218\\.",
"In 1802 [William Henry Harrison](/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison \"William Henry Harrison\"), governor of the Indiana Territory, recommended that the Trace be improved as a road suitable for wagon travel, with inns developed for travelers every thirty to forty miles.Cayton, Andrew. *Frontier Indiana* (Indiana University Press, 1998\\) p. 184\\. By 1804 the Trace was so well known that Harrison used it as a treaty boundary with Indians.Wilson, \"Early Indiana Trails and Surveys,\" p. 349 and 423\\. The Vincennes treaty of 1804 gave the U.S. government possession of Indiana land from south of the Trace to the Ohio River, including the Trace itself. William Rector was hired to survey the treaty land in 1805\\. His survey notes provide an important record of the Buffalo Trace's route.Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 223–24\\. Survey maps and field notes identified forty\\-three miles of the old trace road from Clark's Grant to the White River in southern Indiana.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A road built on top of the old Trace in [Morgan Township, Harrison County, Indiana](/wiki/Morgan_Township%2C_Harrison_County%2C_Indiana \"Morgan Township, Harrison County, Indiana\")](/wiki/Image:Buffalotraceroadsign.jpg \"Buffalotraceroadsign.jpg\")",
"The Buffalo Trace was the primary travel route between the [Louisville](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky \"Louisville, Kentucky\") area and Vincennes; two\\-thirds of settlers traveling from the Louisville area into the interior of Indiana used the trace.Robinson, p. 38–39\\. [Rangers](/wiki/Indiana_Rangers \"Indiana Rangers\") were hired to protect travelers using the road, eventually doing so on horseback in 1812\\. During the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"), Harrison assigned 150 men to patrol the Trace between Vincennes and Louisville, \"so as to completely protect the citizens and the road.\"Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 238\\.",
"Because the Trace remained the primary road across southern Indiana after the territory became a state in 1816, the state legislature had a road paved from [New Albany](/wiki/New_Albany%2C_Indiana \"New Albany, Indiana\") to Vincennes as part of its [internal improvements](/wiki/Internal_improvements \"Internal improvements\") program. The road \"approximated\" the Trace's route. It was extended to [Paoli, Indiana](/wiki/Paoli%2C_Indiana \"Paoli, Indiana\"), after the state government leased operation of the road to a private organization as part of their negotiations to avoid bankruptcy.Kleber, John E. *The Encyclopedia of Louisville*. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001\\). p. 302\\. The paved road was called the \"New Albany\\-Paoli Turnpike.\" The first [stagecoach](/wiki/Stagecoach \"Stagecoach\") service in the state started in 1820 along the Trace; the route was from [New Albany](/wiki/New_Albany%2C_Indiana \"New Albany, Indiana\") to [Vincennes](/wiki/Vincennes%2C_Indiana \"Vincennes, Indiana\"). The route served [Floyd County, Indiana](/wiki/Floyd_County%2C_Indiana \"Floyd County, Indiana\"); the towns of [Greenville](/wiki/Greenville%2C_Indiana \"Greenville, Indiana\"), [Galena](/wiki/Galena%2C_Indiana \"Galena, Indiana\"), and [Floyds Knobs](/wiki/Floyds_Knobs%2C_Indiana \"Floyds Knobs, Indiana\") in particular.",
"Other names for the Trace through its history have been *Lan\\-an\\-zo\\-ki\\-mi\\-wi* (or *lenaswihkanawea*, an Indian name meaning \"bison trail\" or \"buffalo road\"), the \"Old Indian Road,\" the \"Clarksville Trace,\" \"Harrison's Road,\" the \"Kentucky Road,\" the \"Vincennes Trace,\" and the \"Louisville Trace.\"Robinson, p. 38\\.Wilson, \"The Buffalo Trace,\" p. 187McCafferty, p. 173\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
Heng started his career in 1983 in the [Singapore Police Force](/wiki/Singapore_Police_Force "Singapore Police Force") (SPF) and held command and staff appointments, including Director of Manpower and Commander of the [Geylang Police Division](/wiki/Bedok_Police_Division "Bedok Police Division").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mindef.gov.sg/web/portal/mindef/about\-us/leadership\-biographies/biographies\-detail/political\-office\-holders/02\-minister/!ut/p/z1/jZHdToNAEIWfppewwwqleEdbQ9tAqUor7o0BXGDjliXLVqJP342amFhF5m4m35mfM4igFJEme2VVpphoMq7zRzJ9cuPlYgU23sZOYoF\_SJLQmW8xnlvo4QOIb\-3AsgGHcXTnaMDzZgnsMAQuImP08Ef4ME4\_AJDh9pv\_BmgHsIwWUYVIm6naYE0pUNoKzhQrMm6IsmQFNWrBn6nsUArYOLKGdYpKvRwZbL90v4Bv\_w6Bq4Hderrx7i24wRfApcEjTqy4yD\-\_6Tf51UzfImlJJZXmSepyrVTbXU9gAn3fm5UQFadmIczTywR\-E9WiUyj9yaL2uN\-n7\-EK2Nog\-Vt\_BvY03Mk!/\|title \= MINDEF Singapore}}
He attained the rank [Superintendent](/wiki/Superintendent_%28police%29 "Superintendent (police)") and left the SPF in 1995 to join the [National Trades Union Congress](/wiki/National_Trades_Union_Congress "National Trades Union Congress") (NTUC) and took up various positions in the [labour movement](/wiki/Labour_movement_of_Singapore "Labour movement of Singapore"), including Chief Executive Officer of the NTUC Club (1995–1998\), Executive Secretary of the Singapore Industrial and Services Employees Union, Executive Secretary of the United Workers of Electronic and Electrical Industries, and Divisional Director overseeing industrial relations, skills development, productivity improvement and employment assistance.
He became Assistant Secretary\-General of the NTUC in 1997\. In 1999, he was promoted to Deputy Secretary\-General of the NTUC has held that position since then.
### Political career
Heng made his political debut in the [1997 general election](/wiki/1997_Singaporean_general_election "1997 Singaporean general election") when he contested as a solo candidate from the [People's Action Party](/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party "People's Action Party") (PAP) in [Hougang SMC](/wiki/Hougang_Single_Member_Constituency "Hougang Single Member Constituency") against the incumbent opposition [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_parliament "Member of parliament"), [Low Thia Khiang](/wiki/Low_Thia_Khiang "Low Thia Khiang") of the [Workers' Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_%28Singapore%29 "Workers' Party (Singapore)"). He lost to Low, who won 58\.02% of the vote against his 41\.98%.{{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 1997 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary1997\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}}
In the [2001 general election](/wiki/2001_Singaporean_general_election "2001 Singaporean general election"), Heng contested again as a PAP candidate, this time in [Jalan Besar GRC](/wiki/Jalan_Besar_Group_Representation_Constituency "Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency"), as part of a five\-member PAP team. The PAP team won with 74\.48% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance "Singapore Democratic Alliance"){{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 2001 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary2001\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}} and Heng was elected as the Member of Parliament representing the [Whampoa](/wiki/Whampoa%2C_Singapore "Whampoa, Singapore") ward of Jalan Besar GRC. He served as Mayor of the [Central District](/wiki/Central_Singapore_Community_Development_Council "Central Singapore Community Development Council") between 2001 and 2006\.
On 12 August 2004, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Trade and Industry](/wiki/Ministry_of_Trade_and_Industry_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of Trade and Industry (Singapore)"). On 1 May 2005, he was reappointed as [Minister of State for National Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Development_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of National Development (Singapore)").
In the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Singaporean_general_election "2006 Singaporean general election"), Heng contested in Jalan Besar GRC again as part of a five\-member PAP team and they won with 69\.26% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance "Singapore Democratic Alliance").{{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 2006 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary2006\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}} After the election, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Health](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of Health (Singapore)") on 30 May 2006\. On 1 April 2008, he became a [Minister of State in the Prime Minister's Office](/wiki/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_%28Singapore%29 "Prime Minister's Office (Singapore)").
During the [2011 general election](/wiki/2011_Singaporean_general_election "2011 Singaporean general election"), Heng contested as a solo PAP candidate in the newly formed [Whampoa SMC](/wiki/Whampoa_Single_Member_Constituency "Whampoa Single Member Constituency") and won with 66\.1% of the vote against the [National Solidarity Party](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Party_%28Singapore%29 "National Solidarity Party (Singapore)")'s Ken Sun.{{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 2011 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary2011\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}} On 21 May 2011, he was promoted to Senior Minister of State and continued serving in the Prime Minister's Office. On 31 May 2011, he also became [Deputy Leader of the House](/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_%28Singapore%29 "Leader of the House (Singapore)") in Parliament.
In the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_Singaporean_general_election "2015 Singaporean general election"), Whampoa SMC was dissolved and became part of Jalan Besar GRC again. Heng contested in the election as part of a four\-member PAP team in Jalan Besar GRC and won with 67\.75% of the vote. Heng continued to be the Member of Parliament representing the Whampoa ward of Jalan Besar GRC after the election. On 1 May 2018, Heng was appointed as [Senior Minister of State for Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of Defence (Singapore)"){{Cite web\|title\=MP {{!}} Parliament Of Singapore\|url\=https://www.parliament.gov.sg/mps/list\-of\-current\-mps/mp/details/heng\-chee\-how\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.parliament.gov.sg}} and has been holding that appointment since then after being elected again in the [2020 general election](/wiki/2020_Singaporean_general_election "2020 Singaporean general election") with 65\.36% of the vote in Jalan Besar GRC.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Heng started his career in 1983 in the [Singapore Police Force](/wiki/Singapore_Police_Force \"Singapore Police Force\") (SPF) and held command and staff appointments, including Director of Manpower and Commander of the [Geylang Police Division](/wiki/Bedok_Police_Division \"Bedok Police Division\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mindef.gov.sg/web/portal/mindef/about\\-us/leadership\\-biographies/biographies\\-detail/political\\-office\\-holders/02\\-minister/!ut/p/z1/jZHdToNAEIWfppewwwqleEdbQ9tAqUor7o0BXGDjliXLVqJP342amFhF5m4m35mfM4igFJEme2VVpphoMq7zRzJ9cuPlYgU23sZOYoF\\_SJLQmW8xnlvo4QOIb\\-3AsgGHcXTnaMDzZgnsMAQuImP08Ef4ME4\\_AJDh9pv\\_BmgHsIwWUYVIm6naYE0pUNoKzhQrMm6IsmQFNWrBn6nsUArYOLKGdYpKvRwZbL90v4Bv\\_w6Bq4Hderrx7i24wRfApcEjTqy4yD\\-\\_6Tf51UzfImlJJZXmSepyrVTbXU9gAn3fm5UQFadmIczTywR\\-E9WiUyj9yaL2uN\\-n7\\-EK2Nog\\-Vt\\_BvY03Mk!/\\|title \\= MINDEF Singapore}}",
"He attained the rank [Superintendent](/wiki/Superintendent_%28police%29 \"Superintendent (police)\") and left the SPF in 1995 to join the [National Trades Union Congress](/wiki/National_Trades_Union_Congress \"National Trades Union Congress\") (NTUC) and took up various positions in the [labour movement](/wiki/Labour_movement_of_Singapore \"Labour movement of Singapore\"), including Chief Executive Officer of the NTUC Club (1995–1998\\), Executive Secretary of the Singapore Industrial and Services Employees Union, Executive Secretary of the United Workers of Electronic and Electrical Industries, and Divisional Director overseeing industrial relations, skills development, productivity improvement and employment assistance.",
"He became Assistant Secretary\\-General of the NTUC in 1997\\. In 1999, he was promoted to Deputy Secretary\\-General of the NTUC has held that position since then.",
"### Political career",
"Heng made his political debut in the [1997 general election](/wiki/1997_Singaporean_general_election \"1997 Singaporean general election\") when he contested as a solo candidate from the [People's Action Party](/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party \"People's Action Party\") (PAP) in [Hougang SMC](/wiki/Hougang_Single_Member_Constituency \"Hougang Single Member Constituency\") against the incumbent opposition [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_parliament \"Member of parliament\"), [Low Thia Khiang](/wiki/Low_Thia_Khiang \"Low Thia Khiang\") of the [Workers' Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_%28Singapore%29 \"Workers' Party (Singapore)\"). He lost to Low, who won 58\\.02% of the vote against his 41\\.98%.{{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 1997 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary1997\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}}",
"In the [2001 general election](/wiki/2001_Singaporean_general_election \"2001 Singaporean general election\"), Heng contested again as a PAP candidate, this time in [Jalan Besar GRC](/wiki/Jalan_Besar_Group_Representation_Constituency \"Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency\"), as part of a five\\-member PAP team. The PAP team won with 74\\.48% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance \"Singapore Democratic Alliance\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 2001 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary2001\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}} and Heng was elected as the Member of Parliament representing the [Whampoa](/wiki/Whampoa%2C_Singapore \"Whampoa, Singapore\") ward of Jalan Besar GRC. He served as Mayor of the [Central District](/wiki/Central_Singapore_Community_Development_Council \"Central Singapore Community Development Council\") between 2001 and 2006\\.",
"On 12 August 2004, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Trade and Industry](/wiki/Ministry_of_Trade_and_Industry_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of Trade and Industry (Singapore)\"). On 1 May 2005, he was reappointed as [Minister of State for National Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Development_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of National Development (Singapore)\").",
"In the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Singaporean_general_election \"2006 Singaporean general election\"), Heng contested in Jalan Besar GRC again as part of a five\\-member PAP team and they won with 69\\.26% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance \"Singapore Democratic Alliance\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 2006 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary2006\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}} After the election, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Health](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of Health (Singapore)\") on 30 May 2006\\. On 1 April 2008, he became a [Minister of State in the Prime Minister's Office](/wiki/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_%28Singapore%29 \"Prime Minister's Office (Singapore)\").",
"During the [2011 general election](/wiki/2011_Singaporean_general_election \"2011 Singaporean general election\"), Heng contested as a solo PAP candidate in the newly formed [Whampoa SMC](/wiki/Whampoa_Single_Member_Constituency \"Whampoa Single Member Constituency\") and won with 66\\.1% of the vote against the [National Solidarity Party](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Party_%28Singapore%29 \"National Solidarity Party (Singapore)\")'s Ken Sun.{{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 2011 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary2011\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}} On 21 May 2011, he was promoted to Senior Minister of State and continued serving in the Prime Minister's Office. On 31 May 2011, he also became [Deputy Leader of the House](/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_%28Singapore%29 \"Leader of the House (Singapore)\") in Parliament.",
"In the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_Singaporean_general_election \"2015 Singaporean general election\"), Whampoa SMC was dissolved and became part of Jalan Besar GRC again. Heng contested in the election as part of a four\\-member PAP team in Jalan Besar GRC and won with 67\\.75% of the vote. Heng continued to be the Member of Parliament representing the Whampoa ward of Jalan Besar GRC after the election. On 1 May 2018, Heng was appointed as [Senior Minister of State for Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of Defence (Singapore)\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=MP {{!}} Parliament Of Singapore\\|url\\=https://www.parliament.gov.sg/mps/list\\-of\\-current\\-mps/mp/details/heng\\-chee\\-how\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.parliament.gov.sg}} and has been holding that appointment since then after being elected again in the [2020 general election](/wiki/2020_Singaporean_general_election \"2020 Singaporean general election\") with 65\\.36% of the vote in Jalan Besar GRC.",
""
] |
### Political career
Heng made his political debut in the [1997 general election](/wiki/1997_Singaporean_general_election "1997 Singaporean general election") when he contested as a solo candidate from the [People's Action Party](/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party "People's Action Party") (PAP) in [Hougang SMC](/wiki/Hougang_Single_Member_Constituency "Hougang Single Member Constituency") against the incumbent opposition [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_parliament "Member of parliament"), [Low Thia Khiang](/wiki/Low_Thia_Khiang "Low Thia Khiang") of the [Workers' Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_%28Singapore%29 "Workers' Party (Singapore)"). He lost to Low, who won 58\.02% of the vote against his 41\.98%.{{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 1997 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary1997\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}}
In the [2001 general election](/wiki/2001_Singaporean_general_election "2001 Singaporean general election"), Heng contested again as a PAP candidate, this time in [Jalan Besar GRC](/wiki/Jalan_Besar_Group_Representation_Constituency "Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency"), as part of a five\-member PAP team. The PAP team won with 74\.48% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance "Singapore Democratic Alliance"){{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 2001 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary2001\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}} and Heng was elected as the Member of Parliament representing the [Whampoa](/wiki/Whampoa%2C_Singapore "Whampoa, Singapore") ward of Jalan Besar GRC. He served as Mayor of the [Central District](/wiki/Central_Singapore_Community_Development_Council "Central Singapore Community Development Council") between 2001 and 2006\.
On 12 August 2004, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Trade and Industry](/wiki/Ministry_of_Trade_and_Industry_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of Trade and Industry (Singapore)"). On 1 May 2005, he was reappointed as [Minister of State for National Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Development_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of National Development (Singapore)").
In the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Singaporean_general_election "2006 Singaporean general election"), Heng contested in Jalan Besar GRC again as part of a five\-member PAP team and they won with 69\.26% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance "Singapore Democratic Alliance").{{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 2006 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary2006\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}} After the election, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Health](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of Health (Singapore)") on 30 May 2006\. On 1 April 2008, he became a [Minister of State in the Prime Minister's Office](/wiki/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_%28Singapore%29 "Prime Minister's Office (Singapore)").
During the [2011 general election](/wiki/2011_Singaporean_general_election "2011 Singaporean general election"), Heng contested as a solo PAP candidate in the newly formed [Whampoa SMC](/wiki/Whampoa_Single_Member_Constituency "Whampoa Single Member Constituency") and won with 66\.1% of the vote against the [National Solidarity Party](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Party_%28Singapore%29 "National Solidarity Party (Singapore)")'s Ken Sun.{{Cite web\|title\=ELD {{!}} 2011 Parliamentary General Election Results\|url\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\_past\_parliamentary2011\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.eld.gov.sg}} On 21 May 2011, he was promoted to Senior Minister of State and continued serving in the Prime Minister's Office. On 31 May 2011, he also became [Deputy Leader of the House](/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_%28Singapore%29 "Leader of the House (Singapore)") in Parliament.
In the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_Singaporean_general_election "2015 Singaporean general election"), Whampoa SMC was dissolved and became part of Jalan Besar GRC again. Heng contested in the election as part of a four\-member PAP team in Jalan Besar GRC and won with 67\.75% of the vote. Heng continued to be the Member of Parliament representing the Whampoa ward of Jalan Besar GRC after the election. On 1 May 2018, Heng was appointed as [Senior Minister of State for Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Singapore%29 "Ministry of Defence (Singapore)"){{Cite web\|title\=MP {{!}} Parliament Of Singapore\|url\=https://www.parliament.gov.sg/mps/list\-of\-current\-mps/mp/details/heng\-chee\-how\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-05\|website\=www.parliament.gov.sg}} and has been holding that appointment since then after being elected again in the [2020 general election](/wiki/2020_Singaporean_general_election "2020 Singaporean general election") with 65\.36% of the vote in Jalan Besar GRC.
|
[
"### Political career",
"Heng made his political debut in the [1997 general election](/wiki/1997_Singaporean_general_election \"1997 Singaporean general election\") when he contested as a solo candidate from the [People's Action Party](/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party \"People's Action Party\") (PAP) in [Hougang SMC](/wiki/Hougang_Single_Member_Constituency \"Hougang Single Member Constituency\") against the incumbent opposition [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_parliament \"Member of parliament\"), [Low Thia Khiang](/wiki/Low_Thia_Khiang \"Low Thia Khiang\") of the [Workers' Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_%28Singapore%29 \"Workers' Party (Singapore)\"). He lost to Low, who won 58\\.02% of the vote against his 41\\.98%.{{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 1997 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary1997\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}}",
"In the [2001 general election](/wiki/2001_Singaporean_general_election \"2001 Singaporean general election\"), Heng contested again as a PAP candidate, this time in [Jalan Besar GRC](/wiki/Jalan_Besar_Group_Representation_Constituency \"Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency\"), as part of a five\\-member PAP team. The PAP team won with 74\\.48% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance \"Singapore Democratic Alliance\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 2001 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary2001\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}} and Heng was elected as the Member of Parliament representing the [Whampoa](/wiki/Whampoa%2C_Singapore \"Whampoa, Singapore\") ward of Jalan Besar GRC. He served as Mayor of the [Central District](/wiki/Central_Singapore_Community_Development_Council \"Central Singapore Community Development Council\") between 2001 and 2006\\.",
"On 12 August 2004, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Trade and Industry](/wiki/Ministry_of_Trade_and_Industry_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of Trade and Industry (Singapore)\"). On 1 May 2005, he was reappointed as [Minister of State for National Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Development_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of National Development (Singapore)\").",
"In the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Singaporean_general_election \"2006 Singaporean general election\"), Heng contested in Jalan Besar GRC again as part of a five\\-member PAP team and they won with 69\\.26% of the vote against the [Singapore Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Singapore_Democratic_Alliance \"Singapore Democratic Alliance\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 2006 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary2006\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}} After the election, Heng was appointed [Minister of State for Health](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of Health (Singapore)\") on 30 May 2006\\. On 1 April 2008, he became a [Minister of State in the Prime Minister's Office](/wiki/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_%28Singapore%29 \"Prime Minister's Office (Singapore)\").",
"During the [2011 general election](/wiki/2011_Singaporean_general_election \"2011 Singaporean general election\"), Heng contested as a solo PAP candidate in the newly formed [Whampoa SMC](/wiki/Whampoa_Single_Member_Constituency \"Whampoa Single Member Constituency\") and won with 66\\.1% of the vote against the [National Solidarity Party](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Party_%28Singapore%29 \"National Solidarity Party (Singapore)\")'s Ken Sun.{{Cite web\\|title\\=ELD {{!}} 2011 Parliamentary General Election Results\\|url\\=https://www.eld.gov.sg/elections\\_past\\_parliamentary2011\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.eld.gov.sg}} On 21 May 2011, he was promoted to Senior Minister of State and continued serving in the Prime Minister's Office. On 31 May 2011, he also became [Deputy Leader of the House](/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_%28Singapore%29 \"Leader of the House (Singapore)\") in Parliament.",
"In the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_Singaporean_general_election \"2015 Singaporean general election\"), Whampoa SMC was dissolved and became part of Jalan Besar GRC again. Heng contested in the election as part of a four\\-member PAP team in Jalan Besar GRC and won with 67\\.75% of the vote. Heng continued to be the Member of Parliament representing the Whampoa ward of Jalan Besar GRC after the election. On 1 May 2018, Heng was appointed as [Senior Minister of State for Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Singapore%29 \"Ministry of Defence (Singapore)\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=MP {{!}} Parliament Of Singapore\\|url\\=https://www.parliament.gov.sg/mps/list\\-of\\-current\\-mps/mp/details/heng\\-chee\\-how\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-05\\|website\\=www.parliament.gov.sg}} and has been holding that appointment since then after being elected again in the [2020 general election](/wiki/2020_Singaporean_general_election \"2020 Singaporean general election\") with 65\\.36% of the vote in Jalan Besar GRC.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Background
Before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the west coast of the U.S. hosted a bustling music scene, though its activity remained largely localized.{{cite book\|last1\=Carr\|first1\=Roy\|author\-link1\=Roy Carr\|title\=A Century of Jazz: A Hundred Years of the Greatest Music Ever Made\|year\=2006\|orig\-year\=1997\|publisher\=Hamlyn\|location\=London\|chapter\=The Cool on the Coast\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/centuryofjazz0000carr/page/92 92–105]\|isbn\=0\-681\-03179\-4\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/details/centuryofjazz0000carr/page/92}} In 1917, [Jelly Roll Morton](/wiki/Jelly_Roll_Morton "Jelly Roll Morton") moved to California and remained in Los Angeles until 1922, when he left for Chicago.{{Cite web\|last\=Schuller\|first\=Gunther\|author\-link\=Gunther Schuller\|title\=Jelly Roll Morton \| url\=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/19179 \| access\-date\=September 12, 2011 \| work\=Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online}}{{cite book\|editor1\-last\=Wynn\|editor1\-first\=Ron\|editor2\-last\=Erlewine\|editor2\-first\=Michael\|title\=AllMusic Guide to Jazz\|date\=1994\|publisher\=Miller Freeman\|location\=San Francisco\|isbn\=0\-87930\-308\-5\|url\=https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoj00wynn}}{{Rp\|481}} [Kid Ory](/wiki/Kid_Ory "Kid Ory") formed a band in Los Angeles after moving to California in 1919\.{{cite web\|last1\=Carr\|first1\=Roy\|title\=Kid Ory, "Tailgate" Trombonist \& Composer\|url\=http://www.aaregistry.org/historic\_events/view/kid\-ory\-tailgate\-trombonist\-composer\|website\=African American Registry\|access\-date\=September 28, 2011}} In 1944, [Norman Granz](/wiki/Norman_Granz "Norman Granz") began staging [Jazz at the Philharmonic](/wiki/Jazz_at_the_Philharmonic "Jazz at the Philharmonic") shows at [Philharmonic Auditorium](/wiki/Hazard%27s_Pavilion "Hazard's Pavilion") in Los Angeles. In 1946, [Ross Russell](/wiki/Ross_Russell_%28jazz%29 "Ross Russell (jazz)") established [Dial Records](/wiki/Dial_Records_%281946%29 "Dial Records (1946)") in Hollywood to record [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker "Charlie Parker") during his sojourn in Los Angeles.{{cite web\|last1\=Yanow\|first1\=Scott\|title\=Ross Russell\|url\=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/ross\-russell\-mn0000293171/biography\|website\=AllMusic\|access\-date\=8 September 2017}} Meanwhile, a thriving jazz scene had appeared along Los Angeles's [Central Avenue](/wiki/Central_Avenue_%28Los_Angeles%29 "Central Avenue (Los Angeles)"), featuring [Dexter Gordon](/wiki/Dexter_Gordon "Dexter Gordon"), [Wardell Gray](/wiki/Wardell_Gray "Wardell Gray"), [Teddy Edwards](/wiki/Teddy_Edwards "Teddy Edwards"), [Charles Mingus](/wiki/Charles_Mingus "Charles Mingus"), and [Buddy Collette](/wiki/Buddy_Collette "Buddy Collette"). Central Avenue's activity rivaled that of the earlier [Kansas City jazz](/wiki/Kansas_City_jazz "Kansas City jazz") scene, but at the time it was little\-known outside Los Angeles.
In 1947, [Woody Herman](/wiki/Woody_Herman "Woody Herman") organized a new band, the Second Herd, in Los Angeles. The group included tenor saxophonists [Stan Getz](/wiki/Stan_Getz "Stan Getz"), [Zoot Sims](/wiki/Zoot_Sims "Zoot Sims"), and [Herbie Steward](/wiki/Herbie_Steward "Herbie Steward"), and baritone saxophonist [Serge Chaloff](/wiki/Serge_Chaloff "Serge Chaloff"). The resulting "Four Brothers" sound (named for the [Jimmy Giuffre](/wiki/Jimmy_Giuffre "Jimmy Giuffre") composition, "[Four Brothers](/wiki/Four_Brothers_%28jazz_standard%29 "Four Brothers (jazz standard)")," which highlighted this group) was a precursor of the cool style.{{Rp\|336}}{{cite book\|last\=Tanner\|first\=Paul O. W.\|author\-link\=Paul Tanner\|author2\=Maurice Gerow\|author3\=David W. Megill\|title\=Jazz\|orig\-year\=1964\|edition\=6th\|year\=1988\|publisher\=William C. Brown, College Division\|location\=Dubuque, IA\|isbn\=0\-697\-03663\-4\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/jazz00tann/page/103 103]–111\|chapter\=Cool (1949\-1955\)\|url\=https://archive.org/details/jazz00tann\|url\-access\=registration}}
### Development
In 1949–1950 baritone saxophonist [Gerry Mulligan](/wiki/Gerry_Mulligan "Gerry Mulligan") participated in the [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis") band, contributing arrangements to the recordings that became *[Birth of the Cool](/wiki/Birth_of_the_Cool "Birth of the Cool")* (1957\). In 1952 Mulligan, who had moved to California, formed an innovative and successful piano\-less quartet with trumpeter [Chet Baker](/wiki/Chet_Baker "Chet Baker"), drummer [Chico Hamilton](/wiki/Chico_Hamilton "Chico Hamilton"), and bassist Bob Whitlock.{{Rp\|304}} Mulligan would later form a [decet](/wiki/Decet_%28music%29 "Decet (music)") based on the *Birth of the Cool* nonet.
In 1950 [Stan Kenton](/wiki/Stan_Kenton "Stan Kenton") disbanded his Innovations Orchestra in Los Angeles. Many of the musicians, some of whom had also played in Woody Herman's band, chose to remain in California. Trumpeter [Shorty Rogers](/wiki/Shorty_Rogers "Shorty Rogers") and drummers [Stan Levey](/wiki/Stan_Levey "Stan Levey") and [Shelly Manne](/wiki/Shelly_Manne "Shelly Manne") were central figures among this group of musicians. Much of this activity centered on the Hermosa Beach [Lighthouse Café](/wiki/Lighthouse_Caf%C3%A9 "Lighthouse Café"), where bassist [Howard Rumsey](/wiki/Howard_Rumsey "Howard Rumsey") led a house band, the Lighthouse All\-Stars.
Manne suggested that these musicians' relaxed lifestyle in California was reflected in a laid\-back, relaxed approach to jazz.{{cite interview \|last\=Manne \|first\=Shelly \|subject\-link\=Shelly Manne \|interviewer\=Reginald Buckner \|title\=Jazz: American Classic \|type\=Interview: video}} Cited in Tanner *et al*. "Hard Bop – Funky." *Jazz*, p. 113\. [Bob Rusch](/wiki/Bob_Rusch "Bob Rusch") concurs:
> The West coast sound perhaps didn't have the gravitas that the East coast had, but, after all, these were Californians enjoying the sun and the surf and the extent that celebrity offered itself through the studio work that the entertainment industry was offering. So I think, you know, you think of California as sun and surf, you think of New York City as cement and grit, and the music somewhat reflected that. One better than the other? Depends what you want.{{cite journal \| last \=Rusch \| first \=Robert D. \| author\-link\=Bob Rusch \|date\=January 2012 \| title \=Papatamus \| journal \= \[\[Cadence Magazine]] \| volume \=38 \| issue \=1 (399\) \| page \=136 \| publisher \= Cadence Magazine \| location \= \[\[Richland, Oregon]] \| issn \= 0162\-6973 }}
During the 1950s, Chico Hamilton led an ensemble that (unusual for a jazz group) included a cellist, [Fred Katz](/wiki/Fred_Katz_%28cellist%29 "Fred Katz (cellist)"). Tanner, Gerow, and Megill liken Hamilton's music to [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music"), and have noted that Hamilton's "subtle rhythmic control and use of different drum pitches and timbres" were well\-suited for this style of music.
In 1951, pianist [Dave Brubeck](/wiki/Dave_Brubeck "Dave Brubeck") hired alto saxophonist [Paul Desmond](/wiki/Paul_Desmond "Paul Desmond"), forming a quartet.{{Rp\|119}} Desmond's playing style ran counter to bebop, as he seldom used [blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues") elements, and was influenced by [Pete Brown](/wiki/Pete_Brown_%28jazz_musician%29 "Pete Brown (jazz musician)") and [Benny Carter](/wiki/Benny_Carter "Benny Carter") rather than Charlie Parker.{{Rp\|203}}
The [Pacific Jazz](/wiki/Pacific_Jazz_Records "Pacific Jazz Records") and [Contemporary](/wiki/Contemporary_Records "Contemporary Records") record labels were two of the best known that carried West Coast jazz, just as [Blue Note](/wiki/Blue_Note_Records "Blue Note Records") and [Prestige](/wiki/Prestige_Records "Prestige Records") were the biggest hard\-bop labels. Some of the major pioneers of West Coast jazz were Shorty Rogers, Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker, Stan Getz, [Bud Shank](/wiki/Bud_Shank "Bud Shank"), [Bob Cooper](/wiki/Bob_Cooper_%28musician%29 "Bob Cooper (musician)"), Jimmy Giuffre, Shelly Manne, [Russ Freeman](/wiki/Russ_Freeman_%28pianist%29 "Russ Freeman (pianist)"), [Bill Holman](/wiki/Bill_Holman_%28musician%29 "Bill Holman (musician)"), [André Previn](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Previn "André Previn"), and Dave Brubeck with Paul Desmond. In 1952–1962 jazz singer [Anita O'Day](/wiki/Anita_O%27Day "Anita O'Day") recorded 17 albums for Norman Granz's Los Angeles\-based [Norgran](/wiki/Norgran_Records "Norgran Records") and [Verve](/wiki/Verve_Records "Verve Records") labels.{{Relevance inline\|sentence\|reason\=Not sure of the relevance here, I guess it's because Norgran \& Verve were based in LA? Were all the recordings made there, \&/or are they characteristic of a West Coast style? Lots of other artists recorded for Granz.\|date\=March 2023}}
While many Los Angeles area jazz musicians, particularly the former members of the Herman and Kenton bands, found regular employment in broadcast and motion picture studios, most of these musicians were white, leading to accusations that the studios deliberately excluded African Americans. The situation was a contributing factor toward the integration of the Los Angeles chapters of the [American Federation of Musicians](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Musicians "American Federation of Musicians") during the early 1950s.{{Cite web\| last\=Young\| first\=Marl\|title\=Amalgamation of Local 47 and 767 \|url\=http://www.promusic47\.org/amalgamation.htm \|work\=Overture Magazine\| date\=March 1999 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214233113/http://www.promusic47\.org/amalgamation.htm \|archive\-date\=2009\-12\-14}}{{cite web\|last1\=McLellan\|first1\=Dennis\|title\=Marl Young dies at 92; pianist was key in desegregating L.A. musicians unions\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la\-me\-marl\-young3\-2009may03\-story.html\|website\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=March 4, 2010\|date\=3 May 2009}} Pianist [Marl Young](/wiki/Marl_Young "Marl Young") recalled that in 1950,
> as far as I knew, there were no blacks working regularly in the industry, especially on the networks – ABC, CBS and NBC. \[Estelle Edson] asked me if the fact that the Musicians Unions were segregated contributed to the scarcity of blacks in the industry. It certainly could have been a contributing factor in that all the contracts for employment of musicians in the broadcast and motion picture studios were negotiated by the then all\-white union, Local 47\. The black union, Local 767, merely adopted the scales negotiated by Local 47, if and when a black musician got a studio call.
Young, who also held a law degree, worked with Local 767 musicians (including Buddy Collette, [Red Callender](/wiki/Red_Callender "Red Callender"), and Benny Carter) along with Local 47 members (including [Roger Segure](/wiki/Roger_Segure "Roger Segure")) to integrate the union. [Josephine Baker](/wiki/Josephine_Baker "Josephine Baker") supported the local integration effort.
### California Hard
Although West Coast jazz is often compared to the cool style, Los Angeles musicians locally known as "hard swingers," "blew bop as tough as anything emerging out of Detroit and New York...." In later years, their music was known as "California Hard." [Roy Carr](/wiki/Roy_Carr "Roy Carr") notes that this is not surprising. By the late 1940s, the Central Avenue scene had the most bebop musicians outside New York. [Max Roach](/wiki/Max_Roach "Max Roach") and [Clifford Brown](/wiki/Clifford_Brown "Clifford Brown"), Shelly Manne, and [Curtis Counce](/wiki/Curtis_Counce "Curtis Counce") established harder\-sounding bands in Los Angeles.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Background",
"Before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the west coast of the U.S. hosted a bustling music scene, though its activity remained largely localized.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Carr\\|first1\\=Roy\\|author\\-link1\\=Roy Carr\\|title\\=A Century of Jazz: A Hundred Years of the Greatest Music Ever Made\\|year\\=2006\\|orig\\-year\\=1997\\|publisher\\=Hamlyn\\|location\\=London\\|chapter\\=The Cool on the Coast\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/centuryofjazz0000carr/page/92 92–105]\\|isbn\\=0\\-681\\-03179\\-4\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/details/centuryofjazz0000carr/page/92}} In 1917, [Jelly Roll Morton](/wiki/Jelly_Roll_Morton \"Jelly Roll Morton\") moved to California and remained in Los Angeles until 1922, when he left for Chicago.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Schuller\\|first\\=Gunther\\|author\\-link\\=Gunther Schuller\\|title\\=Jelly Roll Morton \\| url\\=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/19179 \\| access\\-date\\=September 12, 2011 \\| work\\=Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online}}{{cite book\\|editor1\\-last\\=Wynn\\|editor1\\-first\\=Ron\\|editor2\\-last\\=Erlewine\\|editor2\\-first\\=Michael\\|title\\=AllMusic Guide to Jazz\\|date\\=1994\\|publisher\\=Miller Freeman\\|location\\=San Francisco\\|isbn\\=0\\-87930\\-308\\-5\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoj00wynn}}{{Rp\\|481}} [Kid Ory](/wiki/Kid_Ory \"Kid Ory\") formed a band in Los Angeles after moving to California in 1919\\.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Carr\\|first1\\=Roy\\|title\\=Kid Ory, \"Tailgate\" Trombonist \\& Composer\\|url\\=http://www.aaregistry.org/historic\\_events/view/kid\\-ory\\-tailgate\\-trombonist\\-composer\\|website\\=African American Registry\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2011}} In 1944, [Norman Granz](/wiki/Norman_Granz \"Norman Granz\") began staging [Jazz at the Philharmonic](/wiki/Jazz_at_the_Philharmonic \"Jazz at the Philharmonic\") shows at [Philharmonic Auditorium](/wiki/Hazard%27s_Pavilion \"Hazard's Pavilion\") in Los Angeles. In 1946, [Ross Russell](/wiki/Ross_Russell_%28jazz%29 \"Ross Russell (jazz)\") established [Dial Records](/wiki/Dial_Records_%281946%29 \"Dial Records (1946)\") in Hollywood to record [Charlie Parker](/wiki/Charlie_Parker \"Charlie Parker\") during his sojourn in Los Angeles.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Yanow\\|first1\\=Scott\\|title\\=Ross Russell\\|url\\=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/ross\\-russell\\-mn0000293171/biography\\|website\\=AllMusic\\|access\\-date\\=8 September 2017}} Meanwhile, a thriving jazz scene had appeared along Los Angeles's [Central Avenue](/wiki/Central_Avenue_%28Los_Angeles%29 \"Central Avenue (Los Angeles)\"), featuring [Dexter Gordon](/wiki/Dexter_Gordon \"Dexter Gordon\"), [Wardell Gray](/wiki/Wardell_Gray \"Wardell Gray\"), [Teddy Edwards](/wiki/Teddy_Edwards \"Teddy Edwards\"), [Charles Mingus](/wiki/Charles_Mingus \"Charles Mingus\"), and [Buddy Collette](/wiki/Buddy_Collette \"Buddy Collette\"). Central Avenue's activity rivaled that of the earlier [Kansas City jazz](/wiki/Kansas_City_jazz \"Kansas City jazz\") scene, but at the time it was little\\-known outside Los Angeles.",
"In 1947, [Woody Herman](/wiki/Woody_Herman \"Woody Herman\") organized a new band, the Second Herd, in Los Angeles. The group included tenor saxophonists [Stan Getz](/wiki/Stan_Getz \"Stan Getz\"), [Zoot Sims](/wiki/Zoot_Sims \"Zoot Sims\"), and [Herbie Steward](/wiki/Herbie_Steward \"Herbie Steward\"), and baritone saxophonist [Serge Chaloff](/wiki/Serge_Chaloff \"Serge Chaloff\"). The resulting \"Four Brothers\" sound (named for the [Jimmy Giuffre](/wiki/Jimmy_Giuffre \"Jimmy Giuffre\") composition, \"[Four Brothers](/wiki/Four_Brothers_%28jazz_standard%29 \"Four Brothers (jazz standard)\"),\" which highlighted this group) was a precursor of the cool style.{{Rp\\|336}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Tanner\\|first\\=Paul O. W.\\|author\\-link\\=Paul Tanner\\|author2\\=Maurice Gerow\\|author3\\=David W. Megill\\|title\\=Jazz\\|orig\\-year\\=1964\\|edition\\=6th\\|year\\=1988\\|publisher\\=William C. Brown, College Division\\|location\\=Dubuque, IA\\|isbn\\=0\\-697\\-03663\\-4\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/jazz00tann/page/103 103]–111\\|chapter\\=Cool (1949\\-1955\\)\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/jazz00tann\\|url\\-access\\=registration}}",
"### Development",
"In 1949–1950 baritone saxophonist [Gerry Mulligan](/wiki/Gerry_Mulligan \"Gerry Mulligan\") participated in the [Miles Davis](/wiki/Miles_Davis \"Miles Davis\") band, contributing arrangements to the recordings that became *[Birth of the Cool](/wiki/Birth_of_the_Cool \"Birth of the Cool\")* (1957\\). In 1952 Mulligan, who had moved to California, formed an innovative and successful piano\\-less quartet with trumpeter [Chet Baker](/wiki/Chet_Baker \"Chet Baker\"), drummer [Chico Hamilton](/wiki/Chico_Hamilton \"Chico Hamilton\"), and bassist Bob Whitlock.{{Rp\\|304}} Mulligan would later form a [decet](/wiki/Decet_%28music%29 \"Decet (music)\") based on the *Birth of the Cool* nonet.",
"In 1950 [Stan Kenton](/wiki/Stan_Kenton \"Stan Kenton\") disbanded his Innovations Orchestra in Los Angeles. Many of the musicians, some of whom had also played in Woody Herman's band, chose to remain in California. Trumpeter [Shorty Rogers](/wiki/Shorty_Rogers \"Shorty Rogers\") and drummers [Stan Levey](/wiki/Stan_Levey \"Stan Levey\") and [Shelly Manne](/wiki/Shelly_Manne \"Shelly Manne\") were central figures among this group of musicians. Much of this activity centered on the Hermosa Beach [Lighthouse Café](/wiki/Lighthouse_Caf%C3%A9 \"Lighthouse Café\"), where bassist [Howard Rumsey](/wiki/Howard_Rumsey \"Howard Rumsey\") led a house band, the Lighthouse All\\-Stars.",
"Manne suggested that these musicians' relaxed lifestyle in California was reflected in a laid\\-back, relaxed approach to jazz.{{cite interview \\|last\\=Manne \\|first\\=Shelly \\|subject\\-link\\=Shelly Manne \\|interviewer\\=Reginald Buckner \\|title\\=Jazz: American Classic \\|type\\=Interview: video}} Cited in Tanner *et al*. \"Hard Bop – Funky.\" *Jazz*, p. 113\\. [Bob Rusch](/wiki/Bob_Rusch \"Bob Rusch\") concurs:",
"",
"> The West coast sound perhaps didn't have the gravitas that the East coast had, but, after all, these were Californians enjoying the sun and the surf and the extent that celebrity offered itself through the studio work that the entertainment industry was offering. So I think, you know, you think of California as sun and surf, you think of New York City as cement and grit, and the music somewhat reflected that. One better than the other? Depends what you want.{{cite journal \\| last \\=Rusch \\| first \\=Robert D. \\| author\\-link\\=Bob Rusch \\|date\\=January 2012 \\| title \\=Papatamus \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Cadence Magazine]] \\| volume \\=38 \\| issue \\=1 (399\\) \\| page \\=136 \\| publisher \\= Cadence Magazine \\| location \\= \\[\\[Richland, Oregon]] \\| issn \\= 0162\\-6973 }}",
"During the 1950s, Chico Hamilton led an ensemble that (unusual for a jazz group) included a cellist, [Fred Katz](/wiki/Fred_Katz_%28cellist%29 \"Fred Katz (cellist)\"). Tanner, Gerow, and Megill liken Hamilton's music to [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\"), and have noted that Hamilton's \"subtle rhythmic control and use of different drum pitches and timbres\" were well\\-suited for this style of music.",
"In 1951, pianist [Dave Brubeck](/wiki/Dave_Brubeck \"Dave Brubeck\") hired alto saxophonist [Paul Desmond](/wiki/Paul_Desmond \"Paul Desmond\"), forming a quartet.{{Rp\\|119}} Desmond's playing style ran counter to bebop, as he seldom used [blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") elements, and was influenced by [Pete Brown](/wiki/Pete_Brown_%28jazz_musician%29 \"Pete Brown (jazz musician)\") and [Benny Carter](/wiki/Benny_Carter \"Benny Carter\") rather than Charlie Parker.{{Rp\\|203}}",
"The [Pacific Jazz](/wiki/Pacific_Jazz_Records \"Pacific Jazz Records\") and [Contemporary](/wiki/Contemporary_Records \"Contemporary Records\") record labels were two of the best known that carried West Coast jazz, just as [Blue Note](/wiki/Blue_Note_Records \"Blue Note Records\") and [Prestige](/wiki/Prestige_Records \"Prestige Records\") were the biggest hard\\-bop labels. Some of the major pioneers of West Coast jazz were Shorty Rogers, Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker, Stan Getz, [Bud Shank](/wiki/Bud_Shank \"Bud Shank\"), [Bob Cooper](/wiki/Bob_Cooper_%28musician%29 \"Bob Cooper (musician)\"), Jimmy Giuffre, Shelly Manne, [Russ Freeman](/wiki/Russ_Freeman_%28pianist%29 \"Russ Freeman (pianist)\"), [Bill Holman](/wiki/Bill_Holman_%28musician%29 \"Bill Holman (musician)\"), [André Previn](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Previn \"André Previn\"), and Dave Brubeck with Paul Desmond. In 1952–1962 jazz singer [Anita O'Day](/wiki/Anita_O%27Day \"Anita O'Day\") recorded 17 albums for Norman Granz's Los Angeles\\-based [Norgran](/wiki/Norgran_Records \"Norgran Records\") and [Verve](/wiki/Verve_Records \"Verve Records\") labels.{{Relevance inline\\|sentence\\|reason\\=Not sure of the relevance here, I guess it's because Norgran \\& Verve were based in LA? Were all the recordings made there, \\&/or are they characteristic of a West Coast style? Lots of other artists recorded for Granz.\\|date\\=March 2023}}",
"While many Los Angeles area jazz musicians, particularly the former members of the Herman and Kenton bands, found regular employment in broadcast and motion picture studios, most of these musicians were white, leading to accusations that the studios deliberately excluded African Americans. The situation was a contributing factor toward the integration of the Los Angeles chapters of the [American Federation of Musicians](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Musicians \"American Federation of Musicians\") during the early 1950s.{{Cite web\\| last\\=Young\\| first\\=Marl\\|title\\=Amalgamation of Local 47 and 767 \\|url\\=http://www.promusic47\\.org/amalgamation.htm \\|work\\=Overture Magazine\\| date\\=March 1999 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214233113/http://www.promusic47\\.org/amalgamation.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-12\\-14}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=McLellan\\|first1\\=Dennis\\|title\\=Marl Young dies at 92; pianist was key in desegregating L.A. musicians unions\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la\\-me\\-marl\\-young3\\-2009may03\\-story.html\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2010\\|date\\=3 May 2009}} Pianist [Marl Young](/wiki/Marl_Young \"Marl Young\") recalled that in 1950,",
"",
"> as far as I knew, there were no blacks working regularly in the industry, especially on the networks – ABC, CBS and NBC. \\[Estelle Edson] asked me if the fact that the Musicians Unions were segregated contributed to the scarcity of blacks in the industry. It certainly could have been a contributing factor in that all the contracts for employment of musicians in the broadcast and motion picture studios were negotiated by the then all\\-white union, Local 47\\. The black union, Local 767, merely adopted the scales negotiated by Local 47, if and when a black musician got a studio call.",
"Young, who also held a law degree, worked with Local 767 musicians (including Buddy Collette, [Red Callender](/wiki/Red_Callender \"Red Callender\"), and Benny Carter) along with Local 47 members (including [Roger Segure](/wiki/Roger_Segure \"Roger Segure\")) to integrate the union. [Josephine Baker](/wiki/Josephine_Baker \"Josephine Baker\") supported the local integration effort.",
"### California Hard",
"Although West Coast jazz is often compared to the cool style, Los Angeles musicians locally known as \"hard swingers,\" \"blew bop as tough as anything emerging out of Detroit and New York....\" In later years, their music was known as \"California Hard.\" [Roy Carr](/wiki/Roy_Carr \"Roy Carr\") notes that this is not surprising. By the late 1940s, the Central Avenue scene had the most bebop musicians outside New York. [Max Roach](/wiki/Max_Roach \"Max Roach\") and [Clifford Brown](/wiki/Clifford_Brown \"Clifford Brown\"), Shelly Manne, and [Curtis Counce](/wiki/Curtis_Counce \"Curtis Counce\") established harder\\-sounding bands in Los Angeles.",
""
] |
Driving career
--------------
Coyne made his [CART](/wiki/Champ_Car "Champ Car") debut in 1984 at [Portland](/wiki/Portland_International_Raceway "Portland International Raceway") and failed to qualify. He attempted to make 5 other races that year but only made the field in one of them, the race at [Mid\-Ohio](/wiki/Mid-Ohio_Sports_Car_Course "Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course") where he finished 14th in his first race.
He returned in 1985 and again failed to qualify or had mechanical issues that prevented him from qualifying in the first five races he attempted. The first race that season that he made was his first oval start, at [Michigan International Speedway](/wiki/Michigan_International_Speedway "Michigan International Speedway") and he was knocked out after 40 laps due to engine trouble. Coyne made four more starts that season and was sidelined in all of them by mechanical problems.
Dale Coyne and his team built their new proprietary chassis, the DC\-1, for 1986 but results did not substantially improve. The car missed the field in its first attempt at [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix_International_Raceway "Phoenix International Raceway") and caught on fire in pit lane at [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach_Grand_Prix "Long Beach Grand Prix"). It wasn't until September that the car managed to finish a race, with Coyne bringing home a 12th\-place finish at [Sanair Super Speedway](/wiki/Sanair_Super_Speedway "Sanair Super Speedway"). Coyne was earlier credited with 12th place at [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland_Grand_Prix "Cleveland Grand Prix") even though he was taken out of the race by a broken half\-shaft. The 2 points that he earned for these races would be the most he would earn in a season in his career and he was credited with 34th place in the championship standings.
The DC\-1 was disposed of for 1987 and Coyne switched to the more reliable year\-old [March 86C](/wiki/March_Engineering "March Engineering") chassis. However, Coyne again missed the first three races of the season and made his first start in June at Portland. He made 8 starts but only finished one race and did not earn any championship points.
Coyne returned with the same now two\-year\-old March in 1988 and after failing to qualify for the Phoenix race, Coyne made his first attempt to qualify for the [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 "Indianapolis 500"), in [1988](/wiki/1988_Indianapolis_500 "1988 Indianapolis 500") but he failed to make that race as well. He made 9 starts in 14 attempts that year and finished two of them. He was credited with a single point and 12th place in the [Miami](/wiki/GAINSCO_Auto_Insurance_Indy_300 "GAINSCO Auto Insurance Indy 300") race despite being knocked out by engine failure.
Coyne attempted to make the Indy 500 again in 1989 but missed the field. He also drove in the [Pocono Raceway](/wiki/Pocono_Raceway "Pocono Raceway") race but was knocked out after 4 laps by gearbox failure.
He returned to the cockpit in 1991 when he had no [pay driver](/wiki/Pay_driver "Pay driver") to fill his seat and made two starts in 3 attempts but again suffered mechanical issues in both races.
|
[
"Driving career\n--------------",
"Coyne made his [CART](/wiki/Champ_Car \"Champ Car\") debut in 1984 at [Portland](/wiki/Portland_International_Raceway \"Portland International Raceway\") and failed to qualify. He attempted to make 5 other races that year but only made the field in one of them, the race at [Mid\\-Ohio](/wiki/Mid-Ohio_Sports_Car_Course \"Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course\") where he finished 14th in his first race.",
"He returned in 1985 and again failed to qualify or had mechanical issues that prevented him from qualifying in the first five races he attempted. The first race that season that he made was his first oval start, at [Michigan International Speedway](/wiki/Michigan_International_Speedway \"Michigan International Speedway\") and he was knocked out after 40 laps due to engine trouble. Coyne made four more starts that season and was sidelined in all of them by mechanical problems.",
"Dale Coyne and his team built their new proprietary chassis, the DC\\-1, for 1986 but results did not substantially improve. The car missed the field in its first attempt at [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix_International_Raceway \"Phoenix International Raceway\") and caught on fire in pit lane at [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach_Grand_Prix \"Long Beach Grand Prix\"). It wasn't until September that the car managed to finish a race, with Coyne bringing home a 12th\\-place finish at [Sanair Super Speedway](/wiki/Sanair_Super_Speedway \"Sanair Super Speedway\"). Coyne was earlier credited with 12th place at [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland_Grand_Prix \"Cleveland Grand Prix\") even though he was taken out of the race by a broken half\\-shaft. The 2 points that he earned for these races would be the most he would earn in a season in his career and he was credited with 34th place in the championship standings.",
"The DC\\-1 was disposed of for 1987 and Coyne switched to the more reliable year\\-old [March 86C](/wiki/March_Engineering \"March Engineering\") chassis. However, Coyne again missed the first three races of the season and made his first start in June at Portland. He made 8 starts but only finished one race and did not earn any championship points.",
"Coyne returned with the same now two\\-year\\-old March in 1988 and after failing to qualify for the Phoenix race, Coyne made his first attempt to qualify for the [Indianapolis 500](/wiki/Indianapolis_500 \"Indianapolis 500\"), in [1988](/wiki/1988_Indianapolis_500 \"1988 Indianapolis 500\") but he failed to make that race as well. He made 9 starts in 14 attempts that year and finished two of them. He was credited with a single point and 12th place in the [Miami](/wiki/GAINSCO_Auto_Insurance_Indy_300 \"GAINSCO Auto Insurance Indy 300\") race despite being knocked out by engine failure.",
"Coyne attempted to make the Indy 500 again in 1989 but missed the field. He also drove in the [Pocono Raceway](/wiki/Pocono_Raceway \"Pocono Raceway\") race but was knocked out after 4 laps by gearbox failure.",
"He returned to the cockpit in 1991 when he had no [pay driver](/wiki/Pay_driver \"Pay driver\") to fill his seat and made two starts in 3 attempts but again suffered mechanical issues in both races.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Rail terminal
[thumb\|left\|The 1903 Group Plan with a union station on the waterfront](/wiki/File:Group_Plan.jpg "Group Plan.jpg")
The building complex was originally commissioned by the [Van Sweringen brothers](/wiki/Van_Sweringen_brothers "Van Sweringen brothers"), prominent local railroad moguls and real estate developers. The center of the complex was Cleveland Union Terminal (CUT), a [terminal](/wiki/Terminal_station "Terminal station") for all trains coming into Cleveland via the various railroad lines in a concept similar to [Grand Central Terminal](/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal "Grand Central Terminal") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").{{cite web\|url\=http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/66\#.VzRcrfkrKM8\|title\=Shaker Hts. \& The Van Sweringens\|work\=Cleveland Historical\|access\-date\=May 11, 2016}}
When Cleveland Union Terminal was built, the train station allocated the northern set of tracks for [interurban](/wiki/Interurban "Interurban") or [rapid transit](/wiki/Rapid_transit "Rapid transit") service and the southern set of tracks for [inter\-city rail](/wiki/Inter-city_rail "Inter-city rail") service. The portion of the station above the interurban tracks was called the Traction Concourse and the portion above the intercity train tracks was called the Steam Concourse. The Van Sweringen brothers envisioned a network of interurban lines extending from the CUT in all directions. They even acquired [right\-of\-way](/wiki/Right-of-way_%28railroad%29 "Right-of-way (railroad)") for some of the lines.
The complex was designed by the firm of [Graham, Anderson, Probst \& White](/wiki/Graham%2C_Anderson%2C_Probst_%26_White "Graham, Anderson, Probst & White"). Site preparation began in 1922, and approximately 2,200 buildings were demolished. Construction began in 1926, and structural work was completed by 1927\. At the time, it was the second\-largest excavation project in the world after the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"). The Terminal Tower opened to its first tenants in 1928\. From its completion until 1964, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside of New York City. Three other office buildings, the Medical Arts Building, Builders Exchange Building, and Midland Building, were built in addition to the Terminal Tower. The three [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") buildings are collectively known as the [Landmark Office Towers Complex](/wiki/Landmark_Office_Towers_Complex "Landmark Office Towers Complex") and were completed in 1929\. In addition to the new buildings, the 1918 [Hotel Cleveland](/wiki/Hotel_Cleveland "Hotel Cleveland") was connected to the complex. Cleveland Union Terminal was dedicated and officially opened in 1930\.
The facility included a number of retail stores and restaurants. Original designs for the complex show that at first the brothers did not plan on building an office tower within the complex. However, they eventually decided to build the 52\-story [Terminal Tower](/wiki/Terminal_Tower "Terminal Tower") on the northeast side of the complex facing [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland "Public Square, Cleveland").
In 1931, the [Higbee Company](/wiki/Higbee_Company "Higbee Company") moved its main [store](/wiki/Department_store "Department store") to a new building connected to Cleveland Union Terminal. In 1934, the [U.S. Postal Service](/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service "United States Postal Service") moved its main Cleveland office to Union Terminal in a new building designed by the firm of [Walker and Weeks](/wiki/Walker_and_Weeks "Walker and Weeks"). It was known as M.K. Ferguson Plaza under the ownership of [Forest City Enterprises](/wiki/Forest_City_Enterprises "Forest City Enterprises").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.forestcity.net/properties/work/office\_buildings/Pages/mk\_ferguson\_plaza.aspx\|title\=Post Office Plaza\|work\=\[\[Forest City Enterprises]]\|access\-date\=September 29, 2010}}
The Union Terminal served most rail lines: the [Baltimore and Ohio Railroad](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Railroad "Baltimore and Ohio Railroad"), [New York Central Railroad](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad "New York Central Railroad") and [Nickel Plate Road](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Road "Nickel Plate Road").{{sfn\|McGraw\-Hill\|1918\|page\=865}} Exceptions were the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad "Pennsylvania Railroad") and initially the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad "Erie Railroad").
[thumb\|Former departure board](/wiki/File:Cleveland_Union_Terminal_Track_19_and_20_information_board.png "Cleveland Union Terminal Track 19 and 20 information board.png")
Notable trains, particularly for their destinations included:
* Baltimore and Ohio Railroad:{{cite journal \|title\=Baltimore \& Ohio Railroad, Tables A, 13 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}
+ *[Cleveland Night Express](/wiki/Cleveland_Night_Express "Cleveland Night Express")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)
+ *[Washingtonian](/wiki/Washingtonian_%28B%26O_train%29 "Washingtonian (B&O train)")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)
* Erie Railroad, with the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad:{{cite journal \|title\=Erie Railroad, Table 13 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}
+ *Steel King* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh, with morning and evening variations)
* New York Central Railroad:New York Central timetable, June 17, 1951, Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 14, 16, 23, 37 [http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51\-6TT.pdf](http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51-6TT.pdf){{cite journal \|title\=New York Central Railroad; Tables 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}
+ *Chicagoan* (Chicago–New York)
+ *[Cincinnati Mercury](/wiki/Cincinnati_Mercury "Cincinnati Mercury")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland) (beginning in fall, 1951\)September 1951 New York Central timetable, Table 23
+ *[Cleveland Mercury](/wiki/Cleveland_Mercury "Cleveland Mercury")* (Detroit–Cleveland)
+ *[Empire State Express](/wiki/Empire_State_Express "Empire State Express")* (Cleveland–New York)
+ *Fifth Avenue Special* (Chicago–Cleveland\-New York)
+ *Iroquois* (Boston–Chicago; in most years operating westbound only; in some years terminating in Cleveland, in some years having New York as the eastern terminus)
+ *[North Star](/wiki/North_Star_%28NYC_train%29 "North Star (NYC train)")* (New York–Cleveland; in most years operating westbound only)
+ *[Ohio State Limited](/wiki/Ohio_State_Limited "Ohio State Limited")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\-bound trips only, in other years running through the city without stopping)
+ *Pacemaker* (Chicago–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\-bound trips only; in latter years: Cleveland–New York)
+ *[Southwestern Limited](/wiki/Southwestern_Limited_%28New_York_Central_train%29 "Southwestern Limited (New York Central train)")* (St. Louis–Indianapolis–Cleveland–New York)
* Nickel Plate Road ([Norfolk and Western](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western "Norfolk and Western") in final year of service):{{cite journal \|title\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}{{cite journal \|title\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 90 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1957}}
+ *[Nickel Plate Limited](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Limited "Nickel Plate Limited")* (Chicago–Buffalo) \[later named *City of Chicago* westbound/*City of Cleveland* eastbound]
+ *Blue Arrow* (Cleveland–St. Louis)/*Blue Dart* (St. Louis–Cleveland)
However, the station was never particularly popular with the railroads. It required deviating from the quicker route along [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie"). As the city would not allow trains to operate under steam power near the downtown area, trains were forced to switch from steam to electric power at a suburban [rail yard](/wiki/Classification_yard "Classification yard") when heading inbound and then reverse on the way out at another yard. As a result, some lines began to bypass the station entirely, heading along the lake route, and some trains stopped serving the city altogether (examples of the latter case: the New York Central Railroad's *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited_%28New_York_Central_Railroad_train%29 "Lake Shore Limited (New York Central Railroad train)")* and the *[New England States](/wiki/New_England_States "New England States")*).
Several east–west routes on the circuit of trains bound east from Chicago through northern Ohio bypassed the city, traveling slightly to the south, passing through Akron and Youngstown, as in the case of B\&O and Erie mainlines. In addition, national passenger rail travel had already passed its peak and was starting its gradual decline in favor of the automobile and, later, the airplane. The Erie Railroad, owned by the Van Sweringens, could not afford the electric transfer and continued to use its own nearby station until 1948, when it replaced steam with diesel locomotives and was able to serve the Union Terminal under its own power.
By the end of 1965, the B\&O and the Norfolk and Western (the successor to the Nickel Plate) had terminated their last trains that had served Cleveland. By the end of 1967, the New York Central had discontinued all named trains that had run through Cleveland. All that remained as passenger trains were unnamed successors to trains \#51 (westbound *Empire State Express*), \#90 (eastbound successor to the *Chicagoan*), \#27/28 (successor to the *New England States*) and \#63/\#64 (Chicago–New York) trains.New York Central timetable, December 3, 1967
In the lead\-up to the arrival of Amtrak, in 1970 the Erie Lackawanna ran an unnamed train to Youngstown.{{cite journal \|title\=Erie Lackawanna Railroad, Table 1 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 102 \|issue\= 12 \|date\=May 1970}} The [Penn Central](/wiki/Penn_Central "Penn Central") (successor to the New York Central) Chicago\-bound trains stopping at the terminal included an unnamed remnant of the *Empire State Express* and another unnamed train. East\-bound, there was an unnamed successor to the *New England States,* as well as two other unnamed trains. Southwest\-bound there was an Indianapolis\-destined remnant of the *Southwestern Limited* and an *Ohio State Limited* remnant bound for Columbus.{{cite journal \|title\=Penn Central Railroad, Tables 3, 4, 45, 46 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 102 \|issue\= 12 \|date\=May 1970}}
Amtrak's short\-lived *[Lake Shore](/wiki/Lake_Shore "Lake Shore")* served Union Terminal for seven months in 1971, but the railroad found the rents prohibitive. When the new *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited "Lake Shore Limited")* began in 1975, Amtrak chose to construct [a new station](/wiki/Cleveland_Lakefront_Station "Cleveland Lakefront Station") near [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie") adjacent to the [Cleveland Memorial Shoreway](/wiki/Cleveland_Memorial_Shoreway "Cleveland Memorial Shoreway").{{sfn\|Toman\|Hayes\|1996\|pages\=280 and 295}} The new Amtrak station is located near the former [Cleveland Union Depot](/wiki/Cleveland_Union_Depot "Cleveland Union Depot"), once served by the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad "Pennsylvania Railroad"). The former Erie Railroad commuter service, ultimately inherited by [Conrail](/wiki/Conrail "Conrail"), was discontinued on January 14, 1977, ending the facility's use as a railroad station.{{sfn\|Toman\|Hayes\|1996\|page\=297}}
However, in 2021, a rail advocacy group by the name of [All Aboard Ohio](/wiki/All_Aboard_Ohio "All Aboard Ohio"), voted in favor of returning Amtrak service to Union Terminal, in the anticipation of a proposed dramatic increase in rail service.{{Cite web \|last\=Glaser \|first\=Susan \|last2\=clevel \|last3\=.com \|date\=2021\-04\-15 \|title\=Rail advocacy group wants Cleveland Amtrak station back at Tower City \|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/travel/2021/04/rail\-advocacy\-group\-wants\-cleveland\-amtrak\-station\-back\-at\-tower\-city.html \|access\-date\=2021\-11\-30 \|website\=cleveland \|language\=en}}
File:C.U.T. Steam Concourse.jpg\|Concourse in 1987
File:Terminaltower2\.jpg\|
File:Tower City Concourse sign.jpg\|
File:C.U.T. Steam Concourse \& Traction Concourse.jpg\|
File:Tower City parking decks.jpg\|Platforms converted into parking decks
{{collapse top\|title\=Diagrams of former Cleveland area railroad stations}}
| [New York, Chicago and St. Louis](/wiki/New_York%2C_Chicago_and_St._Louis_Railroad "New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad") | [LS\&MS](/wiki/LS%26MS "LS&MS") ([New York Central](/wiki/New_York_Central "New York Central")) \- [AMTK](/wiki/Amtrak "Amtrak") | [ERIE](/wiki/Erie_Railroad "Erie Railroad") ([Erie Lackawanna Railway](/wiki/Erie_Lackawanna_Railway "Erie Lackawanna Railway")) \- [CR](/wiki/Conrail "Conrail") | [CT\&V](/wiki/Valley_Railway "Valley Railway") ([Baltimore and Ohio](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio "Baltimore and Ohio")) \- [CVSR](/wiki/CVSR "CVSR") |
| {{NKP Cleveland}} | {{NYC Cleveland}} | {{Conrail Cleveland\|inline\=y}} | {{Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad}} |
{{collapse bottom}}
### Shopping mall
Most of the platform area was demolished in the late 1980s renovation of the building. The station area itself was converted by [Forest City Enterprises](/wiki/Forest_City_Enterprises "Forest City Enterprises") into a three\-story, 367,000 square foot{{cite web\|url\=http://www.forestcity.net/properties/shop/regional\_enclosed\_centers/Pages/the\_avenue\_at\_tower\_city\_center.aspx\|title\=The Avenue at Tower City Center\|access\-date\=September 29, 2010\|work\=\[\[Forest City Enterprises]]}} shopping mall and food court known as The Avenue, which opened on March 26, 1990\. As part of the renovation, RTA rebuilt its rapid transit station beneath the center. The rest of the platform area was turned into a parking garage for the new complex. When the already renamed Tower City Center reopened, the mall housed many high\-end [retailers](/wiki/Retailer "Retailer"), including Bally of Switzerland, [Barneys New York](/wiki/Barneys_New_York "Barneys New York"), [Fendi](/wiki/Fendi "Fendi"), [Gucci](/wiki/Gucci "Gucci"), [Versace](/wiki/Versace "Versace"), and even had a letter of intent from [Neiman Marcus](/wiki/Neiman_Marcus "Neiman Marcus") to build a 120,000\-square foot anchor store in 1992\.{{cite web\|first\=Michelle\|last\=Jarboe\|url\=http://blog.cleveland.com/business/2009/03/clevelands\_downtown\_considered.html \|title\=Cleveland's downtown is considered choice real estate for outlet shopping\|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer\|Cleveland.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Advance Publications]]\|access\-date\=March 24, 2016\|date\=March 21, 2009}}{{cite web\|first\=Peggy\|last\=Turbett\|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer\|Cleveland.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Advance Publications]]\|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/business/index.ssf/2012/03/forest\_city\_ceo\_david\_larue\_ov.html\|title\=Forest City CEO David LaRue oversees change at company, Tower City Center: Talk with the Boss\|access\-date\=March 23, 2013\|date\=March 25, 2012}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1991/02/17/cleveland\-bucking\-the\-gloomy\-trend\-in\-malls/\|title\=Cleveland Bucking The Gloomy Trend In Malls\|work\=\[\[Chicago Tribune]]\|publisher\=\[\[Tribune Publishing]]\|date\=February 17, 1991\|access\-date\=March 23, 2013}} Over the following 25 years, many of those shops were replaced by more\-modest stores, some of them local retailers.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cleveland.com/economy/wide/index.ssf?/economy/wide/towercity\_101407\.html \|title\=Tower City then and now\|access\-date\=June 15, 2008\|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer\|Cleveland.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Advance Publications]]\|date\=October 14, 2007}}
In 1991, two new 11\-story office towers, the [Skylight Office Tower](/wiki/Skylight_Office_Tower "Skylight Office Tower") and the [Chase Financial Plaza](/wiki/Chase_Financial_Plaza "Chase Financial Plaza"), were added. The Chase Building houses Cleveland's [Ritz\-Carlton](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton "Ritz-Carlton") Hotel and The Skylight Office Tower housed the former [Hard Rock Cafe](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Cafe "Hard Rock Cafe"). After the completion of the nearby [Gateway project](/wiki/Gateway_Sports_and_Entertainment_Complex "Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex") in 1994, RTA built an indoor walkway connecting Tower City to the complex. A second walkway was built in 2002 to connect Tower City with the [Carl B. Stokes U.S. Courthouse](/wiki/Carl_B._Stokes_U.S._Courthouse "Carl B. Stokes U.S. Courthouse").
Higbee's (by then bought by [Dillard's](/wiki/Dillard%27s "Dillard's")) closed its department store in the complex in January, 2002\. [Positively Cleveland](/wiki/Positively_Cleveland "Positively Cleveland") (formerly the Convention and Visitors Bureau of Greater Cleveland) and the Greater Cleveland Partnership (the local [chamber of commerce](/wiki/Chamber_of_commerce "Chamber of commerce")) opened offices in the Higbee Building in 2007\. Until late 2010, the [Cleveland Plus Visitors Center](/wiki/Positively_Cleveland "Positively Cleveland") occupied the first floor.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.positivelycleveland.com/about\_cleveland/\|title\=About Cleveland\|access\-date\=June 10, 2008\|work\=\[\[Positively Cleveland]]}}{{cite web\|url\=http://blog.cleveland.com/architecture/2011/02/casino\_wont\_dramatically\_alter.html\|title\=Casino won't dramatically alter Cleveland's beloved Higbee Building\|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer\|Cleveland.com]]\|access\-date\=May 11, 2016\|first\=Steven\|date\=February 3, 2011\|last\=Litt\|publisher\=\[\[Advance Publications]]}}{{cite web\|url\=http://zygotepress.com/pdf/CAN\_Journal\_V11\.pdf\|title\=Something's Happening Here\|work\=Zygote Press\|page\=34\|access\-date\=May 11, 2016}} The building was opened on May 14, 2012, as the [Horseshoe Casino Cleveland](/wiki/Jack_Cleveland_Casino "Jack Cleveland Casino").{{Cite web\|url\=http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2011/07/horseshoe\_casino\_cleveland\_des.html\|title\=Horseshoe Casino Cleveland aims to draw new crowd to downtown attractions\|date\=14 July 2011}} After Rock Gaming LLC took over management of the Horseshoe, the casino was transformed into Jack Cleveland Casino and reopened on May 11, 2016\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.wkyc.com/news/local/new\-name\-new\-vibe\-for\-cleveland\-jack\-casino/182950648\|title\=New name, new vibe for Cleveland Jack casino\|last\=TEGNA\|website\=WKYC\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-02}}{{Dead link\|date\=April 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
In 2001, [Time Warner Cable Amphitheater](/wiki/Time_Warner_Cable_Amphitheater "Time Warner Cable Amphitheater") opened as an outdoor stage along the [Cuyahoga River](/wiki/Cuyahoga_River "Cuyahoga River") near the Tower City Complex. A site on the Cuyahoga River side of the complex was proposed as a location for a new Cleveland [convention center](/wiki/Convention_center "Convention center"), but in January, 2009 the [Cuyahoga County](/wiki/Cuyahoga_County%2C_Ohio "Cuyahoga County, Ohio") Commissioners decided to redevelop the [existing facility](/wiki/Public_Auditorium "Public Auditorium").{{cite news\|first\=Steven\|last\=Litt\|title\=Chosen medical mart site offers second chance for Mall \|url\=http://blog.cleveland.com/architecture/2009/01/chosen\_medical\_mart\_site\_offer.html\|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer\|Cleveland.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Advance Publications]]\|date\=January 31, 2009\|access\-date\=February 20, 2009}}
In July, 2021 businessman [Dan Gilbert](/wiki/Dan_Gilbert "Dan Gilbert")'s company Bedrock announced plans to convert the mall into a "retail marketplace" with a blend of retail and entertainment.{{cite news\|first\=Eric\|last\=Heisig\|title\=Cavs owner Dan Gilbert's Bedrock firm plans to retool downtown Cleveland's Tower City Center into 'marketplace'\|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/realestate\-news/2021/07/cavs\-owner\-dan\-gilberts\-bedrock\-firm\-plans\-to\-retool\-downtown\-clevelands\-tower\-city\-center\-into\-marketplace.html\|work\=\[\[The Plain Dealer]]\|date\=July 15, 2021\|access\-date\=July 17, 2021}} After renovations were completed in 2022, the main atrium was renamed to "Skylight Park".{{cite web \|last1\=Petkiewicz \|first1\=David \|title\=Skylight Park opens in Tower City Center (photos) \|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/metro/2022/07/skylight\-park\-opens\-in\-tower\-city\-center\-photos.html \|website\=cleveland.com \|date\=18 July 2022 \|publisher\=Cleveland.com / \[\[The Plain Dealer]] \|access\-date\=22 March 2023}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Rail terminal",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The 1903 Group Plan with a union station on the waterfront](/wiki/File:Group_Plan.jpg \"Group Plan.jpg\")\nThe building complex was originally commissioned by the [Van Sweringen brothers](/wiki/Van_Sweringen_brothers \"Van Sweringen brothers\"), prominent local railroad moguls and real estate developers. The center of the complex was Cleveland Union Terminal (CUT), a [terminal](/wiki/Terminal_station \"Terminal station\") for all trains coming into Cleveland via the various railroad lines in a concept similar to [Grand Central Terminal](/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal \"Grand Central Terminal\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/66\\#.VzRcrfkrKM8\\|title\\=Shaker Hts. \\& The Van Sweringens\\|work\\=Cleveland Historical\\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2016}}",
"When Cleveland Union Terminal was built, the train station allocated the northern set of tracks for [interurban](/wiki/Interurban \"Interurban\") or [rapid transit](/wiki/Rapid_transit \"Rapid transit\") service and the southern set of tracks for [inter\\-city rail](/wiki/Inter-city_rail \"Inter-city rail\") service. The portion of the station above the interurban tracks was called the Traction Concourse and the portion above the intercity train tracks was called the Steam Concourse. The Van Sweringen brothers envisioned a network of interurban lines extending from the CUT in all directions. They even acquired [right\\-of\\-way](/wiki/Right-of-way_%28railroad%29 \"Right-of-way (railroad)\") for some of the lines.",
"The complex was designed by the firm of [Graham, Anderson, Probst \\& White](/wiki/Graham%2C_Anderson%2C_Probst_%26_White \"Graham, Anderson, Probst & White\"). Site preparation began in 1922, and approximately 2,200 buildings were demolished. Construction began in 1926, and structural work was completed by 1927\\. At the time, it was the second\\-largest excavation project in the world after the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"). The Terminal Tower opened to its first tenants in 1928\\. From its completion until 1964, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside of New York City. Three other office buildings, the Medical Arts Building, Builders Exchange Building, and Midland Building, were built in addition to the Terminal Tower. The three [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") buildings are collectively known as the [Landmark Office Towers Complex](/wiki/Landmark_Office_Towers_Complex \"Landmark Office Towers Complex\") and were completed in 1929\\. In addition to the new buildings, the 1918 [Hotel Cleveland](/wiki/Hotel_Cleveland \"Hotel Cleveland\") was connected to the complex. Cleveland Union Terminal was dedicated and officially opened in 1930\\.",
"The facility included a number of retail stores and restaurants. Original designs for the complex show that at first the brothers did not plan on building an office tower within the complex. However, they eventually decided to build the 52\\-story [Terminal Tower](/wiki/Terminal_Tower \"Terminal Tower\") on the northeast side of the complex facing [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland \"Public Square, Cleveland\").",
"In 1931, the [Higbee Company](/wiki/Higbee_Company \"Higbee Company\") moved its main [store](/wiki/Department_store \"Department store\") to a new building connected to Cleveland Union Terminal. In 1934, the [U.S. Postal Service](/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service \"United States Postal Service\") moved its main Cleveland office to Union Terminal in a new building designed by the firm of [Walker and Weeks](/wiki/Walker_and_Weeks \"Walker and Weeks\"). It was known as M.K. Ferguson Plaza under the ownership of [Forest City Enterprises](/wiki/Forest_City_Enterprises \"Forest City Enterprises\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.forestcity.net/properties/work/office\\_buildings/Pages/mk\\_ferguson\\_plaza.aspx\\|title\\=Post Office Plaza\\|work\\=\\[\\[Forest City Enterprises]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 29, 2010}}",
"The Union Terminal served most rail lines: the [Baltimore and Ohio Railroad](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Railroad \"Baltimore and Ohio Railroad\"), [New York Central Railroad](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad \"New York Central Railroad\") and [Nickel Plate Road](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Road \"Nickel Plate Road\").{{sfn\\|McGraw\\-Hill\\|1918\\|page\\=865}} Exceptions were the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad \"Pennsylvania Railroad\") and initially the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad \"Erie Railroad\").",
"[thumb\\|Former departure board](/wiki/File:Cleveland_Union_Terminal_Track_19_and_20_information_board.png \"Cleveland Union Terminal Track 19 and 20 information board.png\")\nNotable trains, particularly for their destinations included:\n* Baltimore and Ohio Railroad:{{cite journal \\|title\\=Baltimore \\& Ohio Railroad, Tables A, 13 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}\n\t+ *[Cleveland Night Express](/wiki/Cleveland_Night_Express \"Cleveland Night Express\")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)\n\t+ *[Washingtonian](/wiki/Washingtonian_%28B%26O_train%29 \"Washingtonian (B&O train)\")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)\n* Erie Railroad, with the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad:{{cite journal \\|title\\=Erie Railroad, Table 13 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}\n\t+ *Steel King* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh, with morning and evening variations)\n* New York Central Railroad:New York Central timetable, June 17, 1951, Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 14, 16, 23, 37 [http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51\\-6TT.pdf](http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51-6TT.pdf){{cite journal \\|title\\=New York Central Railroad; Tables 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}\n\t+ *Chicagoan* (Chicago–New York)\n\t+ *[Cincinnati Mercury](/wiki/Cincinnati_Mercury \"Cincinnati Mercury\")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland) (beginning in fall, 1951\\)September 1951 New York Central timetable, Table 23\n\t+ *[Cleveland Mercury](/wiki/Cleveland_Mercury \"Cleveland Mercury\")* (Detroit–Cleveland)\n\t+ *[Empire State Express](/wiki/Empire_State_Express \"Empire State Express\")* (Cleveland–New York)\n\t+ *Fifth Avenue Special* (Chicago–Cleveland\\-New York)\n\t+ *Iroquois* (Boston–Chicago; in most years operating westbound only; in some years terminating in Cleveland, in some years having New York as the eastern terminus)\n\t+ *[North Star](/wiki/North_Star_%28NYC_train%29 \"North Star (NYC train)\")* (New York–Cleveland; in most years operating westbound only)\n\t+ *[Ohio State Limited](/wiki/Ohio_State_Limited \"Ohio State Limited\")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\\-bound trips only, in other years running through the city without stopping)\n\t+ *Pacemaker* (Chicago–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\\-bound trips only; in latter years: Cleveland–New York)\n\t+ *[Southwestern Limited](/wiki/Southwestern_Limited_%28New_York_Central_train%29 \"Southwestern Limited (New York Central train)\")* (St. Louis–Indianapolis–Cleveland–New York)\n* Nickel Plate Road ([Norfolk and Western](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western \"Norfolk and Western\") in final year of service):{{cite journal \\|title\\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}{{cite journal \\|title\\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 90 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1957}}\n\t+ *[Nickel Plate Limited](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Limited \"Nickel Plate Limited\")* (Chicago–Buffalo) \\[later named *City of Chicago* westbound/*City of Cleveland* eastbound]\n\t+ *Blue Arrow* (Cleveland–St. Louis)/*Blue Dart* (St. Louis–Cleveland)",
"However, the station was never particularly popular with the railroads. It required deviating from the quicker route along [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\"). As the city would not allow trains to operate under steam power near the downtown area, trains were forced to switch from steam to electric power at a suburban [rail yard](/wiki/Classification_yard \"Classification yard\") when heading inbound and then reverse on the way out at another yard. As a result, some lines began to bypass the station entirely, heading along the lake route, and some trains stopped serving the city altogether (examples of the latter case: the New York Central Railroad's *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited_%28New_York_Central_Railroad_train%29 \"Lake Shore Limited (New York Central Railroad train)\")* and the *[New England States](/wiki/New_England_States \"New England States\")*).",
"Several east–west routes on the circuit of trains bound east from Chicago through northern Ohio bypassed the city, traveling slightly to the south, passing through Akron and Youngstown, as in the case of B\\&O and Erie mainlines. In addition, national passenger rail travel had already passed its peak and was starting its gradual decline in favor of the automobile and, later, the airplane. The Erie Railroad, owned by the Van Sweringens, could not afford the electric transfer and continued to use its own nearby station until 1948, when it replaced steam with diesel locomotives and was able to serve the Union Terminal under its own power.",
"By the end of 1965, the B\\&O and the Norfolk and Western (the successor to the Nickel Plate) had terminated their last trains that had served Cleveland. By the end of 1967, the New York Central had discontinued all named trains that had run through Cleveland. All that remained as passenger trains were unnamed successors to trains \\#51 (westbound *Empire State Express*), \\#90 (eastbound successor to the *Chicagoan*), \\#27/28 (successor to the *New England States*) and \\#63/\\#64 (Chicago–New York) trains.New York Central timetable, December 3, 1967",
"In the lead\\-up to the arrival of Amtrak, in 1970 the Erie Lackawanna ran an unnamed train to Youngstown.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Erie Lackawanna Railroad, Table 1 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 102 \\|issue\\= 12 \\|date\\=May 1970}} The [Penn Central](/wiki/Penn_Central \"Penn Central\") (successor to the New York Central) Chicago\\-bound trains stopping at the terminal included an unnamed remnant of the *Empire State Express* and another unnamed train. East\\-bound, there was an unnamed successor to the *New England States,* as well as two other unnamed trains. Southwest\\-bound there was an Indianapolis\\-destined remnant of the *Southwestern Limited* and an *Ohio State Limited* remnant bound for Columbus.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Penn Central Railroad, Tables 3, 4, 45, 46 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 102 \\|issue\\= 12 \\|date\\=May 1970}}",
"Amtrak's short\\-lived *[Lake Shore](/wiki/Lake_Shore \"Lake Shore\")* served Union Terminal for seven months in 1971, but the railroad found the rents prohibitive. When the new *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited \"Lake Shore Limited\")* began in 1975, Amtrak chose to construct [a new station](/wiki/Cleveland_Lakefront_Station \"Cleveland Lakefront Station\") near [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\") adjacent to the [Cleveland Memorial Shoreway](/wiki/Cleveland_Memorial_Shoreway \"Cleveland Memorial Shoreway\").{{sfn\\|Toman\\|Hayes\\|1996\\|pages\\=280 and 295}} The new Amtrak station is located near the former [Cleveland Union Depot](/wiki/Cleveland_Union_Depot \"Cleveland Union Depot\"), once served by the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad \"Pennsylvania Railroad\"). The former Erie Railroad commuter service, ultimately inherited by [Conrail](/wiki/Conrail \"Conrail\"), was discontinued on January 14, 1977, ending the facility's use as a railroad station.{{sfn\\|Toman\\|Hayes\\|1996\\|page\\=297}}",
"However, in 2021, a rail advocacy group by the name of [All Aboard Ohio](/wiki/All_Aboard_Ohio \"All Aboard Ohio\"), voted in favor of returning Amtrak service to Union Terminal, in the anticipation of a proposed dramatic increase in rail service.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Glaser \\|first\\=Susan \\|last2\\=clevel \\|last3\\=.com \\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-15 \\|title\\=Rail advocacy group wants Cleveland Amtrak station back at Tower City \\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/travel/2021/04/rail\\-advocacy\\-group\\-wants\\-cleveland\\-amtrak\\-station\\-back\\-at\\-tower\\-city.html \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-30 \\|website\\=cleveland \\|language\\=en}}",
"",
"File:C.U.T. Steam Concourse.jpg\\|Concourse in 1987\nFile:Terminaltower2\\.jpg\\|\nFile:Tower City Concourse sign.jpg\\|\nFile:C.U.T. Steam Concourse \\& Traction Concourse.jpg\\|\nFile:Tower City parking decks.jpg\\|Platforms converted into parking decks",
"",
"{{collapse top\\|title\\=Diagrams of former Cleveland area railroad stations}}",
"| [New York, Chicago and St. Louis](/wiki/New_York%2C_Chicago_and_St._Louis_Railroad \"New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad\") | [LS\\&MS](/wiki/LS%26MS \"LS&MS\") ([New York Central](/wiki/New_York_Central \"New York Central\")) \\- [AMTK](/wiki/Amtrak \"Amtrak\") | [ERIE](/wiki/Erie_Railroad \"Erie Railroad\") ([Erie Lackawanna Railway](/wiki/Erie_Lackawanna_Railway \"Erie Lackawanna Railway\")) \\- [CR](/wiki/Conrail \"Conrail\") | [CT\\&V](/wiki/Valley_Railway \"Valley Railway\") ([Baltimore and Ohio](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio \"Baltimore and Ohio\")) \\- [CVSR](/wiki/CVSR \"CVSR\") |",
"| {{NKP Cleveland}} | {{NYC Cleveland}} | {{Conrail Cleveland\\|inline\\=y}} | {{Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad}} |",
"{{collapse bottom}}",
"### Shopping mall",
"Most of the platform area was demolished in the late 1980s renovation of the building. The station area itself was converted by [Forest City Enterprises](/wiki/Forest_City_Enterprises \"Forest City Enterprises\") into a three\\-story, 367,000 square foot{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.forestcity.net/properties/shop/regional\\_enclosed\\_centers/Pages/the\\_avenue\\_at\\_tower\\_city\\_center.aspx\\|title\\=The Avenue at Tower City Center\\|access\\-date\\=September 29, 2010\\|work\\=\\[\\[Forest City Enterprises]]}} shopping mall and food court known as The Avenue, which opened on March 26, 1990\\. As part of the renovation, RTA rebuilt its rapid transit station beneath the center. The rest of the platform area was turned into a parking garage for the new complex. When the already renamed Tower City Center reopened, the mall housed many high\\-end [retailers](/wiki/Retailer \"Retailer\"), including Bally of Switzerland, [Barneys New York](/wiki/Barneys_New_York \"Barneys New York\"), [Fendi](/wiki/Fendi \"Fendi\"), [Gucci](/wiki/Gucci \"Gucci\"), [Versace](/wiki/Versace \"Versace\"), and even had a letter of intent from [Neiman Marcus](/wiki/Neiman_Marcus \"Neiman Marcus\") to build a 120,000\\-square foot anchor store in 1992\\.{{cite web\\|first\\=Michelle\\|last\\=Jarboe\\|url\\=http://blog.cleveland.com/business/2009/03/clevelands\\_downtown\\_considered.html \\|title\\=Cleveland's downtown is considered choice real estate for outlet shopping\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer\\|Cleveland.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Advance Publications]]\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2016\\|date\\=March 21, 2009}}{{cite web\\|first\\=Peggy\\|last\\=Turbett\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer\\|Cleveland.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Advance Publications]]\\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/business/index.ssf/2012/03/forest\\_city\\_ceo\\_david\\_larue\\_ov.html\\|title\\=Forest City CEO David LaRue oversees change at company, Tower City Center: Talk with the Boss\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2013\\|date\\=March 25, 2012}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1991/02/17/cleveland\\-bucking\\-the\\-gloomy\\-trend\\-in\\-malls/\\|title\\=Cleveland Bucking The Gloomy Trend In Malls\\|work\\=\\[\\[Chicago Tribune]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Tribune Publishing]]\\|date\\=February 17, 1991\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2013}} Over the following 25 years, many of those shops were replaced by more\\-modest stores, some of them local retailers.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cleveland.com/economy/wide/index.ssf?/economy/wide/towercity\\_101407\\.html \\|title\\=Tower City then and now\\|access\\-date\\=June 15, 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer\\|Cleveland.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Advance Publications]]\\|date\\=October 14, 2007}}",
"In 1991, two new 11\\-story office towers, the [Skylight Office Tower](/wiki/Skylight_Office_Tower \"Skylight Office Tower\") and the [Chase Financial Plaza](/wiki/Chase_Financial_Plaza \"Chase Financial Plaza\"), were added. The Chase Building houses Cleveland's [Ritz\\-Carlton](/wiki/Ritz-Carlton \"Ritz-Carlton\") Hotel and The Skylight Office Tower housed the former [Hard Rock Cafe](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Cafe \"Hard Rock Cafe\"). After the completion of the nearby [Gateway project](/wiki/Gateway_Sports_and_Entertainment_Complex \"Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex\") in 1994, RTA built an indoor walkway connecting Tower City to the complex. A second walkway was built in 2002 to connect Tower City with the [Carl B. Stokes U.S. Courthouse](/wiki/Carl_B._Stokes_U.S._Courthouse \"Carl B. Stokes U.S. Courthouse\").",
"Higbee's (by then bought by [Dillard's](/wiki/Dillard%27s \"Dillard's\")) closed its department store in the complex in January, 2002\\. [Positively Cleveland](/wiki/Positively_Cleveland \"Positively Cleveland\") (formerly the Convention and Visitors Bureau of Greater Cleveland) and the Greater Cleveland Partnership (the local [chamber of commerce](/wiki/Chamber_of_commerce \"Chamber of commerce\")) opened offices in the Higbee Building in 2007\\. Until late 2010, the [Cleveland Plus Visitors Center](/wiki/Positively_Cleveland \"Positively Cleveland\") occupied the first floor.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.positivelycleveland.com/about\\_cleveland/\\|title\\=About Cleveland\\|access\\-date\\=June 10, 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[Positively Cleveland]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://blog.cleveland.com/architecture/2011/02/casino\\_wont\\_dramatically\\_alter.html\\|title\\=Casino won't dramatically alter Cleveland's beloved Higbee Building\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer\\|Cleveland.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2016\\|first\\=Steven\\|date\\=February 3, 2011\\|last\\=Litt\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Advance Publications]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://zygotepress.com/pdf/CAN\\_Journal\\_V11\\.pdf\\|title\\=Something's Happening Here\\|work\\=Zygote Press\\|page\\=34\\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2016}} The building was opened on May 14, 2012, as the [Horseshoe Casino Cleveland](/wiki/Jack_Cleveland_Casino \"Jack Cleveland Casino\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2011/07/horseshoe\\_casino\\_cleveland\\_des.html\\|title\\=Horseshoe Casino Cleveland aims to draw new crowd to downtown attractions\\|date\\=14 July 2011}} After Rock Gaming LLC took over management of the Horseshoe, the casino was transformed into Jack Cleveland Casino and reopened on May 11, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wkyc.com/news/local/new\\-name\\-new\\-vibe\\-for\\-cleveland\\-jack\\-casino/182950648\\|title\\=New name, new vibe for Cleveland Jack casino\\|last\\=TEGNA\\|website\\=WKYC\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-02}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"In 2001, [Time Warner Cable Amphitheater](/wiki/Time_Warner_Cable_Amphitheater \"Time Warner Cable Amphitheater\") opened as an outdoor stage along the [Cuyahoga River](/wiki/Cuyahoga_River \"Cuyahoga River\") near the Tower City Complex. A site on the Cuyahoga River side of the complex was proposed as a location for a new Cleveland [convention center](/wiki/Convention_center \"Convention center\"), but in January, 2009 the [Cuyahoga County](/wiki/Cuyahoga_County%2C_Ohio \"Cuyahoga County, Ohio\") Commissioners decided to redevelop the [existing facility](/wiki/Public_Auditorium \"Public Auditorium\").{{cite news\\|first\\=Steven\\|last\\=Litt\\|title\\=Chosen medical mart site offers second chance for Mall \\|url\\=http://blog.cleveland.com/architecture/2009/01/chosen\\_medical\\_mart\\_site\\_offer.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer\\|Cleveland.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Advance Publications]]\\|date\\=January 31, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2009}}",
"In July, 2021 businessman [Dan Gilbert](/wiki/Dan_Gilbert \"Dan Gilbert\")'s company Bedrock announced plans to convert the mall into a \"retail marketplace\" with a blend of retail and entertainment.{{cite news\\|first\\=Eric\\|last\\=Heisig\\|title\\=Cavs owner Dan Gilbert's Bedrock firm plans to retool downtown Cleveland's Tower City Center into 'marketplace'\\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/realestate\\-news/2021/07/cavs\\-owner\\-dan\\-gilberts\\-bedrock\\-firm\\-plans\\-to\\-retool\\-downtown\\-clevelands\\-tower\\-city\\-center\\-into\\-marketplace.html\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Plain Dealer]]\\|date\\=July 15, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=July 17, 2021}} After renovations were completed in 2022, the main atrium was renamed to \"Skylight Park\".{{cite web \\|last1\\=Petkiewicz \\|first1\\=David \\|title\\=Skylight Park opens in Tower City Center (photos) \\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/metro/2022/07/skylight\\-park\\-opens\\-in\\-tower\\-city\\-center\\-photos.html \\|website\\=cleveland.com \\|date\\=18 July 2022 \\|publisher\\=Cleveland.com / \\[\\[The Plain Dealer]] \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2023}}",
""
] |
### Rail terminal
[thumb\|left\|The 1903 Group Plan with a union station on the waterfront](/wiki/File:Group_Plan.jpg "Group Plan.jpg")
The building complex was originally commissioned by the [Van Sweringen brothers](/wiki/Van_Sweringen_brothers "Van Sweringen brothers"), prominent local railroad moguls and real estate developers. The center of the complex was Cleveland Union Terminal (CUT), a [terminal](/wiki/Terminal_station "Terminal station") for all trains coming into Cleveland via the various railroad lines in a concept similar to [Grand Central Terminal](/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal "Grand Central Terminal") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").{{cite web\|url\=http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/66\#.VzRcrfkrKM8\|title\=Shaker Hts. \& The Van Sweringens\|work\=Cleveland Historical\|access\-date\=May 11, 2016}}
When Cleveland Union Terminal was built, the train station allocated the northern set of tracks for [interurban](/wiki/Interurban "Interurban") or [rapid transit](/wiki/Rapid_transit "Rapid transit") service and the southern set of tracks for [inter\-city rail](/wiki/Inter-city_rail "Inter-city rail") service. The portion of the station above the interurban tracks was called the Traction Concourse and the portion above the intercity train tracks was called the Steam Concourse. The Van Sweringen brothers envisioned a network of interurban lines extending from the CUT in all directions. They even acquired [right\-of\-way](/wiki/Right-of-way_%28railroad%29 "Right-of-way (railroad)") for some of the lines.
The complex was designed by the firm of [Graham, Anderson, Probst \& White](/wiki/Graham%2C_Anderson%2C_Probst_%26_White "Graham, Anderson, Probst & White"). Site preparation began in 1922, and approximately 2,200 buildings were demolished. Construction began in 1926, and structural work was completed by 1927\. At the time, it was the second\-largest excavation project in the world after the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"). The Terminal Tower opened to its first tenants in 1928\. From its completion until 1964, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside of New York City. Three other office buildings, the Medical Arts Building, Builders Exchange Building, and Midland Building, were built in addition to the Terminal Tower. The three [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") buildings are collectively known as the [Landmark Office Towers Complex](/wiki/Landmark_Office_Towers_Complex "Landmark Office Towers Complex") and were completed in 1929\. In addition to the new buildings, the 1918 [Hotel Cleveland](/wiki/Hotel_Cleveland "Hotel Cleveland") was connected to the complex. Cleveland Union Terminal was dedicated and officially opened in 1930\.
The facility included a number of retail stores and restaurants. Original designs for the complex show that at first the brothers did not plan on building an office tower within the complex. However, they eventually decided to build the 52\-story [Terminal Tower](/wiki/Terminal_Tower "Terminal Tower") on the northeast side of the complex facing [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland "Public Square, Cleveland").
In 1931, the [Higbee Company](/wiki/Higbee_Company "Higbee Company") moved its main [store](/wiki/Department_store "Department store") to a new building connected to Cleveland Union Terminal. In 1934, the [U.S. Postal Service](/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service "United States Postal Service") moved its main Cleveland office to Union Terminal in a new building designed by the firm of [Walker and Weeks](/wiki/Walker_and_Weeks "Walker and Weeks"). It was known as M.K. Ferguson Plaza under the ownership of [Forest City Enterprises](/wiki/Forest_City_Enterprises "Forest City Enterprises").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.forestcity.net/properties/work/office\_buildings/Pages/mk\_ferguson\_plaza.aspx\|title\=Post Office Plaza\|work\=\[\[Forest City Enterprises]]\|access\-date\=September 29, 2010}}
The Union Terminal served most rail lines: the [Baltimore and Ohio Railroad](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Railroad "Baltimore and Ohio Railroad"), [New York Central Railroad](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad "New York Central Railroad") and [Nickel Plate Road](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Road "Nickel Plate Road").{{sfn\|McGraw\-Hill\|1918\|page\=865}} Exceptions were the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad "Pennsylvania Railroad") and initially the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad "Erie Railroad").
[thumb\|Former departure board](/wiki/File:Cleveland_Union_Terminal_Track_19_and_20_information_board.png "Cleveland Union Terminal Track 19 and 20 information board.png")
Notable trains, particularly for their destinations included:
* Baltimore and Ohio Railroad:{{cite journal \|title\=Baltimore \& Ohio Railroad, Tables A, 13 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}
+ *[Cleveland Night Express](/wiki/Cleveland_Night_Express "Cleveland Night Express")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)
+ *[Washingtonian](/wiki/Washingtonian_%28B%26O_train%29 "Washingtonian (B&O train)")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)
* Erie Railroad, with the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad:{{cite journal \|title\=Erie Railroad, Table 13 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}
+ *Steel King* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh, with morning and evening variations)
* New York Central Railroad:New York Central timetable, June 17, 1951, Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 14, 16, 23, 37 [http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51\-6TT.pdf](http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51-6TT.pdf){{cite journal \|title\=New York Central Railroad; Tables 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}
+ *Chicagoan* (Chicago–New York)
+ *[Cincinnati Mercury](/wiki/Cincinnati_Mercury "Cincinnati Mercury")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland) (beginning in fall, 1951\)September 1951 New York Central timetable, Table 23
+ *[Cleveland Mercury](/wiki/Cleveland_Mercury "Cleveland Mercury")* (Detroit–Cleveland)
+ *[Empire State Express](/wiki/Empire_State_Express "Empire State Express")* (Cleveland–New York)
+ *Fifth Avenue Special* (Chicago–Cleveland\-New York)
+ *Iroquois* (Boston–Chicago; in most years operating westbound only; in some years terminating in Cleveland, in some years having New York as the eastern terminus)
+ *[North Star](/wiki/North_Star_%28NYC_train%29 "North Star (NYC train)")* (New York–Cleveland; in most years operating westbound only)
+ *[Ohio State Limited](/wiki/Ohio_State_Limited "Ohio State Limited")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\-bound trips only, in other years running through the city without stopping)
+ *Pacemaker* (Chicago–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\-bound trips only; in latter years: Cleveland–New York)
+ *[Southwestern Limited](/wiki/Southwestern_Limited_%28New_York_Central_train%29 "Southwestern Limited (New York Central train)")* (St. Louis–Indianapolis–Cleveland–New York)
* Nickel Plate Road ([Norfolk and Western](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western "Norfolk and Western") in final year of service):{{cite journal \|title\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 84 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1951}}{{cite journal \|title\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 90 \|issue\= 7 \|date\=December 1957}}
+ *[Nickel Plate Limited](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Limited "Nickel Plate Limited")* (Chicago–Buffalo) \[later named *City of Chicago* westbound/*City of Cleveland* eastbound]
+ *Blue Arrow* (Cleveland–St. Louis)/*Blue Dart* (St. Louis–Cleveland)
However, the station was never particularly popular with the railroads. It required deviating from the quicker route along [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie"). As the city would not allow trains to operate under steam power near the downtown area, trains were forced to switch from steam to electric power at a suburban [rail yard](/wiki/Classification_yard "Classification yard") when heading inbound and then reverse on the way out at another yard. As a result, some lines began to bypass the station entirely, heading along the lake route, and some trains stopped serving the city altogether (examples of the latter case: the New York Central Railroad's *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited_%28New_York_Central_Railroad_train%29 "Lake Shore Limited (New York Central Railroad train)")* and the *[New England States](/wiki/New_England_States "New England States")*).
Several east–west routes on the circuit of trains bound east from Chicago through northern Ohio bypassed the city, traveling slightly to the south, passing through Akron and Youngstown, as in the case of B\&O and Erie mainlines. In addition, national passenger rail travel had already passed its peak and was starting its gradual decline in favor of the automobile and, later, the airplane. The Erie Railroad, owned by the Van Sweringens, could not afford the electric transfer and continued to use its own nearby station until 1948, when it replaced steam with diesel locomotives and was able to serve the Union Terminal under its own power.
By the end of 1965, the B\&O and the Norfolk and Western (the successor to the Nickel Plate) had terminated their last trains that had served Cleveland. By the end of 1967, the New York Central had discontinued all named trains that had run through Cleveland. All that remained as passenger trains were unnamed successors to trains \#51 (westbound *Empire State Express*), \#90 (eastbound successor to the *Chicagoan*), \#27/28 (successor to the *New England States*) and \#63/\#64 (Chicago–New York) trains.New York Central timetable, December 3, 1967
In the lead\-up to the arrival of Amtrak, in 1970 the Erie Lackawanna ran an unnamed train to Youngstown.{{cite journal \|title\=Erie Lackawanna Railroad, Table 1 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 102 \|issue\= 12 \|date\=May 1970}} The [Penn Central](/wiki/Penn_Central "Penn Central") (successor to the New York Central) Chicago\-bound trains stopping at the terminal included an unnamed remnant of the *Empire State Express* and another unnamed train. East\-bound, there was an unnamed successor to the *New England States,* as well as two other unnamed trains. Southwest\-bound there was an Indianapolis\-destined remnant of the *Southwestern Limited* and an *Ohio State Limited* remnant bound for Columbus.{{cite journal \|title\=Penn Central Railroad, Tables 3, 4, 45, 46 \|journal\=Official Guide of the Railways \|publisher\=National Railway Publication Company \|volume\= 102 \|issue\= 12 \|date\=May 1970}}
Amtrak's short\-lived *[Lake Shore](/wiki/Lake_Shore "Lake Shore")* served Union Terminal for seven months in 1971, but the railroad found the rents prohibitive. When the new *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited "Lake Shore Limited")* began in 1975, Amtrak chose to construct [a new station](/wiki/Cleveland_Lakefront_Station "Cleveland Lakefront Station") near [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie") adjacent to the [Cleveland Memorial Shoreway](/wiki/Cleveland_Memorial_Shoreway "Cleveland Memorial Shoreway").{{sfn\|Toman\|Hayes\|1996\|pages\=280 and 295}} The new Amtrak station is located near the former [Cleveland Union Depot](/wiki/Cleveland_Union_Depot "Cleveland Union Depot"), once served by the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad "Pennsylvania Railroad"). The former Erie Railroad commuter service, ultimately inherited by [Conrail](/wiki/Conrail "Conrail"), was discontinued on January 14, 1977, ending the facility's use as a railroad station.{{sfn\|Toman\|Hayes\|1996\|page\=297}}
However, in 2021, a rail advocacy group by the name of [All Aboard Ohio](/wiki/All_Aboard_Ohio "All Aboard Ohio"), voted in favor of returning Amtrak service to Union Terminal, in the anticipation of a proposed dramatic increase in rail service.{{Cite web \|last\=Glaser \|first\=Susan \|last2\=clevel \|last3\=.com \|date\=2021\-04\-15 \|title\=Rail advocacy group wants Cleveland Amtrak station back at Tower City \|url\=https://www.cleveland.com/travel/2021/04/rail\-advocacy\-group\-wants\-cleveland\-amtrak\-station\-back\-at\-tower\-city.html \|access\-date\=2021\-11\-30 \|website\=cleveland \|language\=en}}
File:C.U.T. Steam Concourse.jpg\|Concourse in 1987
File:Terminaltower2\.jpg\|
File:Tower City Concourse sign.jpg\|
File:C.U.T. Steam Concourse \& Traction Concourse.jpg\|
File:Tower City parking decks.jpg\|Platforms converted into parking decks
{{collapse top\|title\=Diagrams of former Cleveland area railroad stations}}
| [New York, Chicago and St. Louis](/wiki/New_York%2C_Chicago_and_St._Louis_Railroad "New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad") | [LS\&MS](/wiki/LS%26MS "LS&MS") ([New York Central](/wiki/New_York_Central "New York Central")) \- [AMTK](/wiki/Amtrak "Amtrak") | [ERIE](/wiki/Erie_Railroad "Erie Railroad") ([Erie Lackawanna Railway](/wiki/Erie_Lackawanna_Railway "Erie Lackawanna Railway")) \- [CR](/wiki/Conrail "Conrail") | [CT\&V](/wiki/Valley_Railway "Valley Railway") ([Baltimore and Ohio](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio "Baltimore and Ohio")) \- [CVSR](/wiki/CVSR "CVSR") |
| {{NKP Cleveland}} | {{NYC Cleveland}} | {{Conrail Cleveland\|inline\=y}} | {{Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad}} |
{{collapse bottom}}
|
[
"### Rail terminal",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The 1903 Group Plan with a union station on the waterfront](/wiki/File:Group_Plan.jpg \"Group Plan.jpg\")\nThe building complex was originally commissioned by the [Van Sweringen brothers](/wiki/Van_Sweringen_brothers \"Van Sweringen brothers\"), prominent local railroad moguls and real estate developers. The center of the complex was Cleveland Union Terminal (CUT), a [terminal](/wiki/Terminal_station \"Terminal station\") for all trains coming into Cleveland via the various railroad lines in a concept similar to [Grand Central Terminal](/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal \"Grand Central Terminal\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/66\\#.VzRcrfkrKM8\\|title\\=Shaker Hts. \\& The Van Sweringens\\|work\\=Cleveland Historical\\|access\\-date\\=May 11, 2016}}",
"When Cleveland Union Terminal was built, the train station allocated the northern set of tracks for [interurban](/wiki/Interurban \"Interurban\") or [rapid transit](/wiki/Rapid_transit \"Rapid transit\") service and the southern set of tracks for [inter\\-city rail](/wiki/Inter-city_rail \"Inter-city rail\") service. The portion of the station above the interurban tracks was called the Traction Concourse and the portion above the intercity train tracks was called the Steam Concourse. The Van Sweringen brothers envisioned a network of interurban lines extending from the CUT in all directions. They even acquired [right\\-of\\-way](/wiki/Right-of-way_%28railroad%29 \"Right-of-way (railroad)\") for some of the lines.",
"The complex was designed by the firm of [Graham, Anderson, Probst \\& White](/wiki/Graham%2C_Anderson%2C_Probst_%26_White \"Graham, Anderson, Probst & White\"). Site preparation began in 1922, and approximately 2,200 buildings were demolished. Construction began in 1926, and structural work was completed by 1927\\. At the time, it was the second\\-largest excavation project in the world after the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"). The Terminal Tower opened to its first tenants in 1928\\. From its completion until 1964, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside of New York City. Three other office buildings, the Medical Arts Building, Builders Exchange Building, and Midland Building, were built in addition to the Terminal Tower. The three [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") buildings are collectively known as the [Landmark Office Towers Complex](/wiki/Landmark_Office_Towers_Complex \"Landmark Office Towers Complex\") and were completed in 1929\\. In addition to the new buildings, the 1918 [Hotel Cleveland](/wiki/Hotel_Cleveland \"Hotel Cleveland\") was connected to the complex. Cleveland Union Terminal was dedicated and officially opened in 1930\\.",
"The facility included a number of retail stores and restaurants. Original designs for the complex show that at first the brothers did not plan on building an office tower within the complex. However, they eventually decided to build the 52\\-story [Terminal Tower](/wiki/Terminal_Tower \"Terminal Tower\") on the northeast side of the complex facing [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland \"Public Square, Cleveland\").",
"In 1931, the [Higbee Company](/wiki/Higbee_Company \"Higbee Company\") moved its main [store](/wiki/Department_store \"Department store\") to a new building connected to Cleveland Union Terminal. In 1934, the [U.S. Postal Service](/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service \"United States Postal Service\") moved its main Cleveland office to Union Terminal in a new building designed by the firm of [Walker and Weeks](/wiki/Walker_and_Weeks \"Walker and Weeks\"). It was known as M.K. Ferguson Plaza under the ownership of [Forest City Enterprises](/wiki/Forest_City_Enterprises \"Forest City Enterprises\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.forestcity.net/properties/work/office\\_buildings/Pages/mk\\_ferguson\\_plaza.aspx\\|title\\=Post Office Plaza\\|work\\=\\[\\[Forest City Enterprises]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 29, 2010}}",
"The Union Terminal served most rail lines: the [Baltimore and Ohio Railroad](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Railroad \"Baltimore and Ohio Railroad\"), [New York Central Railroad](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad \"New York Central Railroad\") and [Nickel Plate Road](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Road \"Nickel Plate Road\").{{sfn\\|McGraw\\-Hill\\|1918\\|page\\=865}} Exceptions were the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad \"Pennsylvania Railroad\") and initially the [Erie Railroad](/wiki/Erie_Railroad \"Erie Railroad\").",
"[thumb\\|Former departure board](/wiki/File:Cleveland_Union_Terminal_Track_19_and_20_information_board.png \"Cleveland Union Terminal Track 19 and 20 information board.png\")\nNotable trains, particularly for their destinations included:\n* Baltimore and Ohio Railroad:{{cite journal \\|title\\=Baltimore \\& Ohio Railroad, Tables A, 13 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}\n\t+ *[Cleveland Night Express](/wiki/Cleveland_Night_Express \"Cleveland Night Express\")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)\n\t+ *[Washingtonian](/wiki/Washingtonian_%28B%26O_train%29 \"Washingtonian (B&O train)\")* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh–Baltimore)\n* Erie Railroad, with the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad:{{cite journal \\|title\\=Erie Railroad, Table 13 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}\n\t+ *Steel King* (Cleveland–Pittsburgh, with morning and evening variations)\n* New York Central Railroad:New York Central timetable, June 17, 1951, Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 14, 16, 23, 37 [http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51\\-6TT.pdf](http://streamlinermemories.info/NYC/NYC51-6TT.pdf){{cite journal \\|title\\=New York Central Railroad; Tables 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}\n\t+ *Chicagoan* (Chicago–New York)\n\t+ *[Cincinnati Mercury](/wiki/Cincinnati_Mercury \"Cincinnati Mercury\")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland) (beginning in fall, 1951\\)September 1951 New York Central timetable, Table 23\n\t+ *[Cleveland Mercury](/wiki/Cleveland_Mercury \"Cleveland Mercury\")* (Detroit–Cleveland)\n\t+ *[Empire State Express](/wiki/Empire_State_Express \"Empire State Express\")* (Cleveland–New York)\n\t+ *Fifth Avenue Special* (Chicago–Cleveland\\-New York)\n\t+ *Iroquois* (Boston–Chicago; in most years operating westbound only; in some years terminating in Cleveland, in some years having New York as the eastern terminus)\n\t+ *[North Star](/wiki/North_Star_%28NYC_train%29 \"North Star (NYC train)\")* (New York–Cleveland; in most years operating westbound only)\n\t+ *[Ohio State Limited](/wiki/Ohio_State_Limited \"Ohio State Limited\")* (Cincinnati–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\\-bound trips only, in other years running through the city without stopping)\n\t+ *Pacemaker* (Chicago–Cleveland–New York; in some years stopping for east\\-bound trips only; in latter years: Cleveland–New York)\n\t+ *[Southwestern Limited](/wiki/Southwestern_Limited_%28New_York_Central_train%29 \"Southwestern Limited (New York Central train)\")* (St. Louis–Indianapolis–Cleveland–New York)\n* Nickel Plate Road ([Norfolk and Western](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western \"Norfolk and Western\") in final year of service):{{cite journal \\|title\\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 84 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1951}}{{cite journal \\|title\\=Nickel Plate Road, Condensed Through Schedules; Tables 1, 2 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 90 \\|issue\\= 7 \\|date\\=December 1957}}\n\t+ *[Nickel Plate Limited](/wiki/Nickel_Plate_Limited \"Nickel Plate Limited\")* (Chicago–Buffalo) \\[later named *City of Chicago* westbound/*City of Cleveland* eastbound]\n\t+ *Blue Arrow* (Cleveland–St. Louis)/*Blue Dart* (St. Louis–Cleveland)",
"However, the station was never particularly popular with the railroads. It required deviating from the quicker route along [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\"). As the city would not allow trains to operate under steam power near the downtown area, trains were forced to switch from steam to electric power at a suburban [rail yard](/wiki/Classification_yard \"Classification yard\") when heading inbound and then reverse on the way out at another yard. As a result, some lines began to bypass the station entirely, heading along the lake route, and some trains stopped serving the city altogether (examples of the latter case: the New York Central Railroad's *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited_%28New_York_Central_Railroad_train%29 \"Lake Shore Limited (New York Central Railroad train)\")* and the *[New England States](/wiki/New_England_States \"New England States\")*).",
"Several east–west routes on the circuit of trains bound east from Chicago through northern Ohio bypassed the city, traveling slightly to the south, passing through Akron and Youngstown, as in the case of B\\&O and Erie mainlines. In addition, national passenger rail travel had already passed its peak and was starting its gradual decline in favor of the automobile and, later, the airplane. The Erie Railroad, owned by the Van Sweringens, could not afford the electric transfer and continued to use its own nearby station until 1948, when it replaced steam with diesel locomotives and was able to serve the Union Terminal under its own power.",
"By the end of 1965, the B\\&O and the Norfolk and Western (the successor to the Nickel Plate) had terminated their last trains that had served Cleveland. By the end of 1967, the New York Central had discontinued all named trains that had run through Cleveland. All that remained as passenger trains were unnamed successors to trains \\#51 (westbound *Empire State Express*), \\#90 (eastbound successor to the *Chicagoan*), \\#27/28 (successor to the *New England States*) and \\#63/\\#64 (Chicago–New York) trains.New York Central timetable, December 3, 1967",
"In the lead\\-up to the arrival of Amtrak, in 1970 the Erie Lackawanna ran an unnamed train to Youngstown.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Erie Lackawanna Railroad, Table 1 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 102 \\|issue\\= 12 \\|date\\=May 1970}} The [Penn Central](/wiki/Penn_Central \"Penn Central\") (successor to the New York Central) Chicago\\-bound trains stopping at the terminal included an unnamed remnant of the *Empire State Express* and another unnamed train. East\\-bound, there was an unnamed successor to the *New England States,* as well as two other unnamed trains. Southwest\\-bound there was an Indianapolis\\-destined remnant of the *Southwestern Limited* and an *Ohio State Limited* remnant bound for Columbus.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Penn Central Railroad, Tables 3, 4, 45, 46 \\|journal\\=Official Guide of the Railways \\|publisher\\=National Railway Publication Company \\|volume\\= 102 \\|issue\\= 12 \\|date\\=May 1970}}",
"Amtrak's short\\-lived *[Lake Shore](/wiki/Lake_Shore \"Lake Shore\")* served Union Terminal for seven months in 1971, but the railroad found the rents prohibitive. When the new *[Lake Shore Limited](/wiki/Lake_Shore_Limited \"Lake Shore Limited\")* began in 1975, Amtrak chose to construct [a new station](/wiki/Cleveland_Lakefront_Station \"Cleveland Lakefront Station\") near [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\") adjacent to the [Cleveland Memorial Shoreway](/wiki/Cleveland_Memorial_Shoreway \"Cleveland Memorial Shoreway\").{{sfn\\|Toman\\|Hayes\\|1996\\|pages\\=280 and 295}} The new Amtrak station is located near the former [Cleveland Union Depot](/wiki/Cleveland_Union_Depot \"Cleveland Union Depot\"), once served by the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad \"Pennsylvania Railroad\"). The former Erie Railroad commuter service, ultimately inherited by [Conrail](/wiki/Conrail \"Conrail\"), was discontinued on January 14, 1977, ending the facility's use as a railroad station.{{sfn\\|Toman\\|Hayes\\|1996\\|page\\=297}}",
"However, in 2021, a rail advocacy group by the name of [All Aboard Ohio](/wiki/All_Aboard_Ohio \"All Aboard Ohio\"), voted in favor of returning Amtrak service to Union Terminal, in the anticipation of a proposed dramatic increase in rail service.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Glaser \\|first\\=Susan \\|last2\\=clevel \\|last3\\=.com \\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-15 \\|title\\=Rail advocacy group wants Cleveland Amtrak station back at Tower City \\|url\\=https://www.cleveland.com/travel/2021/04/rail\\-advocacy\\-group\\-wants\\-cleveland\\-amtrak\\-station\\-back\\-at\\-tower\\-city.html \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-30 \\|website\\=cleveland \\|language\\=en}}",
"",
"File:C.U.T. Steam Concourse.jpg\\|Concourse in 1987\nFile:Terminaltower2\\.jpg\\|\nFile:Tower City Concourse sign.jpg\\|\nFile:C.U.T. Steam Concourse \\& Traction Concourse.jpg\\|\nFile:Tower City parking decks.jpg\\|Platforms converted into parking decks",
"",
"{{collapse top\\|title\\=Diagrams of former Cleveland area railroad stations}}",
"| [New York, Chicago and St. Louis](/wiki/New_York%2C_Chicago_and_St._Louis_Railroad \"New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad\") | [LS\\&MS](/wiki/LS%26MS \"LS&MS\") ([New York Central](/wiki/New_York_Central \"New York Central\")) \\- [AMTK](/wiki/Amtrak \"Amtrak\") | [ERIE](/wiki/Erie_Railroad \"Erie Railroad\") ([Erie Lackawanna Railway](/wiki/Erie_Lackawanna_Railway \"Erie Lackawanna Railway\")) \\- [CR](/wiki/Conrail \"Conrail\") | [CT\\&V](/wiki/Valley_Railway \"Valley Railway\") ([Baltimore and Ohio](/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio \"Baltimore and Ohio\")) \\- [CVSR](/wiki/CVSR \"CVSR\") |",
"| {{NKP Cleveland}} | {{NYC Cleveland}} | {{Conrail Cleveland\\|inline\\=y}} | {{Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad}} |",
"{{collapse bottom}}",
""
] |
The battle
----------
On 22 July 1943, at 6:35 a.m., after an hour and a half of artillery fire and a massive air strike, the Soviet troops went on the offensive.
The units of the first echelon of the 8th Army immediately managed to capture the first line of defense of the enemy, but the offensive did not advance any further. In late July, the Soviet command brought into battle the [379th](/wiki/379th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "379th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") and [165th Rifle Divisions](/wiki/165th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "165th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)"), which replaced the [18th](/wiki/18th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "18th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") and [256th Divisions](/wiki/256th_Rifle_Division "256th Rifle Division"), but this did not change the situation in favor of the Red Army. The divisions that entered the battle suffered heavy losses, as German units put up fierce resistance and constantly counterattacked.
On 12 August, in a renewed attack, the Soviet 8th Army took the strong enemy bridgehead east of the Nasija River near Porechye, but failed to breakthrough towards Mga, despite the introduction into battle of the last reserve of the 8th Army \- the [311th Rifle Division](/wiki/311th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "311th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)"). The German command was able to quickly strengthen the defense. For several days, Soviet troops tried to advance further, but did not achieve significant results.
The same happened in the northern direction of the front. On 22 July, at the same time as the troops of the 8th Army, units of the 67th Army went on the offensive, and partially broke the enemy's defenses, but failed to exploit the initial success. The German command strengthened its defenses with reserves, sending the [58th](/wiki/58th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "58th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)"), [126th](/wiki/126th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "126th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)") (from the 16th Army), and at the end of the operation the [61st Infantry Divisions](/wiki/61st_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "61st Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)") and the Soviet offensive was halted. Fierce fighting lasted several weeks and both sides suffered heavy losses.
At the end of August, the fighting gradually began to subside. Despite fierce fighting, the Soviet troops failed to reach the targets set before the start of the operation, and the front line in the area of the [Sinyavino](/wiki/Sinyavino%2C_Leningrad_Oblast "Sinyavino, Leningrad Oblast") Heights differed only slightly from the front line at the beginning of the Soviet offensive.
|
[
"The battle\n----------",
"On 22 July 1943, at 6:35 a.m., after an hour and a half of artillery fire and a massive air strike, the Soviet troops went on the offensive.",
"The units of the first echelon of the 8th Army immediately managed to capture the first line of defense of the enemy, but the offensive did not advance any further. In late July, the Soviet command brought into battle the [379th](/wiki/379th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"379th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\") and [165th Rifle Divisions](/wiki/165th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"165th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\"), which replaced the [18th](/wiki/18th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"18th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\") and [256th Divisions](/wiki/256th_Rifle_Division \"256th Rifle Division\"), but this did not change the situation in favor of the Red Army. The divisions that entered the battle suffered heavy losses, as German units put up fierce resistance and constantly counterattacked.",
"On 12 August, in a renewed attack, the Soviet 8th Army took the strong enemy bridgehead east of the Nasija River near Porechye, but failed to breakthrough towards Mga, despite the introduction into battle of the last reserve of the 8th Army \\- the [311th Rifle Division](/wiki/311th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"311th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\"). The German command was able to quickly strengthen the defense. For several days, Soviet troops tried to advance further, but did not achieve significant results.",
"The same happened in the northern direction of the front. On 22 July, at the same time as the troops of the 8th Army, units of the 67th Army went on the offensive, and partially broke the enemy's defenses, but failed to exploit the initial success. The German command strengthened its defenses with reserves, sending the [58th](/wiki/58th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"58th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\"), [126th](/wiki/126th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"126th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\") (from the 16th Army), and at the end of the operation the [61st Infantry Divisions](/wiki/61st_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"61st Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\") and the Soviet offensive was halted. Fierce fighting lasted several weeks and both sides suffered heavy losses.",
"At the end of August, the fighting gradually began to subside. Despite fierce fighting, the Soviet troops failed to reach the targets set before the start of the operation, and the front line in the area of the [Sinyavino](/wiki/Sinyavino%2C_Leningrad_Oblast \"Sinyavino, Leningrad Oblast\") Heights differed only slightly from the front line at the beginning of the Soviet offensive.",
""
] |
Middle distance track racing
----------------------------
Cummings was invited to several of the most prestigious track and field meets during the 1970s. He won events at the [Millrose Games](/wiki/Millrose_Games "Millrose Games"), the [Sunkist Invitational](/wiki/Sunkist_Invitational "Sunkist Invitational"), the LA Times Indoor Games, the Jack in the Box Indoor Games, the [Modesto Relays](/wiki/Modesto_Relays "Modesto Relays"),[SportsIllustrated.com](https://www.si.com/vault/1974/06/03/614741/gold-to-ivory-ashes-for-tony). Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. and other events.[SportsIllustrated.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135602/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1094650/index.htm). Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
He competed against [Steve Prefontaine](/wiki/Steve_Prefontaine "Steve Prefontaine"), [Frank Shorter](/wiki/Frank_Shorter "Frank Shorter"), [Tony Waldrop](/wiki/Tony_Waldrop "Tony Waldrop"), [Marty Liquori](/wiki/Marty_Liquori "Marty Liquori"), [Filbert Bayi](/wiki/Filbert_Bayi "Filbert Bayi"), [Wilson Waigwa](/wiki/Wilson_Waigwa "Wilson Waigwa"), [John Walker](/wiki/John_Walker_%28athlete%29 "John Walker (athlete)"), [Steve Scott](/wiki/Steve_Scott_%28athlete%29 "Steve Scott (athlete)"), [Eamonn Coghlan](/wiki/Eamonn_Coghlan "Eamonn Coghlan"), [Dick Buerkle](/wiki/Dick_Buerkle "Dick Buerkle"), and several other top tier runners of the era, besting everyone on this list at least once. He ran in the [Millrose Games](/wiki/Millrose_Games "Millrose Games") [Wanamaker Mile](/wiki/Wanamaker_Mile "Wanamaker Mile") in 1974, 1975,[SportsIllustrated.com.](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135524/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1089505/index.htm) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. 1976, and 1977, winning the event in 1976 in a Millrose Games record time of 3:57\.6\.[SportsIllustrated.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135548/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/edb/reader.html?magID=SI&issueDate=19760209&mode=reader_vault). Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
On April 25, 1976, Cummings won the [Penn Relays](/wiki/Penn_Relays "Penn Relays") 1500 Meter event at [Franklin Field](/wiki/Franklin_Field "Franklin Field") in Philadelphia in 3:38\.9\.[Gettysburg Times (1976\-04\-26\): pp. 10\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2202&dat=19760426&id=kHMlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=xfIFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1592,445266) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
In 1976 he won the 3,000 meter event at Los Angeles's Sunkist Invitational Track Meet in 8:29\.6, just five seconds off Steve Prefontaine's American Record set at the same meet the year before.[Frankenenterprises.com.](http://www.frankenenterprises.com/laipast.htm) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. In 1977 he won the Sunkist Invitational indoor mile in 3:57\.2\.[SportsIllustrated.com.](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135611/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1091975/index.htm) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. Also in 1977, Cummings, representing the US, won the mile at Canada's Tri\-Country indoor track and field meet, competing against Canada and the Soviet Union.
In January 1978 at the Muhammad Ali Track and Field Invitational at the [Long Beach Arena](/wiki/Long_Beach_Arena "Long Beach Arena") in California, Cummings broke the indoor American record for the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters "1500 meters") by .4 with a time of 3:39\.8\.[Ellensburg Daily Record. (1978\-01\-09\): pp. 5\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=860&dat=19780109&id=LgEQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bI8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6574,382990) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
A year later, in January 1979 at the same Muhammad Ali Track and Field Invitational at the [Long Beach Arena](/wiki/Long_Beach_Arena "Long Beach Arena") in California, both [John Walker](/wiki/John_Walker_%28athlete%29 "John Walker (athlete)") and Cummings finished under the indoor world record for the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters "1500 meters") by .4 and .2 seconds respectively. Walker set a world record with a time of 3:37\.4\. Cummings set an American Record with a time of 3:37\.6\.[SportsIllustrated.com.](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135618/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1094517/index.htm) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.[The Free Lance Star, Fredericksburg, VA. (1979\-01\-08\): pp. 9\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19790108&id=sg0QAAAAIBAJ&sjid=josDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5011,3197026) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
Cummings ran at a time when there was very little financial support for athletes after college. When attending track meets, several athletes would share the same hotel room, sleeping on floors, and carpool together to save costs. He worked at a [steel mill](/wiki/Steel_mill "Steel mill") rebuilding open hearth furnaces to support his family and ran for the Tobias Striders, Beverly Hills Striders and Pacific Coast track clubs to maintain his amateur status.
|
[
"Middle distance track racing\n----------------------------",
"Cummings was invited to several of the most prestigious track and field meets during the 1970s. He won events at the [Millrose Games](/wiki/Millrose_Games \"Millrose Games\"), the [Sunkist Invitational](/wiki/Sunkist_Invitational \"Sunkist Invitational\"), the LA Times Indoor Games, the Jack in the Box Indoor Games, the [Modesto Relays](/wiki/Modesto_Relays \"Modesto Relays\"),[SportsIllustrated.com](https://www.si.com/vault/1974/06/03/614741/gold-to-ivory-ashes-for-tony). Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. and other events.[SportsIllustrated.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135602/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1094650/index.htm). Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.",
"He competed against [Steve Prefontaine](/wiki/Steve_Prefontaine \"Steve Prefontaine\"), [Frank Shorter](/wiki/Frank_Shorter \"Frank Shorter\"), [Tony Waldrop](/wiki/Tony_Waldrop \"Tony Waldrop\"), [Marty Liquori](/wiki/Marty_Liquori \"Marty Liquori\"), [Filbert Bayi](/wiki/Filbert_Bayi \"Filbert Bayi\"), [Wilson Waigwa](/wiki/Wilson_Waigwa \"Wilson Waigwa\"), [John Walker](/wiki/John_Walker_%28athlete%29 \"John Walker (athlete)\"), [Steve Scott](/wiki/Steve_Scott_%28athlete%29 \"Steve Scott (athlete)\"), [Eamonn Coghlan](/wiki/Eamonn_Coghlan \"Eamonn Coghlan\"), [Dick Buerkle](/wiki/Dick_Buerkle \"Dick Buerkle\"), and several other top tier runners of the era, besting everyone on this list at least once. He ran in the [Millrose Games](/wiki/Millrose_Games \"Millrose Games\") [Wanamaker Mile](/wiki/Wanamaker_Mile \"Wanamaker Mile\") in 1974, 1975,[SportsIllustrated.com.](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135524/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1089505/index.htm) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. 1976, and 1977, winning the event in 1976 in a Millrose Games record time of 3:57\\.6\\.[SportsIllustrated.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135548/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/edb/reader.html?magID=SI&issueDate=19760209&mode=reader_vault). Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.",
"On April 25, 1976, Cummings won the [Penn Relays](/wiki/Penn_Relays \"Penn Relays\") 1500 Meter event at [Franklin Field](/wiki/Franklin_Field \"Franklin Field\") in Philadelphia in 3:38\\.9\\.[Gettysburg Times (1976\\-04\\-26\\): pp. 10\\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2202&dat=19760426&id=kHMlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=xfIFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1592,445266) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.",
"In 1976 he won the 3,000 meter event at Los Angeles's Sunkist Invitational Track Meet in 8:29\\.6, just five seconds off Steve Prefontaine's American Record set at the same meet the year before.[Frankenenterprises.com.](http://www.frankenenterprises.com/laipast.htm) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. In 1977 he won the Sunkist Invitational indoor mile in 3:57\\.2\\.[SportsIllustrated.com.](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135611/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1091975/index.htm) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. Also in 1977, Cummings, representing the US, won the mile at Canada's Tri\\-Country indoor track and field meet, competing against Canada and the Soviet Union.",
"In January 1978 at the Muhammad Ali Track and Field Invitational at the [Long Beach Arena](/wiki/Long_Beach_Arena \"Long Beach Arena\") in California, Cummings broke the indoor American record for the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters \"1500 meters\") by .4 with a time of 3:39\\.8\\.[Ellensburg Daily Record. (1978\\-01\\-09\\): pp. 5\\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=860&dat=19780109&id=LgEQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bI8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6574,382990) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.",
"A year later, in January 1979 at the same Muhammad Ali Track and Field Invitational at the [Long Beach Arena](/wiki/Long_Beach_Arena \"Long Beach Arena\") in California, both [John Walker](/wiki/John_Walker_%28athlete%29 \"John Walker (athlete)\") and Cummings finished under the indoor world record for the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters \"1500 meters\") by .4 and .2 seconds respectively. Walker set a world record with a time of 3:37\\.4\\. Cummings set an American Record with a time of 3:37\\.6\\.[SportsIllustrated.com.](https://web.archive.org/web/20121026135618/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1094517/index.htm) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.[The Free Lance Star, Fredericksburg, VA. (1979\\-01\\-08\\): pp. 9\\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19790108&id=sg0QAAAAIBAJ&sjid=josDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5011,3197026) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.",
"Cummings ran at a time when there was very little financial support for athletes after college. When attending track meets, several athletes would share the same hotel room, sleeping on floors, and carpool together to save costs. He worked at a [steel mill](/wiki/Steel_mill \"Steel mill\") rebuilding open hearth furnaces to support his family and ran for the Tobias Striders, Beverly Hills Striders and Pacific Coast track clubs to maintain his amateur status.",
""
] |
Road racing, American and World records
---------------------------------------
In 1981, Cummings shifted his focus from track to [road racing](/wiki/Road_running "Road running"). One of his first marathons was the [St. George Marathon](/wiki/St._George_Marathon "St. George Marathon"), which he won in 2:15\.16, a course record that stood until 2017\.<https://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/info/courserecords/men> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920200955/https://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/info/courserecords/men \|date\=2020\-09\-20 }}
[Stgeorgemarathon.com.](http://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/race/records.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817010053/http://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/race/records.php \|date\=2010\-08\-17 }} Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
```
He won the St. George Marathon again in 1982.
```
Taking advantage of new rules that enabled runners to compete professionally, Cummings represented [New Balance](/wiki/New_Balance "New Balance") shoes beginning in 1982\.
On June 5, 1982, Cummings ran his PR in the 5,000 meters at the Prefontaine Classic track meet in Eugene, Oregon, running against some of the best American middle distance runners of the time, including [Matt Centrowitz](/wiki/Matt_Centrowitz "Matt Centrowitz"), [Alberto Salazar](/wiki/Alberto_Salazar "Alberto Salazar") and [Doug Padilla](/wiki/Doug_Padilla "Doug Padilla"). He ran towards the front for most of the race and ran 13:19\.62, a Personal Record by 9 seconds, and just short of the American Record set by Matt Centrowitz in the same race. The following link shows the entire race on video in two parts. Part 1\.{{YouTube\|E\-Dya51kT3M\|ESPN (06\-05\-1982\)}}. Retrieved 2010\-09\-22\. Part 2\.{{YouTube\|l\_SkBU09maA\|ESPN (06\-05\-1982\)}}. Retrieved 2010\-09\-22\.
Paul Cummings was very busy and successful running road races in 1983\. He ran in the [Boston Marathon](/wiki/Boston_Marathon "Boston Marathon") with the lead pack for the first 10 miles of the race.[Runnersworld.com](http://www.runnersworld.com/boston-marathon/greg-meyer-how-i-won-1983-boston-marathon?page=single) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429184423/http://www.runnersworld.com/boston\-marathon/greg\-meyer\-how\-i\-won\-1983\-boston\-marathon?page\=single \|date\=2014\-04\-29 }} Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. The following link shows a picture of Paul running with [Benji Durden](/wiki/Benji_Durden "Benji Durden") and [Greg Meyer](/wiki/Greg_Meyer "Greg Meyer") (eventual race winner and only American Male to win until 2014\).[WBUR.ORG](http://www.wbur.org/2013/04/12/greg-meyer-boston-marathon) Retrieved 2013\-05\-02\. He set an American Record in the 15K by almost 28 seconds at the Cascade Run Off in Portland, Oregon on June 26, 1983\.[New York Times.](https://www.nytimes.com/1983/06/27/sports/musyoki-retains-cascade-title.html) (1983\-06\-27\). Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.[Fasterrunning.com](http://www.fasterrunning.com/oldsite/roadrecords.htm) Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. Cummings placed in the top 10 at Spokane Washington's [Bloomsday 12K Run](/wiki/Lilac_Bloomsday_Run "Lilac Bloomsday Run") (8th in 1983 and 2nd in 1984\).[Bloomsdayrun.org](http://www.bloomsdayrun.org/1984Stats.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100508022424/http://www.bloomsdayrun.org/1984Stats.htm \|date\=2010\-05\-08 }} Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. Paul also ran in the [New York City Marathon](/wiki/New_York_City_Marathon "New York City Marathon") in 1983\.[New York Times](https://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/23/sports/new-york-city-marathon-is-bigger-and-competitive.html) Retrieved 2015\-09\-18\.
On September 25, 1983, Cummings set the World Record in the [Half marathon](/wiki/Half_marathon "Half marathon") at the Dayton River Corridor Classic in [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio "Dayton, Ohio"), with a time of 1:01:32\.[Dayton River Corridor Classic Results Archive (09\-25\-1983\).](https://2b3922f9-db32-4e58-badb-d03f789ce589.filesusr.com/ugd/bf5a97_0708b51fb2ef46da8b367fe31d2fa549.pdf) Retrieved 2020\-05\-24\.[South Coast Today (05\-01\-1997\).](http://archive.southcoasttoday.com/daily/03-97/03-14-97/d01sp123.htm) Retrieved 2010\-06\-04\.
Cummings represented [Converse](/wiki/Converse_%28shoe_company%29 "Converse (shoe company)") shoes beginning in 1984 and was included in Runner's World Magazine's list of the top 20 highest paid runners, ranked 15th worldwide, in 1984\.[New York Times (1985\-05\-01\).](https://www.nytimes.com/1985/05/01/sports/scouting-the-money-race.html?scp=117&sq=paul%20cummings&st=cse) Retrieved 2010\-06\-04\.
Paul's best marathon time came in winning the 1986 [Houston Marathon](/wiki/Houston_Marathon "Houston Marathon") in 2:11:31\.[Chevronhoustonmarathon.com.](http://www.chevronhoustonmarathon.com/Assets/houston+marathon+assets/pdf/Past+Winners.+Marathon+Open.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113072704/http://www.chevronhoustonmarathon.com/Assets/houston\+marathon\+assets/pdf/Past\+Winners.\+Marathon\+Open.pdf \|date\=2008\-11\-13 }} Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\. His best finish at the [Boston Marathon](/wiki/Boston_Marathon "Boston Marathon") was 8th place overall in 1986\.[coolrunning.com](http://www.coolrunning.com/boston/results3.htm) Retrieved 2013\-05\-02\. In the 1983 Stockholm Marathon, Cummings built up a 1\-minute 12 second lead but suffered from cramps during the last 3 miles and narrowly lost to Hugh Jones of Great Britain, coming in 3rd place overall.[The Day](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19830605&id=ATZSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PTYNAAAAIBAJ&pg=5025,921892&hl=en) Retrieved 2015\-09\-18\.
Cummings is the only runner to finish second in San Francisco's [Bay to Breakers](/wiki/Bay_to_Breakers "Bay to Breakers") 12K road race (Guinness World Record largest road race) three years in a row (1984, 1985, and 1986\).
On March 15, 1987, Cummings broke the American Record in the 20K, at New Bedford, Massachusetts, in a time of 59\.13\.[HickokSports.com.](http://www.hickoksports.com/history/amtfrecords.shtml) {{webarchive\|url\=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020223055536/http%3A//www.hickoksports.com/history/amtfrecords.shtml \|date\=2002\-02\-23 }} Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
Cummings continued running into his 40s. He won the US Master's National Championship for the Marathon in 1993 at the [Twin Cities Marathon](/wiki/Twin_Cities_Marathon "Twin Cities Marathon").[TCMEVENTS.ORG.](https://www.tcmevents.org/_asset/vxly6k/1993-Results.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021174159/https://www.tcmevents.org/\_asset/vxly6k/1993\-Results.pdf \|date\=2013\-10\-21 }} Retrieved 2012\-11\-28\. He was also awarded the USA Track and Field (USATF) Master's Age Division (Age 40\+) Runner of the Year in 1993\.[USATF.COM.](http://www.usatf.org/statistics/awards/LDR/AgeDivisionRunnersOfTheYear.asp) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010221329/http://www.usatf.org/statistics/awards/LDR/AgeDivisionRunnersOfTheYear.asp \|date\=2009\-10\-10 }} Retrieved 2010\-05\-20\.
Cummings won the 1994 Walt Disney World Marathon Master's division in 2:27:50\.[Disneysportsnews.com](http://disneysportsnews.com/walt-disney-world-marathon-and-half-marathon-all-time-records/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021175823/http://disneysportsnews.com/walt\-disney\-world\-marathon\-and\-half\-marathon\-all\-time\-records/ \|date\=2015\-10\-21 }} Retrieved 2015\-09\-18\.
In 1993 competed at the 1993 Masters National Outdoor Championship winning the M35 1500 meter run.masters history. [https://www.mastershistory.org/Outdoor/1993\-Outdoor.pdf](https://www.mastershistory.org/Outdoor/1993-Outdoor.pdf) Retrieved Feb 8, 2023
|
[
"Road racing, American and World records\n---------------------------------------",
"In 1981, Cummings shifted his focus from track to [road racing](/wiki/Road_running \"Road running\"). One of his first marathons was the [St. George Marathon](/wiki/St._George_Marathon \"St. George Marathon\"), which he won in 2:15\\.16, a course record that stood until 2017\\.<https://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/info/courserecords/men> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920200955/https://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/info/courserecords/men \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-20 }}",
"[Stgeorgemarathon.com.](http://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/race/records.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817010053/http://www.stgeorgemarathon.com/race/records.php \\|date\\=2010\\-08\\-17 }} Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.\n```\nHe won the St. George Marathon again in 1982.",
"```",
"Taking advantage of new rules that enabled runners to compete professionally, Cummings represented [New Balance](/wiki/New_Balance \"New Balance\") shoes beginning in 1982\\.",
"On June 5, 1982, Cummings ran his PR in the 5,000 meters at the Prefontaine Classic track meet in Eugene, Oregon, running against some of the best American middle distance runners of the time, including [Matt Centrowitz](/wiki/Matt_Centrowitz \"Matt Centrowitz\"), [Alberto Salazar](/wiki/Alberto_Salazar \"Alberto Salazar\") and [Doug Padilla](/wiki/Doug_Padilla \"Doug Padilla\"). He ran towards the front for most of the race and ran 13:19\\.62, a Personal Record by 9 seconds, and just short of the American Record set by Matt Centrowitz in the same race. The following link shows the entire race on video in two parts. Part 1\\.{{YouTube\\|E\\-Dya51kT3M\\|ESPN (06\\-05\\-1982\\)}}. Retrieved 2010\\-09\\-22\\. Part 2\\.{{YouTube\\|l\\_SkBU09maA\\|ESPN (06\\-05\\-1982\\)}}. Retrieved 2010\\-09\\-22\\.",
"Paul Cummings was very busy and successful running road races in 1983\\. He ran in the [Boston Marathon](/wiki/Boston_Marathon \"Boston Marathon\") with the lead pack for the first 10 miles of the race.[Runnersworld.com](http://www.runnersworld.com/boston-marathon/greg-meyer-how-i-won-1983-boston-marathon?page=single) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429184423/http://www.runnersworld.com/boston\\-marathon/greg\\-meyer\\-how\\-i\\-won\\-1983\\-boston\\-marathon?page\\=single \\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-29 }} Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. The following link shows a picture of Paul running with [Benji Durden](/wiki/Benji_Durden \"Benji Durden\") and [Greg Meyer](/wiki/Greg_Meyer \"Greg Meyer\") (eventual race winner and only American Male to win until 2014\\).[WBUR.ORG](http://www.wbur.org/2013/04/12/greg-meyer-boston-marathon) Retrieved 2013\\-05\\-02\\. He set an American Record in the 15K by almost 28 seconds at the Cascade Run Off in Portland, Oregon on June 26, 1983\\.[New York Times.](https://www.nytimes.com/1983/06/27/sports/musyoki-retains-cascade-title.html) (1983\\-06\\-27\\). Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.[Fasterrunning.com](http://www.fasterrunning.com/oldsite/roadrecords.htm) Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. Cummings placed in the top 10 at Spokane Washington's [Bloomsday 12K Run](/wiki/Lilac_Bloomsday_Run \"Lilac Bloomsday Run\") (8th in 1983 and 2nd in 1984\\).[Bloomsdayrun.org](http://www.bloomsdayrun.org/1984Stats.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100508022424/http://www.bloomsdayrun.org/1984Stats.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-08 }} Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. Paul also ran in the [New York City Marathon](/wiki/New_York_City_Marathon \"New York City Marathon\") in 1983\\.[New York Times](https://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/23/sports/new-york-city-marathon-is-bigger-and-competitive.html) Retrieved 2015\\-09\\-18\\.",
"On September 25, 1983, Cummings set the World Record in the [Half marathon](/wiki/Half_marathon \"Half marathon\") at the Dayton River Corridor Classic in [Dayton, Ohio](/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio \"Dayton, Ohio\"), with a time of 1:01:32\\.[Dayton River Corridor Classic Results Archive (09\\-25\\-1983\\).](https://2b3922f9-db32-4e58-badb-d03f789ce589.filesusr.com/ugd/bf5a97_0708b51fb2ef46da8b367fe31d2fa549.pdf) Retrieved 2020\\-05\\-24\\.[South Coast Today (05\\-01\\-1997\\).](http://archive.southcoasttoday.com/daily/03-97/03-14-97/d01sp123.htm) Retrieved 2010\\-06\\-04\\.",
"Cummings represented [Converse](/wiki/Converse_%28shoe_company%29 \"Converse (shoe company)\") shoes beginning in 1984 and was included in Runner's World Magazine's list of the top 20 highest paid runners, ranked 15th worldwide, in 1984\\.[New York Times (1985\\-05\\-01\\).](https://www.nytimes.com/1985/05/01/sports/scouting-the-money-race.html?scp=117&sq=paul%20cummings&st=cse) Retrieved 2010\\-06\\-04\\.",
"Paul's best marathon time came in winning the 1986 [Houston Marathon](/wiki/Houston_Marathon \"Houston Marathon\") in 2:11:31\\.[Chevronhoustonmarathon.com.](http://www.chevronhoustonmarathon.com/Assets/houston+marathon+assets/pdf/Past+Winners.+Marathon+Open.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113072704/http://www.chevronhoustonmarathon.com/Assets/houston\\+marathon\\+assets/pdf/Past\\+Winners.\\+Marathon\\+Open.pdf \\|date\\=2008\\-11\\-13 }} Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\. His best finish at the [Boston Marathon](/wiki/Boston_Marathon \"Boston Marathon\") was 8th place overall in 1986\\.[coolrunning.com](http://www.coolrunning.com/boston/results3.htm) Retrieved 2013\\-05\\-02\\. In the 1983 Stockholm Marathon, Cummings built up a 1\\-minute 12 second lead but suffered from cramps during the last 3 miles and narrowly lost to Hugh Jones of Great Britain, coming in 3rd place overall.[The Day](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19830605&id=ATZSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PTYNAAAAIBAJ&pg=5025,921892&hl=en) Retrieved 2015\\-09\\-18\\.",
"Cummings is the only runner to finish second in San Francisco's [Bay to Breakers](/wiki/Bay_to_Breakers \"Bay to Breakers\") 12K road race (Guinness World Record largest road race) three years in a row (1984, 1985, and 1986\\).",
"On March 15, 1987, Cummings broke the American Record in the 20K, at New Bedford, Massachusetts, in a time of 59\\.13\\.[HickokSports.com.](http://www.hickoksports.com/history/amtfrecords.shtml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020223055536/http%3A//www.hickoksports.com/history/amtfrecords.shtml \\|date\\=2002\\-02\\-23 }} Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.",
"Cummings continued running into his 40s. He won the US Master's National Championship for the Marathon in 1993 at the [Twin Cities Marathon](/wiki/Twin_Cities_Marathon \"Twin Cities Marathon\").[TCMEVENTS.ORG.](https://www.tcmevents.org/_asset/vxly6k/1993-Results.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021174159/https://www.tcmevents.org/\\_asset/vxly6k/1993\\-Results.pdf \\|date\\=2013\\-10\\-21 }} Retrieved 2012\\-11\\-28\\. He was also awarded the USA Track and Field (USATF) Master's Age Division (Age 40\\+) Runner of the Year in 1993\\.[USATF.COM.](http://www.usatf.org/statistics/awards/LDR/AgeDivisionRunnersOfTheYear.asp) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010221329/http://www.usatf.org/statistics/awards/LDR/AgeDivisionRunnersOfTheYear.asp \\|date\\=2009\\-10\\-10 }} Retrieved 2010\\-05\\-20\\.",
"Cummings won the 1994 Walt Disney World Marathon Master's division in 2:27:50\\.[Disneysportsnews.com](http://disneysportsnews.com/walt-disney-world-marathon-and-half-marathon-all-time-records/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021175823/http://disneysportsnews.com/walt\\-disney\\-world\\-marathon\\-and\\-half\\-marathon\\-all\\-time\\-records/ \\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-21 }} Retrieved 2015\\-09\\-18\\.",
"In 1993 competed at the 1993 Masters National Outdoor Championship winning the M35 1500 meter run.masters history. [https://www.mastershistory.org/Outdoor/1993\\-Outdoor.pdf](https://www.mastershistory.org/Outdoor/1993-Outdoor.pdf) Retrieved Feb 8, 2023",
""
] |
Algorithm
---------
Surface normals are three\-dimensional vectors of unit length. Because of the length constraint only two elements of any normal need to be stored. The input is therefore an array of two\-dimensional values.
Compression is performed in 4×4 blocks. In each block the two components of each value are compressed separately. For each block, each of the two components have a palette of 8 values to choose from. The palettes are generated from two values representing the start and end of a line and the other six values being generated as linear combinations of the start and end values.
Compression is natively achieved by finding the lowest and highest values of the 16 pixels to be compressed and storing each of those as an 8\-bit quantity. Individual elements within the 4×4 block are then stored with 3\-bits each, representing their position on an 8 step linear scale from the lowest value to the highest. Each pixel's 3\-bit value (the palette index) would be chosen by choosing the palette entry with the minimum distance from the original values.
Total storage is 128 bits per 4x4 block once both source components are factored in. In an uncompressed scheme with similar 8\-bit precision, the source data is 32 8\-bit values for the same area, occupying 256 bits. The algorithm therefore produces a 2:1 [compression](/wiki/Data_compression "Data compression") ratio.
The compression ratio is sometimes stated as being "up to 4:1" as it is common to use 16\-bit precision for input data rather than 8\-bit. This produces compressed output that is literally 1/4 the size of the input but it is not of comparable precision.
|
[
"Algorithm\n---------",
"Surface normals are three\\-dimensional vectors of unit length. Because of the length constraint only two elements of any normal need to be stored. The input is therefore an array of two\\-dimensional values.",
"Compression is performed in 4×4 blocks. In each block the two components of each value are compressed separately. For each block, each of the two components have a palette of 8 values to choose from. The palettes are generated from two values representing the start and end of a line and the other six values being generated as linear combinations of the start and end values.",
"Compression is natively achieved by finding the lowest and highest values of the 16 pixels to be compressed and storing each of those as an 8\\-bit quantity. Individual elements within the 4×4 block are then stored with 3\\-bits each, representing their position on an 8 step linear scale from the lowest value to the highest. Each pixel's 3\\-bit value (the palette index) would be chosen by choosing the palette entry with the minimum distance from the original values.",
"Total storage is 128 bits per 4x4 block once both source components are factored in. In an uncompressed scheme with similar 8\\-bit precision, the source data is 32 8\\-bit values for the same area, occupying 256 bits. The algorithm therefore produces a 2:1 [compression](/wiki/Data_compression \"Data compression\") ratio.",
"The compression ratio is sometimes stated as being \"up to 4:1\" as it is common to use 16\\-bit precision for input data rather than 8\\-bit. This produces compressed output that is literally 1/4 the size of the input but it is not of comparable precision.",
""
] |
Fungi
-----
{{More citations needed section\|date\=August 2020}}
The Great Otway National Park is extremely rich in fungal diversity. Although hundreds of species of flora and fauna are listed in the [Great Otway National Park Management Plan](http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/313282/great-otway-np-mp.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331154454/http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/\_\_data/assets/pdf\_file/0019/313282/great\-otway\-np\-mp.pdf \|date\=31 March 2012 }}, there is only a single reference to fungi. The reference is to the fungal pathogen, *Chalara australis* that affects myrtle beech. However, the great majority of fungi in the Park perform beneficial ecological roles. In fact, most fungi perform positive rather than negative roles. Even parasitic fungi – often regarded only negatively – are a vital part of healthy ecosystems, regulating ecosystem functions.
As primary recyclers of organic matter, saprobic fungi break down fallen branches and leaf litter, making vital nutrients available to other organisms. Other fungi form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Although rarely acknowledged, the great majority of plants in the [Great Otway National Park](http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/great-otway-national-park) (indeed in the world) form mutually beneficial [mycorrhizal](/wiki/Mycorrhiza "Mycorrhiza") relationships with fungi.
Given the great diversity of plants, specialist habitats and micro\-climates in the park, a great diversity of fungi, including lichens, is also expected to occur there. Two hundred and seventy\-eight species of fungi are listed in the [Atlas of Living Australia](http://www.ala.org.au/). This is likely to be only a fraction of the total number of fungal species that grow in the Park.
Despite their essential roles in underpinning terrestrial ecosystems, fungi are barely recognised as a vital part of Australia's biodiversity. Although Australia has national and state level biodiversity conservation strategies and has ratified international conventions, most overlook fungi. There is currently no statewide biodiversity strategy for managing biodiversity in Victoria and the [Colac Otway Shire Environment Strategy](https://web.archive.org/web/20150407084109/http://www.colacotway.vic.gov.au/Files/9387_ENVIRO_STRAT_fin_web.pdf) makes no reference to fungi. There is however, a great deal of interest in fungi among the local community. The [Southern Otways Landcare Network](http://soln.org/) have been actively involved in learning about and surveying the Park's fungi in recent years and produced a guide to one hundred of the more easily recognisable fungal species found in the park.
The Australian citizen\-science organisation, [Fungimap](http://fungimap.org.au/) is also documenting and mapping the distribution of fungi including those that occur in the Great Otway National Park.
One of the tiniest yet conspicuous species found in the wetter parts of the park is the ruby bonnet (*[Mycena viscidocruenta](/wiki/Mycena_viscidocruenta "Mycena viscidocruenta")*). The ghost fungus (*[Omphalotus nidiformis](/wiki/Omphalotus_nidiformis "Omphalotus nidiformis")*) grows on trees and is another easily recognisable species, especially at night when it glows a pale green. The rosette fungus (*[Podoscypha petalodes](/wiki/Podoscypha_petalodes "Podoscypha petalodes")*) often appears in funnel\-shaped rosettes at the base of trees and among leaf litter and is widespread throughout the park. The flame fungus (*[Clavaria miniata](/wiki/Clavaria_miniata "Clavaria miniata")*) grows singly or in groups on soil.
File:Clavaria miniata CLA4199\.jpg\|''\[\[Clavaria miniata]]'' (flame fungus)
File:Omphalotus nidiformis OMP 9722\.jpg\|''\[\[Omphalotus nidiformis]]''
File:Mycena viscidocruenta MYC6796\.JPG\|''\[\[Mycena viscidocruenta]]''
File:Podoscypha petalodes POD0137\.jpg\|''\[\[Podoscypha petalodes]]''
|
[
"Fungi\n-----",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2020}}\nThe Great Otway National Park is extremely rich in fungal diversity. Although hundreds of species of flora and fauna are listed in the [Great Otway National Park Management Plan](http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/313282/great-otway-np-mp.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331154454/http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/\\_\\_data/assets/pdf\\_file/0019/313282/great\\-otway\\-np\\-mp.pdf \\|date\\=31 March 2012 }}, there is only a single reference to fungi. The reference is to the fungal pathogen, *Chalara australis* that affects myrtle beech. However, the great majority of fungi in the Park perform beneficial ecological roles. In fact, most fungi perform positive rather than negative roles. Even parasitic fungi – often regarded only negatively – are a vital part of healthy ecosystems, regulating ecosystem functions.",
"As primary recyclers of organic matter, saprobic fungi break down fallen branches and leaf litter, making vital nutrients available to other organisms. Other fungi form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Although rarely acknowledged, the great majority of plants in the [Great Otway National Park](http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/great-otway-national-park) (indeed in the world) form mutually beneficial [mycorrhizal](/wiki/Mycorrhiza \"Mycorrhiza\") relationships with fungi.",
"Given the great diversity of plants, specialist habitats and micro\\-climates in the park, a great diversity of fungi, including lichens, is also expected to occur there. Two hundred and seventy\\-eight species of fungi are listed in the [Atlas of Living Australia](http://www.ala.org.au/). This is likely to be only a fraction of the total number of fungal species that grow in the Park.",
"Despite their essential roles in underpinning terrestrial ecosystems, fungi are barely recognised as a vital part of Australia's biodiversity. Although Australia has national and state level biodiversity conservation strategies and has ratified international conventions, most overlook fungi. There is currently no statewide biodiversity strategy for managing biodiversity in Victoria and the [Colac Otway Shire Environment Strategy](https://web.archive.org/web/20150407084109/http://www.colacotway.vic.gov.au/Files/9387_ENVIRO_STRAT_fin_web.pdf) makes no reference to fungi. There is however, a great deal of interest in fungi among the local community. The [Southern Otways Landcare Network](http://soln.org/) have been actively involved in learning about and surveying the Park's fungi in recent years and produced a guide to one hundred of the more easily recognisable fungal species found in the park.",
"The Australian citizen\\-science organisation, [Fungimap](http://fungimap.org.au/) is also documenting and mapping the distribution of fungi including those that occur in the Great Otway National Park.",
"One of the tiniest yet conspicuous species found in the wetter parts of the park is the ruby bonnet (*[Mycena viscidocruenta](/wiki/Mycena_viscidocruenta \"Mycena viscidocruenta\")*). The ghost fungus (*[Omphalotus nidiformis](/wiki/Omphalotus_nidiformis \"Omphalotus nidiformis\")*) grows on trees and is another easily recognisable species, especially at night when it glows a pale green. The rosette fungus (*[Podoscypha petalodes](/wiki/Podoscypha_petalodes \"Podoscypha petalodes\")*) often appears in funnel\\-shaped rosettes at the base of trees and among leaf litter and is widespread throughout the park. The flame fungus (*[Clavaria miniata](/wiki/Clavaria_miniata \"Clavaria miniata\")*) grows singly or in groups on soil.",
"",
"File:Clavaria miniata CLA4199\\.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Clavaria miniata]]'' (flame fungus)\nFile:Omphalotus nidiformis OMP 9722\\.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Omphalotus nidiformis]]''\nFile:Mycena viscidocruenta MYC6796\\.JPG\\|''\\[\\[Mycena viscidocruenta]]''\nFile:Podoscypha petalodes POD0137\\.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Podoscypha petalodes]]''",
"",
""
] |
{{anchor\|first\|First}} First generation (2000\)
-------------------------------------------------
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= First generation
\| image \= 2003 Volvo S60 T SE 2\.0 Front.jpg
\| production \= 2000–2009{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.autoblog.com/2009/04/10/volvo\-s60\-ceases\-production\-in\-ghent/ \|title\=Volvo S60 ceases production in Ghent \|first\=Dan \| last\= Roth \|website\=www.autoblog.com \|date\=10 April 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325192806/http://www.autoblog.com/2009/04/10/volvo\-s60\-ceases\-production\-in\-ghent/ \|archive\-date\=2015\-03\-25 \|access\-date\=2009\-04\-11 \|url\-status\=live}}
\| model\_years \= 2001–2010
\| assembly \= {{ubl \|Sweden: \[\[Torslanda]] (\[\[Torslandaverken]])\|Belgium: \[\[Ghent]] (\[\[Volvo Car Gent\|VCG]]){{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://car\-cat.com/firm\-51\.html \|title\=Volvo. Volvo In Belgium \|website\=www.car\-cat.com \|access\-date\=2010\-07\-16 }}\|Malaysia: \[\[Shah Alam]] (\[\[Swedish Motor Assemblies\|SMA]])}}
\| class \= \[\[Compact executive car]]
\| platform \= \[\[Volvo P2 platform]]
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, front\-wheel\-drive]]
\[\[Front\-engine, all\-wheel\-drive]]
\| engine \= {{ubl \| '''\[\[Petrol engine\|petrol]]:'''
\|{{convert\|1984\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5204T5\|B5204T5]]'' \[\[Turbocharger\|turbo]] \[\[Straight\-five engine\|I5]]
\|{{convert\|2319\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5234T3\|B5234T3]]'' turbo I5
\|{{convert\|2435\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5244S\|B5244S]]/\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5244S2\|S2]]'' I5
\|{{convert\|2435\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5244SG\|B5244SG]]'' I5 (petrol / \[\[Liquefied petroleum gas\|LPG]] / \[\[CNG]])
\|{{convert\|2435\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5244T\|B5244T]]/\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5244T3\|T3]]/\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5244T5\|T5]]'' turbo I5
\|{{convert\|2,521\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B5254T2\|B5254T2]]/\[\[Volvo Modular engine\#B254T2\-R\|T2\-R]]'' turbo I5
\| '''\[\[Diesel engine\|diesel]]:'''
\|{{convert\|2401\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Volvo D5 engine\|D5244T]]'' \[\[turbodiesel]] I5
}}
\| transmission \= {{ubl \|5\-speed ''Volvo M56'' \[\[manual transmission\|manual]] \|5\-speed ''Volvo M58'' manual \|6\-speed ''Volvo M66'' manual \|5\-speed ''\[\[Aisin AF33 transmission\|Aisin AW55\-50/51SN]]'' \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]] \|6\-speed ''\[\[AWTF\-80 SC\|Aisin TF\-80SC]]'' automatic}}
\| wheelbase \= {{ubl \|{{convert\|2713\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2001\-02\)\|{{convert\|2715\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2003\-08\)}}
\| length \= {{ubl \|{{convert\|4581\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2001\-05\)\|{{convert\|4602\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2006\-08\) \|{{convert\|4605\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2003\-05, R) \|{{convert\|4638\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2006\-08, R)}}
\| width \= {{ubl \|{{convert\|1813\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2001\-05\)\|{{convert\|1823\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2006\-08\)}}
\| height \= {{ubl \|{{convert\|1433\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}}\|{{convert\|1397\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2003\-05, R)\|{{convert\|1436\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on}} (2006\-07, R)}}
\| weight \= {{convert\|1475\|\-\|1700\|kg\|abbr\=on}}{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://new.volvocars.com/ownersdocs/2003/2003\_s60/03s60\_12\.htm\#pg145 \|title\=2003 Volvo S60 owner's manual \|publisher\=Volvo Car Corporation \|website\=new.volvocars.com \|page\=145 \|date\=2002 \|access\-date\=2015\-09\-19 }}{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://new.volvocars.com/ownersdocs/2007/2007\_s60/07s60\_10\.htm\#pg200 \|title\=2007 Volvo S60 owner's manual \|publisher\=Volvo Car Corporation \|website\=new.volvocars.com \|page\=200 \|date\=2006 \|access\-date\=2015\-09\-19 }}
\| related \= {{ubl \|\[\[Volvo V70\#Second generation (2000–2007\)\|Volvo V70 II]] \|\[\[Volvo S80\#First generation (1998–2006\)\|Volvo S80]] \|\[\[Volvo XC90\#First generation (2002–2014\)\|Volvo XC90]]}}
\| designer \= \[\[Géza Lóczi]] (1997\){{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=https://www.media.volvocars.com/global/enhanced/en\-gb/Media/Preview.aspx?mediaid\=5290 \|title\=Volvo Car Group Global Media Newsroom \|publisher\=Volvo Car Corporation \|website\=www.media.volvocars.com \|access\-date\=2015\-09\-19 }}
\| sp \= us
}}
The S60 was built on Volvo's [P2 platform](/wiki/Volvo_P2_platform "Volvo P2 platform"),{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.autointell.com/european\_companies/volvo\_cars/volvo\-mfg/volvo\-manufacturing.htm \|title\=Volvo Cars makes major investments in Ghent and Torslanda \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308133651/http://www.autointell.com/european\_companies/volvo\_cars/volvo\-mfg/volvo\-manufacturing.htm \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-08 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-08 \|url\-status\=live}} which was shared with other Volvo models like the [S80](/wiki/Volvo_S80 "Volvo S80"), [V70](/wiki/Volvo_V70 "Volvo V70"), [XC70](/wiki/Volvo_XC70 "Volvo XC70") and finally the [XC90](/wiki/Volvo_XC90 "Volvo XC90").
The Volvo S60 was released in 2000 (2001 model year) being the company's new generation sports sedan. The S60 is aimed to mainly compete in Europe with the [BMW 3 Series (E46\)](/wiki/BMW_3_Series_%28E46%29 "BMW 3 Series (E46)"), the [Mercedes\-Benz C\-Class (W203\)](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_C-Class_%28W203%29 "Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W203)") and the [Alfa Romeo 156](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_156 "Alfa Romeo 156"). Unlike its rivals, the Volvo S60 continued production for 9 years with multiple facelifts. When it was introduced the appearance was unlike the squared vehicles offered in previous years, and continued the new design tradition introduced by the larger [S80](/wiki/Volvo_S80 "Volvo S80"), utilizing a [cab forward](/wiki/Cab_forward%23Automobiles "Cab forward#Automobiles") approach and was more organic appearing with a pronounced shelf along the [beltline](/wiki/Beltline_%28automotive%29 "Beltline (automotive)") that ran the length of the vehicle, achieving a {{Cd\|0\.28\|link\=car}} [drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient "Drag coefficient").{{cite web \|title\=Volvo S60 Sales Brochure \|url\=https://www.volvoclub.org.uk/current/2004\_S60\_Brochure.pdf \|website\=volvoclub.org.uk \|publisher\=Volvo Cars of North America, LLC \|access\-date\=6 November 2022}} Volvo continued its safety tradition, offering front and rear integrated [crumple zones](/wiki/Crumple_zone "Crumple zone"), driver and front passenger dual threshold airbags with a collapsible three\-stage steering column, [Side Impact Protection System](/wiki/Side_Impact_Protection_System "Side Impact Protection System") (SIPS) supplemented with air bags for driver and front passenger, along with a side curtain airbag for front and rear passengers, [anti\-submarine seats](/wiki/Anti-submarine_seat "Anti-submarine seat"), five padded head restraints with Whiplash Protection System ([WHIPS](/wiki/WHIPS "WHIPS")), and automatic seat belt [pretensioners](/wiki/Pretensioner "Pretensioner") while front belts also have height adjustment.
In 2004 PremAir™ was introduced as a standard feature to the exterior radiator surface which converts up to 75 percent of ground level ozone in the radiator cooling air into oxygen, while the Interior Air Quality System cleans the air inside, detects for pollutants and automatically recirculates in comparison to the air outside. The upholstery was available in [taupe](/wiki/Taupe "Taupe"), light sand or graphite with indigo inserts and the leathers were tanned using natural plant materials. The S60 sheet metal content can be recycled, along with other metals that achieved an 85 overall percentage. Dual zone climate control and heated front seats along with a three position drivers memory setting were optional, and anti\-smash and grab laminated side windows were available. Two {{convert\|17\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}, three {{convert\|16\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} and one {{convert\|15\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} aluminum alloy wheel choices were available.
The S60 came standard with Volvo's own radio unit, the HU\-613, the HU\-803 and was later upgraded to the HU\-650 and an optional extra HU\-850 unit. The HU\-850 unit features a 225 or 335\-watt power output (depending on optional external amplifier) with three presets: 2CH, 3CH and [Dolby Digital Pro Logic II](/wiki/Dolby_Pro_Logic%23Dolby_Pro_Logic_II "Dolby Pro Logic#Dolby Pro Logic II") Surround Sound. The [Four\-C](/wiki/Four-C "Four-C") chassis from the S60 R became an option on some S60s.{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://consumerguideauto.howstuffworks.com/2005\-volvo\-s60\.htm \|title\=2005 Volvo S60 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501055350/http://consumerguideauto.howstuffworks.com/2005\-volvo\-s60\.htm \|archive\-date\=2010\-05\-01 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-08 \|url\-status\=dead}}
In 2004 the T5 engine was reengineered from 2\.3 to 2\.4 liters, installing [continuously variable valve timing](/wiki/Continuously_variable_valve_timing "Continuously variable valve timing") and achieving an increase of {{cvt\|10\|hp\-metric\|kW\|0}}, while the 2\.5 liter engine was given a [Ultra\-low\-emission vehicle](/wiki/Ultra-low-emission_vehicle "Ultra-low-emission vehicle") (ULEV) certification, and a modified turbo in the D5 model also increased the maximum claimed power from 163 PS to 185 PS, while [electronic brakeforce distribution](/wiki/Electronic_brakeforce_distribution "Electronic brakeforce distribution") was installed for emergency braking situations. The [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex "Haldex")\-sourced computer controlled AWD system, which was standard equipment in the S60R, was optionally available mated to the 2\.5 liter engine. Three transmissions were offered, the [Geartronic](/wiki/Geartronic "Geartronic") automatic which offered five speeds that adapts to driving style or the "Auto\-Stick" offers a manual mode that offered the ability to select gears by moving the gearstick forward or back. The second automatic five speed transmission was available without the manual mode feature. A more traditional manual five speed transmission was the third selection offered.
The S60 was [refreshed](/wiki/Facelift_%28automobile%29 "Facelift (automobile)") in 2005\. The exterior was updated with body\-colored side moldings and bumpers with chrome linings, as well as new headlamps replacing the original with black housing, with optional [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight "HID headlight"). The interior received some updates as well, with new seats, trim, and an updated center console. The S60 went through a final facelift in 2008 with full body\-colored bumper and door inserts and larger emblem in the front and larger spaced out "V\-O\-L\-V\-O" letters in the rear. The interior featured a new pattern upholstery which differs from its original pattern.
File:2003 Volvo S60 T SE 2\.0 Rear.jpg\|Pre\-facelift Volvo S60 (UK)
File:Volvo S60\.jpg\|Facelift Volvo S60 (US)
File:Volvo S60 D5 2008 (15760220511\).jpg\|Facelift Volvo S60 (Chile)
### First\-generation models
#### S60 Police specification (UK \& EU)
Police specification models came about through Volvo's extensive work alongside the users of the vehicles and Police Fleet Management departments. As a result, the Police specification vehicles have a striking difference from original showroom model that sometimes the Volvo S60 is used as [police cars](/wiki/Police_car "Police car").
Firstly the [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 "Suspension (vehicle)") was up\-rated to deal with the demands of Police work; this included fitting the front suspension of the [D5](/wiki/Volvo_D5_engine "Volvo D5 engine") model variant (as the suspension was designed to deal with the heavier diesel engine). Nivomat self\-levelling suspension was also fitted to the rear to ensure correct geometry of the vehicle, regardless of the weight carried. On early models, the clutch was also replaced with the stronger D5 unit.
A larger specification battery and 110A [alternator](/wiki/Alternator "Alternator") was also fitted to run all the extra equipment, along with a dedicated Police fuse box in the boot. Extra wiring looms are also fitted specially for the Police radios and other equipment, including [CCTV](/wiki/Closed-circuit_television "Closed-circuit television") cameras. Additional electrical noise suppression has been added so as not to interfere with the sensitive electronics the police use.
The [speedometers](/wiki/Speedometer "Speedometer") in the vehicles are calibrated from the factory and do not require recalibration unless the wheel and overall rolling diameters are changed.
{{convert\|305\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} vented front [disc brakes](/wiki/Disc_brake "Disc brake") were also fitted alongside special [brake pads](/wiki/Brake_pad "Brake pad") (and wear indicators) specially designed to cope with high\-speed pursuits.
During 2001–2004 the 2\.3 litre T5 engine was used and in 2005\-2009 the 2\.4 litre T5 engine was used. Also beyond common speculation and myths, the engines are not chipped or modified specially for police use: they are complete factory spec but in 'exceptional cases' the speed limiter ({{cvt\|215\|km/h\|mph\|disp\=sqbr}}) may have been removed.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2014}}
File:Northern Constabulary \- Volvo (8275428723\).jpg\|Northern Constabulary Volvo S60 (UK)
#### S60 R
First introduced in 2004, Volvo's S60 R used a [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex_Traction "Haldex Traction") computer controlled all\-wheel\-drive system mated to a {{convert\|300\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} / {{convert\|400\|Nm\|abbr\=on}} [inline\-5](/wiki/Straight-five_engine "Straight-five engine") which sends 95 percent of the torque to the front wheels under normal driving conditions and can send up to 70 percent to the rear wheels as necessary. The 2004–2005 models came with a 6\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission"), or an available 5\-speed automatic which allowed only {{convert\|258\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} torque in 1st and 2nd gears. The 2006–2007 models came with a 6\-speed manual or 6\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission") (which was no longer torque\-restricted).
Other aspects which set the R apart from standard S60s were the large [Brembo](/wiki/Brembo "Brembo") front and rear four\-piston brakes, 18\-inch 5\-spoke "Pegasus" wheels (available as an upgrade to the standard 17\-inch wheels of the same design), blue faced "R" gauges, standard [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight "HID headlight"), as well as the Four\-C suspension system.{{cite web \|title\=2004 Volvo S60R \& V70R Living Brochure \|url\=https://autocatalogarchive.com/wp\-content/uploads/2019/07/Volvo\-S60\-R\-V70\-R\-2004\-CA.pdf \|website\=autocatalogarchive \|publisher\=Volvo Cars of Canada Ltd. \|access\-date\=12 November 2022}}
Semi\-active suspension with [Four\-C](/wiki/Four-C "Four-C") (a short name for "[Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept](/wiki/Continuously_Controlled_Chassis_Concept "Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept")") allows the user to select from three modes: Comfort, Sport, and Advanced. "Comfort" attempts to soften the car over bumps, while "Advanced" firms the suspension considerably and gives more aggressive throttle response \- a setting Volvo implies is for use on the race track. This is accomplished through a [drive by wire](/wiki/Drive_by_wire "Drive by wire") throttle, allowing the same pedal travel to result in different performance when the appropriate mode is selected,{{cite journal \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\_volvo/index.html \|title\=Volvo S60R, Volvo V70R: A unique blend of components; singular performance and luxury \|journal\=Modified Mag \|first\=Greg N. \|last \= Brown \|year\=2009 \|issue\=April \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701154636/http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\_volvo/index.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-07\-01 \|url\-status\=dead}} electronically controlled shock absorbers that can adjust themselves 500 times a second, and a complex series of sensors throughout the body of the vehicle. Volvo collaborated with high\-tech system developer [Ohlins Racing AB](/wiki/Ohlins "Ohlins") and shock absorber manufacturer Monroe for the self\-adjusting shock absorbers.{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2003/06/22/163566\.html \|title\=2004 Volvo S60 R Review \|first\=John \| last \= Heilig \|publisher\=The Auto Channel \|year\=2003 }}
The R had three themed interior color options with upholstery in soft leather supplied by [Bridge of Weir](/wiki/Bridge_of_Weir%23Leather "Bridge of Weir#Leather"),{{cite web \|title\=Bridge of Weir customers \|url\=https://www.bridgeofweirleather.com/our\-customers \|website\=bridgeofweirleather \|date\=6 May 2021 \|publisher\=Scottish Leather Group \|access\-date\=20 November 2022}} and they were [Nordkapp](/wiki/North_Cape_%28Norway%29 "North Cape (Norway)") (dark blue) or [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi "Gobi") (light tan). A third choice was offered as a natural leather option, [Atacama](/wiki/Atacama "Atacama") (dark orange), available for an additional charge. The natural leather choice was sumptuous with a baseball glove thickness and feel.
The small trunk lid spoiler that was standard on the S60 R created a 20% increased downforce at the rear wheels at high speeds compared to the standard S60s. The S60 Rs have a 0\.29 [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient "Drag coefficient"), compared to the standard S60's 0\.28, due to the larger lower front bumper spoiler to support the secondary intercooler.
Another Volvo factory option for only the S60 R was a body kit which included front bumper splitters, side skirts and a rear valance, color matched to the body. The body kit was only available with certain body colors and in certain markets.
The S60 R continued the tradition of "R" cars for Volvo beginning in 1995 with the introduction of the 850 T\-5 R.
File:2004 Volvo S60 R (14180484848\).jpg\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\-facelift in Flash Green
File:Volvo S60 R 001\.JPG\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\-facelift in Flash Green
File:Volvo S60R instruments.jpg\|Blue faced gauges
### Engines
| \+[Petrol engines](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine "Volvo Modular engine") | Model | Engine code | Year(s) | Power at rpm | Torque at rpm | Displacement | Comment |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2\.4 | [B5244S2](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244S2 "Volvo Modular engine#B5244S2") | 2001–2009 | {{convert\|140\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\|220\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3300 | {{convert\|2435\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 |
| 2\.4 | [B5244S](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244S "Volvo Modular engine#B5244S") | 2001–2009 | {{convert\|170\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 6000 | {{convert\|230\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\|2435\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 |
| 2\.0T | [B5204T](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5204T "Volvo Modular engine#B5204T") | 2001–2003 | {{convert\|163\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|240\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2200–4800 | {{convert\|1984\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| 2\.0T | [B5204T5](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5204T5 "Volvo Modular engine#B5204T5") | 2004–2009 | {{convert\|180\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 5500 | {{convert\|240\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1850–5000 | {{convert\|1984\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| {{ubl \|2\.4T \|2\.4T AWD}} | [B5244T3](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244T3 "Volvo Modular engine#B5244T3") | 2001–2003 | {{convert\|200\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|285\|Nm\|lb·ft\|abbr\=on}} at 1800–5000 | {{convert\|2435\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| {{ubl \|2\.5T \|2\.5T AWD}} | [B5254T2](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5254T2 "Volvo Modular engine#B5254T2") | 2003–2009 | {{convert\|210\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 5000 | {{convert\|320\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1500–4500 | {{convert\|2521\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| T5 2\.3 | [B5234T3](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5234T3 "Volvo Modular engine#B5234T3") | 2001–2004 | {{convert\|250\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|330\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2400–5200 | {{convert\|2319\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| T5 2\.4 | [B5244T5](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244T5 "Volvo Modular engine#B5244T5") | 2005–2009 | {{convert\|260\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 5500 | {{convert\|350\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2100–5000 | {{convert\|2401\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| R 6\-speed manual | [B5254T4](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5254T4 "Volvo Modular engine#B5254T4") | 2004–2007 | {{convert\|300\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 5400 | {{convert\|400\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1850–5700 | {{convert\|2521\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| R 5\-speed auto | B5254T4{{cite web \|language\=de \|url\=http://az685612\.vo.msecnd.net/pdfs/12393bca5bcab29dc10098ec8da6e65f03a63c21/S60\_owners\_manual\_MY05\_DE\_tp7507\.pdf \|title\=Volvo S60 Betriebsanleitung MY05 \|trans\-title\=Volvo S60 owner's manual MY05 \|publisher\=Volvo Car Corporation \|website\=az685612\.vo.msecnd.net \|date\=2004 }} | 2004–2005 | {{convert\|300\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|350\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1800–6000 | {{convert\|2521\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| R 6\-speed auto | [B5254T4](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5254T4 "Volvo Modular engine#B5254T4") | 2006–2007 | {{convert\|300\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|400\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1950–5250 | {{convert\|2521\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| \+[Diesel engines](/wiki/Volvo_D5_engine "Volvo D5 engine") | Model | Engine code | Year(s) | Power | Torque at rpm | Displacement | Comment |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2\.4D | D5244T2 | 2002–2006 | {{convert\|130\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|280\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1750–3000 | {{convert\|2401\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| D5 | D5244T | 2001–2004 | {{convert\|163\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|340\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1750–2750 | {{convert\|2401\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| D | D5244T7 | 2006–2009 | {{convert\|126\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|300\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1750–2250 | {{convert\|2400\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| 2\.4D | D5244T5 | 2005–2009 | {{convert\|163\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|340\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1750–2750 | {{convert\|2400\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| D5 | D5244T4 | 2004–2009 | {{convert\|185\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|400\|Nm\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2000–2750 | {{convert\|2400\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |
| \+Gas | Model | Engine code | Year(s) | Power at rpm | Tourqe at rpm | Displacement | Comment |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2\.4 Bi\-Fuel CNG | B5244SG{{cite web \|language\=de \|url\=http://az685612\.vo.msecnd.net/pdfs/f4bb5255add22f7ce6703969e2f92648d8a107c9/S60\_owners\_manual\_MY04\_DE\_tp6680\.pdf \|title\=Volvo S60 Betriebsanleitung Modeljahr 2004 \|trans\-title\=Volvo S60 owner's manual MY04 \|publisher\=Volvo Car Corporation \|website\=az685612\.vo.msecnd.net \|date\=2003 \|access\-date\=2018\-12\-13 }} | 2002–2008 | {{convert\|140\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 5800 | {{convert\|192\|Nm\|lb·ft\|abbr\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\|2435\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | [CNG](/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas "Compressed natural gas")/petrol |
| 2\.4 Bi\-Fuel LPG | B5244SG2 | 2002–2005 | {{convert\|140\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 5100 | {{convert\|214\|Nm\|lb·ft\|abbr\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\|2435\|cc\|in3\|1\|abbr\=on}} | [LPG](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas "Liquefied petroleum gas")/petrol |
|
[
"{{anchor\\|first\\|First}} First generation (2000\\)\n-------------------------------------------------",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= First generation\n\\| image \\= 2003 Volvo S60 T SE 2\\.0 Front.jpg\n\\| production \\= 2000–2009{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.autoblog.com/2009/04/10/volvo\\-s60\\-ceases\\-production\\-in\\-ghent/ \\|title\\=Volvo S60 ceases production in Ghent \\|first\\=Dan \\| last\\= Roth \\|website\\=www.autoblog.com \\|date\\=10 April 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325192806/http://www.autoblog.com/2009/04/10/volvo\\-s60\\-ceases\\-production\\-in\\-ghent/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-03\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n\\| model\\_years \\= 2001–2010\n\\| assembly \\= {{ubl \\|Sweden: \\[\\[Torslanda]] (\\[\\[Torslandaverken]])\\|Belgium: \\[\\[Ghent]] (\\[\\[Volvo Car Gent\\|VCG]]){{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://car\\-cat.com/firm\\-51\\.html \\|title\\=Volvo. Volvo In Belgium \\|website\\=www.car\\-cat.com \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-16 }}\\|Malaysia: \\[\\[Shah Alam]] (\\[\\[Swedish Motor Assemblies\\|SMA]])}}\n\\| class \\= \\[\\[Compact executive car]]\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[Volvo P2 platform]]\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, front\\-wheel\\-drive]] \n\\[\\[Front\\-engine, all\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| engine \\= {{ubl \\| '''\\[\\[Petrol engine\\|petrol]]:'''\n \\|{{convert\\|1984\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5204T5\\|B5204T5]]'' \\[\\[Turbocharger\\|turbo]] \\[\\[Straight\\-five engine\\|I5]]\n \\|{{convert\\|2319\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5234T3\\|B5234T3]]'' turbo I5\n \\|{{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5244S\\|B5244S]]/\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5244S2\\|S2]]'' I5\n \\|{{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5244SG\\|B5244SG]]'' I5 (petrol / \\[\\[Liquefied petroleum gas\\|LPG]] / \\[\\[CNG]])\n \\|{{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5244T\\|B5244T]]/\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5244T3\\|T3]]/\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5244T5\\|T5]]'' turbo I5\n \\|{{convert\\|2,521\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B5254T2\\|B5254T2]]/\\[\\[Volvo Modular engine\\#B254T2\\-R\\|T2\\-R]]'' turbo I5\n \\| '''\\[\\[Diesel engine\\|diesel]]:'''\n \\|{{convert\\|2401\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Volvo D5 engine\\|D5244T]]'' \\[\\[turbodiesel]] I5\n}}\n\\| transmission \\= {{ubl \\|5\\-speed ''Volvo M56'' \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]] \\|5\\-speed ''Volvo M58'' manual \\|6\\-speed ''Volvo M66'' manual \\|5\\-speed ''\\[\\[Aisin AF33 transmission\\|Aisin AW55\\-50/51SN]]'' \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]] \\|6\\-speed ''\\[\\[AWTF\\-80 SC\\|Aisin TF\\-80SC]]'' automatic}}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{ubl \\|{{convert\\|2713\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2001\\-02\\)\\|{{convert\\|2715\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2003\\-08\\)}}\n\\| length \\= {{ubl \\|{{convert\\|4581\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2001\\-05\\)\\|{{convert\\|4602\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2006\\-08\\) \\|{{convert\\|4605\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2003\\-05, R) \\|{{convert\\|4638\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2006\\-08, R)}}\n\\| width \\= {{ubl \\|{{convert\\|1813\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2001\\-05\\)\\|{{convert\\|1823\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2006\\-08\\)}}\n\\| height \\= {{ubl \\|{{convert\\|1433\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\\|{{convert\\|1397\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2003\\-05, R)\\|{{convert\\|1436\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (2006\\-07, R)}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|1475\\|\\-\\|1700\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://new.volvocars.com/ownersdocs/2003/2003\\_s60/03s60\\_12\\.htm\\#pg145 \\|title\\=2003 Volvo S60 owner's manual \\|publisher\\=Volvo Car Corporation \\|website\\=new.volvocars.com \\|page\\=145 \\|date\\=2002 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-19 }}{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://new.volvocars.com/ownersdocs/2007/2007\\_s60/07s60\\_10\\.htm\\#pg200 \\|title\\=2007 Volvo S60 owner's manual \\|publisher\\=Volvo Car Corporation \\|website\\=new.volvocars.com \\|page\\=200 \\|date\\=2006 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-19 }}\n\\| related \\= {{ubl \\|\\[\\[Volvo V70\\#Second generation (2000–2007\\)\\|Volvo V70 II]] \\|\\[\\[Volvo S80\\#First generation (1998–2006\\)\\|Volvo S80]] \\|\\[\\[Volvo XC90\\#First generation (2002–2014\\)\\|Volvo XC90]]}}\n\\| designer \\= \\[\\[Géza Lóczi]] (1997\\){{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=https://www.media.volvocars.com/global/enhanced/en\\-gb/Media/Preview.aspx?mediaid\\=5290 \\|title\\=Volvo Car Group Global Media Newsroom \\|publisher\\=Volvo Car Corporation \\|website\\=www.media.volvocars.com \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-19 }}\n\\| sp \\= us\n}}",
"The S60 was built on Volvo's [P2 platform](/wiki/Volvo_P2_platform \"Volvo P2 platform\"),{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.autointell.com/european\\_companies/volvo\\_cars/volvo\\-mfg/volvo\\-manufacturing.htm \\|title\\=Volvo Cars makes major investments in Ghent and Torslanda \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308133651/http://www.autointell.com/european\\_companies/volvo\\_cars/volvo\\-mfg/volvo\\-manufacturing.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-08 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} which was shared with other Volvo models like the [S80](/wiki/Volvo_S80 \"Volvo S80\"), [V70](/wiki/Volvo_V70 \"Volvo V70\"), [XC70](/wiki/Volvo_XC70 \"Volvo XC70\") and finally the [XC90](/wiki/Volvo_XC90 \"Volvo XC90\").",
"The Volvo S60 was released in 2000 (2001 model year) being the company's new generation sports sedan. The S60 is aimed to mainly compete in Europe with the [BMW 3 Series (E46\\)](/wiki/BMW_3_Series_%28E46%29 \"BMW 3 Series (E46)\"), the [Mercedes\\-Benz C\\-Class (W203\\)](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_C-Class_%28W203%29 \"Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W203)\") and the [Alfa Romeo 156](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_156 \"Alfa Romeo 156\"). Unlike its rivals, the Volvo S60 continued production for 9 years with multiple facelifts. When it was introduced the appearance was unlike the squared vehicles offered in previous years, and continued the new design tradition introduced by the larger [S80](/wiki/Volvo_S80 \"Volvo S80\"), utilizing a [cab forward](/wiki/Cab_forward%23Automobiles \"Cab forward#Automobiles\") approach and was more organic appearing with a pronounced shelf along the [beltline](/wiki/Beltline_%28automotive%29 \"Beltline (automotive)\") that ran the length of the vehicle, achieving a {{Cd\\|0\\.28\\|link\\=car}} [drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient \"Drag coefficient\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Volvo S60 Sales Brochure \\|url\\=https://www.volvoclub.org.uk/current/2004\\_S60\\_Brochure.pdf \\|website\\=volvoclub.org.uk \\|publisher\\=Volvo Cars of North America, LLC \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2022}} Volvo continued its safety tradition, offering front and rear integrated [crumple zones](/wiki/Crumple_zone \"Crumple zone\"), driver and front passenger dual threshold airbags with a collapsible three\\-stage steering column, [Side Impact Protection System](/wiki/Side_Impact_Protection_System \"Side Impact Protection System\") (SIPS) supplemented with air bags for driver and front passenger, along with a side curtain airbag for front and rear passengers, [anti\\-submarine seats](/wiki/Anti-submarine_seat \"Anti-submarine seat\"), five padded head restraints with Whiplash Protection System ([WHIPS](/wiki/WHIPS \"WHIPS\")), and automatic seat belt [pretensioners](/wiki/Pretensioner \"Pretensioner\") while front belts also have height adjustment.",
"In 2004 PremAir™ was introduced as a standard feature to the exterior radiator surface which converts up to 75 percent of ground level ozone in the radiator cooling air into oxygen, while the Interior Air Quality System cleans the air inside, detects for pollutants and automatically recirculates in comparison to the air outside. The upholstery was available in [taupe](/wiki/Taupe \"Taupe\"), light sand or graphite with indigo inserts and the leathers were tanned using natural plant materials. The S60 sheet metal content can be recycled, along with other metals that achieved an 85 overall percentage. Dual zone climate control and heated front seats along with a three position drivers memory setting were optional, and anti\\-smash and grab laminated side windows were available. Two {{convert\\|17\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}, three {{convert\\|16\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} and one {{convert\\|15\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} aluminum alloy wheel choices were available.",
"The S60 came standard with Volvo's own radio unit, the HU\\-613, the HU\\-803 and was later upgraded to the HU\\-650 and an optional extra HU\\-850 unit. The HU\\-850 unit features a 225 or 335\\-watt power output (depending on optional external amplifier) with three presets: 2CH, 3CH and [Dolby Digital Pro Logic II](/wiki/Dolby_Pro_Logic%23Dolby_Pro_Logic_II \"Dolby Pro Logic#Dolby Pro Logic II\") Surround Sound. The [Four\\-C](/wiki/Four-C \"Four-C\") chassis from the S60 R became an option on some S60s.{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://consumerguideauto.howstuffworks.com/2005\\-volvo\\-s60\\.htm \\|title\\=2005 Volvo S60 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501055350/http://consumerguideauto.howstuffworks.com/2005\\-volvo\\-s60\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In 2004 the T5 engine was reengineered from 2\\.3 to 2\\.4 liters, installing [continuously variable valve timing](/wiki/Continuously_variable_valve_timing \"Continuously variable valve timing\") and achieving an increase of {{cvt\\|10\\|hp\\-metric\\|kW\\|0}}, while the 2\\.5 liter engine was given a [Ultra\\-low\\-emission vehicle](/wiki/Ultra-low-emission_vehicle \"Ultra-low-emission vehicle\") (ULEV) certification, and a modified turbo in the D5 model also increased the maximum claimed power from 163 PS to 185 PS, while [electronic brakeforce distribution](/wiki/Electronic_brakeforce_distribution \"Electronic brakeforce distribution\") was installed for emergency braking situations. The [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex \"Haldex\")\\-sourced computer controlled AWD system, which was standard equipment in the S60R, was optionally available mated to the 2\\.5 liter engine. Three transmissions were offered, the [Geartronic](/wiki/Geartronic \"Geartronic\") automatic which offered five speeds that adapts to driving style or the \"Auto\\-Stick\" offers a manual mode that offered the ability to select gears by moving the gearstick forward or back. The second automatic five speed transmission was available without the manual mode feature. A more traditional manual five speed transmission was the third selection offered.",
"The S60 was [refreshed](/wiki/Facelift_%28automobile%29 \"Facelift (automobile)\") in 2005\\. The exterior was updated with body\\-colored side moldings and bumpers with chrome linings, as well as new headlamps replacing the original with black housing, with optional [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight \"HID headlight\"). The interior received some updates as well, with new seats, trim, and an updated center console. The S60 went through a final facelift in 2008 with full body\\-colored bumper and door inserts and larger emblem in the front and larger spaced out \"V\\-O\\-L\\-V\\-O\" letters in the rear. The interior featured a new pattern upholstery which differs from its original pattern.",
"",
"File:2003 Volvo S60 T SE 2\\.0 Rear.jpg\\|Pre\\-facelift Volvo S60 (UK)\nFile:Volvo S60\\.jpg\\|Facelift Volvo S60 (US)\nFile:Volvo S60 D5 2008 (15760220511\\).jpg\\|Facelift Volvo S60 (Chile)",
"",
"### First\\-generation models",
"#### S60 Police specification (UK \\& EU)",
"Police specification models came about through Volvo's extensive work alongside the users of the vehicles and Police Fleet Management departments. As a result, the Police specification vehicles have a striking difference from original showroom model that sometimes the Volvo S60 is used as [police cars](/wiki/Police_car \"Police car\").\nFirstly the [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 \"Suspension (vehicle)\") was up\\-rated to deal with the demands of Police work; this included fitting the front suspension of the [D5](/wiki/Volvo_D5_engine \"Volvo D5 engine\") model variant (as the suspension was designed to deal with the heavier diesel engine). Nivomat self\\-levelling suspension was also fitted to the rear to ensure correct geometry of the vehicle, regardless of the weight carried. On early models, the clutch was also replaced with the stronger D5 unit.",
"A larger specification battery and 110A [alternator](/wiki/Alternator \"Alternator\") was also fitted to run all the extra equipment, along with a dedicated Police fuse box in the boot. Extra wiring looms are also fitted specially for the Police radios and other equipment, including [CCTV](/wiki/Closed-circuit_television \"Closed-circuit television\") cameras. Additional electrical noise suppression has been added so as not to interfere with the sensitive electronics the police use.",
"The [speedometers](/wiki/Speedometer \"Speedometer\") in the vehicles are calibrated from the factory and do not require recalibration unless the wheel and overall rolling diameters are changed.",
"{{convert\\|305\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} vented front [disc brakes](/wiki/Disc_brake \"Disc brake\") were also fitted alongside special [brake pads](/wiki/Brake_pad \"Brake pad\") (and wear indicators) specially designed to cope with high\\-speed pursuits.",
"During 2001–2004 the 2\\.3 litre T5 engine was used and in 2005\\-2009 the 2\\.4 litre T5 engine was used. Also beyond common speculation and myths, the engines are not chipped or modified specially for police use: they are complete factory spec but in 'exceptional cases' the speed limiter ({{cvt\\|215\\|km/h\\|mph\\|disp\\=sqbr}}) may have been removed.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2014}}",
"",
"File:Northern Constabulary \\- Volvo (8275428723\\).jpg\\|Northern Constabulary Volvo S60 (UK)",
"",
"#### S60 R",
"First introduced in 2004, Volvo's S60 R used a [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex_Traction \"Haldex Traction\") computer controlled all\\-wheel\\-drive system mated to a {{convert\\|300\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} / {{convert\\|400\\|Nm\\|abbr\\=on}} [inline\\-5](/wiki/Straight-five_engine \"Straight-five engine\") which sends 95 percent of the torque to the front wheels under normal driving conditions and can send up to 70 percent to the rear wheels as necessary. The 2004–2005 models came with a 6\\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\"), or an available 5\\-speed automatic which allowed only {{convert\\|258\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} torque in 1st and 2nd gears. The 2006–2007 models came with a 6\\-speed manual or 6\\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\") (which was no longer torque\\-restricted).",
"Other aspects which set the R apart from standard S60s were the large [Brembo](/wiki/Brembo \"Brembo\") front and rear four\\-piston brakes, 18\\-inch 5\\-spoke \"Pegasus\" wheels (available as an upgrade to the standard 17\\-inch wheels of the same design), blue faced \"R\" gauges, standard [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight \"HID headlight\"), as well as the Four\\-C suspension system.{{cite web \\|title\\=2004 Volvo S60R \\& V70R Living Brochure \\|url\\=https://autocatalogarchive.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/07/Volvo\\-S60\\-R\\-V70\\-R\\-2004\\-CA.pdf \\|website\\=autocatalogarchive \\|publisher\\=Volvo Cars of Canada Ltd. \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2022}}",
"Semi\\-active suspension with [Four\\-C](/wiki/Four-C \"Four-C\") (a short name for \"[Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept](/wiki/Continuously_Controlled_Chassis_Concept \"Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept\")\") allows the user to select from three modes: Comfort, Sport, and Advanced. \"Comfort\" attempts to soften the car over bumps, while \"Advanced\" firms the suspension considerably and gives more aggressive throttle response \\- a setting Volvo implies is for use on the race track. This is accomplished through a [drive by wire](/wiki/Drive_by_wire \"Drive by wire\") throttle, allowing the same pedal travel to result in different performance when the appropriate mode is selected,{{cite journal \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\\_volvo/index.html \\|title\\=Volvo S60R, Volvo V70R: A unique blend of components; singular performance and luxury \\|journal\\=Modified Mag \\|first\\=Greg N. \\|last \\= Brown \\|year\\=2009 \\|issue\\=April \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701154636/http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\\_volvo/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} electronically controlled shock absorbers that can adjust themselves 500 times a second, and a complex series of sensors throughout the body of the vehicle. Volvo collaborated with high\\-tech system developer [Ohlins Racing AB](/wiki/Ohlins \"Ohlins\") and shock absorber manufacturer Monroe for the self\\-adjusting shock absorbers.{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2003/06/22/163566\\.html \\|title\\=2004 Volvo S60 R Review \\|first\\=John \\| last \\= Heilig \\|publisher\\=The Auto Channel \\|year\\=2003 }}",
"The R had three themed interior color options with upholstery in soft leather supplied by [Bridge of Weir](/wiki/Bridge_of_Weir%23Leather \"Bridge of Weir#Leather\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=Bridge of Weir customers \\|url\\=https://www.bridgeofweirleather.com/our\\-customers \\|website\\=bridgeofweirleather \\|date\\=6 May 2021 \\|publisher\\=Scottish Leather Group \\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2022}} and they were [Nordkapp](/wiki/North_Cape_%28Norway%29 \"North Cape (Norway)\") (dark blue) or [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi \"Gobi\") (light tan). A third choice was offered as a natural leather option, [Atacama](/wiki/Atacama \"Atacama\") (dark orange), available for an additional charge. The natural leather choice was sumptuous with a baseball glove thickness and feel.",
"The small trunk lid spoiler that was standard on the S60 R created a 20% increased downforce at the rear wheels at high speeds compared to the standard S60s. The S60 Rs have a 0\\.29 [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient \"Drag coefficient\"), compared to the standard S60's 0\\.28, due to the larger lower front bumper spoiler to support the secondary intercooler.",
"Another Volvo factory option for only the S60 R was a body kit which included front bumper splitters, side skirts and a rear valance, color matched to the body. The body kit was only available with certain body colors and in certain markets.",
"The S60 R continued the tradition of \"R\" cars for Volvo beginning in 1995 with the introduction of the 850 T\\-5 R.",
"",
"File:2004 Volvo S60 R (14180484848\\).jpg\\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\\-facelift in Flash Green\nFile:Volvo S60 R 001\\.JPG\\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\\-facelift in Flash Green\nFile:Volvo S60R instruments.jpg\\|Blue faced gauges",
"",
"### Engines",
"",
"| \\+[Petrol engines](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine \"Volvo Modular engine\") | Model | Engine code | Year(s) | Power at rpm | Torque at rpm | Displacement | Comment |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2\\.4 | [B5244S2](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244S2 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5244S2\") | 2001–2009 | {{convert\\|140\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\\|220\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3300 | {{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 |\n| 2\\.4 | [B5244S](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244S \"Volvo Modular engine#B5244S\") | 2001–2009 | {{convert\\|170\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 6000 | {{convert\\|230\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 |\n| 2\\.0T | [B5204T](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5204T \"Volvo Modular engine#B5204T\") | 2001–2003 | {{convert\\|163\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|240\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2200–4800 | {{convert\\|1984\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| 2\\.0T | [B5204T5](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5204T5 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5204T5\") | 2004–2009 | {{convert\\|180\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 5500 | {{convert\\|240\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1850–5000 | {{convert\\|1984\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| {{ubl \\|2\\.4T \\|2\\.4T AWD}} | [B5244T3](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244T3 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5244T3\") | 2001–2003 | {{convert\\|200\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|285\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1800–5000 | {{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| {{ubl \\|2\\.5T \\|2\\.5T AWD}} | [B5254T2](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5254T2 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5254T2\") | 2003–2009 | {{convert\\|210\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 5000 | {{convert\\|320\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1500–4500 | {{convert\\|2521\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| T5 2\\.3 | [B5234T3](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5234T3 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5234T3\") | 2001–2004 | {{convert\\|250\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|330\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2400–5200 | {{convert\\|2319\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| T5 2\\.4 | [B5244T5](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5244T5 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5244T5\") | 2005–2009 | {{convert\\|260\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 5500 | {{convert\\|350\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2100–5000 | {{convert\\|2401\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| R 6\\-speed manual | [B5254T4](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5254T4 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5254T4\") | 2004–2007 | {{convert\\|300\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 5400 | {{convert\\|400\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1850–5700 | {{convert\\|2521\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| R 5\\-speed auto | B5254T4{{cite web \\|language\\=de \\|url\\=http://az685612\\.vo.msecnd.net/pdfs/12393bca5bcab29dc10098ec8da6e65f03a63c21/S60\\_owners\\_manual\\_MY05\\_DE\\_tp7507\\.pdf \\|title\\=Volvo S60 Betriebsanleitung MY05 \\|trans\\-title\\=Volvo S60 owner's manual MY05 \\|publisher\\=Volvo Car Corporation \\|website\\=az685612\\.vo.msecnd.net \\|date\\=2004 }} | 2004–2005 | {{convert\\|300\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|350\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1800–6000 | {{convert\\|2521\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| R 6\\-speed auto | [B5254T4](/wiki/Volvo_Modular_engine%23B5254T4 \"Volvo Modular engine#B5254T4\") | 2006–2007 | {{convert\\|300\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|400\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1950–5250 | {{convert\\|2521\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |",
"",
"| \\+[Diesel engines](/wiki/Volvo_D5_engine \"Volvo D5 engine\") | Model | Engine code | Year(s) | Power | Torque at rpm | Displacement | Comment |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2\\.4D | D5244T2 | 2002–2006 | {{convert\\|130\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|280\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1750–3000 | {{convert\\|2401\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| D5 | D5244T | 2001–2004 | {{convert\\|163\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|340\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1750–2750 | {{convert\\|2401\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| D | D5244T7 | 2006–2009 | {{convert\\|126\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|300\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1750–2250 | {{convert\\|2400\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| 2\\.4D | D5244T5 | 2005–2009 | {{convert\\|163\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|340\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1750–2750 | {{convert\\|2400\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |\n| D5 | D5244T4 | 2004–2009 | {{convert\\|185\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|400\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2000–2750 | {{convert\\|2400\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | Inline 5 with turbo |",
"",
"| \\+Gas | Model | Engine code | Year(s) | Power at rpm | Tourqe at rpm | Displacement | Comment |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2\\.4 Bi\\-Fuel CNG | B5244SG{{cite web \\|language\\=de \\|url\\=http://az685612\\.vo.msecnd.net/pdfs/f4bb5255add22f7ce6703969e2f92648d8a107c9/S60\\_owners\\_manual\\_MY04\\_DE\\_tp6680\\.pdf \\|title\\=Volvo S60 Betriebsanleitung Modeljahr 2004 \\|trans\\-title\\=Volvo S60 owner's manual MY04 \\|publisher\\=Volvo Car Corporation \\|website\\=az685612\\.vo.msecnd.net \\|date\\=2003 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-13 }} | 2002–2008 | {{convert\\|140\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 5800 | {{convert\\|192\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | [CNG](/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas \"Compressed natural gas\")/petrol |\n| 2\\.4 Bi\\-Fuel LPG | B5244SG2 | 2002–2005 | {{convert\\|140\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 5100 | {{convert\\|214\\|Nm\\|lb·ft\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4500 | {{convert\\|2435\\|cc\\|in3\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} | [LPG](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas \"Liquefied petroleum gas\")/petrol |",
""
] |
### First\-generation models
#### S60 Police specification (UK \& EU)
Police specification models came about through Volvo's extensive work alongside the users of the vehicles and Police Fleet Management departments. As a result, the Police specification vehicles have a striking difference from original showroom model that sometimes the Volvo S60 is used as [police cars](/wiki/Police_car "Police car").
Firstly the [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 "Suspension (vehicle)") was up\-rated to deal with the demands of Police work; this included fitting the front suspension of the [D5](/wiki/Volvo_D5_engine "Volvo D5 engine") model variant (as the suspension was designed to deal with the heavier diesel engine). Nivomat self\-levelling suspension was also fitted to the rear to ensure correct geometry of the vehicle, regardless of the weight carried. On early models, the clutch was also replaced with the stronger D5 unit.
A larger specification battery and 110A [alternator](/wiki/Alternator "Alternator") was also fitted to run all the extra equipment, along with a dedicated Police fuse box in the boot. Extra wiring looms are also fitted specially for the Police radios and other equipment, including [CCTV](/wiki/Closed-circuit_television "Closed-circuit television") cameras. Additional electrical noise suppression has been added so as not to interfere with the sensitive electronics the police use.
The [speedometers](/wiki/Speedometer "Speedometer") in the vehicles are calibrated from the factory and do not require recalibration unless the wheel and overall rolling diameters are changed.
{{convert\|305\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} vented front [disc brakes](/wiki/Disc_brake "Disc brake") were also fitted alongside special [brake pads](/wiki/Brake_pad "Brake pad") (and wear indicators) specially designed to cope with high\-speed pursuits.
During 2001–2004 the 2\.3 litre T5 engine was used and in 2005\-2009 the 2\.4 litre T5 engine was used. Also beyond common speculation and myths, the engines are not chipped or modified specially for police use: they are complete factory spec but in 'exceptional cases' the speed limiter ({{cvt\|215\|km/h\|mph\|disp\=sqbr}}) may have been removed.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2014}}
File:Northern Constabulary \- Volvo (8275428723\).jpg\|Northern Constabulary Volvo S60 (UK)
#### S60 R
First introduced in 2004, Volvo's S60 R used a [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex_Traction "Haldex Traction") computer controlled all\-wheel\-drive system mated to a {{convert\|300\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} / {{convert\|400\|Nm\|abbr\=on}} [inline\-5](/wiki/Straight-five_engine "Straight-five engine") which sends 95 percent of the torque to the front wheels under normal driving conditions and can send up to 70 percent to the rear wheels as necessary. The 2004–2005 models came with a 6\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission"), or an available 5\-speed automatic which allowed only {{convert\|258\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} torque in 1st and 2nd gears. The 2006–2007 models came with a 6\-speed manual or 6\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission") (which was no longer torque\-restricted).
Other aspects which set the R apart from standard S60s were the large [Brembo](/wiki/Brembo "Brembo") front and rear four\-piston brakes, 18\-inch 5\-spoke "Pegasus" wheels (available as an upgrade to the standard 17\-inch wheels of the same design), blue faced "R" gauges, standard [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight "HID headlight"), as well as the Four\-C suspension system.{{cite web \|title\=2004 Volvo S60R \& V70R Living Brochure \|url\=https://autocatalogarchive.com/wp\-content/uploads/2019/07/Volvo\-S60\-R\-V70\-R\-2004\-CA.pdf \|website\=autocatalogarchive \|publisher\=Volvo Cars of Canada Ltd. \|access\-date\=12 November 2022}}
Semi\-active suspension with [Four\-C](/wiki/Four-C "Four-C") (a short name for "[Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept](/wiki/Continuously_Controlled_Chassis_Concept "Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept")") allows the user to select from three modes: Comfort, Sport, and Advanced. "Comfort" attempts to soften the car over bumps, while "Advanced" firms the suspension considerably and gives more aggressive throttle response \- a setting Volvo implies is for use on the race track. This is accomplished through a [drive by wire](/wiki/Drive_by_wire "Drive by wire") throttle, allowing the same pedal travel to result in different performance when the appropriate mode is selected,{{cite journal \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\_volvo/index.html \|title\=Volvo S60R, Volvo V70R: A unique blend of components; singular performance and luxury \|journal\=Modified Mag \|first\=Greg N. \|last \= Brown \|year\=2009 \|issue\=April \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701154636/http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\_volvo/index.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-07\-01 \|url\-status\=dead}} electronically controlled shock absorbers that can adjust themselves 500 times a second, and a complex series of sensors throughout the body of the vehicle. Volvo collaborated with high\-tech system developer [Ohlins Racing AB](/wiki/Ohlins "Ohlins") and shock absorber manufacturer Monroe for the self\-adjusting shock absorbers.{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2003/06/22/163566\.html \|title\=2004 Volvo S60 R Review \|first\=John \| last \= Heilig \|publisher\=The Auto Channel \|year\=2003 }}
The R had three themed interior color options with upholstery in soft leather supplied by [Bridge of Weir](/wiki/Bridge_of_Weir%23Leather "Bridge of Weir#Leather"),{{cite web \|title\=Bridge of Weir customers \|url\=https://www.bridgeofweirleather.com/our\-customers \|website\=bridgeofweirleather \|date\=6 May 2021 \|publisher\=Scottish Leather Group \|access\-date\=20 November 2022}} and they were [Nordkapp](/wiki/North_Cape_%28Norway%29 "North Cape (Norway)") (dark blue) or [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi "Gobi") (light tan). A third choice was offered as a natural leather option, [Atacama](/wiki/Atacama "Atacama") (dark orange), available for an additional charge. The natural leather choice was sumptuous with a baseball glove thickness and feel.
The small trunk lid spoiler that was standard on the S60 R created a 20% increased downforce at the rear wheels at high speeds compared to the standard S60s. The S60 Rs have a 0\.29 [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient "Drag coefficient"), compared to the standard S60's 0\.28, due to the larger lower front bumper spoiler to support the secondary intercooler.
Another Volvo factory option for only the S60 R was a body kit which included front bumper splitters, side skirts and a rear valance, color matched to the body. The body kit was only available with certain body colors and in certain markets.
The S60 R continued the tradition of "R" cars for Volvo beginning in 1995 with the introduction of the 850 T\-5 R.
File:2004 Volvo S60 R (14180484848\).jpg\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\-facelift in Flash Green
File:Volvo S60 R 001\.JPG\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\-facelift in Flash Green
File:Volvo S60R instruments.jpg\|Blue faced gauges
|
[
"### First\\-generation models",
"#### S60 Police specification (UK \\& EU)",
"Police specification models came about through Volvo's extensive work alongside the users of the vehicles and Police Fleet Management departments. As a result, the Police specification vehicles have a striking difference from original showroom model that sometimes the Volvo S60 is used as [police cars](/wiki/Police_car \"Police car\").\nFirstly the [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 \"Suspension (vehicle)\") was up\\-rated to deal with the demands of Police work; this included fitting the front suspension of the [D5](/wiki/Volvo_D5_engine \"Volvo D5 engine\") model variant (as the suspension was designed to deal with the heavier diesel engine). Nivomat self\\-levelling suspension was also fitted to the rear to ensure correct geometry of the vehicle, regardless of the weight carried. On early models, the clutch was also replaced with the stronger D5 unit.",
"A larger specification battery and 110A [alternator](/wiki/Alternator \"Alternator\") was also fitted to run all the extra equipment, along with a dedicated Police fuse box in the boot. Extra wiring looms are also fitted specially for the Police radios and other equipment, including [CCTV](/wiki/Closed-circuit_television \"Closed-circuit television\") cameras. Additional electrical noise suppression has been added so as not to interfere with the sensitive electronics the police use.",
"The [speedometers](/wiki/Speedometer \"Speedometer\") in the vehicles are calibrated from the factory and do not require recalibration unless the wheel and overall rolling diameters are changed.",
"{{convert\\|305\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} vented front [disc brakes](/wiki/Disc_brake \"Disc brake\") were also fitted alongside special [brake pads](/wiki/Brake_pad \"Brake pad\") (and wear indicators) specially designed to cope with high\\-speed pursuits.",
"During 2001–2004 the 2\\.3 litre T5 engine was used and in 2005\\-2009 the 2\\.4 litre T5 engine was used. Also beyond common speculation and myths, the engines are not chipped or modified specially for police use: they are complete factory spec but in 'exceptional cases' the speed limiter ({{cvt\\|215\\|km/h\\|mph\\|disp\\=sqbr}}) may have been removed.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2014}}",
"",
"File:Northern Constabulary \\- Volvo (8275428723\\).jpg\\|Northern Constabulary Volvo S60 (UK)",
"",
"#### S60 R",
"First introduced in 2004, Volvo's S60 R used a [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex_Traction \"Haldex Traction\") computer controlled all\\-wheel\\-drive system mated to a {{convert\\|300\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} / {{convert\\|400\\|Nm\\|abbr\\=on}} [inline\\-5](/wiki/Straight-five_engine \"Straight-five engine\") which sends 95 percent of the torque to the front wheels under normal driving conditions and can send up to 70 percent to the rear wheels as necessary. The 2004–2005 models came with a 6\\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\"), or an available 5\\-speed automatic which allowed only {{convert\\|258\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} torque in 1st and 2nd gears. The 2006–2007 models came with a 6\\-speed manual or 6\\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\") (which was no longer torque\\-restricted).",
"Other aspects which set the R apart from standard S60s were the large [Brembo](/wiki/Brembo \"Brembo\") front and rear four\\-piston brakes, 18\\-inch 5\\-spoke \"Pegasus\" wheels (available as an upgrade to the standard 17\\-inch wheels of the same design), blue faced \"R\" gauges, standard [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight \"HID headlight\"), as well as the Four\\-C suspension system.{{cite web \\|title\\=2004 Volvo S60R \\& V70R Living Brochure \\|url\\=https://autocatalogarchive.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/07/Volvo\\-S60\\-R\\-V70\\-R\\-2004\\-CA.pdf \\|website\\=autocatalogarchive \\|publisher\\=Volvo Cars of Canada Ltd. \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2022}}",
"Semi\\-active suspension with [Four\\-C](/wiki/Four-C \"Four-C\") (a short name for \"[Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept](/wiki/Continuously_Controlled_Chassis_Concept \"Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept\")\") allows the user to select from three modes: Comfort, Sport, and Advanced. \"Comfort\" attempts to soften the car over bumps, while \"Advanced\" firms the suspension considerably and gives more aggressive throttle response \\- a setting Volvo implies is for use on the race track. This is accomplished through a [drive by wire](/wiki/Drive_by_wire \"Drive by wire\") throttle, allowing the same pedal travel to result in different performance when the appropriate mode is selected,{{cite journal \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\\_volvo/index.html \\|title\\=Volvo S60R, Volvo V70R: A unique blend of components; singular performance and luxury \\|journal\\=Modified Mag \\|first\\=Greg N. \\|last \\= Brown \\|year\\=2009 \\|issue\\=April \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701154636/http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\\_volvo/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} electronically controlled shock absorbers that can adjust themselves 500 times a second, and a complex series of sensors throughout the body of the vehicle. Volvo collaborated with high\\-tech system developer [Ohlins Racing AB](/wiki/Ohlins \"Ohlins\") and shock absorber manufacturer Monroe for the self\\-adjusting shock absorbers.{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2003/06/22/163566\\.html \\|title\\=2004 Volvo S60 R Review \\|first\\=John \\| last \\= Heilig \\|publisher\\=The Auto Channel \\|year\\=2003 }}",
"The R had three themed interior color options with upholstery in soft leather supplied by [Bridge of Weir](/wiki/Bridge_of_Weir%23Leather \"Bridge of Weir#Leather\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=Bridge of Weir customers \\|url\\=https://www.bridgeofweirleather.com/our\\-customers \\|website\\=bridgeofweirleather \\|date\\=6 May 2021 \\|publisher\\=Scottish Leather Group \\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2022}} and they were [Nordkapp](/wiki/North_Cape_%28Norway%29 \"North Cape (Norway)\") (dark blue) or [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi \"Gobi\") (light tan). A third choice was offered as a natural leather option, [Atacama](/wiki/Atacama \"Atacama\") (dark orange), available for an additional charge. The natural leather choice was sumptuous with a baseball glove thickness and feel.",
"The small trunk lid spoiler that was standard on the S60 R created a 20% increased downforce at the rear wheels at high speeds compared to the standard S60s. The S60 Rs have a 0\\.29 [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient \"Drag coefficient\"), compared to the standard S60's 0\\.28, due to the larger lower front bumper spoiler to support the secondary intercooler.",
"Another Volvo factory option for only the S60 R was a body kit which included front bumper splitters, side skirts and a rear valance, color matched to the body. The body kit was only available with certain body colors and in certain markets.",
"The S60 R continued the tradition of \"R\" cars for Volvo beginning in 1995 with the introduction of the 850 T\\-5 R.",
"",
"File:2004 Volvo S60 R (14180484848\\).jpg\\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\\-facelift in Flash Green\nFile:Volvo S60 R 001\\.JPG\\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\\-facelift in Flash Green\nFile:Volvo S60R instruments.jpg\\|Blue faced gauges",
"",
""
] |
#### S60 R
First introduced in 2004, Volvo's S60 R used a [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex_Traction "Haldex Traction") computer controlled all\-wheel\-drive system mated to a {{convert\|300\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} / {{convert\|400\|Nm\|abbr\=on}} [inline\-5](/wiki/Straight-five_engine "Straight-five engine") which sends 95 percent of the torque to the front wheels under normal driving conditions and can send up to 70 percent to the rear wheels as necessary. The 2004–2005 models came with a 6\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission"), or an available 5\-speed automatic which allowed only {{convert\|258\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} torque in 1st and 2nd gears. The 2006–2007 models came with a 6\-speed manual or 6\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission") (which was no longer torque\-restricted).
Other aspects which set the R apart from standard S60s were the large [Brembo](/wiki/Brembo "Brembo") front and rear four\-piston brakes, 18\-inch 5\-spoke "Pegasus" wheels (available as an upgrade to the standard 17\-inch wheels of the same design), blue faced "R" gauges, standard [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight "HID headlight"), as well as the Four\-C suspension system.{{cite web \|title\=2004 Volvo S60R \& V70R Living Brochure \|url\=https://autocatalogarchive.com/wp\-content/uploads/2019/07/Volvo\-S60\-R\-V70\-R\-2004\-CA.pdf \|website\=autocatalogarchive \|publisher\=Volvo Cars of Canada Ltd. \|access\-date\=12 November 2022}}
Semi\-active suspension with [Four\-C](/wiki/Four-C "Four-C") (a short name for "[Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept](/wiki/Continuously_Controlled_Chassis_Concept "Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept")") allows the user to select from three modes: Comfort, Sport, and Advanced. "Comfort" attempts to soften the car over bumps, while "Advanced" firms the suspension considerably and gives more aggressive throttle response \- a setting Volvo implies is for use on the race track. This is accomplished through a [drive by wire](/wiki/Drive_by_wire "Drive by wire") throttle, allowing the same pedal travel to result in different performance when the appropriate mode is selected,{{cite journal \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\_volvo/index.html \|title\=Volvo S60R, Volvo V70R: A unique blend of components; singular performance and luxury \|journal\=Modified Mag \|first\=Greg N. \|last \= Brown \|year\=2009 \|issue\=April \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701154636/http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\_volvo/index.html \|archive\-date\=2010\-07\-01 \|url\-status\=dead}} electronically controlled shock absorbers that can adjust themselves 500 times a second, and a complex series of sensors throughout the body of the vehicle. Volvo collaborated with high\-tech system developer [Ohlins Racing AB](/wiki/Ohlins "Ohlins") and shock absorber manufacturer Monroe for the self\-adjusting shock absorbers.{{cite web \|language\=en \|url\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2003/06/22/163566\.html \|title\=2004 Volvo S60 R Review \|first\=John \| last \= Heilig \|publisher\=The Auto Channel \|year\=2003 }}
The R had three themed interior color options with upholstery in soft leather supplied by [Bridge of Weir](/wiki/Bridge_of_Weir%23Leather "Bridge of Weir#Leather"),{{cite web \|title\=Bridge of Weir customers \|url\=https://www.bridgeofweirleather.com/our\-customers \|website\=bridgeofweirleather \|date\=6 May 2021 \|publisher\=Scottish Leather Group \|access\-date\=20 November 2022}} and they were [Nordkapp](/wiki/North_Cape_%28Norway%29 "North Cape (Norway)") (dark blue) or [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi "Gobi") (light tan). A third choice was offered as a natural leather option, [Atacama](/wiki/Atacama "Atacama") (dark orange), available for an additional charge. The natural leather choice was sumptuous with a baseball glove thickness and feel.
The small trunk lid spoiler that was standard on the S60 R created a 20% increased downforce at the rear wheels at high speeds compared to the standard S60s. The S60 Rs have a 0\.29 [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient "Drag coefficient"), compared to the standard S60's 0\.28, due to the larger lower front bumper spoiler to support the secondary intercooler.
Another Volvo factory option for only the S60 R was a body kit which included front bumper splitters, side skirts and a rear valance, color matched to the body. The body kit was only available with certain body colors and in certain markets.
The S60 R continued the tradition of "R" cars for Volvo beginning in 1995 with the introduction of the 850 T\-5 R.
File:2004 Volvo S60 R (14180484848\).jpg\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\-facelift in Flash Green
File:Volvo S60 R 001\.JPG\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\-facelift in Flash Green
File:Volvo S60R instruments.jpg\|Blue faced gauges
|
[
"#### S60 R",
"First introduced in 2004, Volvo's S60 R used a [Haldex](/wiki/Haldex_Traction \"Haldex Traction\") computer controlled all\\-wheel\\-drive system mated to a {{convert\\|300\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} / {{convert\\|400\\|Nm\\|abbr\\=on}} [inline\\-5](/wiki/Straight-five_engine \"Straight-five engine\") which sends 95 percent of the torque to the front wheels under normal driving conditions and can send up to 70 percent to the rear wheels as necessary. The 2004–2005 models came with a 6\\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\"), or an available 5\\-speed automatic which allowed only {{convert\\|258\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} torque in 1st and 2nd gears. The 2006–2007 models came with a 6\\-speed manual or 6\\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\") (which was no longer torque\\-restricted).",
"Other aspects which set the R apart from standard S60s were the large [Brembo](/wiki/Brembo \"Brembo\") front and rear four\\-piston brakes, 18\\-inch 5\\-spoke \"Pegasus\" wheels (available as an upgrade to the standard 17\\-inch wheels of the same design), blue faced \"R\" gauges, standard [HID headlights](/wiki/HID_headlight \"HID headlight\"), as well as the Four\\-C suspension system.{{cite web \\|title\\=2004 Volvo S60R \\& V70R Living Brochure \\|url\\=https://autocatalogarchive.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/07/Volvo\\-S60\\-R\\-V70\\-R\\-2004\\-CA.pdf \\|website\\=autocatalogarchive \\|publisher\\=Volvo Cars of Canada Ltd. \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2022}}",
"Semi\\-active suspension with [Four\\-C](/wiki/Four-C \"Four-C\") (a short name for \"[Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept](/wiki/Continuously_Controlled_Chassis_Concept \"Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept\")\") allows the user to select from three modes: Comfort, Sport, and Advanced. \"Comfort\" attempts to soften the car over bumps, while \"Advanced\" firms the suspension considerably and gives more aggressive throttle response \\- a setting Volvo implies is for use on the race track. This is accomplished through a [drive by wire](/wiki/Drive_by_wire \"Drive by wire\") throttle, allowing the same pedal travel to result in different performance when the appropriate mode is selected,{{cite journal \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\\_volvo/index.html \\|title\\=Volvo S60R, Volvo V70R: A unique blend of components; singular performance and luxury \\|journal\\=Modified Mag \\|first\\=Greg N. \\|last \\= Brown \\|year\\=2009 \\|issue\\=April \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701154636/http://www.modified.com/features/0304scc\\_volvo/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} electronically controlled shock absorbers that can adjust themselves 500 times a second, and a complex series of sensors throughout the body of the vehicle. Volvo collaborated with high\\-tech system developer [Ohlins Racing AB](/wiki/Ohlins \"Ohlins\") and shock absorber manufacturer Monroe for the self\\-adjusting shock absorbers.{{cite web \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2003/06/22/163566\\.html \\|title\\=2004 Volvo S60 R Review \\|first\\=John \\| last \\= Heilig \\|publisher\\=The Auto Channel \\|year\\=2003 }}",
"The R had three themed interior color options with upholstery in soft leather supplied by [Bridge of Weir](/wiki/Bridge_of_Weir%23Leather \"Bridge of Weir#Leather\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=Bridge of Weir customers \\|url\\=https://www.bridgeofweirleather.com/our\\-customers \\|website\\=bridgeofweirleather \\|date\\=6 May 2021 \\|publisher\\=Scottish Leather Group \\|access\\-date\\=20 November 2022}} and they were [Nordkapp](/wiki/North_Cape_%28Norway%29 \"North Cape (Norway)\") (dark blue) or [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi \"Gobi\") (light tan). A third choice was offered as a natural leather option, [Atacama](/wiki/Atacama \"Atacama\") (dark orange), available for an additional charge. The natural leather choice was sumptuous with a baseball glove thickness and feel.",
"The small trunk lid spoiler that was standard on the S60 R created a 20% increased downforce at the rear wheels at high speeds compared to the standard S60s. The S60 Rs have a 0\\.29 [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient \"Drag coefficient\"), compared to the standard S60's 0\\.28, due to the larger lower front bumper spoiler to support the secondary intercooler.",
"Another Volvo factory option for only the S60 R was a body kit which included front bumper splitters, side skirts and a rear valance, color matched to the body. The body kit was only available with certain body colors and in certain markets.",
"The S60 R continued the tradition of \"R\" cars for Volvo beginning in 1995 with the introduction of the 850 T\\-5 R.",
"",
"File:2004 Volvo S60 R (14180484848\\).jpg\\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\\-facelift in Flash Green\nFile:Volvo S60 R 001\\.JPG\\|Volvo S60 R AWD pre\\-facelift in Flash Green\nFile:Volvo S60R instruments.jpg\\|Blue faced gauges",
"",
""
] |
Plot
----
Josh returns home from work on his birthday. His fiancée Rachel agrees to cook dinner while Josh is at the gym. Josh returns home to find out that Rachel asphyxiated herself with a belt.
Four months later, Josh along with his friends Ari, Adam and Eric decide to spend the weekend, which was supposed to be Josh's bachelor party, at a ranch in [Ojai](/wiki/Ojai "Ojai"). At a bar the first night, Ari meets a girl named Jodi and finds a connection with her; Adam finds out that his girlfriend wants to break up with him; and Eric, wanting to keep the night alive, invites his friend Greg over. Jodi, being locked out of her place, crashes with the guys at their place after a fun night.
The next morning, their friend Aaron arrives with his wife and kid only to find the place infested with drugs and booze. An argument erupts between Eric and Aaron over the matter of Josh's state of mind and the current situation. Aaron storms off with his family and the guys spend the day out with Greg learning about Rachel's death from Ari. After getting high, Greg becomes extremely emotional due to his troubled past. They head to the bar and find Jodi and her friends there. Ari tells Jodi that he is married which makes Jodi distance herself from Ari. They return home downcast, so Eric invites two strippers to keep the night alive, and an argument breaks out between Eric and Adam. Josh and Eric realize there is a mysterious man stalking them who they try to confront, but in vain.
The next day Eric invites several prostitutes, one for each of them, but the party is interrupted by the arrival of Rachel's parents who are there to confront Josh. The parents ask for details of the events leading up to Rachel's death, accusing Josh of hiding his guilt by colluding with the police. They show Josh pictures of the guys with the stripper from the previous night, as the “stalker” was hired to spy on them, and inform him that a second autopsy report found that the cause Rachel's death, suicide, was inconclusive. Josh, in a fit of rage, tears the bag they brought with them only to find out a wire inside it, implying that they were there to get him to confess to the murder of their daughter. Josh asks them to leave and goes to his friends and opens up. They console him, and the group decides to finally play the board game Adam wanted to play since the beginning.
The group spends the last night of the weekend playing the "very complex board game" and is joined by Jodi. After the game, Jodi gets up to leave so Ari walks her to the door and kisses her. Jodi realizes that Ari is a married man, ends their embrace abruptly and walks out. The next morning the group bids farewell to each other and decides to meet again some time soon. Josh and Ari are the last to leave. The movie ends with Josh wanting to say something to Ari, but hesitates and Ari drives away.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Josh returns home from work on his birthday. His fiancée Rachel agrees to cook dinner while Josh is at the gym. Josh returns home to find out that Rachel asphyxiated herself with a belt.",
"Four months later, Josh along with his friends Ari, Adam and Eric decide to spend the weekend, which was supposed to be Josh's bachelor party, at a ranch in [Ojai](/wiki/Ojai \"Ojai\"). At a bar the first night, Ari meets a girl named Jodi and finds a connection with her; Adam finds out that his girlfriend wants to break up with him; and Eric, wanting to keep the night alive, invites his friend Greg over. Jodi, being locked out of her place, crashes with the guys at their place after a fun night.",
"The next morning, their friend Aaron arrives with his wife and kid only to find the place infested with drugs and booze. An argument erupts between Eric and Aaron over the matter of Josh's state of mind and the current situation. Aaron storms off with his family and the guys spend the day out with Greg learning about Rachel's death from Ari. After getting high, Greg becomes extremely emotional due to his troubled past. They head to the bar and find Jodi and her friends there. Ari tells Jodi that he is married which makes Jodi distance herself from Ari. They return home downcast, so Eric invites two strippers to keep the night alive, and an argument breaks out between Eric and Adam. Josh and Eric realize there is a mysterious man stalking them who they try to confront, but in vain.",
"The next day Eric invites several prostitutes, one for each of them, but the party is interrupted by the arrival of Rachel's parents who are there to confront Josh. The parents ask for details of the events leading up to Rachel's death, accusing Josh of hiding his guilt by colluding with the police. They show Josh pictures of the guys with the stripper from the previous night, as the “stalker” was hired to spy on them, and inform him that a second autopsy report found that the cause Rachel's death, suicide, was inconclusive. Josh, in a fit of rage, tears the bag they brought with them only to find out a wire inside it, implying that they were there to get him to confess to the murder of their daughter. Josh asks them to leave and goes to his friends and opens up. They console him, and the group decides to finally play the board game Adam wanted to play since the beginning.",
"The group spends the last night of the weekend playing the \"very complex board game\" and is joined by Jodi. After the game, Jodi gets up to leave so Ari walks her to the door and kisses her. Jodi realizes that Ari is a married man, ends their embrace abruptly and walks out. The next morning the group bids farewell to each other and decides to meet again some time soon. Josh and Ari are the last to leave. The movie ends with Josh wanting to say something to Ari, but hesitates and Ari drives away.",
""
] |
Collaborative projects
----------------------
In addition to curating exhibitions, Hull has undertaken large\-scale, relay\-style collaborative projects involving the production and exchange of text, images and music among artists from different disciplines, beginning in graduate school. In his first, *Blind Date* (1997\), he invited 31 visual artists to each create an artwork, then randomly assigned those works to writers to each produce a piece of writing in response. *I’m Still In Love With You* (1998–9\) featured 46 visual artists and 29 writers responding to the 1972, same\-titled album by soul musician [Al Green](/wiki/Al_Green "Al Green").Museum of Modern Art. [Various Artists with Steven Hull, *I'm still in love with you*, 1998](https://www.moma.org/collection/works/184012), Collection. Retrieved February 16, 2021\.Nothing Moments Press. [Albums](http://nothingmomentspress.com/albums/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\.
For *Song Poems* (2000–01\), Hull commissioned poems from 40 writers (among them, [Rick Moody](/wiki/Rick_Moody "Rick Moody"), [Darcey Steinke](/wiki/Darcey_Steinke "Darcey Steinke") and [Lynne Tillman](/wiki/Lynne_Tillman "Lynne Tillman")), which he turned over to musicians to use as lyrics for original songs that were given to artists, who created videos and album covers for them.Saltz, Jerry. ["Screen Savers,"](https://www.villagevoice.com/2001/07/24/screen-savers-2/) *The Village Voice*, July 24, 2001\. Retrieved February 17, 2021\. The project yielded a 3\-CD catalogue of 43 lyrics and songs, album art and posters, as well as performances and exhibitions at Cohan Leslie and Browne (New York), Angstrom Gallery and Rosamund Felsen;Harvey, Doug. ["Sound and Beyond,"](https://www.laweekly.com/sound-and-beyond/) *LA Weekly*, July 19–25, 2002, p 47\. Retrieved February 16, 2021\. critic Martha Schwendener wrote that "the results have a quirkiness that functions marvelously in a gallery," pushing boundaries by bringing music into the art world and showing "the crucial role of art and design in marketing music."
### Nothing Moments Press
In 2005, Hull established Nothing Moments Press as an outlet to produce and publish collaborative projects.Nothing Moments Press. [Book Projects](http://nothingmomentspress.com/blind-date/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\.Nothing Moments Press. [Las Cienegas Catalog](http://nothingmomentspress.com/lcp-book/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\. Its first major project was *AB OVO* (2005\), for which Hull solicited 19 artists (among them, [Mike Kelley](/wiki/Mike_Kelley_%28artist%29 "Mike Kelley (artist)"), [Martha Rosler](/wiki/Martha_Rosler "Martha Rosler") and [Bruce Yonemoto](/wiki/Bruce_Yonemoto "Bruce Yonemoto")) to take the [Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory](/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory "Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory")\-2TM, a personality test used in the U.S. legal system to identify and evaluate psychological disorders. Each test, customized for child custody cases, produced a personality profile, which Hull anonymously and randomly assigned to writers to base a children’s story on; the stories were then given to figurative artists, who developed illustrations for the stories. *Artforum* critic Glen Helfand called the resulting exhibition and catalogue "high\-concept, multiple\-phase curating at its best … a memorable Freudian brew of nightmares and curdled milk."
In 2008, the press came out with "Nothing Moments Projects": 24 limited edition books and over 400 original drawings by nearly one hundred artists, writers and designers, which were produced by Hull, Tami Demaree, Annie Buckley and Jon Sueda.Buckley, Annie. "Nothing Moments: Holding onto a Whale Celebrating writing, art, and design equally," *Otis Magazine*, Vol.4, 2008, p. 18\.Walker Art Center. ["Nothing Moments: Interview with Jon Sueda,"](https://walkerart.org/magazine/moments-interview-jon-sueda) *The Gradient*, December 12, 2007\. Retrieved February 18, 2021\.Nothing Moments Press. [Nothing Moments Projects](http://nothingmomentspress.com/lcp-book/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\. They began by requesting submissions of original novels, novellas and short stories. After narrowing to 24 works (by writers such as [Aimee Bender](/wiki/Aimee_Bender "Aimee Bender"), [Ben Ehrenreich](/wiki/Ben_Ehrenreich "Ben Ehrenreich"), [Rachel Kushner](/wiki/Rachel_Kushner "Rachel Kushner"), and [Tom McCarthy](/wiki/Tom_McCarthy_%28director%29 "Tom McCarthy (director)")), they turned them over to artists (e.g., [Derek Boshier](/wiki/Derek_Boshier "Derek Boshier"), [Andrea Bowers](/wiki/Andrea_Bowers "Andrea Bowers"), [Glenn Ligon](/wiki/Glenn_Ligon "Glenn Ligon")) for illustrations, and then to designers (e.g., [Gail Swanlund](/wiki/Gail_Swanlund "Gail Swanlund")) to create the finished books. The project was featured in exhibitions in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Dallas and Chicago.Mitchell, Charles Dee. "Nothing Moments exhibit draws on words of fiction," *Dallas Morning News*, June 5, 2008\.
### Additional public collaborations
In 2009, Hull and Amy Thoner co\-founded Las Cienegas Projects, an artist\-run curatorial project and gallery space in Los Angeles, which presented over sixty collaborative and project\-based artworks by local and international emerging and established artists.Harvey, Doug. ["Snips and Snails: Let the Fall Art Season Begin!"](https://www.laweekly.com/snips-and-snails-let-the-fall-art-season-begin/) *LA Weekly*, September 8, 2009\. Retrieved February 16, 2021\. Its projects from 2009 to 2011 are documented in a catalog, *Las Cienegas Projects: Time Runs Out* (2015\).
In 2014, Hull was invited to develop the visual environment for the second Festival Supreme, a music and comedy event in Los Angeles organized by [Tenacious D](/wiki/Tenacious_D "Tenacious D") ([Jack Black](/wiki/Jack_Black "Jack Black") and [Kyle Gass](/wiki/Kyle_Gass "Kyle Gass")). He produced an enormous art theme park called *Circus of Death*, which featured two prop\-festooned trains, a haunted church/bouncy house by [Jim Shaw](/wiki/Jim_Shaw_%28artist%29 "Jim Shaw (artist)"), monster costumes by [Marnie Weber](/wiki/Marnie_Weber "Marnie Weber"), puppets and figurative sculptures with sound, videos, and performances by himself and others.Katz, Miriam. ["Supreme Being,"](https://www.artforum.com/diary/miriam-katz-at-the-2nd-festival-supreme-in-los-angeles-48985) *Artforum*, November 9, 2014\. Retrieved February 17, 2021\.Miranda, Carolina A. ["Prepping for 'Circus of Death,'"](https://www.latimes.com/la-prepping-for-circus-of-death-20141021-photogallery.html) *Los Angeles Times*, October 21, 2014\. Retrieved February 16, 2021\. Hull organized a multimedia environment for "Glow," a one\-night interactive art festival in Santa Monica in 2013; it featured a puppet show, sculpture by Hull and Demaree, and sounds by [Gibby Haynes](/wiki/Gibby_Haynes "Gibby Haynes") and music by [Petra Haden](/wiki/Petra_Haden "Petra Haden"), [Tanya Haden](/wiki/Tanya_Haden "Tanya Haden") and Anna Huff, which were captured on the album *A Puppet Show*.Menken, Robin. ["GLOW Lights Up Santa Monica,"](https://www.cinemawithoutborders.com/3495-glow-lights-up-santa-monica/) *Cinema Without Borders*, September 27, 2013\. Retrieved February 23, 2021\.
In 2017, he participated in the "Murals of La Jolla" public art project with *Man, Myths and Magic*, a vibrant, billboard\-sized reproduction of a five\-by\-seven\-inch drawing of his, which combined abstract, referential and fantastical qualities in its depiction of a humanoid figures emerging from a surreal landscape.
|
[
"Collaborative projects\n----------------------",
"In addition to curating exhibitions, Hull has undertaken large\\-scale, relay\\-style collaborative projects involving the production and exchange of text, images and music among artists from different disciplines, beginning in graduate school. In his first, *Blind Date* (1997\\), he invited 31 visual artists to each create an artwork, then randomly assigned those works to writers to each produce a piece of writing in response. *I’m Still In Love With You* (1998–9\\) featured 46 visual artists and 29 writers responding to the 1972, same\\-titled album by soul musician [Al Green](/wiki/Al_Green \"Al Green\").Museum of Modern Art. [Various Artists with Steven Hull, *I'm still in love with you*, 1998](https://www.moma.org/collection/works/184012), Collection. Retrieved February 16, 2021\\.Nothing Moments Press. [Albums](http://nothingmomentspress.com/albums/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\\.",
"For *Song Poems* (2000–01\\), Hull commissioned poems from 40 writers (among them, [Rick Moody](/wiki/Rick_Moody \"Rick Moody\"), [Darcey Steinke](/wiki/Darcey_Steinke \"Darcey Steinke\") and [Lynne Tillman](/wiki/Lynne_Tillman \"Lynne Tillman\")), which he turned over to musicians to use as lyrics for original songs that were given to artists, who created videos and album covers for them.Saltz, Jerry. [\"Screen Savers,\"](https://www.villagevoice.com/2001/07/24/screen-savers-2/) *The Village Voice*, July 24, 2001\\. Retrieved February 17, 2021\\. The project yielded a 3\\-CD catalogue of 43 lyrics and songs, album art and posters, as well as performances and exhibitions at Cohan Leslie and Browne (New York), Angstrom Gallery and Rosamund Felsen;Harvey, Doug. [\"Sound and Beyond,\"](https://www.laweekly.com/sound-and-beyond/) *LA Weekly*, July 19–25, 2002, p 47\\. Retrieved February 16, 2021\\. critic Martha Schwendener wrote that \"the results have a quirkiness that functions marvelously in a gallery,\" pushing boundaries by bringing music into the art world and showing \"the crucial role of art and design in marketing music.\"",
"### Nothing Moments Press",
"In 2005, Hull established Nothing Moments Press as an outlet to produce and publish collaborative projects.Nothing Moments Press. [Book Projects](http://nothingmomentspress.com/blind-date/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\\.Nothing Moments Press. [Las Cienegas Catalog](http://nothingmomentspress.com/lcp-book/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\\. Its first major project was *AB OVO* (2005\\), for which Hull solicited 19 artists (among them, [Mike Kelley](/wiki/Mike_Kelley_%28artist%29 \"Mike Kelley (artist)\"), [Martha Rosler](/wiki/Martha_Rosler \"Martha Rosler\") and [Bruce Yonemoto](/wiki/Bruce_Yonemoto \"Bruce Yonemoto\")) to take the [Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory](/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory \"Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory\")\\-2TM, a personality test used in the U.S. legal system to identify and evaluate psychological disorders. Each test, customized for child custody cases, produced a personality profile, which Hull anonymously and randomly assigned to writers to base a children’s story on; the stories were then given to figurative artists, who developed illustrations for the stories. *Artforum* critic Glen Helfand called the resulting exhibition and catalogue \"high\\-concept, multiple\\-phase curating at its best … a memorable Freudian brew of nightmares and curdled milk.\"",
"In 2008, the press came out with \"Nothing Moments Projects\": 24 limited edition books and over 400 original drawings by nearly one hundred artists, writers and designers, which were produced by Hull, Tami Demaree, Annie Buckley and Jon Sueda.Buckley, Annie. \"Nothing Moments: Holding onto a Whale Celebrating writing, art, and design equally,\" *Otis Magazine*, Vol.4, 2008, p. 18\\.Walker Art Center. [\"Nothing Moments: Interview with Jon Sueda,\"](https://walkerart.org/magazine/moments-interview-jon-sueda) *The Gradient*, December 12, 2007\\. Retrieved February 18, 2021\\.Nothing Moments Press. [Nothing Moments Projects](http://nothingmomentspress.com/lcp-book/). Retrieved February 18, 2021\\. They began by requesting submissions of original novels, novellas and short stories. After narrowing to 24 works (by writers such as [Aimee Bender](/wiki/Aimee_Bender \"Aimee Bender\"), [Ben Ehrenreich](/wiki/Ben_Ehrenreich \"Ben Ehrenreich\"), [Rachel Kushner](/wiki/Rachel_Kushner \"Rachel Kushner\"), and [Tom McCarthy](/wiki/Tom_McCarthy_%28director%29 \"Tom McCarthy (director)\")), they turned them over to artists (e.g., [Derek Boshier](/wiki/Derek_Boshier \"Derek Boshier\"), [Andrea Bowers](/wiki/Andrea_Bowers \"Andrea Bowers\"), [Glenn Ligon](/wiki/Glenn_Ligon \"Glenn Ligon\")) for illustrations, and then to designers (e.g., [Gail Swanlund](/wiki/Gail_Swanlund \"Gail Swanlund\")) to create the finished books. The project was featured in exhibitions in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Dallas and Chicago.Mitchell, Charles Dee. \"Nothing Moments exhibit draws on words of fiction,\" *Dallas Morning News*, June 5, 2008\\.",
"### Additional public collaborations",
"In 2009, Hull and Amy Thoner co\\-founded Las Cienegas Projects, an artist\\-run curatorial project and gallery space in Los Angeles, which presented over sixty collaborative and project\\-based artworks by local and international emerging and established artists.Harvey, Doug. [\"Snips and Snails: Let the Fall Art Season Begin!\"](https://www.laweekly.com/snips-and-snails-let-the-fall-art-season-begin/) *LA Weekly*, September 8, 2009\\. Retrieved February 16, 2021\\. Its projects from 2009 to 2011 are documented in a catalog, *Las Cienegas Projects: Time Runs Out* (2015\\).",
"In 2014, Hull was invited to develop the visual environment for the second Festival Supreme, a music and comedy event in Los Angeles organized by [Tenacious D](/wiki/Tenacious_D \"Tenacious D\") ([Jack Black](/wiki/Jack_Black \"Jack Black\") and [Kyle Gass](/wiki/Kyle_Gass \"Kyle Gass\")). He produced an enormous art theme park called *Circus of Death*, which featured two prop\\-festooned trains, a haunted church/bouncy house by [Jim Shaw](/wiki/Jim_Shaw_%28artist%29 \"Jim Shaw (artist)\"), monster costumes by [Marnie Weber](/wiki/Marnie_Weber \"Marnie Weber\"), puppets and figurative sculptures with sound, videos, and performances by himself and others.Katz, Miriam. [\"Supreme Being,\"](https://www.artforum.com/diary/miriam-katz-at-the-2nd-festival-supreme-in-los-angeles-48985) *Artforum*, November 9, 2014\\. Retrieved February 17, 2021\\.Miranda, Carolina A. [\"Prepping for 'Circus of Death,'\"](https://www.latimes.com/la-prepping-for-circus-of-death-20141021-photogallery.html) *Los Angeles Times*, October 21, 2014\\. Retrieved February 16, 2021\\. Hull organized a multimedia environment for \"Glow,\" a one\\-night interactive art festival in Santa Monica in 2013; it featured a puppet show, sculpture by Hull and Demaree, and sounds by [Gibby Haynes](/wiki/Gibby_Haynes \"Gibby Haynes\") and music by [Petra Haden](/wiki/Petra_Haden \"Petra Haden\"), [Tanya Haden](/wiki/Tanya_Haden \"Tanya Haden\") and Anna Huff, which were captured on the album *A Puppet Show*.Menken, Robin. [\"GLOW Lights Up Santa Monica,\"](https://www.cinemawithoutborders.com/3495-glow-lights-up-santa-monica/) *Cinema Without Borders*, September 27, 2013\\. Retrieved February 23, 2021\\.",
"In 2017, he participated in the \"Murals of La Jolla\" public art project with *Man, Myths and Magic*, a vibrant, billboard\\-sized reproduction of a five\\-by\\-seven\\-inch drawing of his, which combined abstract, referential and fantastical qualities in its depiction of a humanoid figures emerging from a surreal landscape.",
""
] |
Insolvency
----------
### Background
In the 1860s, the partnership agreed to build a line between London Bridge and Victoria for the [London, Chatham and Dover Railway](/wiki/London%2C_Chatham_and_Dover_Railway "London, Chatham and Dover Railway") (LCDR) and to be paid entirely in the company's shares and debentures. To raise the funding for the construction they became involved in complicated finance\-raising schemes, and with their overseas operations hindered by war, they overstretched themselves.
### Overend, Gurney and Company
{{Main\|Overend, Gurney and Company}}
The partnership's principal bank was [Overend, Gurney and Company](/wiki/Overend%2C_Gurney_and_Company "Overend, Gurney and Company"). As a consequence of a run on the bank caused by persistent rumours and speculation in the London financial markets, the bank closed its doors and ceased trading at 3pm, 10 May 1866\.
### Effect on the partnership
The collapse of Overend, Gurney and Company was disastrous for the partnership and the next day the partnership suspended trading. Indeed, the partnership was probably the most prominent casualty of the collapse of the bank and the ensuing [banking crisis](/wiki/Panic_of_1866 "Panic of 1866"). At the time the partnership was suspended there were 20,000 men in their employment.*The Stirling Observer*, 17 May 1866\.
In a public statement Peto and Betts declared, "We much regret to find ourselves under the painful necessity of allowing our acceptances to be returned, owing wholly to the disappointment of the arrangements we have made for their provision, which have been defeated by the unexpected turn which has taken place in the money market within the last few days."*Birmingham Journal*, 12 May 1866\. The statement went on to say that Peto and Betts thought the cash shortfall of the partnership was temporary and given a little time they would be able to liquidate sufficient assets and be able to pay off their debts.
Initially, the cash shortfall was thought to be "not above half a million"*The Worcester Chronicle*, 16 October 1867\.
### London, Chatham and Dover Railway
{{Main\|London, Chatham and Dover Railway}}
Peto and Betts optimism was misplaced. In the ensuing crisis, railway stocks were particularly badly affected and the London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR) became insolvent*The Times*, 21 December 1866, p. 8; Issue 25687; col E. Consequently, the shares that the partnership had been paid in became worthless. Furthermore, the illegal loan schemes that they had been involved in at the LCDR ruined their reputations. The new management of the resurrected LCDR resolved to pursue the partnership and Peto and Betts personally, eventually making a claim against them for a "staggering"*Worcester Chronicle*, 16 October 1867 £6,661,941 19s 1d. ({{Inflation\|UK\|6661942\|1866\|r\=\-4\|fmt\=eq\|cursign\=£}}).{{Inflation\-fn\|UK}} The LCDR later reduced their claim, their solicitor declaring, “Whether my clients had a proof upon the proceedings of £360,000 or for £6,600,000, the result would, unfortunately be the same – in neither case would there be any dividend."*The Pall Mall Gazette*, 17 July 1868, page 203\.
### Aftermath
The partnership was unable to pay their creditors and became insolvent in the following year.
Neither Peto nor Betts' reputations for financial propriety recovered from the LCDR debacle. Both died in obscurity, Betts in 1872 and Peto in 1889\. The partnership insolvency rumbled on with the final dividend meeting, making payments to their creditors being held on 6 June 1898, over 30 years after the insolvency commenced.*London Standard*, 4 May 1898\.
|
[
"Insolvency\n----------",
"### Background",
"In the 1860s, the partnership agreed to build a line between London Bridge and Victoria for the [London, Chatham and Dover Railway](/wiki/London%2C_Chatham_and_Dover_Railway \"London, Chatham and Dover Railway\") (LCDR) and to be paid entirely in the company's shares and debentures. To raise the funding for the construction they became involved in complicated finance\\-raising schemes, and with their overseas operations hindered by war, they overstretched themselves.",
"### Overend, Gurney and Company",
"{{Main\\|Overend, Gurney and Company}}\nThe partnership's principal bank was [Overend, Gurney and Company](/wiki/Overend%2C_Gurney_and_Company \"Overend, Gurney and Company\"). As a consequence of a run on the bank caused by persistent rumours and speculation in the London financial markets, the bank closed its doors and ceased trading at 3pm, 10 May 1866\\.",
"### Effect on the partnership",
"The collapse of Overend, Gurney and Company was disastrous for the partnership and the next day the partnership suspended trading. Indeed, the partnership was probably the most prominent casualty of the collapse of the bank and the ensuing [banking crisis](/wiki/Panic_of_1866 \"Panic of 1866\"). At the time the partnership was suspended there were 20,000 men in their employment.*The Stirling Observer*, 17 May 1866\\.",
"In a public statement Peto and Betts declared, \"We much regret to find ourselves under the painful necessity of allowing our acceptances to be returned, owing wholly to the disappointment of the arrangements we have made for their provision, which have been defeated by the unexpected turn which has taken place in the money market within the last few days.\"*Birmingham Journal*, 12 May 1866\\. The statement went on to say that Peto and Betts thought the cash shortfall of the partnership was temporary and given a little time they would be able to liquidate sufficient assets and be able to pay off their debts.",
"Initially, the cash shortfall was thought to be \"not above half a million\"*The Worcester Chronicle*, 16 October 1867\\.",
"### London, Chatham and Dover Railway",
"{{Main\\|London, Chatham and Dover Railway}}\nPeto and Betts optimism was misplaced. In the ensuing crisis, railway stocks were particularly badly affected and the London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR) became insolvent*The Times*, 21 December 1866, p. 8; Issue 25687; col E. Consequently, the shares that the partnership had been paid in became worthless. Furthermore, the illegal loan schemes that they had been involved in at the LCDR ruined their reputations. The new management of the resurrected LCDR resolved to pursue the partnership and Peto and Betts personally, eventually making a claim against them for a \"staggering\"*Worcester Chronicle*, 16 October 1867 £6,661,941 19s 1d. ({{Inflation\\|UK\\|6661942\\|1866\\|r\\=\\-4\\|fmt\\=eq\\|cursign\\=£}}).{{Inflation\\-fn\\|UK}} The LCDR later reduced their claim, their solicitor declaring, “Whether my clients had a proof upon the proceedings of £360,000 or for £6,600,000, the result would, unfortunately be the same – in neither case would there be any dividend.\"*The Pall Mall Gazette*, 17 July 1868, page 203\\.",
"### Aftermath",
"The partnership was unable to pay their creditors and became insolvent in the following year.",
"Neither Peto nor Betts' reputations for financial propriety recovered from the LCDR debacle. Both died in obscurity, Betts in 1872 and Peto in 1889\\. The partnership insolvency rumbled on with the final dividend meeting, making payments to their creditors being held on 6 June 1898, over 30 years after the insolvency commenced.*London Standard*, 4 May 1898\\.",
""
] |
Renaissance art
---------------
{{Main\|Italian Renaissance painting\|Italian Renaissance sculpture}}
During the Middle Ages, painters and sculptors tried to give their works a spiritual quality. They wanted viewers to concentrate on the deep religious meaning of their paintings and sculptures. But Renaissance painters and sculptors, like Renaissance writers, wanted to portray people and nature realistically. Medieval architects designed huge cathedrals to emphasize the grandeur of God and to humble the human spirit. Renaissance architects designed buildings whose proportions were based on those of the human body and whose ornamentation imitated ancient designs.
### Early Renaissance
[thumb\|300px\|*[The Birth of Venus](/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus_%28Botticelli%29 "The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)")* by [Sandro Botticelli](/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli "Sandro Botticelli"), 1484–1485](/wiki/File:La_nascita_di_Venere_%28Botticelli%29.jpg "La nascita di Venere (Botticelli).jpg")
During the early 14th century, the Florentine painter [Giotto](/wiki/Giotto "Giotto") became the first artist to portray nature realistically since the fall of the Roman Empire. He produced magnificent frescoes (paintings on damp plaster) for churches in Assisi, Florence, Padua, and Rome. Giotto attempted to create lifelike figures showing real emotions. He portrayed many of his figures in realistic settings.
A remarkable group of [Florentine architects, painters, and sculptors](/wiki/Florentine_Renaissance_art "Florentine Renaissance art") worked during the early 15th century. They included the painter [Masaccio](/wiki/Masaccio "Masaccio"), the sculptor [Donatello](/wiki/Donatello "Donatello"), and the architect [Filippo Brunelleschi](/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi "Filippo Brunelleschi").
Masaccio's finest work was a series of frescoes he painted about 1427 in the [Brancacci Chapel](/wiki/Brancacci_Chapel "Brancacci Chapel") of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. The frescoes realistically show Biblical scenes of emotional intensity. In these paintings, Masaccio utilized Brunelleschi's system for achieving linear perspective.
In his sculptures, Donatello tried to portray the dignity of the human body in realistic and often dramatic detail. His masterpieces include three statues of the Biblical hero David. In a version finished in the 1430s, Donatello portrayed David as a graceful, nude youth, moments after he slew the giant Goliath. The work, which is about {{convert\|5\|ft\|m\|abbr\=off\|sp\=us}} tall, was the first large free\-standing nude created in Western art since classical antiquity.
Brunelleschi was the first Renaissance architect to revive the ancient Roman style of architecture. He used arches, columns, and other elements of classical architecture in his designs. One of his best\-known buildings is the beautifully and harmoniously proportioned [Pazzi Chapel](/wiki/Pazzi_Chapel "Pazzi Chapel") in Florence. The chapel, begun in 1442 and completed about 1465, was one of the first buildings designed in the new Renaissance style. Brunelleschi also was the first Renaissance artist to master *linear perspective*, a mathematical system with which painters could show space and depth on a flat surface.
### High Renaissance
{{Main\|High Renaissance}}
[thumb\|300px\|[Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci "Leonardo da Vinci")'s *[The Last Supper](/wiki/The_Last_Supper_%28Leonardo_da_Vinci%29 "The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)")*, {{circa\|1495–1498}}](/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg "Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The Last Supper (1495-1498).jpg")
Arts of the late 15th century and early 16th century were dominated by three men. They were [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci "Leonardo da Vinci"), [Michelangelo](/wiki/Michelangelo "Michelangelo"), and [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael "Raphael").
[Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci "Leonardo da Vinci") painted two of the most famous works of Renaissance art, the wallpainting *[The Last Supper](/wiki/The_Last_Supper_%28Leonardo_da_Vinci%29 "The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)")* and the portrait *[Mona Lisa](/wiki/Mona_Lisa "Mona Lisa")*. Leonardo had one of the most searching minds in all history. He wanted to know how everything that he saw in nature worked. In over 4,000 pages of notebooks, he drew detailed diagrams and wrote his observations. Leonardo made careful drawings of human skeletons and muscles, trying to learn how the body worked. Due to his inquiring mind, Leonardo has become a symbol of the Renaissance spirit of learning and intellectual curiosity.James Hankins, Ph.D., Professor of History, Harvard University.
Hankins, James. "Renaissance." *World Book Advanced.* World Book, 2011\. Web. 1 October 2011\.
[thumb\|left\|170px\|*[David](/wiki/David_%28Michelangelo%29 "David (Michelangelo)")* by [Michelangelo](/wiki/Michelangelo "Michelangelo"), 1501–1504](/wiki/File:%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_Fir_JBU005_denoised.jpg "'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005 denoised.jpg")
Michelangelo excelled as a painter, architect, and poet. In addition, he has been called the greatest sculptor in history.Pope\-Hennessy, John Wyndham. [*Italian High Renaissance and Baroque sculpture.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=beFOAAAAYAAJ&q=) Phaidon Press, 1996\. p. 13\. Web. 5 October 2011\.
"*Michelangelo was the first artist in history to be recognized by his contemporaries as a genius in our modern sense. Canonized before his death, he has remained magnificent, formidable and remote. Some of the impediments to establishing close contact with his mind are inherent in his own uncompromising character; he was the greatest sculptor who ever lived, and the greatest sculptor is not necessarily the most approachable.*" Michelangelo was a master of portraying the human figure. For example, his famous statue of the Israelite leader *[Moses](/wiki/Moses_%28Michelangelo%29 "Moses (Michelangelo)")* (1516\) gives an overwhelming impression of physical and spiritual power. These qualities also appear in the frescoes of Biblical and classical subjects that Michelangelo painted on the ceiling of the Vatican's [Sistine Chapel](/wiki/Sistine_Chapel "Sistine Chapel"). The frescoes, painted from 1508 to 1512, rank among the greatest works of Renaissance art.
Raphael's paintings are softer in outline and more poetic than those of Michelangelo. Raphael was skilled in creating perspective and in the delicate use of color. He painted a number of pictures of the Madonna (Virgin Mary) and many outstanding portraits. One of his greatest works is the fresco *[The School of Athens](/wiki/The_School_of_Athens "The School of Athens")*. The painting was influenced by classical Greek and Roman models. It portrays the great philosophers and scientists of ancient Greece in a setting of classical arches. Raphael was thus making a connection between the culture of classical antiquity and the Italian culture of his time.
The creator of High Renaissance architecture was [Donato Bramante](/wiki/Donato_Bramante "Donato Bramante"), who came to Rome in 1499, when he was 55\. His first Roman masterpiece, the *[Tempietto](/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio%23The_Tempietto "San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto")* (1502\) at San Pietro in Montorio, is a centralized dome structure that recalls Classical temple architecture. [Pope Julius II](/wiki/Pope_Julius_II "Pope Julius II") chose Bramante to be papal architect, and together they devised a plan to replace the 4th\-century Old St. Peter's with a new church of gigantic dimensions. The project was not completed, however, until long after Bramante's death.
### Mannerism
{{Main\|Mannerism}}
[thumb\|300px\|*[Cellini Salt Cellar](/wiki/Cellini_Salt_Cellar "Cellini Salt Cellar")*, 1543](/wiki/File:Salt_Cellar.jpg "Salt Cellar.jpg")
[Mannerism](/wiki/Mannerism "Mannerism") was an elegant, courtly style. It flourished in Florence, Italy, where its leading representatives were [Giorgio Vasari](/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari "Giorgio Vasari") and [Bronzino](/wiki/Bronzino "Bronzino"). The style was introduced to the French court by [Rosso Fiorentino](/wiki/Rosso_Fiorentino "Rosso Fiorentino") and by [Francesco Primaticcio](/wiki/Francesco_Primaticcio "Francesco Primaticcio"). The Venetian painter [Tintoretto](/wiki/Tintoretto "Tintoretto") was influenced by the style.
The mannerist approach to painting also influenced other art forms. In architecture, the work of [Giulio Romano](/wiki/Giulio_Romano_%28painter%29 "Giulio Romano (painter)") is a notable example. The Italian [Benvenuto Cellini](/wiki/Benvenuto_Cellini "Benvenuto Cellini") and Flemish\-born [Giambologna](/wiki/Giambologna "Giambologna") were the style's chief representatives in sculpture.Eric M. Zafran, Ph.D., Curator, Department of European Paintings and Sculpture, Wadsworth Atheneum.
Zafran, Eric M. "Mannerism." *World Book Advanced.* World Book, 2011\. Web. 1 October 2011\.
Some historians regard this period as degeneration of High Renaissance classicism or even as an interlude between High Renaissance and baroque, in which case the dates are usually from *c.* 1520 to 1600, and it is considered a positive style complete in itself.
|
[
"Renaissance art\n---------------",
"{{Main\\|Italian Renaissance painting\\|Italian Renaissance sculpture}}",
"During the Middle Ages, painters and sculptors tried to give their works a spiritual quality. They wanted viewers to concentrate on the deep religious meaning of their paintings and sculptures. But Renaissance painters and sculptors, like Renaissance writers, wanted to portray people and nature realistically. Medieval architects designed huge cathedrals to emphasize the grandeur of God and to humble the human spirit. Renaissance architects designed buildings whose proportions were based on those of the human body and whose ornamentation imitated ancient designs.",
"### Early Renaissance",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|*[The Birth of Venus](/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus_%28Botticelli%29 \"The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)\")* by [Sandro Botticelli](/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli \"Sandro Botticelli\"), 1484–1485](/wiki/File:La_nascita_di_Venere_%28Botticelli%29.jpg \"La nascita di Venere (Botticelli).jpg\")\nDuring the early 14th century, the Florentine painter [Giotto](/wiki/Giotto \"Giotto\") became the first artist to portray nature realistically since the fall of the Roman Empire. He produced magnificent frescoes (paintings on damp plaster) for churches in Assisi, Florence, Padua, and Rome. Giotto attempted to create lifelike figures showing real emotions. He portrayed many of his figures in realistic settings.",
"A remarkable group of [Florentine architects, painters, and sculptors](/wiki/Florentine_Renaissance_art \"Florentine Renaissance art\") worked during the early 15th century. They included the painter [Masaccio](/wiki/Masaccio \"Masaccio\"), the sculptor [Donatello](/wiki/Donatello \"Donatello\"), and the architect [Filippo Brunelleschi](/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi \"Filippo Brunelleschi\").",
"Masaccio's finest work was a series of frescoes he painted about 1427 in the [Brancacci Chapel](/wiki/Brancacci_Chapel \"Brancacci Chapel\") of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. The frescoes realistically show Biblical scenes of emotional intensity. In these paintings, Masaccio utilized Brunelleschi's system for achieving linear perspective.",
"In his sculptures, Donatello tried to portray the dignity of the human body in realistic and often dramatic detail. His masterpieces include three statues of the Biblical hero David. In a version finished in the 1430s, Donatello portrayed David as a graceful, nude youth, moments after he slew the giant Goliath. The work, which is about {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=off\\|sp\\=us}} tall, was the first large free\\-standing nude created in Western art since classical antiquity.",
"Brunelleschi was the first Renaissance architect to revive the ancient Roman style of architecture. He used arches, columns, and other elements of classical architecture in his designs. One of his best\\-known buildings is the beautifully and harmoniously proportioned [Pazzi Chapel](/wiki/Pazzi_Chapel \"Pazzi Chapel\") in Florence. The chapel, begun in 1442 and completed about 1465, was one of the first buildings designed in the new Renaissance style. Brunelleschi also was the first Renaissance artist to master *linear perspective*, a mathematical system with which painters could show space and depth on a flat surface.",
"### High Renaissance",
"{{Main\\|High Renaissance}}\n[thumb\\|300px\\|[Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\")'s *[The Last Supper](/wiki/The_Last_Supper_%28Leonardo_da_Vinci%29 \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\")*, {{circa\\|1495–1498}}](/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg \"Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The Last Supper (1495-1498).jpg\")\nArts of the late 15th century and early 16th century were dominated by three men. They were [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\"), [Michelangelo](/wiki/Michelangelo \"Michelangelo\"), and [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael \"Raphael\").",
"[Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\") painted two of the most famous works of Renaissance art, the wallpainting *[The Last Supper](/wiki/The_Last_Supper_%28Leonardo_da_Vinci%29 \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\")* and the portrait *[Mona Lisa](/wiki/Mona_Lisa \"Mona Lisa\")*. Leonardo had one of the most searching minds in all history. He wanted to know how everything that he saw in nature worked. In over 4,000 pages of notebooks, he drew detailed diagrams and wrote his observations. Leonardo made careful drawings of human skeletons and muscles, trying to learn how the body worked. Due to his inquiring mind, Leonardo has become a symbol of the Renaissance spirit of learning and intellectual curiosity.James Hankins, Ph.D., Professor of History, Harvard University. \n Hankins, James. \"Renaissance.\" *World Book Advanced.* World Book, 2011\\. Web. 1 October 2011\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|170px\\|*[David](/wiki/David_%28Michelangelo%29 \"David (Michelangelo)\")* by [Michelangelo](/wiki/Michelangelo \"Michelangelo\"), 1501–1504](/wiki/File:%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_Fir_JBU005_denoised.jpg \"'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005 denoised.jpg\")",
"Michelangelo excelled as a painter, architect, and poet. In addition, he has been called the greatest sculptor in history.Pope\\-Hennessy, John Wyndham. [*Italian High Renaissance and Baroque sculpture.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=beFOAAAAYAAJ&q=) Phaidon Press, 1996\\. p. 13\\. Web. 5 October 2011\\. \n\"*Michelangelo was the first artist in history to be recognized by his contemporaries as a genius in our modern sense. Canonized before his death, he has remained magnificent, formidable and remote. Some of the impediments to establishing close contact with his mind are inherent in his own uncompromising character; he was the greatest sculptor who ever lived, and the greatest sculptor is not necessarily the most approachable.*\" Michelangelo was a master of portraying the human figure. For example, his famous statue of the Israelite leader *[Moses](/wiki/Moses_%28Michelangelo%29 \"Moses (Michelangelo)\")* (1516\\) gives an overwhelming impression of physical and spiritual power. These qualities also appear in the frescoes of Biblical and classical subjects that Michelangelo painted on the ceiling of the Vatican's [Sistine Chapel](/wiki/Sistine_Chapel \"Sistine Chapel\"). The frescoes, painted from 1508 to 1512, rank among the greatest works of Renaissance art.",
"Raphael's paintings are softer in outline and more poetic than those of Michelangelo. Raphael was skilled in creating perspective and in the delicate use of color. He painted a number of pictures of the Madonna (Virgin Mary) and many outstanding portraits. One of his greatest works is the fresco *[The School of Athens](/wiki/The_School_of_Athens \"The School of Athens\")*. The painting was influenced by classical Greek and Roman models. It portrays the great philosophers and scientists of ancient Greece in a setting of classical arches. Raphael was thus making a connection between the culture of classical antiquity and the Italian culture of his time.",
"The creator of High Renaissance architecture was [Donato Bramante](/wiki/Donato_Bramante \"Donato Bramante\"), who came to Rome in 1499, when he was 55\\. His first Roman masterpiece, the *[Tempietto](/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio%23The_Tempietto \"San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto\")* (1502\\) at San Pietro in Montorio, is a centralized dome structure that recalls Classical temple architecture. [Pope Julius II](/wiki/Pope_Julius_II \"Pope Julius II\") chose Bramante to be papal architect, and together they devised a plan to replace the 4th\\-century Old St. Peter's with a new church of gigantic dimensions. The project was not completed, however, until long after Bramante's death.",
"### Mannerism",
"{{Main\\|Mannerism}}\n[thumb\\|300px\\|*[Cellini Salt Cellar](/wiki/Cellini_Salt_Cellar \"Cellini Salt Cellar\")*, 1543](/wiki/File:Salt_Cellar.jpg \"Salt Cellar.jpg\")",
"[Mannerism](/wiki/Mannerism \"Mannerism\") was an elegant, courtly style. It flourished in Florence, Italy, where its leading representatives were [Giorgio Vasari](/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari \"Giorgio Vasari\") and [Bronzino](/wiki/Bronzino \"Bronzino\"). The style was introduced to the French court by [Rosso Fiorentino](/wiki/Rosso_Fiorentino \"Rosso Fiorentino\") and by [Francesco Primaticcio](/wiki/Francesco_Primaticcio \"Francesco Primaticcio\"). The Venetian painter [Tintoretto](/wiki/Tintoretto \"Tintoretto\") was influenced by the style.",
"The mannerist approach to painting also influenced other art forms. In architecture, the work of [Giulio Romano](/wiki/Giulio_Romano_%28painter%29 \"Giulio Romano (painter)\") is a notable example. The Italian [Benvenuto Cellini](/wiki/Benvenuto_Cellini \"Benvenuto Cellini\") and Flemish\\-born [Giambologna](/wiki/Giambologna \"Giambologna\") were the style's chief representatives in sculpture.Eric M. Zafran, Ph.D., Curator, Department of European Paintings and Sculpture, Wadsworth Atheneum. \n Zafran, Eric M. \"Mannerism.\" *World Book Advanced.* World Book, 2011\\. Web. 1 October 2011\\.",
"Some historians regard this period as degeneration of High Renaissance classicism or even as an interlude between High Renaissance and baroque, in which case the dates are usually from *c.* 1520 to 1600, and it is considered a positive style complete in itself.",
""
] |
Neoclassical and 19th\-century art
----------------------------------
{{Main\|Italian Neoclassical and 19th\-century art}}
[thumb\|left\|[Antonio Canova](/wiki/Antonio_Canova "Antonio Canova")'s *[Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss](/wiki/Psyche_Revived_by_Cupid%27s_Kiss "Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss")*, 1787–1793](/wiki/File:0_Psych%C3%A9_ranim%C3%A9e_par_le_baiser_de_l%27Amour_-_Canova_-_Louvre_1.JPG "0 Psyché ranimée par le baiser de l'Amour - Canova - Louvre 1.JPG")
Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as [Neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism "Neoclassicism") and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque") style around c. 1750 and lasted until c. 1850\. Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour "Grand Tour") in Italy with rediscovered Greco\-Roman ideals.
Just like in other parts of Europe, Italian Neoclassical art was mainly based on the principles of [Ancient Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") and [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") art and architecture, but also by the Italian [Renaissance architecture](/wiki/Renaissance_architecture "Renaissance architecture") and its basics, such as in the [Villa Capra "La Rotonda"](/wiki/Villa_Capra_%22La_Rotonda%22 "Villa Capra ").{{cite web\|url\=https://mediateca.palladiomuseum.org/palladio/opera.php?id\=41\|title\=illa Almerico Capra detta "la Rotonda", Vicenza\|access\-date\=30 December 2023\|language\=it}} Classicism and Neoclassicism in Italian art and architecture developed during the [Italian Renaissance](/wiki/Italian_Renaissance "Italian Renaissance"), notably in the writings and designs of [Leon Battista Alberti](/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti "Leon Battista Alberti") and the work of [Filippo Brunelleschi](/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi "Filippo Brunelleschi").
[thumb\|[Francesco Hayez](/wiki/Francesco_Hayez "Francesco Hayez")'s [*The Kiss*](/wiki/The_Kiss_%28Hayez%29 "The Kiss (Hayez)") (1859\) has come to represent the spirit of the Italian [Risorgimento](/wiki/Risorgimento "Risorgimento")](/wiki/File:El_Beso_%28Pinacoteca_de_Brera%2C_Mil%C3%A1n%2C_1859%29.jpg "El Beso (Pinacoteca de Brera, Milán, 1859).jpg")
It places emphasis on [symmetry](/wiki/Symmetry "Symmetry"), [proportion](/wiki/Principles_of_art%23Proportion "Principles of art#Proportion"), geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of Classical antiquity and in particular, the architecture of [Ancient Rome](/wiki/Roman_Architecture "Roman Architecture"), of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of [columns](/wiki/Column "Column"), [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") and [lintels](/wiki/Lintel "Lintel"), as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical [domes](/wiki/Dome "Dome"), [niches](/wiki/Niche_%28architecture%29 "Niche (architecture)") and [aedicules](/wiki/Aedicule "Aedicule") replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of [medieval](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture") buildings. This style quickly spread to other Italian cities and later to the rest of continental Europe.
It first centred in Rome where artists such as [Antonio Canova](/wiki/Antonio_Canova "Antonio Canova") and [Jacques\-Louis David](/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David "Jacques-Louis David") were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of [Vedute](/wiki/Vedute "Vedute"), like [Canaletto](/wiki/Canaletto "Canaletto") and [Giovanni Paolo Panini](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Panini "Giovanni Paolo Panini"), also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. The sculptor [Antonio Canova](/wiki/Antonio_Canova "Antonio Canova") was a leading exponent of the neoclassic style. Internationally famous, he was regarded as the most brilliant sculptor in Europe.Rosenblum, Robert; Janson, Horst Woldemar. [*19th century art.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BnxPAAAAMAAJ&q=) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027182732/https://books.google.com/books?id\=BnxPAAAAMAAJ\&q\= \|date\=27 October 2022 }} Abrams, 1984\. p. 104\. Web. 5 October 2011\.
"*Antonio Canova (1757–1822\) was not only the greatest sculptor of his generation; he was the most famous artist of the Western world from the 1790s until long after his death.*" [Francesco Hayez](/wiki/Francesco_Hayez "Francesco Hayez") is the greatest exponent of [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism "Romanticism") in Italy: many of his works, usually of [Medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") setting, contain an encrypted patriotic [Risorgimento](/wiki/Risorgimento "Risorgimento") message. Neoclassicism was the last Italian\-born style, after the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") and [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque"), to spread to all Western Art.
### The Macchiaioli
{{Main\|Macchiaioli}}
[thumb\|right\|200px\|*Hay Stacks* by [Giovanni Fattori](/wiki/Giovanni_Fattori "Giovanni Fattori") (1880\), a leading artist in the Macchiaioli movement](/wiki/Image:Haystacks_painting.jpg "Haystacks painting.jpg")
Italy produced its own form of [Impressionism](/wiki/Impressionism "Impressionism"), the [Macchiaioli](/wiki/Macchiaioli "Macchiaioli") artists, who were actually there first, before the more famous Impressionists: [Giovanni Fattori](/wiki/Giovanni_Fattori "Giovanni Fattori"), [Silvestro Lega](/wiki/Silvestro_Lega "Silvestro Lega"), [Telemaco Signorini](/wiki/Telemaco_Signorini "Telemaco Signorini"), [Giuseppe Abbati](/wiki/Giuseppe_Abbati "Giuseppe Abbati"). The Macchiaioli artists were forerunners to Impressionism in France. They believed that areas of light and shadow, or *macchie* (literally patches or spots) were the chief components of a work of art. The word macchia was commonly used by Italian artists and critics in the 19th century to describe the sparkling quality of a drawing or painting, whether due to a sketchy and spontaneous execution or to the harmonious breadth of its overall effect.
A hostile review published on 3 November 1862, in the journal *[Gazzetta del Popolo](/wiki/Gazzetta_del_Popolo "Gazzetta del Popolo")* marks the first appearance in print of the term Macchiaioli.Broude, p. 96\. The term carried several connotations: it mockingly implied that the artists' finished works were no more than sketches, and recalled the phrase "darsi alla macchia", meaning, idiomatically, to hide in the bushes or scrubland. The artists did, in fact, paint much of their work in these wild areas. This sense of the name also identified the artists with outlaws, reflecting the traditionalists' view that new school of artists was working outside the rules of art, according to the strict laws defining artistic expression at the time.
|
[
"Neoclassical and 19th\\-century art\n----------------------------------",
"{{Main\\|Italian Neoclassical and 19th\\-century art}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|[Antonio Canova](/wiki/Antonio_Canova \"Antonio Canova\")'s *[Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss](/wiki/Psyche_Revived_by_Cupid%27s_Kiss \"Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss\")*, 1787–1793](/wiki/File:0_Psych%C3%A9_ranim%C3%A9e_par_le_baiser_de_l%27Amour_-_Canova_-_Louvre_1.JPG \"0 Psyché ranimée par le baiser de l'Amour - Canova - Louvre 1.JPG\")",
"Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as [Neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism \"Neoclassicism\") and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\") style around c. 1750 and lasted until c. 1850\\. Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour \"Grand Tour\") in Italy with rediscovered Greco\\-Roman ideals.",
"Just like in other parts of Europe, Italian Neoclassical art was mainly based on the principles of [Ancient Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") and [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") art and architecture, but also by the Italian [Renaissance architecture](/wiki/Renaissance_architecture \"Renaissance architecture\") and its basics, such as in the [Villa Capra \"La Rotonda\"](/wiki/Villa_Capra_%22La_Rotonda%22 \"Villa Capra \").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mediateca.palladiomuseum.org/palladio/opera.php?id\\=41\\|title\\=illa Almerico Capra detta \"la Rotonda\", Vicenza\\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2023\\|language\\=it}} Classicism and Neoclassicism in Italian art and architecture developed during the [Italian Renaissance](/wiki/Italian_Renaissance \"Italian Renaissance\"), notably in the writings and designs of [Leon Battista Alberti](/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti \"Leon Battista Alberti\") and the work of [Filippo Brunelleschi](/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi \"Filippo Brunelleschi\"). \n[thumb\\|[Francesco Hayez](/wiki/Francesco_Hayez \"Francesco Hayez\")'s [*The Kiss*](/wiki/The_Kiss_%28Hayez%29 \"The Kiss (Hayez)\") (1859\\) has come to represent the spirit of the Italian [Risorgimento](/wiki/Risorgimento \"Risorgimento\")](/wiki/File:El_Beso_%28Pinacoteca_de_Brera%2C_Mil%C3%A1n%2C_1859%29.jpg \"El Beso (Pinacoteca de Brera, Milán, 1859).jpg\")",
"It places emphasis on [symmetry](/wiki/Symmetry \"Symmetry\"), [proportion](/wiki/Principles_of_art%23Proportion \"Principles of art#Proportion\"), geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of Classical antiquity and in particular, the architecture of [Ancient Rome](/wiki/Roman_Architecture \"Roman Architecture\"), of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of [columns](/wiki/Column \"Column\"), [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") and [lintels](/wiki/Lintel \"Lintel\"), as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical [domes](/wiki/Dome \"Dome\"), [niches](/wiki/Niche_%28architecture%29 \"Niche (architecture)\") and [aedicules](/wiki/Aedicule \"Aedicule\") replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of [medieval](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") buildings. This style quickly spread to other Italian cities and later to the rest of continental Europe.",
"It first centred in Rome where artists such as [Antonio Canova](/wiki/Antonio_Canova \"Antonio Canova\") and [Jacques\\-Louis David](/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David \"Jacques-Louis David\") were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of [Vedute](/wiki/Vedute \"Vedute\"), like [Canaletto](/wiki/Canaletto \"Canaletto\") and [Giovanni Paolo Panini](/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Panini \"Giovanni Paolo Panini\"), also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. The sculptor [Antonio Canova](/wiki/Antonio_Canova \"Antonio Canova\") was a leading exponent of the neoclassic style. Internationally famous, he was regarded as the most brilliant sculptor in Europe.Rosenblum, Robert; Janson, Horst Woldemar. [*19th century art.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BnxPAAAAMAAJ&q=) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027182732/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BnxPAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\= \\|date\\=27 October 2022 }} Abrams, 1984\\. p. 104\\. Web. 5 October 2011\\. \n\"*Antonio Canova (1757–1822\\) was not only the greatest sculptor of his generation; he was the most famous artist of the Western world from the 1790s until long after his death.*\" [Francesco Hayez](/wiki/Francesco_Hayez \"Francesco Hayez\") is the greatest exponent of [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism \"Romanticism\") in Italy: many of his works, usually of [Medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") setting, contain an encrypted patriotic [Risorgimento](/wiki/Risorgimento \"Risorgimento\") message. Neoclassicism was the last Italian\\-born style, after the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") and [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\"), to spread to all Western Art.",
"### The Macchiaioli",
"{{Main\\|Macchiaioli}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|*Hay Stacks* by [Giovanni Fattori](/wiki/Giovanni_Fattori \"Giovanni Fattori\") (1880\\), a leading artist in the Macchiaioli movement](/wiki/Image:Haystacks_painting.jpg \"Haystacks painting.jpg\")",
"Italy produced its own form of [Impressionism](/wiki/Impressionism \"Impressionism\"), the [Macchiaioli](/wiki/Macchiaioli \"Macchiaioli\") artists, who were actually there first, before the more famous Impressionists: [Giovanni Fattori](/wiki/Giovanni_Fattori \"Giovanni Fattori\"), [Silvestro Lega](/wiki/Silvestro_Lega \"Silvestro Lega\"), [Telemaco Signorini](/wiki/Telemaco_Signorini \"Telemaco Signorini\"), [Giuseppe Abbati](/wiki/Giuseppe_Abbati \"Giuseppe Abbati\"). The Macchiaioli artists were forerunners to Impressionism in France. They believed that areas of light and shadow, or *macchie* (literally patches or spots) were the chief components of a work of art. The word macchia was commonly used by Italian artists and critics in the 19th century to describe the sparkling quality of a drawing or painting, whether due to a sketchy and spontaneous execution or to the harmonious breadth of its overall effect.",
"A hostile review published on 3 November 1862, in the journal *[Gazzetta del Popolo](/wiki/Gazzetta_del_Popolo \"Gazzetta del Popolo\")* marks the first appearance in print of the term Macchiaioli.Broude, p. 96\\. The term carried several connotations: it mockingly implied that the artists' finished works were no more than sketches, and recalled the phrase \"darsi alla macchia\", meaning, idiomatically, to hide in the bushes or scrubland. The artists did, in fact, paint much of their work in these wild areas. This sense of the name also identified the artists with outlaws, reflecting the traditionalists' view that new school of artists was working outside the rules of art, according to the strict laws defining artistic expression at the time.",
""
] |
Italian modern and contemporary art
-----------------------------------
[thumb\|300px\|*[Nu Couché au coussin Bleu](/wiki/Nu_Couch%C3%A9_au_coussin_Bleu "Nu Couché au coussin Bleu")*, one of the finest examples of reclining nudes by [Amedeo Modigliani](/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani "Amedeo Modigliani"), 1916{{cite web\|url\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/.../279754\.pdf \|title\=Women in Art, PDF\|publisher\=shareholder.com\|access\-date\=7 September 2018}}{{dead link\|date\=September 2018}}](/wiki/File:Amedeo_Modigliani_-_Nu_Couch%C3%A9_au_coussin_Bleu.jpg "Amedeo Modigliani - Nu Couché au coussin Bleu.jpg")
Early in the 20th century the exponents of futurism developed a dynamic vision of the modern world while [Giorgio de Chirico](/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico "Giorgio de Chirico") expressed a strange metaphysical quietude and [Amedeo Modigliani](/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani "Amedeo Modigliani") joined the school of Paris. Gifted later modern artists include the sculptors [Giacomo Manzù](/wiki/Giacomo_Manz%C3%B9 "Giacomo Manzù"), [Marino Marini](/wiki/Marino_Marini_%28sculptor%29 "Marino Marini (sculptor)"), the still\-life painter [Giorgio Morandi](/wiki/Giorgio_Morandi "Giorgio Morandi"), and the iconoclastic painter [Lucio Fontana](/wiki/Lucio_Fontana "Lucio Fontana"). In the second half of the 20th century, Italian designers, particularly those of Milan, have profoundly influenced international styles with their imaginative and ingenious functional works.
### Futurism
{{Main\|Futurism}}
[thumb\|right\|300px\|*[The Street Enters the House](/wiki/The_Street_Enters_the_House "The Street Enters the House")* by Umberto Boccioni (1912\).](/wiki/File:Umberto_Boccioni%2C_1911%2C_The_Street_Enters_the_House%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100_x_100.6_cm%2C_Sprengel_Museum.jpg "Umberto Boccioni, 1911, The Street Enters the House, oil on canvas, 100 x 100.6 cm, Sprengel Museum.jpg")
[Futurism](/wiki/Futurism "Futurism") was an Italian art movement that flourished from 1909 to about 1916\. It was the first of many art movements that tried to break with the past in all areas of life. Futurism glorified the power, speed, and excitement that characterized the machine age. From the French Cubist painters and multiple\-exposure photography, the Futurists learned to break up realistic forms into multiple images and overlapping fragments of color. By such means, they attempted to portray the energy and speed of modern life. In literature, Futurism demanded the abolition of traditional sentence structures and verse forms.Douglas K. S. Hyland, Ph.D., Director, San Antonio Museum of Art.
Hyland, Douglas K. S. "Futurism." *World Book Advanced.* World Book, 2011\. Web. 4 October 2011\.
Futurism was first announced on 20 February 1909, when the Paris newspaper *[Le Figaro](/wiki/Le_Figaro "Le Figaro")* published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti "Filippo Tommaso Marinetti"). (See the [Manifesto of Futurism](/wiki/Manifesto_of_Futurism "Manifesto of Futurism").) Marinetti coined the word Futurism to reflect his goal of discarding the art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Marinetti's manifesto glorified the new technology of the [automobile](/wiki/Automobile "Automobile") and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement. Exalting violence and conflict, he called for the sweeping repudiation of traditional values and the destruction of cultural institutions such as museums and libraries. The manifesto's rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its aggressive tone was purposely intended to inspire public anger and arouse controversy.
[thumb\|left\|190px\|*[Unique Forms of Continuity in Space](/wiki/Unique_Forms_of_Continuity_in_Space "Unique Forms of Continuity in Space")* by Umberto Boccioni (1913\)](/wiki/File:%27Unique_Forms_of_Continuity_in_Space%27%2C_1913_bronze_by_Umberto_Boccioni.jpg "'Unique Forms of Continuity in Space', 1913 bronze by Umberto Boccioni.jpg")
Marinetti's manifesto inspired a group of young painters in Milan to apply Futurist ideas to the visual arts. [Umberto Boccioni](/wiki/Umberto_Boccioni "Umberto Boccioni"), [Carlo Carrà](/wiki/Carlo_Carr%C3%A0 "Carlo Carrà"), [Luigi Russolo](/wiki/Luigi_Russolo "Luigi Russolo"), [Giacomo Balla](/wiki/Giacomo_Balla "Giacomo Balla"), and [Gino Severini](/wiki/Gino_Severini "Gino Severini") published several manifestos on painting in 1910\. Like Marinetti, they glorified originality and expressed their disdain for inherited artistic traditions.
Boccioni also became interested in [sculpture](/wiki/Sculpture "Sculpture"), publishing a manifesto on the subject in the spring of 1912\. He is considered to have most fully realized his theories in two sculptures, *Development of a Bottle in Space* (1912\), in which he represented both the inner and outer contours of a bottle, and *[Unique Forms of Continuity in Space](/wiki/Unique_Forms_of_Continuity_in_Space "Unique Forms of Continuity in Space")* (1913\), in which a human figure is not portrayed as one solid form but is instead composed of the multiple planes in space through which the figure moves.
Realistic principles extended to architecture as well. [Antonio Sant'Elia](/wiki/Antonio_Sant%27Elia "Antonio Sant'Elia") formulated a Futurist manifesto on architecture in 1914\. His visionary drawings of highly mechanized cities and boldly modern skyscrapers prefigure some of the most imaginative 20th\-century architectural planning.
Boccioni, who had been the most talented artist in the group,Wilder, Jesse Bryant. [*Art history for dummies.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2M4Sm9vL5UcC&pg=PA310&dq#v=) John Wiley \& Sons, 2007\. p. 310\. Web. 6 October 2011\. and Sant'Elia both died during military service in 1916\. Boccioni's death, combined with expansion of the group's personnel and the sobering realities of the devastation caused by [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), effectively brought an end to the Futurist movement as an important historical force in the visual arts.
### Metaphysical art
{{Main\|Metaphysical art}}
[Metaphysical Painting](/wiki/Metaphysical_art "Metaphysical art") is an Italian art movement, born in 1917 with the work of Carlo Carrà and [Giorgio de Chirico](/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico "Giorgio de Chirico") in Ferrara. The word metaphysical, adopted by De Chirico himself, is core to the poetics of the movement.
[thumb\|*[Sphere Within Sphere](/wiki/Sphere_Within_Sphere "Sphere Within Sphere")* by [Arnaldo Pomodoro](/wiki/Arnaldo_Pomodoro "Arnaldo Pomodoro"). [Pesaro](/wiki/Pesaro "Pesaro")](/wiki/File:Sfera_Grande_di_Pomodoro_-_Pesaro_1.jpg "Sfera Grande di Pomodoro - Pesaro 1.jpg")
They depicted a dreamlike imagery, with figures and objects seemingly frozen in time. Metaphysical Painting artists accept the representation of the visible world in a traditional perspective space, but the unusual arrangement of human beings as dummy\-like models, objects in strange, illogical contexts, the unreal lights and colors, the unnatural static of still figures.
### Novecento Italiano
{{Main\|Novecento Italiano}}
[thumb\|[Anselmo Bucci](/wiki/Anselmo_Bucci "Anselmo Bucci"), *Sorelle brianzole*, 1932](/wiki/File:Artgate_Fondazione_Cariplo_-_Bucci_Anselmo_-_Sorelle_brianzole.jpg "Artgate Fondazione Cariplo - Bucci Anselmo - Sorelle brianzole.jpg")
[Novecento movement](/wiki/Novecento_Italiano "Novecento Italiano"), group of Italian artists, formed in 1922 in Milan, that advocated a return to the great Italian representational art of the past.
The founding members of the Novecento ([Italian](/wiki/Italian_language "Italian language"): 20th\-century) movement were the critic [Margherita Sarfatti](/wiki/Margherita_Sarfatti "Margherita Sarfatti") and seven artists: [Anselmo Bucci](/wiki/Anselmo_Bucci "Anselmo Bucci"), [Leonardo Dudreville](/wiki/Leonardo_Dudreville "Leonardo Dudreville"), [Achille Funi](/wiki/Achille_Funi "Achille Funi"), Gian Emilio Malerba, Piero Marussig, Ubaldo Oppi, and Mario Sironi. Under Sarfatti's leadership, the group sought to renew Italian art by rejecting European avant\-garde movements and embracing Italy's artistic traditions.
Other artists associated with the Novecento included the sculptors [Marino Marini](/wiki/Marino_Marini_%28sculptor%29 "Marino Marini (sculptor)") and [Arturo Martini](/wiki/Arturo_Martini "Arturo Martini") and the painters [Ottone Rosai](/wiki/Ottone_Rosai "Ottone Rosai"), [Massimo Campigli](/wiki/Massimo_Campigli "Massimo Campigli"), [Carlo Carrà](/wiki/Carlo_Carr%C3%A0 "Carlo Carrà"), and [Felice Casorati](/wiki/Felice_Casorati "Felice Casorati").
### Spatialism
{{Main\|Spatialism}}
Movement founded by the Italian artist [Lucio Fontana](/wiki/Lucio_Fontana "Lucio Fontana") as the [Spatialism](/wiki/Spatialism "Spatialism"), its tenets were repeated in manifestos between 1947 and 1954\.
Combining elements of concrete art, dada and tachism, the movement's adherents rejected easel painting and embraced new technological developments, seeking to incorporate time and movement in their works. Fontana's slashed and pierced paintings exemplify his theses.
### Arte Povera
{{Culture of Italy}}
{{Main\|Arte Povera}}
[Arte Povera](/wiki/Arte_Povera "Arte Povera") an artistic movement that originated in Italy in the 1960s, combining aspects of conceptual, minimalist, and performance art, and making use of worthless or common materials such as earth or newspaper, in the hope of subverting the commercialization of art. The phrase is Italian, and means literally, "impoverished art."
### Transavantgarde
{{Main\|Transavantgarde}}
The term [Transavantgarde](/wiki/Transavantgarde "Transavantgarde") is the invention of the Italian critic [Achille Bonito Oliva](/wiki/Achille_Bonito_Oliva "Achille Bonito Oliva"). He has defined Transavantgarde art as traditional in format (that is, mostly painting or sculpture); apolitical; and, above all else, eclectic.
|
[
"Italian modern and contemporary art\n-----------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|*[Nu Couché au coussin Bleu](/wiki/Nu_Couch%C3%A9_au_coussin_Bleu \"Nu Couché au coussin Bleu\")*, one of the finest examples of reclining nudes by [Amedeo Modigliani](/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani \"Amedeo Modigliani\"), 1916{{cite web\\|url\\=http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/.../279754\\.pdf \\|title\\=Women in Art, PDF\\|publisher\\=shareholder.com\\|access\\-date\\=7 September 2018}}{{dead link\\|date\\=September 2018}}](/wiki/File:Amedeo_Modigliani_-_Nu_Couch%C3%A9_au_coussin_Bleu.jpg \"Amedeo Modigliani - Nu Couché au coussin Bleu.jpg\")",
"Early in the 20th century the exponents of futurism developed a dynamic vision of the modern world while [Giorgio de Chirico](/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico \"Giorgio de Chirico\") expressed a strange metaphysical quietude and [Amedeo Modigliani](/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani \"Amedeo Modigliani\") joined the school of Paris. Gifted later modern artists include the sculptors [Giacomo Manzù](/wiki/Giacomo_Manz%C3%B9 \"Giacomo Manzù\"), [Marino Marini](/wiki/Marino_Marini_%28sculptor%29 \"Marino Marini (sculptor)\"), the still\\-life painter [Giorgio Morandi](/wiki/Giorgio_Morandi \"Giorgio Morandi\"), and the iconoclastic painter [Lucio Fontana](/wiki/Lucio_Fontana \"Lucio Fontana\"). In the second half of the 20th century, Italian designers, particularly those of Milan, have profoundly influenced international styles with their imaginative and ingenious functional works.",
"### Futurism",
"{{Main\\|Futurism}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|*[The Street Enters the House](/wiki/The_Street_Enters_the_House \"The Street Enters the House\")* by Umberto Boccioni (1912\\).](/wiki/File:Umberto_Boccioni%2C_1911%2C_The_Street_Enters_the_House%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100_x_100.6_cm%2C_Sprengel_Museum.jpg \"Umberto Boccioni, 1911, The Street Enters the House, oil on canvas, 100 x 100.6 cm, Sprengel Museum.jpg\")",
"[Futurism](/wiki/Futurism \"Futurism\") was an Italian art movement that flourished from 1909 to about 1916\\. It was the first of many art movements that tried to break with the past in all areas of life. Futurism glorified the power, speed, and excitement that characterized the machine age. From the French Cubist painters and multiple\\-exposure photography, the Futurists learned to break up realistic forms into multiple images and overlapping fragments of color. By such means, they attempted to portray the energy and speed of modern life. In literature, Futurism demanded the abolition of traditional sentence structures and verse forms.Douglas K. S. Hyland, Ph.D., Director, San Antonio Museum of Art. \n Hyland, Douglas K. S. \"Futurism.\" *World Book Advanced.* World Book, 2011\\. Web. 4 October 2011\\.",
"Futurism was first announced on 20 February 1909, when the Paris newspaper *[Le Figaro](/wiki/Le_Figaro \"Le Figaro\")* published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti \"Filippo Tommaso Marinetti\"). (See the [Manifesto of Futurism](/wiki/Manifesto_of_Futurism \"Manifesto of Futurism\").) Marinetti coined the word Futurism to reflect his goal of discarding the art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Marinetti's manifesto glorified the new technology of the [automobile](/wiki/Automobile \"Automobile\") and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement. Exalting violence and conflict, he called for the sweeping repudiation of traditional values and the destruction of cultural institutions such as museums and libraries. The manifesto's rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its aggressive tone was purposely intended to inspire public anger and arouse controversy.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|190px\\|*[Unique Forms of Continuity in Space](/wiki/Unique_Forms_of_Continuity_in_Space \"Unique Forms of Continuity in Space\")* by Umberto Boccioni (1913\\)](/wiki/File:%27Unique_Forms_of_Continuity_in_Space%27%2C_1913_bronze_by_Umberto_Boccioni.jpg \"'Unique Forms of Continuity in Space', 1913 bronze by Umberto Boccioni.jpg\")",
"Marinetti's manifesto inspired a group of young painters in Milan to apply Futurist ideas to the visual arts. [Umberto Boccioni](/wiki/Umberto_Boccioni \"Umberto Boccioni\"), [Carlo Carrà](/wiki/Carlo_Carr%C3%A0 \"Carlo Carrà\"), [Luigi Russolo](/wiki/Luigi_Russolo \"Luigi Russolo\"), [Giacomo Balla](/wiki/Giacomo_Balla \"Giacomo Balla\"), and [Gino Severini](/wiki/Gino_Severini \"Gino Severini\") published several manifestos on painting in 1910\\. Like Marinetti, they glorified originality and expressed their disdain for inherited artistic traditions.",
"Boccioni also became interested in [sculpture](/wiki/Sculpture \"Sculpture\"), publishing a manifesto on the subject in the spring of 1912\\. He is considered to have most fully realized his theories in two sculptures, *Development of a Bottle in Space* (1912\\), in which he represented both the inner and outer contours of a bottle, and *[Unique Forms of Continuity in Space](/wiki/Unique_Forms_of_Continuity_in_Space \"Unique Forms of Continuity in Space\")* (1913\\), in which a human figure is not portrayed as one solid form but is instead composed of the multiple planes in space through which the figure moves.\nRealistic principles extended to architecture as well. [Antonio Sant'Elia](/wiki/Antonio_Sant%27Elia \"Antonio Sant'Elia\") formulated a Futurist manifesto on architecture in 1914\\. His visionary drawings of highly mechanized cities and boldly modern skyscrapers prefigure some of the most imaginative 20th\\-century architectural planning.",
"Boccioni, who had been the most talented artist in the group,Wilder, Jesse Bryant. [*Art history for dummies.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2M4Sm9vL5UcC&pg=PA310&dq#v=) John Wiley \\& Sons, 2007\\. p. 310\\. Web. 6 October 2011\\. and Sant'Elia both died during military service in 1916\\. Boccioni's death, combined with expansion of the group's personnel and the sobering realities of the devastation caused by [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), effectively brought an end to the Futurist movement as an important historical force in the visual arts.",
"### Metaphysical art",
"{{Main\\|Metaphysical art}}",
"[Metaphysical Painting](/wiki/Metaphysical_art \"Metaphysical art\") is an Italian art movement, born in 1917 with the work of Carlo Carrà and [Giorgio de Chirico](/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico \"Giorgio de Chirico\") in Ferrara. The word metaphysical, adopted by De Chirico himself, is core to the poetics of the movement.",
"[thumb\\|*[Sphere Within Sphere](/wiki/Sphere_Within_Sphere \"Sphere Within Sphere\")* by [Arnaldo Pomodoro](/wiki/Arnaldo_Pomodoro \"Arnaldo Pomodoro\"). [Pesaro](/wiki/Pesaro \"Pesaro\")](/wiki/File:Sfera_Grande_di_Pomodoro_-_Pesaro_1.jpg \"Sfera Grande di Pomodoro - Pesaro 1.jpg\")\nThey depicted a dreamlike imagery, with figures and objects seemingly frozen in time. Metaphysical Painting artists accept the representation of the visible world in a traditional perspective space, but the unusual arrangement of human beings as dummy\\-like models, objects in strange, illogical contexts, the unreal lights and colors, the unnatural static of still figures.",
"### Novecento Italiano",
"{{Main\\|Novecento Italiano}}\n[thumb\\|[Anselmo Bucci](/wiki/Anselmo_Bucci \"Anselmo Bucci\"), *Sorelle brianzole*, 1932](/wiki/File:Artgate_Fondazione_Cariplo_-_Bucci_Anselmo_-_Sorelle_brianzole.jpg \"Artgate Fondazione Cariplo - Bucci Anselmo - Sorelle brianzole.jpg\")",
"[Novecento movement](/wiki/Novecento_Italiano \"Novecento Italiano\"), group of Italian artists, formed in 1922 in Milan, that advocated a return to the great Italian representational art of the past.",
"The founding members of the Novecento ([Italian](/wiki/Italian_language \"Italian language\"): 20th\\-century) movement were the critic [Margherita Sarfatti](/wiki/Margherita_Sarfatti \"Margherita Sarfatti\") and seven artists: [Anselmo Bucci](/wiki/Anselmo_Bucci \"Anselmo Bucci\"), [Leonardo Dudreville](/wiki/Leonardo_Dudreville \"Leonardo Dudreville\"), [Achille Funi](/wiki/Achille_Funi \"Achille Funi\"), Gian Emilio Malerba, Piero Marussig, Ubaldo Oppi, and Mario Sironi. Under Sarfatti's leadership, the group sought to renew Italian art by rejecting European avant\\-garde movements and embracing Italy's artistic traditions.",
"Other artists associated with the Novecento included the sculptors [Marino Marini](/wiki/Marino_Marini_%28sculptor%29 \"Marino Marini (sculptor)\") and [Arturo Martini](/wiki/Arturo_Martini \"Arturo Martini\") and the painters [Ottone Rosai](/wiki/Ottone_Rosai \"Ottone Rosai\"), [Massimo Campigli](/wiki/Massimo_Campigli \"Massimo Campigli\"), [Carlo Carrà](/wiki/Carlo_Carr%C3%A0 \"Carlo Carrà\"), and [Felice Casorati](/wiki/Felice_Casorati \"Felice Casorati\").",
"### Spatialism",
"{{Main\\|Spatialism}}",
"Movement founded by the Italian artist [Lucio Fontana](/wiki/Lucio_Fontana \"Lucio Fontana\") as the [Spatialism](/wiki/Spatialism \"Spatialism\"), its tenets were repeated in manifestos between 1947 and 1954\\.",
"Combining elements of concrete art, dada and tachism, the movement's adherents rejected easel painting and embraced new technological developments, seeking to incorporate time and movement in their works. Fontana's slashed and pierced paintings exemplify his theses.",
"### Arte Povera",
"{{Culture of Italy}}\n{{Main\\|Arte Povera}}",
"[Arte Povera](/wiki/Arte_Povera \"Arte Povera\") an artistic movement that originated in Italy in the 1960s, combining aspects of conceptual, minimalist, and performance art, and making use of worthless or common materials such as earth or newspaper, in the hope of subverting the commercialization of art. The phrase is Italian, and means literally, \"impoverished art.\"",
"### Transavantgarde",
"{{Main\\|Transavantgarde}}",
"The term [Transavantgarde](/wiki/Transavantgarde \"Transavantgarde\") is the invention of the Italian critic [Achille Bonito Oliva](/wiki/Achille_Bonito_Oliva \"Achille Bonito Oliva\"). He has defined Transavantgarde art as traditional in format (that is, mostly painting or sculpture); apolitical; and, above all else, eclectic.",
""
] |
Cricket career
--------------
### Early first\-class career
[thumb\|right\|Lara batting for [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club "Warwickshire County Cricket Club") in 1994](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara_%284610977063%29.jpg "Brian Lara (4610977063).jpg")
1987 was a breakthrough year for Lara, when in the West Indies Youth Championships he scored 498 runs breaking the record of 480 by [Carl Hooper](/wiki/Carl_Hooper "Carl Hooper") set the previous year.[*The Coming Foretold*](http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Biography%5Cbio_BrianLara_captaincy.html) [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent"). Retrieved 30 July 2007\. {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811094615/http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Biography%5Cbio\_BrianLara\_captaincy.html \|date\=11 August 2007 }} He captained the tournament\-winning [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago_national_cricket_team "Trinidad and Tobago national cricket team"), who profited from a match\-winning 116 from Lara.
In January 1988, Lara made his first\-class debut for Trinidad and Tobago in the [Red Stripe Cup](/wiki/Red_Stripe_Cup "Red Stripe Cup") against [Leeward Islands](/wiki/Leeward_Islands_cricket_team "Leeward Islands cricket team").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149734\.html \|title\=Brief but brutal \|date\=22 January 2008 \|access\-date\=18 April 2020 \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo}} In his second first\-class match he made 92 against a [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados_national_cricket_team "Barbados national cricket team") attack containing [Joel Garner](/wiki/Joel_Garner "Joel Garner") and [Malcolm Marshall](/wiki/Malcolm_Marshall "Malcolm Marshall"), two greats of [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team "West Indies cricket team") teams. Later in the same year, he captained the West Indies team in Australia for the Bicentennial Youth World Cup where the West Indies reached the semi\-finals. Later that year, his innings of 182 as captain of the West Indies Under\-23s against the [touring Indian team](/wiki/Indian_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_1988%E2%80%9389 "Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 1988–89") further elevated his reputation.
His first selection for the full West Indies team followed in due course, but unfortunately coincided with the death of his father and Lara withdrew from the team. In 1989, he captained a West Indies B Team in [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe") and scored 145\.
In 1990, at the age of 20, Lara became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest\-ever captain, leading them that season to victory in the one\-day [Geddes Grant Shield](/wiki/Geddes_Grant_Shield "Geddes Grant Shield"). It was also in 1990 that he made his belated Test debut for West Indies against [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan_national_cricket_team "Pakistan national cricket team"), scoring 44 and 5\. He had made his ODI debut a month earlier against Pakistan, scoring 11\.
### International career
{{see also\|List of players who have scored 10,000 or more runs in One Day International cricket}}
In January 1993, Lara scored 277 versus [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team "Australia national cricket team") in Sydney. This, his maiden Test century in his fifth Test, was the turning point of the series as West Indies won the final two Tests to win the series 2–1\. Lara went on to name his daughter Sydney after scoring 277 at SCG.
Lara holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both [first\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket "First-class cricket") (501 [not out](/wiki/Not_out "Not out") for [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club "Warwickshire County Cricket Club") against [Durham](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club "Durham County Cricket Club") in 1994\) and Test cricket (400 not out for the West Indies against [England](/wiki/English_cricket_team "English cricket team") in 2004\). Lara amassed his world record 501 in 474 minutes off only 427 balls. He hit 308 in boundaries (10 sixes and 62 fours). His partners were [Roger Twose](/wiki/Roger_Twose "Roger Twose") (115 partnership – 2nd wicket), [Trevor Penney](/wiki/Trevor_Penney "Trevor Penney") (314 – 3rd), [Paul Smith](/wiki/Paul_Smith_%28cricketer%2C_born_1964%29 "Paul Smith (cricketer, born 1964)") (51 – 4th) and [Keith Piper](/wiki/Keith_John_Piper "Keith John Piper") (322 unbroken – 5th). Earlier in that season Lara scored six centuries in seven innings while playing for Warwickshire.
[thumb\|right\|Brian Lara batting for the West Indies against [India](/wiki/India_national_cricket_team "India national cricket team") at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados, in 2002](/wiki/File:BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg "BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg")
He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until [Matthew Hayden](/wiki/Matthew_Hayden "Matthew Hayden")'s 380 against [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team "Zimbabwe national cricket team") in 2003\. His 400 not out also made him the second player (after [Donald Bradman](/wiki/Donald_Bradman "Donald Bradman")) to score two Test triple\-centuries, and the second (after [Bill Ponsford](/wiki/Bill_Ponsford "Bill Ponsford")) to score two first\-class quadruple\-centuries. He has scored nine double\-centuries in Test cricket, third after Bradman's twelve and [Kumar Sangakkara](/wiki/Kumar_Sangakkara "Kumar Sangakkara")'s eleven. As a captain, he scored five double\-centuries, which is the highest by any one who is in charge. In 1995 Lara in the Test match away series against England, scored 3 centuries in three consecutive Matches which earned him the Man of the Series award. The Test Series was eventually drawn 2–2\. He also held the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking [Allan Border](/wiki/Allan_Border "Allan Border") in an innings of 226 played at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"), Australia in November 2005\. This was later broken by [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar "Sachin Tendulkar") of [India](/wiki/India "India") on 17 October 2008 whilst playing against Australia at Mohali in the 2nd Test of the [Border–Gavaskar Trophy](/wiki/Border%E2%80%93Gavaskar_Trophy "Border–Gavaskar Trophy") 2008\.
Lara captained the West Indies from 1998 to 1999, when West Indies suffered their first whitewash at the hands of [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team "South Africa national cricket team"). Following this they played [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team "Australia national cricket team") in a four\-Test series which was drawn 2–2, with Lara scoring 546 runs including three centuries and one double hundred. In the second Test at Kingston he scored 213 while in the third Test he scored 153\* in the second innings as West Indies chased down 311 with one wicket left. He won the Man of the Match award for both matches and was also named Man of the Series.
The [Wisden 100](/wiki/Wisden_100 "Wisden 100") rates Lara's 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown in 1998–99 as the second\-best innings ever after Sir Donald Bradman's 270 against England in Melbourne in 1936–37\.
In 2001 Lara was named the Man of the Carlton Series in Australia with an average of 46\.50, the highest average by a West Indian in that series, scoring two half centuries and one century, 116 against Australia. That same year Lara amassed 688 runs in the three match away Test series against Sri Lanka making three centuries, and one fifty—including the [double\-century and a century](/wiki/List_of_cricketers_who_have_scored_a_double_century_and_a_century_in_the_same_Test_match "List of cricketers who have scored a double century and a century in the same Test match") in the first and second innings of the 3rd Test match at the Sinhalese Sports Ground, equating to 42% of the team's runs in that series. These extraordinary performances led [Muttiah Muralitharan](/wiki/Muttiah_Muralitharan "Muttiah Muralitharan") to state that Lara was the most dangerous batsman he had ever bowled to.{{cite web\|url\=http://content\-uk.cricinfo.com/srilanka/content/story/133274\.html \|title\=Murali: 'Lara's still No. 1' \|publisher\=Content\-uk.cricinfo.com \|access\-date\=21 August 2010}}
Lara was reappointed as captain against the touring Australians in 2003, and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing a return to stellar performance. Later that season, under his captaincy, West Indies won the two match Test series against Sri Lanka 1–0 with Lara making a double\-century in the First Test. In September 2004, West Indies won the [2004 ICC Champions Trophy](/wiki/2004_ICC_Champions_Trophy "2004 ICC Champions Trophy") in England under his captaincy. For his performances in 2004, he was named both in the World Test XI and ODI XI by ICC.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/23121796\|title\=Rahul Dravid is the ICC's player of the year\|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=18 April 2020}}
In March 2005, Lara declined selection for the West Indies team because of a dispute over his personal [Cable \& Wireless](/wiki/LIME_%28telecommunications_company%29 "LIME (telecommunications company)") sponsorship deal, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, [Digicel](/wiki/Digicel "Digicel"). Six other players were involved in this dispute, including stars [Chris Gayle](/wiki/Chris_Gayle "Chris Gayle"), [Ramnaresh Sarwan](/wiki/Ramnaresh_Sarwan "Ramnaresh Sarwan") and [Dwayne Bravo](/wiki/Dwayne_Bravo "Dwayne Bravo"). Lara said he declined selection in a stand of solidarity, when these players were dropped because of their sponsorship deals.{{cite web\|url\=http://content\-uk.cricinfo.com/westindies/content/story/146390\.html \|title\='I'm ready to play if best team is selected' – Lara \|publisher\=Content\-uk.cricinfo.com \|access\-date\=21 August 2010}} The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team "South Africa national cricket team").
Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196\), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly appointed [Shivnarine Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul "Shivnarine Chanderpaul"). In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a 176 in the first innings. After a one\-day series against South Africa, he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados which the West Indies eventually won.
[thumb\|right\|Lara during his lap of honour in his final international match, [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup "2007 Cricket World Cup")](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara_lap_of_honour.jpg "Brian Lara lap of honour.jpg")
For his performances in 2005, he was named in the [World Test XI](/wiki/ICC_Test_Team_of_the_Year "ICC Test Team of the Year") by ICC.
On 26 April 2006 Lara was reappointed the captain of the West Indies cricket team for the third time. This followed the resignation of Shivnarine Chanderpaul, who had been captain for thirteen months—in which the West Indies won just one of the 14 Test matches they had competed. In May 2006, Lara led the West Indies to successful One\-Day series victories against Zimbabwe and India. Lara's team played Australia in the finals of the DLF Cup and the ICC Champions Trophy where they finished runners up in both finals.
On 16 December 2006 he became the first player for the West Indies to pass 10,000 One Day International runs,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Batting/BattingCareerRuns\_ODI.asp?Stat\=5000\|title\=HowSTAT! ODI Cricket – Most Career Runs\|website\=howstat.com}} and, along with [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar "Sachin Tendulkar"), one of only two players, at the time, to do so in both forms of the game. On 10 April 2007 Lara confirmed his retirement from one\-day cricket post the [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup "2007 Cricket World Cup").["Lara confirms one\-day retirement"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6543709.stm), *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News")*, 11 April 2007\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\. A few days later he announced that he would in fact be retiring from all international cricket after the tournament.Brian Gough, ["Legend Lara to end Windies career"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6574317.stm), *BBC News*, 19 April 2007\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\.
Lara played his final international game on 21 April 2007 in a [dead rubber](/wiki/Dead_rubber "Dead rubber") World Cup game against England. He was run out for 18 after a mix\-up with Marlon Samuels; England won the game by 1 wicket. Before the end of this World Cup Glenn McGrath stated that Lara is the greatest batsman that he has ever bowled to.["McGrath rates Lara just ahead of Tendulkar"](http://www.rediff.com/wc2007/2007/apr/28mcgrath.htm), *Rediff*, 28 April 2007\. Retrieved 4 December 2007\.
### Retirement
|**Lara's results in international matches**{{cite web\|title\=Statistics / / BC Lara /One\-Day Internationals\|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/52337\.html?class\=1;template\=results;type\=batting\|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=25 April 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209203410/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/52337\.html?class\=1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting\|archive\-date\=9 December 2013}}
| |
| | Matches | Won | Lost | Drawn | Tied | No result |
| Test{{cite web \|title\=List of Test victories \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\=1;filter\=advanced;orderby\=matches;result\=1;template\=results;type\=batting \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=25 April 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119022911/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\=1%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Borderby%3Dmatches%3Bresult%3D1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting \|archive\-date\=19 January 2014 }} | 131 | 32 | 63 | 36 | 0 | – |
| ODI{{cite web \|title\=List of ODI victories \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\=2;filter\=advanced;orderby\=matches;result\=1;template\=results;type\=batting \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=25 April 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031110547/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\=2%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Borderby%3Dmatches%3Bresult%3D1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting \|archive\-date\=31 October 2013 }} | 299 | 139 | 144 | – | 3 | 13 |
On 19 April 2007 Lara announced his retirement from all forms of international cricket, indicating that the West Indies vs England match on 21 April 2007 would be his last international appearance.["Lara cuts his last dash"](http://www.smh.com.au/news/cricket/lara-turns-his-back-on-cricket/2007/04/20/1176697042541.html), *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald "The Sydney Morning Herald")*, 20 April 2007\. Retrieved 29 April 2007\. He was run out after a bad mixup with [Marlon Samuels](/wiki/Marlon_Samuels "Marlon Samuels") for 18, as England went on to win the match by one wicket.[*West Indies v England*](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/6576083.stm) *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News")*. Retrieved 29 July 2007\.
He announced before the 2007 Cricket World Cup that this would be his last appearance in One Day Internationals. After his last match, in the post\-game presentation interview, he asked the fans, "Did I entertain?", to which he received a resounding cheer from the crowd,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/serialisations/article3694486\.ece \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517172926/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/serialisations/article3694486\.ece \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=17 May 2008 \|title\=Genius of Brian Lara hailed by Wisden \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|first\=Mike \|last\=Atherton \|date\=7 April 2008 \|access\-date\=22 September 2011 \|location\=London}} after which he went out and took his 'lap of honour' where he met and shook hands with many of the fans. Lara stated this would be his last appearance in international cricket, he has also indicated his interest in retaining some involvement in the sport.
On 23 July 2007 Lara agreed to sign for the [Indian Cricket League](/wiki/Indian_Cricket_League "Indian Cricket League").{{cite web\|url\=http://content\-uk.cricinfo.com/ci/content/story/303309\.html \|title\=Lara signs up for new Indian league \|publisher\=Content\-uk.cricinfo.com \|access\-date\=21 August 2010}} He is the former captain of the Mumbai Champs. He volunteered to play for his home team Trinidad and Tobago during the start of 2008 domestic season, after not playing for them for the previous two years. He made his comeback a memorable one with a match winning hundred over Guyana, followed by a dismissive undefeated half\-century in the second innings, scored at over two runs per ball. In the third\-round game (Trinidad and Tobago got a bye in the second round).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2008/01/06/sports/spectacu\-lara\-at\-the\-oval/\|title\=Spectacu\-Lara at the Oval\|date\=6 January 2008\|publisher\=Stabroek News}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/carib\-beer\-series\-2007\-08\-318245/trinidad\-tobago\-vs\-guyana\-318260/match\-report \|title\=Lara blitz leads Trinidad to victory \|date\=8 January 2008 \|work\=ESPNcricinfo}}
Lara suffered a fractured arm against the Leeward Islands in St Maarten on 19 January, which kept him out of the ICL season. He nevertheless affirmed his commitment to returning to Twenty20 cricket,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cricinfo.com/mcc/content/story/464785\.html\|title\=Brian Lara maintains Twenty20 comeback plans\|date\=29 June 2010\|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=28 June 2010}} and on 27 June 2010 appeared for the [Marylebone Cricket Club](/wiki/Marylebone_Cricket_Club "Marylebone Cricket Club") match against a touring Pakistan team, scoring 37 from 32 balls.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cricinfo.com/england\-v\-pakistan\-2010/engine/current/match/462605\.html\|title\=Scorecard: Pakistan tour of England – tour match Marylebone Cricket Club v Pakistanis\|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=28 June 2010}}
In 2012, Lara became involved with the [Bangladesh Premier League](/wiki/Bangladesh_Premier_League "Bangladesh Premier League") team [Chittagong Kings](/wiki/Chittagong_Kings "Chittagong Kings") as their brand ambassador.{{cite news \|date\=16 October 2012 \|title\=Lara named brand ambassador of Chittagong Kings \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/Lara\-named\-brand\-ambassador\-of\-Chittagong\-Kings/article12559973\.ece \|url\-access\=limited \|url\-status\=live \|work\=The Hindu \|location\=Dhaka \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202135512/https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/Lara\-named\-brand\-ambassador\-of\-Chittagong\-Kings/article12559973\.ece \|archive\-date\=2 December 2020 \|access\-date\=2 December 2020}}
On the occasion of bicentennial anniversary of Lord's ground he played for the team of MCC, under the leadership of Sachin Tendulkar{{cite web\|date\=22 June 2014\|title\=Lara rolls back the years as Lord's Cricket Ground celebrates 200th anniversary\|url\=https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1020889/lara\-rolls\-back\-the\-years\-as\-lord\-s\-cricket\-ground\-celebrates\-200th\-anniversary\|access\-date\=6 September 2021\|website\=www.insidethegames.biz}} against the Rest of World XI in a 50 over game. He went on to score a half century in an eventual win for the MCC.
### 2010 return
[thumb\|Brian Lara batting in [Bicentenary Celebration match](/wiki/Bicentenary_Celebration_match "Bicentenary Celebration match") (2014\)](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara%2C_Lord%27s_Bicentenary_Anniversary_Match_%282014%29_04.jpg "Brian Lara, Lord's Bicentenary Anniversary Match (2014) 04.jpg")
After negotiations between [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey_County_Cricket_Club "Surrey County Cricket Club") and Lara for the [2010 Friends Provident t20](/wiki/2010_Friends_Provident_t20 "2010 Friends Provident t20") failed to come to anything,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/22581137\|title\=Lara lined up for Surrey comeback \|date\=16 April 2010 \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=18 April 2020}} Lara declared that he still wanted to sign a contract to play [Twenty20](/wiki/Twenty20 "Twenty20") cricket.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/22537230\|title\=Lara maintains Twenty20 comeback plans \|date\=26 June 2010 \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=18 April 2020}} Late in the year he joined [Southern Rocks](/wiki/Southern_Rocks "Southern Rocks"), a Zimbabwean side, to compete in the [2010–11 Stanbic Bank 20 Series](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Stanbic_Bank_20_Series "2010–11 Stanbic Bank 20 Series").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/22494266\|title\=Rocks sign Lara, Sidebottom for T20 \|date\=5 November 2010 \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=18 April 2020}} On his debut for the Rocks, and his first\-ever Twenty20 match, he scored a half\-century, top\-scoring for the Rocks with 65\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/22491746\|title\=Mountaineers, Eagles open with wins \|date\=13 November 2010 \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=18 April 2020}} He added 34 runs in his next two innings, but then left the competition, citing "commitments elsewhere".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/22490335\|title\=Lara signs as Zimbabwe 'batting consultant' \|date\=18 November 2010 \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=18 April 2020}}
After expressing his interest to play in the 2011 fourth edition of the Indian Premier League (IPL),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crickblog.com/entry/lara\-reiterates\-interest\-in\-making\-debut\-in\-ipl\-4/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708203539/http://www.crickblog.com/entry/lara\-reiterates\-interest\-in\-making\-debut\-in\-ipl\-4/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=8 July 2011 \|title\=Lara Reiterates Interest in Making Debut in IPL 4 \|author\=Sreelata Yellamrazu \|publisher\=Cric Blog \|date\=28 June 2010 \|access\-date\=30 December 2010 }} and despite not having played active cricket for four years, Brian Lara still managed to attract the highest reserve price of $400,000 ahead of the IPL players' auction in early January 2011;{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/22485808\|title\=Lara, Dravid in highest price band for IPL auction
\|date\=21 December 2010\|access\-date\=18 April 2020\|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rediff.com/cricket/report/gilchrist\-lara\-in\-top\-slot\-for\-ipl\-auctions/20101221\.htm\|title\=Gilchrist, Lara in top bracket for IPL auctions
\|date\=21 December 2010\|access\-date\=30 December 2010\|publisher\=rediff SPORTS}} however, no franchise bought him.
In July 2014, he played for the MCC side in the [Bicentenary Celebration match](/wiki/Bicentenary_Celebration_match "Bicentenary Celebration match") at [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's").{{cite web \|title\=MCC v Rest of the World – 5 July \|url\=http://www.lords.org/fixtures/fixtures\-and\-tickets/mcc\-v\-rest\-of\-the\-world\-5\-july/ \|work\=Lord's \|date\=5 July 2014 \|access\-date\=5 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707031308/http://www.lords.org/fixtures/fixtures\-and\-tickets/mcc\-v\-rest\-of\-the\-world\-5\-july/ \|archive\-date\=7 July 2014 }}
On 18 November 2016, Brian Lara signed with Newcastle C\&S D5's side The Bennett Hotel Centurions.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/4303773/lara\-signs\-on\-for\-d5s/\|title\=Brian Lara signs for The Bennett Hotel D5's cricket team\|author\=theherald\|date\=20 November 2016\|access\-date\=20 March 2017\|archive\-date\=20 March 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320145016/http://www.theherald.com.au/story/4303773/lara\-signs\-on\-for\-d5s/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Coaching
In December 2021 Brian Lara was appointed as Batting Coach and Strategic Advisor of the [Sunrisers Hyderabad](/wiki/Sunrisers_Hyderabad "Sunrisers Hyderabad") team for the 2022 season of the [Indian Premier League](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League "Indian Premier League").{{cite web \|title\=IPL 2022: Brian Lara, Dale Steyn join Sunrisers' support staff; Tom Moody returns as coach \|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl\-2022\-brian\-lara\-dale\-steyn\-join\-sunrisers\-hyderabad\-support\-staff\-tom\-moody\-returns\-as\-coach\-1294180 \|work\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=23 October 2023 \|date\=23 December 2021}}
|
[
"Cricket career\n--------------",
"### Early first\\-class career",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Lara batting for [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Warwickshire County Cricket Club\") in 1994](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara_%284610977063%29.jpg \"Brian Lara (4610977063).jpg\")\n1987 was a breakthrough year for Lara, when in the West Indies Youth Championships he scored 498 runs breaking the record of 480 by [Carl Hooper](/wiki/Carl_Hooper \"Carl Hooper\") set the previous year.[*The Coming Foretold*](http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Biography%5Cbio_BrianLara_captaincy.html) [The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\"). Retrieved 30 July 2007\\. {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811094615/http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Biography%5Cbio\\_BrianLara\\_captaincy.html \\|date\\=11 August 2007 }} He captained the tournament\\-winning [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago_national_cricket_team \"Trinidad and Tobago national cricket team\"), who profited from a match\\-winning 116 from Lara.",
"In January 1988, Lara made his first\\-class debut for Trinidad and Tobago in the [Red Stripe Cup](/wiki/Red_Stripe_Cup \"Red Stripe Cup\") against [Leeward Islands](/wiki/Leeward_Islands_cricket_team \"Leeward Islands cricket team\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149734\\.html \\|title\\=Brief but brutal \\|date\\=22 January 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020 \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo}} In his second first\\-class match he made 92 against a [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados_national_cricket_team \"Barbados national cricket team\") attack containing [Joel Garner](/wiki/Joel_Garner \"Joel Garner\") and [Malcolm Marshall](/wiki/Malcolm_Marshall \"Malcolm Marshall\"), two greats of [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team \"West Indies cricket team\") teams. Later in the same year, he captained the West Indies team in Australia for the Bicentennial Youth World Cup where the West Indies reached the semi\\-finals. Later that year, his innings of 182 as captain of the West Indies Under\\-23s against the [touring Indian team](/wiki/Indian_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_1988%E2%80%9389 \"Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 1988–89\") further elevated his reputation.",
"His first selection for the full West Indies team followed in due course, but unfortunately coincided with the death of his father and Lara withdrew from the team. In 1989, he captained a West Indies B Team in [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\") and scored 145\\.",
"In 1990, at the age of 20, Lara became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest\\-ever captain, leading them that season to victory in the one\\-day [Geddes Grant Shield](/wiki/Geddes_Grant_Shield \"Geddes Grant Shield\"). It was also in 1990 that he made his belated Test debut for West Indies against [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan_national_cricket_team \"Pakistan national cricket team\"), scoring 44 and 5\\. He had made his ODI debut a month earlier against Pakistan, scoring 11\\.",
"### International career",
"{{see also\\|List of players who have scored 10,000 or more runs in One Day International cricket}}",
"In January 1993, Lara scored 277 versus [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team \"Australia national cricket team\") in Sydney. This, his maiden Test century in his fifth Test, was the turning point of the series as West Indies won the final two Tests to win the series 2–1\\. Lara went on to name his daughter Sydney after scoring 277 at SCG.",
"Lara holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both [first\\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") (501 [not out](/wiki/Not_out \"Not out\") for [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Warwickshire County Cricket Club\") against [Durham](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club \"Durham County Cricket Club\") in 1994\\) and Test cricket (400 not out for the West Indies against [England](/wiki/English_cricket_team \"English cricket team\") in 2004\\). Lara amassed his world record 501 in 474 minutes off only 427 balls. He hit 308 in boundaries (10 sixes and 62 fours). His partners were [Roger Twose](/wiki/Roger_Twose \"Roger Twose\") (115 partnership – 2nd wicket), [Trevor Penney](/wiki/Trevor_Penney \"Trevor Penney\") (314 – 3rd), [Paul Smith](/wiki/Paul_Smith_%28cricketer%2C_born_1964%29 \"Paul Smith (cricketer, born 1964)\") (51 – 4th) and [Keith Piper](/wiki/Keith_John_Piper \"Keith John Piper\") (322 unbroken – 5th). Earlier in that season Lara scored six centuries in seven innings while playing for Warwickshire.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Brian Lara batting for the West Indies against [India](/wiki/India_national_cricket_team \"India national cricket team\") at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados, in 2002](/wiki/File:BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg \"BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg\")",
"He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until [Matthew Hayden](/wiki/Matthew_Hayden \"Matthew Hayden\")'s 380 against [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team \"Zimbabwe national cricket team\") in 2003\\. His 400 not out also made him the second player (after [Donald Bradman](/wiki/Donald_Bradman \"Donald Bradman\")) to score two Test triple\\-centuries, and the second (after [Bill Ponsford](/wiki/Bill_Ponsford \"Bill Ponsford\")) to score two first\\-class quadruple\\-centuries. He has scored nine double\\-centuries in Test cricket, third after Bradman's twelve and [Kumar Sangakkara](/wiki/Kumar_Sangakkara \"Kumar Sangakkara\")'s eleven. As a captain, he scored five double\\-centuries, which is the highest by any one who is in charge. In 1995 Lara in the Test match away series against England, scored 3 centuries in three consecutive Matches which earned him the Man of the Series award. The Test Series was eventually drawn 2–2\\. He also held the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking [Allan Border](/wiki/Allan_Border \"Allan Border\") in an innings of 226 played at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"), Australia in November 2005\\. This was later broken by [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar \"Sachin Tendulkar\") of [India](/wiki/India \"India\") on 17 October 2008 whilst playing against Australia at Mohali in the 2nd Test of the [Border–Gavaskar Trophy](/wiki/Border%E2%80%93Gavaskar_Trophy \"Border–Gavaskar Trophy\") 2008\\.",
"Lara captained the West Indies from 1998 to 1999, when West Indies suffered their first whitewash at the hands of [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team \"South Africa national cricket team\"). Following this they played [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team \"Australia national cricket team\") in a four\\-Test series which was drawn 2–2, with Lara scoring 546 runs including three centuries and one double hundred. In the second Test at Kingston he scored 213 while in the third Test he scored 153\\* in the second innings as West Indies chased down 311 with one wicket left. He won the Man of the Match award for both matches and was also named Man of the Series.",
"The [Wisden 100](/wiki/Wisden_100 \"Wisden 100\") rates Lara's 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown in 1998–99 as the second\\-best innings ever after Sir Donald Bradman's 270 against England in Melbourne in 1936–37\\.",
"In 2001 Lara was named the Man of the Carlton Series in Australia with an average of 46\\.50, the highest average by a West Indian in that series, scoring two half centuries and one century, 116 against Australia. That same year Lara amassed 688 runs in the three match away Test series against Sri Lanka making three centuries, and one fifty—including the [double\\-century and a century](/wiki/List_of_cricketers_who_have_scored_a_double_century_and_a_century_in_the_same_Test_match \"List of cricketers who have scored a double century and a century in the same Test match\") in the first and second innings of the 3rd Test match at the Sinhalese Sports Ground, equating to 42% of the team's runs in that series. These extraordinary performances led [Muttiah Muralitharan](/wiki/Muttiah_Muralitharan \"Muttiah Muralitharan\") to state that Lara was the most dangerous batsman he had ever bowled to.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://content\\-uk.cricinfo.com/srilanka/content/story/133274\\.html \\|title\\=Murali: 'Lara's still No. 1' \\|publisher\\=Content\\-uk.cricinfo.com \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2010}}",
"Lara was reappointed as captain against the touring Australians in 2003, and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing a return to stellar performance. Later that season, under his captaincy, West Indies won the two match Test series against Sri Lanka 1–0 with Lara making a double\\-century in the First Test. In September 2004, West Indies won the [2004 ICC Champions Trophy](/wiki/2004_ICC_Champions_Trophy \"2004 ICC Champions Trophy\") in England under his captaincy. For his performances in 2004, he was named both in the World Test XI and ODI XI by ICC.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/23121796\\|title\\=Rahul Dravid is the ICC's player of the year\\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020}}",
"In March 2005, Lara declined selection for the West Indies team because of a dispute over his personal [Cable \\& Wireless](/wiki/LIME_%28telecommunications_company%29 \"LIME (telecommunications company)\") sponsorship deal, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, [Digicel](/wiki/Digicel \"Digicel\"). Six other players were involved in this dispute, including stars [Chris Gayle](/wiki/Chris_Gayle \"Chris Gayle\"), [Ramnaresh Sarwan](/wiki/Ramnaresh_Sarwan \"Ramnaresh Sarwan\") and [Dwayne Bravo](/wiki/Dwayne_Bravo \"Dwayne Bravo\"). Lara said he declined selection in a stand of solidarity, when these players were dropped because of their sponsorship deals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://content\\-uk.cricinfo.com/westindies/content/story/146390\\.html \\|title\\='I'm ready to play if best team is selected' – Lara \\|publisher\\=Content\\-uk.cricinfo.com \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2010}} The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team \"South Africa national cricket team\").",
"Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196\\), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly appointed [Shivnarine Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul \"Shivnarine Chanderpaul\"). In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a 176 in the first innings. After a one\\-day series against South Africa, he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados which the West Indies eventually won.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Lara during his lap of honour in his final international match, [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup \"2007 Cricket World Cup\")](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara_lap_of_honour.jpg \"Brian Lara lap of honour.jpg\")\nFor his performances in 2005, he was named in the [World Test XI](/wiki/ICC_Test_Team_of_the_Year \"ICC Test Team of the Year\") by ICC.",
"On 26 April 2006 Lara was reappointed the captain of the West Indies cricket team for the third time. This followed the resignation of Shivnarine Chanderpaul, who had been captain for thirteen months—in which the West Indies won just one of the 14 Test matches they had competed. In May 2006, Lara led the West Indies to successful One\\-Day series victories against Zimbabwe and India. Lara's team played Australia in the finals of the DLF Cup and the ICC Champions Trophy where they finished runners up in both finals.",
"On 16 December 2006 he became the first player for the West Indies to pass 10,000 One Day International runs,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Batting/BattingCareerRuns\\_ODI.asp?Stat\\=5000\\|title\\=HowSTAT! ODI Cricket – Most Career Runs\\|website\\=howstat.com}} and, along with [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar \"Sachin Tendulkar\"), one of only two players, at the time, to do so in both forms of the game. On 10 April 2007 Lara confirmed his retirement from one\\-day cricket post the [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup \"2007 Cricket World Cup\").[\"Lara confirms one\\-day retirement\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6543709.stm), *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News \"BBC News\")*, 11 April 2007\\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\\. A few days later he announced that he would in fact be retiring from all international cricket after the tournament.Brian Gough, [\"Legend Lara to end Windies career\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6574317.stm), *BBC News*, 19 April 2007\\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\\.",
"Lara played his final international game on 21 April 2007 in a [dead rubber](/wiki/Dead_rubber \"Dead rubber\") World Cup game against England. He was run out for 18 after a mix\\-up with Marlon Samuels; England won the game by 1 wicket. Before the end of this World Cup Glenn McGrath stated that Lara is the greatest batsman that he has ever bowled to.[\"McGrath rates Lara just ahead of Tendulkar\"](http://www.rediff.com/wc2007/2007/apr/28mcgrath.htm), *Rediff*, 28 April 2007\\. Retrieved 4 December 2007\\.",
"### Retirement",
"",
"|**Lara's results in international matches**{{cite web\\|title\\=Statistics / / BC Lara /One\\-Day Internationals\\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/52337\\.html?class\\=1;template\\=results;type\\=batting\\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209203410/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/52337\\.html?class\\=1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting\\|archive\\-date\\=9 December 2013}}",
"| |\n| | Matches | Won | Lost | Drawn | Tied | No result |\n| Test{{cite web \\|title\\=List of Test victories \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\\=1;filter\\=advanced;orderby\\=matches;result\\=1;template\\=results;type\\=batting \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119022911/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\\=1%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Borderby%3Dmatches%3Bresult%3D1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting \\|archive\\-date\\=19 January 2014 }} | 131 | 32 | 63 | 36 | 0 | – |\n| ODI{{cite web \\|title\\=List of ODI victories \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\\=2;filter\\=advanced;orderby\\=matches;result\\=1;template\\=results;type\\=batting \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031110547/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class\\=2%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Borderby%3Dmatches%3Bresult%3D1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2013 }} | 299 | 139 | 144 | – | 3 | 13 |",
"On 19 April 2007 Lara announced his retirement from all forms of international cricket, indicating that the West Indies vs England match on 21 April 2007 would be his last international appearance.[\"Lara cuts his last dash\"](http://www.smh.com.au/news/cricket/lara-turns-his-back-on-cricket/2007/04/20/1176697042541.html), *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald \"The Sydney Morning Herald\")*, 20 April 2007\\. Retrieved 29 April 2007\\. He was run out after a bad mixup with [Marlon Samuels](/wiki/Marlon_Samuels \"Marlon Samuels\") for 18, as England went on to win the match by one wicket.[*West Indies v England*](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/6576083.stm) *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News \"BBC News\")*. Retrieved 29 July 2007\\.",
"He announced before the 2007 Cricket World Cup that this would be his last appearance in One Day Internationals. After his last match, in the post\\-game presentation interview, he asked the fans, \"Did I entertain?\", to which he received a resounding cheer from the crowd,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/serialisations/article3694486\\.ece \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517172926/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/serialisations/article3694486\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2008 \\|title\\=Genius of Brian Lara hailed by Wisden \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|first\\=Mike \\|last\\=Atherton \\|date\\=7 April 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2011 \\|location\\=London}} after which he went out and took his 'lap of honour' where he met and shook hands with many of the fans. Lara stated this would be his last appearance in international cricket, he has also indicated his interest in retaining some involvement in the sport.",
"On 23 July 2007 Lara agreed to sign for the [Indian Cricket League](/wiki/Indian_Cricket_League \"Indian Cricket League\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://content\\-uk.cricinfo.com/ci/content/story/303309\\.html \\|title\\=Lara signs up for new Indian league \\|publisher\\=Content\\-uk.cricinfo.com \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2010}} He is the former captain of the Mumbai Champs. He volunteered to play for his home team Trinidad and Tobago during the start of 2008 domestic season, after not playing for them for the previous two years. He made his comeback a memorable one with a match winning hundred over Guyana, followed by a dismissive undefeated half\\-century in the second innings, scored at over two runs per ball. In the third\\-round game (Trinidad and Tobago got a bye in the second round).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2008/01/06/sports/spectacu\\-lara\\-at\\-the\\-oval/\\|title\\=Spectacu\\-Lara at the Oval\\|date\\=6 January 2008\\|publisher\\=Stabroek News}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/carib\\-beer\\-series\\-2007\\-08\\-318245/trinidad\\-tobago\\-vs\\-guyana\\-318260/match\\-report \\|title\\=Lara blitz leads Trinidad to victory \\|date\\=8 January 2008 \\|work\\=ESPNcricinfo}}",
"Lara suffered a fractured arm against the Leeward Islands in St Maarten on 19 January, which kept him out of the ICL season. He nevertheless affirmed his commitment to returning to Twenty20 cricket,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cricinfo.com/mcc/content/story/464785\\.html\\|title\\=Brian Lara maintains Twenty20 comeback plans\\|date\\=29 June 2010\\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2010}} and on 27 June 2010 appeared for the [Marylebone Cricket Club](/wiki/Marylebone_Cricket_Club \"Marylebone Cricket Club\") match against a touring Pakistan team, scoring 37 from 32 balls.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cricinfo.com/england\\-v\\-pakistan\\-2010/engine/current/match/462605\\.html\\|title\\=Scorecard: Pakistan tour of England – tour match Marylebone Cricket Club v Pakistanis\\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2010}}",
"In 2012, Lara became involved with the [Bangladesh Premier League](/wiki/Bangladesh_Premier_League \"Bangladesh Premier League\") team [Chittagong Kings](/wiki/Chittagong_Kings \"Chittagong Kings\") as their brand ambassador.{{cite news \\|date\\=16 October 2012 \\|title\\=Lara named brand ambassador of Chittagong Kings \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/Lara\\-named\\-brand\\-ambassador\\-of\\-Chittagong\\-Kings/article12559973\\.ece \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|location\\=Dhaka \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202135512/https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/Lara\\-named\\-brand\\-ambassador\\-of\\-Chittagong\\-Kings/article12559973\\.ece \\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2020}}",
"On the occasion of bicentennial anniversary of Lord's ground he played for the team of MCC, under the leadership of Sachin Tendulkar{{cite web\\|date\\=22 June 2014\\|title\\=Lara rolls back the years as Lord's Cricket Ground celebrates 200th anniversary\\|url\\=https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1020889/lara\\-rolls\\-back\\-the\\-years\\-as\\-lord\\-s\\-cricket\\-ground\\-celebrates\\-200th\\-anniversary\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2021\\|website\\=www.insidethegames.biz}} against the Rest of World XI in a 50 over game. He went on to score a half century in an eventual win for the MCC.",
"### 2010 return",
"[thumb\\|Brian Lara batting in [Bicentenary Celebration match](/wiki/Bicentenary_Celebration_match \"Bicentenary Celebration match\") (2014\\)](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara%2C_Lord%27s_Bicentenary_Anniversary_Match_%282014%29_04.jpg \"Brian Lara, Lord's Bicentenary Anniversary Match (2014) 04.jpg\")\nAfter negotiations between [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey_County_Cricket_Club \"Surrey County Cricket Club\") and Lara for the [2010 Friends Provident t20](/wiki/2010_Friends_Provident_t20 \"2010 Friends Provident t20\") failed to come to anything,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/22581137\\|title\\=Lara lined up for Surrey comeback \\|date\\=16 April 2010 \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020}} Lara declared that he still wanted to sign a contract to play [Twenty20](/wiki/Twenty20 \"Twenty20\") cricket.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/22537230\\|title\\=Lara maintains Twenty20 comeback plans \\|date\\=26 June 2010 \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020}} Late in the year he joined [Southern Rocks](/wiki/Southern_Rocks \"Southern Rocks\"), a Zimbabwean side, to compete in the [2010–11 Stanbic Bank 20 Series](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Stanbic_Bank_20_Series \"2010–11 Stanbic Bank 20 Series\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/22494266\\|title\\=Rocks sign Lara, Sidebottom for T20 \\|date\\=5 November 2010 \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020}} On his debut for the Rocks, and his first\\-ever Twenty20 match, he scored a half\\-century, top\\-scoring for the Rocks with 65\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/22491746\\|title\\=Mountaineers, Eagles open with wins \\|date\\=13 November 2010 \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020}} He added 34 runs in his next two innings, but then left the competition, citing \"commitments elsewhere\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/22490335\\|title\\=Lara signs as Zimbabwe 'batting consultant' \\|date\\=18 November 2010 \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020}}",
"After expressing his interest to play in the 2011 fourth edition of the Indian Premier League (IPL),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crickblog.com/entry/lara\\-reiterates\\-interest\\-in\\-making\\-debut\\-in\\-ipl\\-4/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708203539/http://www.crickblog.com/entry/lara\\-reiterates\\-interest\\-in\\-making\\-debut\\-in\\-ipl\\-4/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2011 \\|title\\=Lara Reiterates Interest in Making Debut in IPL 4 \\|author\\=Sreelata Yellamrazu \\|publisher\\=Cric Blog \\|date\\=28 June 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2010 }} and despite not having played active cricket for four years, Brian Lara still managed to attract the highest reserve price of $400,000 ahead of the IPL players' auction in early January 2011;{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/22485808\\|title\\=Lara, Dravid in highest price band for IPL auction\n\\|date\\=21 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020\\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rediff.com/cricket/report/gilchrist\\-lara\\-in\\-top\\-slot\\-for\\-ipl\\-auctions/20101221\\.htm\\|title\\=Gilchrist, Lara in top bracket for IPL auctions\n\\|date\\=21 December 2010\\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2010\\|publisher\\=rediff SPORTS}} however, no franchise bought him.",
"In July 2014, he played for the MCC side in the [Bicentenary Celebration match](/wiki/Bicentenary_Celebration_match \"Bicentenary Celebration match\") at [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\").{{cite web \\|title\\=MCC v Rest of the World – 5 July \\|url\\=http://www.lords.org/fixtures/fixtures\\-and\\-tickets/mcc\\-v\\-rest\\-of\\-the\\-world\\-5\\-july/ \\|work\\=Lord's \\|date\\=5 July 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707031308/http://www.lords.org/fixtures/fixtures\\-and\\-tickets/mcc\\-v\\-rest\\-of\\-the\\-world\\-5\\-july/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2014 }}",
"On 18 November 2016, Brian Lara signed with Newcastle C\\&S D5's side The Bennett Hotel Centurions.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/4303773/lara\\-signs\\-on\\-for\\-d5s/\\|title\\=Brian Lara signs for The Bennett Hotel D5's cricket team\\|author\\=theherald\\|date\\=20 November 2016\\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=20 March 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320145016/http://www.theherald.com.au/story/4303773/lara\\-signs\\-on\\-for\\-d5s/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Coaching",
"In December 2021 Brian Lara was appointed as Batting Coach and Strategic Advisor of the [Sunrisers Hyderabad](/wiki/Sunrisers_Hyderabad \"Sunrisers Hyderabad\") team for the 2022 season of the [Indian Premier League](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League \"Indian Premier League\").{{cite web \\|title\\=IPL 2022: Brian Lara, Dale Steyn join Sunrisers' support staff; Tom Moody returns as coach \\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl\\-2022\\-brian\\-lara\\-dale\\-steyn\\-join\\-sunrisers\\-hyderabad\\-support\\-staff\\-tom\\-moody\\-returns\\-as\\-coach\\-1294180 \\|work\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2023 \\|date\\=23 December 2021}}",
""
] |
### International career
{{see also\|List of players who have scored 10,000 or more runs in One Day International cricket}}
In January 1993, Lara scored 277 versus [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team "Australia national cricket team") in Sydney. This, his maiden Test century in his fifth Test, was the turning point of the series as West Indies won the final two Tests to win the series 2–1\. Lara went on to name his daughter Sydney after scoring 277 at SCG.
Lara holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both [first\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket "First-class cricket") (501 [not out](/wiki/Not_out "Not out") for [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club "Warwickshire County Cricket Club") against [Durham](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club "Durham County Cricket Club") in 1994\) and Test cricket (400 not out for the West Indies against [England](/wiki/English_cricket_team "English cricket team") in 2004\). Lara amassed his world record 501 in 474 minutes off only 427 balls. He hit 308 in boundaries (10 sixes and 62 fours). His partners were [Roger Twose](/wiki/Roger_Twose "Roger Twose") (115 partnership – 2nd wicket), [Trevor Penney](/wiki/Trevor_Penney "Trevor Penney") (314 – 3rd), [Paul Smith](/wiki/Paul_Smith_%28cricketer%2C_born_1964%29 "Paul Smith (cricketer, born 1964)") (51 – 4th) and [Keith Piper](/wiki/Keith_John_Piper "Keith John Piper") (322 unbroken – 5th). Earlier in that season Lara scored six centuries in seven innings while playing for Warwickshire.
[thumb\|right\|Brian Lara batting for the West Indies against [India](/wiki/India_national_cricket_team "India national cricket team") at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados, in 2002](/wiki/File:BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg "BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg")
He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until [Matthew Hayden](/wiki/Matthew_Hayden "Matthew Hayden")'s 380 against [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team "Zimbabwe national cricket team") in 2003\. His 400 not out also made him the second player (after [Donald Bradman](/wiki/Donald_Bradman "Donald Bradman")) to score two Test triple\-centuries, and the second (after [Bill Ponsford](/wiki/Bill_Ponsford "Bill Ponsford")) to score two first\-class quadruple\-centuries. He has scored nine double\-centuries in Test cricket, third after Bradman's twelve and [Kumar Sangakkara](/wiki/Kumar_Sangakkara "Kumar Sangakkara")'s eleven. As a captain, he scored five double\-centuries, which is the highest by any one who is in charge. In 1995 Lara in the Test match away series against England, scored 3 centuries in three consecutive Matches which earned him the Man of the Series award. The Test Series was eventually drawn 2–2\. He also held the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking [Allan Border](/wiki/Allan_Border "Allan Border") in an innings of 226 played at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"), Australia in November 2005\. This was later broken by [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar "Sachin Tendulkar") of [India](/wiki/India "India") on 17 October 2008 whilst playing against Australia at Mohali in the 2nd Test of the [Border–Gavaskar Trophy](/wiki/Border%E2%80%93Gavaskar_Trophy "Border–Gavaskar Trophy") 2008\.
Lara captained the West Indies from 1998 to 1999, when West Indies suffered their first whitewash at the hands of [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team "South Africa national cricket team"). Following this they played [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team "Australia national cricket team") in a four\-Test series which was drawn 2–2, with Lara scoring 546 runs including three centuries and one double hundred. In the second Test at Kingston he scored 213 while in the third Test he scored 153\* in the second innings as West Indies chased down 311 with one wicket left. He won the Man of the Match award for both matches and was also named Man of the Series.
The [Wisden 100](/wiki/Wisden_100 "Wisden 100") rates Lara's 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown in 1998–99 as the second\-best innings ever after Sir Donald Bradman's 270 against England in Melbourne in 1936–37\.
In 2001 Lara was named the Man of the Carlton Series in Australia with an average of 46\.50, the highest average by a West Indian in that series, scoring two half centuries and one century, 116 against Australia. That same year Lara amassed 688 runs in the three match away Test series against Sri Lanka making three centuries, and one fifty—including the [double\-century and a century](/wiki/List_of_cricketers_who_have_scored_a_double_century_and_a_century_in_the_same_Test_match "List of cricketers who have scored a double century and a century in the same Test match") in the first and second innings of the 3rd Test match at the Sinhalese Sports Ground, equating to 42% of the team's runs in that series. These extraordinary performances led [Muttiah Muralitharan](/wiki/Muttiah_Muralitharan "Muttiah Muralitharan") to state that Lara was the most dangerous batsman he had ever bowled to.{{cite web\|url\=http://content\-uk.cricinfo.com/srilanka/content/story/133274\.html \|title\=Murali: 'Lara's still No. 1' \|publisher\=Content\-uk.cricinfo.com \|access\-date\=21 August 2010}}
Lara was reappointed as captain against the touring Australians in 2003, and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing a return to stellar performance. Later that season, under his captaincy, West Indies won the two match Test series against Sri Lanka 1–0 with Lara making a double\-century in the First Test. In September 2004, West Indies won the [2004 ICC Champions Trophy](/wiki/2004_ICC_Champions_Trophy "2004 ICC Champions Trophy") in England under his captaincy. For his performances in 2004, he was named both in the World Test XI and ODI XI by ICC.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\_/id/23121796\|title\=Rahul Dravid is the ICC's player of the year\|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=18 April 2020}}
In March 2005, Lara declined selection for the West Indies team because of a dispute over his personal [Cable \& Wireless](/wiki/LIME_%28telecommunications_company%29 "LIME (telecommunications company)") sponsorship deal, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, [Digicel](/wiki/Digicel "Digicel"). Six other players were involved in this dispute, including stars [Chris Gayle](/wiki/Chris_Gayle "Chris Gayle"), [Ramnaresh Sarwan](/wiki/Ramnaresh_Sarwan "Ramnaresh Sarwan") and [Dwayne Bravo](/wiki/Dwayne_Bravo "Dwayne Bravo"). Lara said he declined selection in a stand of solidarity, when these players were dropped because of their sponsorship deals.{{cite web\|url\=http://content\-uk.cricinfo.com/westindies/content/story/146390\.html \|title\='I'm ready to play if best team is selected' – Lara \|publisher\=Content\-uk.cricinfo.com \|access\-date\=21 August 2010}} The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team "South Africa national cricket team").
Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196\), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly appointed [Shivnarine Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul "Shivnarine Chanderpaul"). In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a 176 in the first innings. After a one\-day series against South Africa, he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados which the West Indies eventually won.
[thumb\|right\|Lara during his lap of honour in his final international match, [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup "2007 Cricket World Cup")](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara_lap_of_honour.jpg "Brian Lara lap of honour.jpg")
For his performances in 2005, he was named in the [World Test XI](/wiki/ICC_Test_Team_of_the_Year "ICC Test Team of the Year") by ICC.
On 26 April 2006 Lara was reappointed the captain of the West Indies cricket team for the third time. This followed the resignation of Shivnarine Chanderpaul, who had been captain for thirteen months—in which the West Indies won just one of the 14 Test matches they had competed. In May 2006, Lara led the West Indies to successful One\-Day series victories against Zimbabwe and India. Lara's team played Australia in the finals of the DLF Cup and the ICC Champions Trophy where they finished runners up in both finals.
On 16 December 2006 he became the first player for the West Indies to pass 10,000 One Day International runs,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Batting/BattingCareerRuns\_ODI.asp?Stat\=5000\|title\=HowSTAT! ODI Cricket – Most Career Runs\|website\=howstat.com}} and, along with [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar "Sachin Tendulkar"), one of only two players, at the time, to do so in both forms of the game. On 10 April 2007 Lara confirmed his retirement from one\-day cricket post the [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup "2007 Cricket World Cup").["Lara confirms one\-day retirement"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6543709.stm), *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News")*, 11 April 2007\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\. A few days later he announced that he would in fact be retiring from all international cricket after the tournament.Brian Gough, ["Legend Lara to end Windies career"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6574317.stm), *BBC News*, 19 April 2007\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\.
Lara played his final international game on 21 April 2007 in a [dead rubber](/wiki/Dead_rubber "Dead rubber") World Cup game against England. He was run out for 18 after a mix\-up with Marlon Samuels; England won the game by 1 wicket. Before the end of this World Cup Glenn McGrath stated that Lara is the greatest batsman that he has ever bowled to.["McGrath rates Lara just ahead of Tendulkar"](http://www.rediff.com/wc2007/2007/apr/28mcgrath.htm), *Rediff*, 28 April 2007\. Retrieved 4 December 2007\.
|
[
"### International career",
"{{see also\\|List of players who have scored 10,000 or more runs in One Day International cricket}}",
"In January 1993, Lara scored 277 versus [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team \"Australia national cricket team\") in Sydney. This, his maiden Test century in his fifth Test, was the turning point of the series as West Indies won the final two Tests to win the series 2–1\\. Lara went on to name his daughter Sydney after scoring 277 at SCG.",
"Lara holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both [first\\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") (501 [not out](/wiki/Not_out \"Not out\") for [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Warwickshire County Cricket Club\") against [Durham](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club \"Durham County Cricket Club\") in 1994\\) and Test cricket (400 not out for the West Indies against [England](/wiki/English_cricket_team \"English cricket team\") in 2004\\). Lara amassed his world record 501 in 474 minutes off only 427 balls. He hit 308 in boundaries (10 sixes and 62 fours). His partners were [Roger Twose](/wiki/Roger_Twose \"Roger Twose\") (115 partnership – 2nd wicket), [Trevor Penney](/wiki/Trevor_Penney \"Trevor Penney\") (314 – 3rd), [Paul Smith](/wiki/Paul_Smith_%28cricketer%2C_born_1964%29 \"Paul Smith (cricketer, born 1964)\") (51 – 4th) and [Keith Piper](/wiki/Keith_John_Piper \"Keith John Piper\") (322 unbroken – 5th). Earlier in that season Lara scored six centuries in seven innings while playing for Warwickshire.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Brian Lara batting for the West Indies against [India](/wiki/India_national_cricket_team \"India national cricket team\") at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados, in 2002](/wiki/File:BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg \"BrianLaraUkexpatCropped.jpg\")",
"He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until [Matthew Hayden](/wiki/Matthew_Hayden \"Matthew Hayden\")'s 380 against [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team \"Zimbabwe national cricket team\") in 2003\\. His 400 not out also made him the second player (after [Donald Bradman](/wiki/Donald_Bradman \"Donald Bradman\")) to score two Test triple\\-centuries, and the second (after [Bill Ponsford](/wiki/Bill_Ponsford \"Bill Ponsford\")) to score two first\\-class quadruple\\-centuries. He has scored nine double\\-centuries in Test cricket, third after Bradman's twelve and [Kumar Sangakkara](/wiki/Kumar_Sangakkara \"Kumar Sangakkara\")'s eleven. As a captain, he scored five double\\-centuries, which is the highest by any one who is in charge. In 1995 Lara in the Test match away series against England, scored 3 centuries in three consecutive Matches which earned him the Man of the Series award. The Test Series was eventually drawn 2–2\\. He also held the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking [Allan Border](/wiki/Allan_Border \"Allan Border\") in an innings of 226 played at [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"), Australia in November 2005\\. This was later broken by [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar \"Sachin Tendulkar\") of [India](/wiki/India \"India\") on 17 October 2008 whilst playing against Australia at Mohali in the 2nd Test of the [Border–Gavaskar Trophy](/wiki/Border%E2%80%93Gavaskar_Trophy \"Border–Gavaskar Trophy\") 2008\\.",
"Lara captained the West Indies from 1998 to 1999, when West Indies suffered their first whitewash at the hands of [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team \"South Africa national cricket team\"). Following this they played [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team \"Australia national cricket team\") in a four\\-Test series which was drawn 2–2, with Lara scoring 546 runs including three centuries and one double hundred. In the second Test at Kingston he scored 213 while in the third Test he scored 153\\* in the second innings as West Indies chased down 311 with one wicket left. He won the Man of the Match award for both matches and was also named Man of the Series.",
"The [Wisden 100](/wiki/Wisden_100 \"Wisden 100\") rates Lara's 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown in 1998–99 as the second\\-best innings ever after Sir Donald Bradman's 270 against England in Melbourne in 1936–37\\.",
"In 2001 Lara was named the Man of the Carlton Series in Australia with an average of 46\\.50, the highest average by a West Indian in that series, scoring two half centuries and one century, 116 against Australia. That same year Lara amassed 688 runs in the three match away Test series against Sri Lanka making three centuries, and one fifty—including the [double\\-century and a century](/wiki/List_of_cricketers_who_have_scored_a_double_century_and_a_century_in_the_same_Test_match \"List of cricketers who have scored a double century and a century in the same Test match\") in the first and second innings of the 3rd Test match at the Sinhalese Sports Ground, equating to 42% of the team's runs in that series. These extraordinary performances led [Muttiah Muralitharan](/wiki/Muttiah_Muralitharan \"Muttiah Muralitharan\") to state that Lara was the most dangerous batsman he had ever bowled to.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://content\\-uk.cricinfo.com/srilanka/content/story/133274\\.html \\|title\\=Murali: 'Lara's still No. 1' \\|publisher\\=Content\\-uk.cricinfo.com \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2010}}",
"Lara was reappointed as captain against the touring Australians in 2003, and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing a return to stellar performance. Later that season, under his captaincy, West Indies won the two match Test series against Sri Lanka 1–0 with Lara making a double\\-century in the First Test. In September 2004, West Indies won the [2004 ICC Champions Trophy](/wiki/2004_ICC_Champions_Trophy \"2004 ICC Champions Trophy\") in England under his captaincy. For his performances in 2004, he was named both in the World Test XI and ODI XI by ICC.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/\\_/id/23121796\\|title\\=Rahul Dravid is the ICC's player of the year\\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020}}",
"In March 2005, Lara declined selection for the West Indies team because of a dispute over his personal [Cable \\& Wireless](/wiki/LIME_%28telecommunications_company%29 \"LIME (telecommunications company)\") sponsorship deal, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, [Digicel](/wiki/Digicel \"Digicel\"). Six other players were involved in this dispute, including stars [Chris Gayle](/wiki/Chris_Gayle \"Chris Gayle\"), [Ramnaresh Sarwan](/wiki/Ramnaresh_Sarwan \"Ramnaresh Sarwan\") and [Dwayne Bravo](/wiki/Dwayne_Bravo \"Dwayne Bravo\"). Lara said he declined selection in a stand of solidarity, when these players were dropped because of their sponsorship deals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://content\\-uk.cricinfo.com/westindies/content/story/146390\\.html \\|title\\='I'm ready to play if best team is selected' – Lara \\|publisher\\=Content\\-uk.cricinfo.com \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2010}} The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring [South African team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team \"South Africa national cricket team\").",
"Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196\\), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly appointed [Shivnarine Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul \"Shivnarine Chanderpaul\"). In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a 176 in the first innings. After a one\\-day series against South Africa, he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados which the West Indies eventually won.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Lara during his lap of honour in his final international match, [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup \"2007 Cricket World Cup\")](/wiki/File:Brian_Lara_lap_of_honour.jpg \"Brian Lara lap of honour.jpg\")\nFor his performances in 2005, he was named in the [World Test XI](/wiki/ICC_Test_Team_of_the_Year \"ICC Test Team of the Year\") by ICC.",
"On 26 April 2006 Lara was reappointed the captain of the West Indies cricket team for the third time. This followed the resignation of Shivnarine Chanderpaul, who had been captain for thirteen months—in which the West Indies won just one of the 14 Test matches they had competed. In May 2006, Lara led the West Indies to successful One\\-Day series victories against Zimbabwe and India. Lara's team played Australia in the finals of the DLF Cup and the ICC Champions Trophy where they finished runners up in both finals.",
"On 16 December 2006 he became the first player for the West Indies to pass 10,000 One Day International runs,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Batting/BattingCareerRuns\\_ODI.asp?Stat\\=5000\\|title\\=HowSTAT! ODI Cricket – Most Career Runs\\|website\\=howstat.com}} and, along with [Sachin Tendulkar](/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar \"Sachin Tendulkar\"), one of only two players, at the time, to do so in both forms of the game. On 10 April 2007 Lara confirmed his retirement from one\\-day cricket post the [2007 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2007_Cricket_World_Cup \"2007 Cricket World Cup\").[\"Lara confirms one\\-day retirement\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6543709.stm), *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News \"BBC News\")*, 11 April 2007\\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\\. A few days later he announced that he would in fact be retiring from all international cricket after the tournament.Brian Gough, [\"Legend Lara to end Windies career\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/west_indies/6574317.stm), *BBC News*, 19 April 2007\\. Retrieved 30 July 2007\\.",
"Lara played his final international game on 21 April 2007 in a [dead rubber](/wiki/Dead_rubber \"Dead rubber\") World Cup game against England. He was run out for 18 after a mix\\-up with Marlon Samuels; England won the game by 1 wicket. Before the end of this World Cup Glenn McGrath stated that Lara is the greatest batsman that he has ever bowled to.[\"McGrath rates Lara just ahead of Tendulkar\"](http://www.rediff.com/wc2007/2007/apr/28mcgrath.htm), *Rediff*, 28 April 2007\\. Retrieved 4 December 2007\\.",
""
] |
Military service
----------------
### Prior to the Revolutionary War
William Haymond accompanied the army of General [Edward Braddock](/wiki/Edward_Braddock "Edward Braddock") on its march to capture [Fort Duquesne](/wiki/Fort_Duquesne "Fort Duquesne") from the French, which met with a disastrous defeat on the [Monongahela River](/wiki/Monongahela_River "Monongahela River") on 9 July 1755\.
He was a soldier in General [Forbes'](/wiki/John_Forbes_%28British_Army_officer%29 "John Forbes (British Army officer)") expedition in 1758 against the same position. The expedition was successful, and Fort Duquesne was renamed [Fort Pitt](/wiki/Fort_Pitt_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)") after [William Pitt the Elder](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Elder "William Pitt the Elder"), which later became [Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pittsburgh%2C_Pennsylvania "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania").
In February 1759, Haymond enlisted in the Virginia Regiment, commanded by Col. [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington"), which had been detailed to garrison the country captured from the French. He served along the Monongahela and [Allegheny Rivers](/wiki/Allegheny_River "Allegheny River") and as far north as "Presque Isle [Fort Presque Isle](/wiki/Fort_Presque_Isle "Fort Presque Isle")," now [Erie, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Erie%2C_Pennsylvania "Erie, Pennsylvania"), on the [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie"). When the regiment was withdrawn from the west, it was marched up the [Shenandoah Valley](/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley "Shenandoah Valley") and on to the Holstein River to suppress an outbreak among the Cherokee Indians.
When the Cherokees were quieted the regiment returned to the valley and was discharged. Haymond's discharge is dated February 24, 1762, at Fort Lewis, near [Staunton, Virginia](/wiki/Staunton%2C_Virginia "Staunton, Virginia"). It states that Haymond "duly served three years and behaved as a good soldier and faithful subject."
### Revolutionary War
At the commencement of the Revolution he immediately advocated the call of the colonies and was appointed a captain of Militia, frequently being in active service against the hostile Indians. His commission to Major on November 12, 1781 reads as follows:
{{quote\|
To William Haymond, Gent., Greeting:
Know you that from special trust and confidence, which is reposed in your fidelity, courage, activity and good conduct, our Governor, with the advice of the Council of State, and on the recommendation of the Worshipful County Court of the County of Monongalia, doth appoint you, the said William Haymond, Major of the Militia, of the said County of Monongalia.
In testimony whereof, these our letters are made patent.
Witness, Benjamin Harrison, Esquire, Governor, at Richmond, this 12th day of November, 1781\.
Registered in the War Office.
BENJAMIN HARRISON"\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=DII7AQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA170 The American Monthly Magazine]" Volume 9 July–December 1896 edited by Mrs. Mary S. Lockwood and Originally published by National Society, D. A. R. in Washington D.C. in 1896, pg. 170}}
### Commanding officer
In 1777 Haymond commanded [Prickett's Fort](/wiki/Prickett%27s_Fort_State_Park "Prickett's Fort State Park")<http://www.prickettsfortstatepark.com/> with a detachment at Scott's Mills. He performed the duties of an officer of Militia during the whole of the Revolutionary War. The pay\-roll of Major Haymond's Company (then Captain) of Monongahela County Militia in active service during the war of the Revolution in 1777 is as follows:
{{div col\|colwidth\=22em}}
* William Haymond (Captain)
* M. Morgan Morgan (Lientenant)
* James Johnston (Ensign)
* Zarah Ozban (Sergeant)
* Amos Ashcraft (Private)
* Reuben Boner (Private)
* Jarvis Brumagen (Private)
* Robert Campbell (Private)
* John Carter (Private)
* Levy Carter (Private)
* Edmond Chaney (Private)
* Jeremiah Chaney (Private)
* John Dohert (Private)
* Thomas Haymond (Private)
* Henry Hank (Private)
* Frederick Huckleberry (Private)
* John Ice (Private)
* Frederick Ice (Private)
* Valentine Kennett (Private)
* John Lemasters (Private)
* James Morgan, Sr. (Private)
* David Morgan (Private)
* Evan Morgan (Private)
* Amos Pettyjohn (Private)
* Peter Popeno (Private)
* William Pettyjohn (Private)
* Jeremiah Simson (Private)
{{div col end}}
Haymond was making preparations to go east of the mountains and join the regular army at the request of General Washington was when he received news of peace.
|
[
"Military service\n----------------",
"### Prior to the Revolutionary War",
"William Haymond accompanied the army of General [Edward Braddock](/wiki/Edward_Braddock \"Edward Braddock\") on its march to capture [Fort Duquesne](/wiki/Fort_Duquesne \"Fort Duquesne\") from the French, which met with a disastrous defeat on the [Monongahela River](/wiki/Monongahela_River \"Monongahela River\") on 9 July 1755\\.",
"He was a soldier in General [Forbes'](/wiki/John_Forbes_%28British_Army_officer%29 \"John Forbes (British Army officer)\") expedition in 1758 against the same position. The expedition was successful, and Fort Duquesne was renamed [Fort Pitt](/wiki/Fort_Pitt_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)\") after [William Pitt the Elder](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Elder \"William Pitt the Elder\"), which later became [Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pittsburgh%2C_Pennsylvania \"Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\").",
"In February 1759, Haymond enlisted in the Virginia Regiment, commanded by Col. [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"), which had been detailed to garrison the country captured from the French. He served along the Monongahela and [Allegheny Rivers](/wiki/Allegheny_River \"Allegheny River\") and as far north as \"Presque Isle [Fort Presque Isle](/wiki/Fort_Presque_Isle \"Fort Presque Isle\"),\" now [Erie, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Erie%2C_Pennsylvania \"Erie, Pennsylvania\"), on the [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\"). When the regiment was withdrawn from the west, it was marched up the [Shenandoah Valley](/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley \"Shenandoah Valley\") and on to the Holstein River to suppress an outbreak among the Cherokee Indians.",
"When the Cherokees were quieted the regiment returned to the valley and was discharged. Haymond's discharge is dated February 24, 1762, at Fort Lewis, near [Staunton, Virginia](/wiki/Staunton%2C_Virginia \"Staunton, Virginia\"). It states that Haymond \"duly served three years and behaved as a good soldier and faithful subject.\"",
"### Revolutionary War",
"At the commencement of the Revolution he immediately advocated the call of the colonies and was appointed a captain of Militia, frequently being in active service against the hostile Indians. His commission to Major on November 12, 1781 reads as follows:",
"{{quote\\|\nTo William Haymond, Gent., Greeting:",
"Know you that from special trust and confidence, which is reposed in your fidelity, courage, activity and good conduct, our Governor, with the advice of the Council of State, and on the recommendation of the Worshipful County Court of the County of Monongalia, doth appoint you, the said William Haymond, Major of the Militia, of the said County of Monongalia.",
"In testimony whereof, these our letters are made patent.",
"Witness, Benjamin Harrison, Esquire, Governor, at Richmond, this 12th day of November, 1781\\.",
"Registered in the War Office.",
"BENJAMIN HARRISON\"\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DII7AQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA170 The American Monthly Magazine]\" Volume 9 July–December 1896 edited by Mrs. Mary S. Lockwood and Originally published by National Society, D. A. R. in Washington D.C. in 1896, pg. 170}}",
"### Commanding officer",
"In 1777 Haymond commanded [Prickett's Fort](/wiki/Prickett%27s_Fort_State_Park \"Prickett's Fort State Park\")<http://www.prickettsfortstatepark.com/> with a detachment at Scott's Mills. He performed the duties of an officer of Militia during the whole of the Revolutionary War. The pay\\-roll of Major Haymond's Company (then Captain) of Monongahela County Militia in active service during the war of the Revolution in 1777 is as follows:\n{{div col\\|colwidth\\=22em}}\n* William Haymond (Captain)\n* M. Morgan Morgan (Lientenant)\n* James Johnston (Ensign)\n* Zarah Ozban (Sergeant)\n* Amos Ashcraft (Private)\n* Reuben Boner (Private)\n* Jarvis Brumagen (Private)\n* Robert Campbell (Private)\n* John Carter (Private)\n* Levy Carter (Private)\n* Edmond Chaney (Private)\n* Jeremiah Chaney (Private)\n* John Dohert (Private)\n* Thomas Haymond (Private)\n* Henry Hank (Private)\n* Frederick Huckleberry (Private)\n* John Ice (Private)\n* Frederick Ice (Private)\n* Valentine Kennett (Private)\n* John Lemasters (Private)\n* James Morgan, Sr. (Private)\n* David Morgan (Private)\n* Evan Morgan (Private)\n* Amos Pettyjohn (Private)\n* Peter Popeno (Private)\n* William Pettyjohn (Private)\n* Jeremiah Simson (Private)\n{{div col end}}",
"Haymond was making preparations to go east of the mountains and join the regular army at the request of General Washington was when he received news of peace.",
""
] |
History
-------
|Members of the Legislative Assembly for Vegreville
| |
| Assembly | Years |Member
Party |
|*See [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 "Vermilion (provincial electoral district)") 1905\-1909*
| [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "2nd Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1909](/wiki/1909_Alberta_general_election "1909 Alberta general election") \- 1913 |
[James Holden](/wiki/James_Bismark_Holden "James Bismark Holden") |
[Liberal](/wiki/Alberta_Liberal_Party "Alberta Liberal Party")
| [3rd](/wiki/3rd_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "3rd Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1913](/wiki/1913_Alberta_general_election "1913 Alberta general election") \- 1917 |[Joseph McCallum](/wiki/Joseph_S._McCallum "Joseph S. McCallum")
| [4th](/wiki/4th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "4th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1917](/wiki/1917_Alberta_general_election "1917 Alberta general election") \- 1921 |
| [5th](/wiki/5th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "5th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1921](/wiki/1921_Alberta_general_election "1921 Alberta general election") \- 1926 |
[Archie Matheson](/wiki/Archie_Matheson "Archie Matheson")
[United Farmers](/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Alberta "United Farmers of Alberta")
| [6th](/wiki/6th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "6th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1926](/wiki/1926_Alberta_general_election "1926 Alberta general election") \- 1930 |
| [7th](/wiki/7th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "7th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1930](/wiki/1930_Alberta_general_election "1930 Alberta general election") \- 1935 |
| [8th](/wiki/8th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "8th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1935](/wiki/1935_Alberta_general_election "1935 Alberta general election") \- 1940 |
[James McPherson](/wiki/James_McPherson_%28Alberta_politician%29 "James McPherson (Alberta politician)") |
[Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta "Social Credit Party of Alberta")
| [9th](/wiki/9th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "9th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1940](/wiki/1940_Alberta_general_election "1940 Alberta general election") \- 1944 | [George Woytkiw](/wiki/George_Woytkiw "George Woytkiw") |
| [10th](/wiki/10th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "10th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1944](/wiki/1944_Alberta_general_election "1944 Alberta general election") \- 1948 |[Michael Ponich](/wiki/Michael_Ponich "Michael Ponich")
| [11th](/wiki/11th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "11th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1948](/wiki/1948_Alberta_general_election "1948 Alberta general election") \- 1952 |
| [12th](/wiki/12th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "12th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1952](/wiki/1952_Alberta_general_election "1952 Alberta general election") \- 1955 |
| [13th](/wiki/13th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "13th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1955](/wiki/1955_Alberta_general_election "1955 Alberta general election") \- 1959 |
[Stanley Ruzycki](/wiki/Stanley_Ruzycki "Stanley Ruzycki") |
[CCF](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta "New Democratic Party of Alberta") |
| [14th](/wiki/14th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "14th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1959](/wiki/1959_Alberta_general_election "1959 Alberta general election") \- 1963 |
[Alex Gordey](/wiki/Alex_Gordey "Alex Gordey") |
[Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta "Social Credit Party of Alberta") |
|*See [Vegreville\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce "Vegreville-Bruce") 1963\-1971*
| [17th](/wiki/17th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "17th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1971](/wiki/1971_Alberta_general_election "1971 Alberta general election") \- 1975 |
[John Batiuk](/wiki/John_Batiuk "John Batiuk")
[Progressive
Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta "Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta")
| [18th](/wiki/18th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "18th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1975](/wiki/1975_Alberta_general_election "1975 Alberta general election") \- 1979 |
| [19th](/wiki/19th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "19th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1979](/wiki/1979_Alberta_general_election "1979 Alberta general election") \- 1982 |
| [20th](/wiki/20th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "20th Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1982](/wiki/1982_Alberta_general_election "1982 Alberta general election") \- 1986 |
| [21st](/wiki/21st_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "21st Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1986](/wiki/1986_Alberta_general_election "1986 Alberta general election") \- 1989 |
[Derek Fox](/wiki/Derek_Fox_%28Canadian_politician%29 "Derek Fox (Canadian politician)")
[New Democrat](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta "New Democratic Party of Alberta")
| [22nd](/wiki/22nd_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly "22nd Alberta Legislative Assembly") | [1989](/wiki/1989_Alberta_general_election "1989 Alberta general election") \- 1993 |
|*See [Vegreville\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking "Vegreville-Viking") 1993\-2004*
### Boundary history
Vegreville was created from the northwest corner of the [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 "Vermilion (provincial electoral district)") district as part of the almost\-doubling of seats in the Legislature in 1909\. Over time, its boundaries were adjusted several times, shrinking to the area immediately surrounding the town of [Vegreville](/wiki/Vegreville%2C_Alberta "Vegreville, Alberta").
In 1963, Vegreville was merged with some of the [Bruce](/wiki/Bruce_%28Alberta_provincial_electoral_district%29 "Bruce (Alberta provincial electoral district)") district to form [Vegreville\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce "Vegreville-Bruce"), but in the redistribution that followed, the district was renamed Vegreville with little change in boundaries. The riding was finally abolished in 1993, mostly absorbed by [Vegreville\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking "Vegreville-Viking"), with a small area transferred to [Vermilion\-Lloydminster](/wiki/Vermilion-Lloydminster "Vermilion-Lloydminster").
### Representation history
Vegreville (and Vegreville\-Bruce) was mostly a [bellwether](/wiki/Bellwether "Bellwether") riding, having been held by an opposition party only once until 1982\. Its first MLA was [James Bismark Holden](/wiki/James_Bismark_Holden "James Bismark Holden"), who had already served as MLA for [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 "Vermilion (provincial electoral district)") for the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Alberta "Liberal Party of Alberta"). He served one term in Vegreville and retired in 1913\.
His successor was [Joseph McCallum](/wiki/Joseph_S._McCallum "Joseph S. McCallum"), who won Vegreville for the Liberals by a much smaller margin in 1913 and 1917 but nonetheless held the district for the government. However, in 1921, he was soundly defeated by [United Farmers of Alberta](/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Alberta "United Farmers of Alberta") candidate [Archie Matheson](/wiki/Archie_Matheson "Archie Matheson") in their party's rise to power. Matheson was a vocal backbencher in the UFA government, opposing his own government's stances on prohibition and eugenics, and aggressively advocating for local interests during his three terms.
However, Matheson was in turn soundly defeated by [Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta "Social Credit Party of Alberta") candidate [James McPherson](/wiki/James_McPherson_%28Alberta_politician%29 "James McPherson (Alberta politician)") when the UFA was swept out of power in 1935, placing third in the first round of voting. McPherson served only one term.
In 1940, Social Credit held the seat with candidate [George Woytkiw](/wiki/George_Woytkiw "George Woytkiw") winning on the second round. Matheson ran in this election as well in an attempt to re\-take the seat, this time as a [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party "Alberta New Democratic Party") candidate, but placed third again.
Woytkiw also served only one term, but Social Credit candidate [Michael Ponich](/wiki/Michael_Ponich "Michael Ponich") held the seat again in 1944, despite a strong challenge by the [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party "Alberta New Democratic Party"). Ponich won again in a landslide in 1948, but faced another close race in 1952\.
In 1955 [Stanley Ruzycki](/wiki/Stanley_Ruzycki "Stanley Ruzycki") defeated Ponich in the second round of voting to take the seat for the [Co\-Operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party "Alberta New Democratic Party"). In response, the Social Credit government abolished [instant\-runoff voting](/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting "Instant-runoff voting") in rural ridings and introduced [first past the post](/wiki/First_past_the_post "First past the post") voting across the province. Ruzycki was subsequently defeated by Social Credit candidate [Alex Gordey](/wiki/Alex_Gordey "Alex Gordey") in 1959\.
After Gordey's first term, Vegreville was merged with [Bruce](/wiki/Bruce_%28Alberta_provincial_electoral_district%29 "Bruce (Alberta provincial electoral district)"), and he chose to run again in the new riding of [Vegreville\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce "Vegreville-Bruce"). He served two terms there, and Vegreville was reinstated in 1971\.
Running again in Vegreville, Gordey would be defeated along with [Harry Strom](/wiki/Harry_Strom "Harry Strom")'s government by the [Progressive Conservatives](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta "Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta"). [John Batiuk](/wiki/John_Batiuk "John Batiuk") won the seat by a significant margin, and went on to serve four terms, becoming the longest\-serving MLA in the district's history.
When Batiuk chose not to run again in 1986, the open seat was picked up by [New Democrat](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta "New Democratic Party of Alberta") [Derek Fox](/wiki/Derek_Fox_%28Canadian_politician%29 "Derek Fox (Canadian politician)"). He served two terms until the riding was abolished in 1993, and was defeated by future premier [Ed Stelmach](/wiki/Ed_Stelmach "Ed Stelmach") in the new riding of [Vegreville\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking "Vegreville-Viking"). As of 2016, Fox is the last Alberta New Democrat to have held a rural seat for two successive terms.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"",
"|Members of the Legislative Assembly for Vegreville",
"| |\n| Assembly | Years |Member",
"Party |\n|*See [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Vermilion (provincial electoral district)\") 1905\\-1909*",
"| [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"2nd Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1909](/wiki/1909_Alberta_general_election \"1909 Alberta general election\") \\- 1913 |",
"[James Holden](/wiki/James_Bismark_Holden \"James Bismark Holden\") |\n[Liberal](/wiki/Alberta_Liberal_Party \"Alberta Liberal Party\")",
"| [3rd](/wiki/3rd_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"3rd Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1913](/wiki/1913_Alberta_general_election \"1913 Alberta general election\") \\- 1917 |[Joseph McCallum](/wiki/Joseph_S._McCallum \"Joseph S. McCallum\")",
"| [4th](/wiki/4th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"4th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1917](/wiki/1917_Alberta_general_election \"1917 Alberta general election\") \\- 1921 |\n| [5th](/wiki/5th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"5th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1921](/wiki/1921_Alberta_general_election \"1921 Alberta general election\") \\- 1926 |",
"[Archie Matheson](/wiki/Archie_Matheson \"Archie Matheson\")",
"[United Farmers](/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Alberta \"United Farmers of Alberta\")",
"| [6th](/wiki/6th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"6th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1926](/wiki/1926_Alberta_general_election \"1926 Alberta general election\") \\- 1930 |\n| [7th](/wiki/7th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"7th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1930](/wiki/1930_Alberta_general_election \"1930 Alberta general election\") \\- 1935 |\n| [8th](/wiki/8th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"8th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1935](/wiki/1935_Alberta_general_election \"1935 Alberta general election\") \\- 1940 |",
"[James McPherson](/wiki/James_McPherson_%28Alberta_politician%29 \"James McPherson (Alberta politician)\") |\n[Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta \"Social Credit Party of Alberta\")",
"| [9th](/wiki/9th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"9th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1940](/wiki/1940_Alberta_general_election \"1940 Alberta general election\") \\- 1944 | [George Woytkiw](/wiki/George_Woytkiw \"George Woytkiw\") |\n| [10th](/wiki/10th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"10th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1944](/wiki/1944_Alberta_general_election \"1944 Alberta general election\") \\- 1948 |[Michael Ponich](/wiki/Michael_Ponich \"Michael Ponich\")",
"| [11th](/wiki/11th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"11th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1948](/wiki/1948_Alberta_general_election \"1948 Alberta general election\") \\- 1952 |\n| [12th](/wiki/12th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"12th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1952](/wiki/1952_Alberta_general_election \"1952 Alberta general election\") \\- 1955 |\n| [13th](/wiki/13th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"13th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1955](/wiki/1955_Alberta_general_election \"1955 Alberta general election\") \\- 1959 |",
"[Stanley Ruzycki](/wiki/Stanley_Ruzycki \"Stanley Ruzycki\") |\n [CCF](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta \"New Democratic Party of Alberta\") |\n| [14th](/wiki/14th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"14th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1959](/wiki/1959_Alberta_general_election \"1959 Alberta general election\") \\- 1963 |",
"[Alex Gordey](/wiki/Alex_Gordey \"Alex Gordey\") |\n [Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta \"Social Credit Party of Alberta\") |\n|*See [Vegreville\\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce \"Vegreville-Bruce\") 1963\\-1971*",
"| [17th](/wiki/17th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"17th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1971](/wiki/1971_Alberta_general_election \"1971 Alberta general election\") \\- 1975 |",
"[John Batiuk](/wiki/John_Batiuk \"John Batiuk\")",
"[Progressive \nConservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta \"Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta\")",
"| [18th](/wiki/18th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"18th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1975](/wiki/1975_Alberta_general_election \"1975 Alberta general election\") \\- 1979 |\n| [19th](/wiki/19th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"19th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1979](/wiki/1979_Alberta_general_election \"1979 Alberta general election\") \\- 1982 |\n| [20th](/wiki/20th_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"20th Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1982](/wiki/1982_Alberta_general_election \"1982 Alberta general election\") \\- 1986 |\n| [21st](/wiki/21st_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"21st Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1986](/wiki/1986_Alberta_general_election \"1986 Alberta general election\") \\- 1989 |",
"[Derek Fox](/wiki/Derek_Fox_%28Canadian_politician%29 \"Derek Fox (Canadian politician)\")",
"[New Democrat](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta \"New Democratic Party of Alberta\")",
"| [22nd](/wiki/22nd_Alberta_Legislative_Assembly \"22nd Alberta Legislative Assembly\") | [1989](/wiki/1989_Alberta_general_election \"1989 Alberta general election\") \\- 1993 |\n|*See [Vegreville\\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking \"Vegreville-Viking\") 1993\\-2004*",
"",
"### Boundary history",
"Vegreville was created from the northwest corner of the [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Vermilion (provincial electoral district)\") district as part of the almost\\-doubling of seats in the Legislature in 1909\\. Over time, its boundaries were adjusted several times, shrinking to the area immediately surrounding the town of [Vegreville](/wiki/Vegreville%2C_Alberta \"Vegreville, Alberta\").",
"In 1963, Vegreville was merged with some of the [Bruce](/wiki/Bruce_%28Alberta_provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Bruce (Alberta provincial electoral district)\") district to form [Vegreville\\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce \"Vegreville-Bruce\"), but in the redistribution that followed, the district was renamed Vegreville with little change in boundaries. The riding was finally abolished in 1993, mostly absorbed by [Vegreville\\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking \"Vegreville-Viking\"), with a small area transferred to [Vermilion\\-Lloydminster](/wiki/Vermilion-Lloydminster \"Vermilion-Lloydminster\").",
"### Representation history",
"Vegreville (and Vegreville\\-Bruce) was mostly a [bellwether](/wiki/Bellwether \"Bellwether\") riding, having been held by an opposition party only once until 1982\\. Its first MLA was [James Bismark Holden](/wiki/James_Bismark_Holden \"James Bismark Holden\"), who had already served as MLA for [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Vermilion (provincial electoral district)\") for the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Alberta \"Liberal Party of Alberta\"). He served one term in Vegreville and retired in 1913\\.",
"His successor was [Joseph McCallum](/wiki/Joseph_S._McCallum \"Joseph S. McCallum\"), who won Vegreville for the Liberals by a much smaller margin in 1913 and 1917 but nonetheless held the district for the government. However, in 1921, he was soundly defeated by [United Farmers of Alberta](/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Alberta \"United Farmers of Alberta\") candidate [Archie Matheson](/wiki/Archie_Matheson \"Archie Matheson\") in their party's rise to power. Matheson was a vocal backbencher in the UFA government, opposing his own government's stances on prohibition and eugenics, and aggressively advocating for local interests during his three terms.",
"However, Matheson was in turn soundly defeated by [Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta \"Social Credit Party of Alberta\") candidate [James McPherson](/wiki/James_McPherson_%28Alberta_politician%29 \"James McPherson (Alberta politician)\") when the UFA was swept out of power in 1935, placing third in the first round of voting. McPherson served only one term.",
"In 1940, Social Credit held the seat with candidate [George Woytkiw](/wiki/George_Woytkiw \"George Woytkiw\") winning on the second round. Matheson ran in this election as well in an attempt to re\\-take the seat, this time as a [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party \"Alberta New Democratic Party\") candidate, but placed third again.",
"Woytkiw also served only one term, but Social Credit candidate [Michael Ponich](/wiki/Michael_Ponich \"Michael Ponich\") held the seat again in 1944, despite a strong challenge by the [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party \"Alberta New Democratic Party\"). Ponich won again in a landslide in 1948, but faced another close race in 1952\\.",
"In 1955 [Stanley Ruzycki](/wiki/Stanley_Ruzycki \"Stanley Ruzycki\") defeated Ponich in the second round of voting to take the seat for the [Co\\-Operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party \"Alberta New Democratic Party\"). In response, the Social Credit government abolished [instant\\-runoff voting](/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting \"Instant-runoff voting\") in rural ridings and introduced [first past the post](/wiki/First_past_the_post \"First past the post\") voting across the province. Ruzycki was subsequently defeated by Social Credit candidate [Alex Gordey](/wiki/Alex_Gordey \"Alex Gordey\") in 1959\\.",
"After Gordey's first term, Vegreville was merged with [Bruce](/wiki/Bruce_%28Alberta_provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Bruce (Alberta provincial electoral district)\"), and he chose to run again in the new riding of [Vegreville\\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce \"Vegreville-Bruce\"). He served two terms there, and Vegreville was reinstated in 1971\\.",
"Running again in Vegreville, Gordey would be defeated along with [Harry Strom](/wiki/Harry_Strom \"Harry Strom\")'s government by the [Progressive Conservatives](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta \"Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta\"). [John Batiuk](/wiki/John_Batiuk \"John Batiuk\") won the seat by a significant margin, and went on to serve four terms, becoming the longest\\-serving MLA in the district's history.",
"When Batiuk chose not to run again in 1986, the open seat was picked up by [New Democrat](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta \"New Democratic Party of Alberta\") [Derek Fox](/wiki/Derek_Fox_%28Canadian_politician%29 \"Derek Fox (Canadian politician)\"). He served two terms until the riding was abolished in 1993, and was defeated by future premier [Ed Stelmach](/wiki/Ed_Stelmach \"Ed Stelmach\") in the new riding of [Vegreville\\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking \"Vegreville-Viking\"). As of 2016, Fox is the last Alberta New Democrat to have held a rural seat for two successive terms.",
""
] |
### Representation history
Vegreville (and Vegreville\-Bruce) was mostly a [bellwether](/wiki/Bellwether "Bellwether") riding, having been held by an opposition party only once until 1982\. Its first MLA was [James Bismark Holden](/wiki/James_Bismark_Holden "James Bismark Holden"), who had already served as MLA for [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 "Vermilion (provincial electoral district)") for the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Alberta "Liberal Party of Alberta"). He served one term in Vegreville and retired in 1913\.
His successor was [Joseph McCallum](/wiki/Joseph_S._McCallum "Joseph S. McCallum"), who won Vegreville for the Liberals by a much smaller margin in 1913 and 1917 but nonetheless held the district for the government. However, in 1921, he was soundly defeated by [United Farmers of Alberta](/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Alberta "United Farmers of Alberta") candidate [Archie Matheson](/wiki/Archie_Matheson "Archie Matheson") in their party's rise to power. Matheson was a vocal backbencher in the UFA government, opposing his own government's stances on prohibition and eugenics, and aggressively advocating for local interests during his three terms.
However, Matheson was in turn soundly defeated by [Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta "Social Credit Party of Alberta") candidate [James McPherson](/wiki/James_McPherson_%28Alberta_politician%29 "James McPherson (Alberta politician)") when the UFA was swept out of power in 1935, placing third in the first round of voting. McPherson served only one term.
In 1940, Social Credit held the seat with candidate [George Woytkiw](/wiki/George_Woytkiw "George Woytkiw") winning on the second round. Matheson ran in this election as well in an attempt to re\-take the seat, this time as a [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party "Alberta New Democratic Party") candidate, but placed third again.
Woytkiw also served only one term, but Social Credit candidate [Michael Ponich](/wiki/Michael_Ponich "Michael Ponich") held the seat again in 1944, despite a strong challenge by the [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party "Alberta New Democratic Party"). Ponich won again in a landslide in 1948, but faced another close race in 1952\.
In 1955 [Stanley Ruzycki](/wiki/Stanley_Ruzycki "Stanley Ruzycki") defeated Ponich in the second round of voting to take the seat for the [Co\-Operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party "Alberta New Democratic Party"). In response, the Social Credit government abolished [instant\-runoff voting](/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting "Instant-runoff voting") in rural ridings and introduced [first past the post](/wiki/First_past_the_post "First past the post") voting across the province. Ruzycki was subsequently defeated by Social Credit candidate [Alex Gordey](/wiki/Alex_Gordey "Alex Gordey") in 1959\.
After Gordey's first term, Vegreville was merged with [Bruce](/wiki/Bruce_%28Alberta_provincial_electoral_district%29 "Bruce (Alberta provincial electoral district)"), and he chose to run again in the new riding of [Vegreville\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce "Vegreville-Bruce"). He served two terms there, and Vegreville was reinstated in 1971\.
Running again in Vegreville, Gordey would be defeated along with [Harry Strom](/wiki/Harry_Strom "Harry Strom")'s government by the [Progressive Conservatives](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta "Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta"). [John Batiuk](/wiki/John_Batiuk "John Batiuk") won the seat by a significant margin, and went on to serve four terms, becoming the longest\-serving MLA in the district's history.
When Batiuk chose not to run again in 1986, the open seat was picked up by [New Democrat](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta "New Democratic Party of Alberta") [Derek Fox](/wiki/Derek_Fox_%28Canadian_politician%29 "Derek Fox (Canadian politician)"). He served two terms until the riding was abolished in 1993, and was defeated by future premier [Ed Stelmach](/wiki/Ed_Stelmach "Ed Stelmach") in the new riding of [Vegreville\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking "Vegreville-Viking"). As of 2016, Fox is the last Alberta New Democrat to have held a rural seat for two successive terms.
|
[
"### Representation history",
"Vegreville (and Vegreville\\-Bruce) was mostly a [bellwether](/wiki/Bellwether \"Bellwether\") riding, having been held by an opposition party only once until 1982\\. Its first MLA was [James Bismark Holden](/wiki/James_Bismark_Holden \"James Bismark Holden\"), who had already served as MLA for [Vermilion](/wiki/Vermilion_%28provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Vermilion (provincial electoral district)\") for the [Liberals](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Alberta \"Liberal Party of Alberta\"). He served one term in Vegreville and retired in 1913\\.",
"His successor was [Joseph McCallum](/wiki/Joseph_S._McCallum \"Joseph S. McCallum\"), who won Vegreville for the Liberals by a much smaller margin in 1913 and 1917 but nonetheless held the district for the government. However, in 1921, he was soundly defeated by [United Farmers of Alberta](/wiki/United_Farmers_of_Alberta \"United Farmers of Alberta\") candidate [Archie Matheson](/wiki/Archie_Matheson \"Archie Matheson\") in their party's rise to power. Matheson was a vocal backbencher in the UFA government, opposing his own government's stances on prohibition and eugenics, and aggressively advocating for local interests during his three terms.",
"However, Matheson was in turn soundly defeated by [Social Credit](/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Alberta \"Social Credit Party of Alberta\") candidate [James McPherson](/wiki/James_McPherson_%28Alberta_politician%29 \"James McPherson (Alberta politician)\") when the UFA was swept out of power in 1935, placing third in the first round of voting. McPherson served only one term.",
"In 1940, Social Credit held the seat with candidate [George Woytkiw](/wiki/George_Woytkiw \"George Woytkiw\") winning on the second round. Matheson ran in this election as well in an attempt to re\\-take the seat, this time as a [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party \"Alberta New Democratic Party\") candidate, but placed third again.",
"Woytkiw also served only one term, but Social Credit candidate [Michael Ponich](/wiki/Michael_Ponich \"Michael Ponich\") held the seat again in 1944, despite a strong challenge by the [CCF](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party \"Alberta New Democratic Party\"). Ponich won again in a landslide in 1948, but faced another close race in 1952\\.",
"In 1955 [Stanley Ruzycki](/wiki/Stanley_Ruzycki \"Stanley Ruzycki\") defeated Ponich in the second round of voting to take the seat for the [Co\\-Operative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Alberta_New_Democratic_Party \"Alberta New Democratic Party\"). In response, the Social Credit government abolished [instant\\-runoff voting](/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting \"Instant-runoff voting\") in rural ridings and introduced [first past the post](/wiki/First_past_the_post \"First past the post\") voting across the province. Ruzycki was subsequently defeated by Social Credit candidate [Alex Gordey](/wiki/Alex_Gordey \"Alex Gordey\") in 1959\\.",
"After Gordey's first term, Vegreville was merged with [Bruce](/wiki/Bruce_%28Alberta_provincial_electoral_district%29 \"Bruce (Alberta provincial electoral district)\"), and he chose to run again in the new riding of [Vegreville\\-Bruce](/wiki/Vegreville-Bruce \"Vegreville-Bruce\"). He served two terms there, and Vegreville was reinstated in 1971\\.",
"Running again in Vegreville, Gordey would be defeated along with [Harry Strom](/wiki/Harry_Strom \"Harry Strom\")'s government by the [Progressive Conservatives](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Association_of_Alberta \"Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta\"). [John Batiuk](/wiki/John_Batiuk \"John Batiuk\") won the seat by a significant margin, and went on to serve four terms, becoming the longest\\-serving MLA in the district's history.",
"When Batiuk chose not to run again in 1986, the open seat was picked up by [New Democrat](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Alberta \"New Democratic Party of Alberta\") [Derek Fox](/wiki/Derek_Fox_%28Canadian_politician%29 \"Derek Fox (Canadian politician)\"). He served two terms until the riding was abolished in 1993, and was defeated by future premier [Ed Stelmach](/wiki/Ed_Stelmach \"Ed Stelmach\") in the new riding of [Vegreville\\-Viking](/wiki/Vegreville-Viking \"Vegreville-Viking\"). As of 2016, Fox is the last Alberta New Democrat to have held a rural seat for two successive terms.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Born and reared in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"), [California](/wiki/California "California"); he graduated from [San Lorenzo High School](/wiki/San_Lorenzo_High_School "San Lorenzo High School") and attended the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") [Westmont College](/wiki/Westmont_College "Westmont College") in [Santa Barbara](/wiki/Santa_Barbara%2C_California "Santa Barbara, California"), California, where he met fellow Westmont students Bob Duncan, Greg Dixon, and Johnny Johnson. The foursome sang all over campus as a quartet, which in 1965 drew the attention of bandleader [Lawrence Welk](/wiki/Lawrence_Welk "Lawrence Welk"). They were at the [Hollywood Palladium](/wiki/Hollywood_Palladium "Hollywood Palladium") watching Welk's music makers perform when they got the chance to audition for Welk.
The Blenders, with Smith singing lead tenor, joined the show later that year and were a popular fixture of the Musical Family until they broke up in 1967\.
Smith stayed on as a featured vocalist and, in addition to solo numbers, sang both as a part of a barber shop quartet and as lead vocals in the Curt Ramsey Quintet. Smith also did multiple duets with the [Lennon Sisters](/wiki/Lennon_Sisters "Lennon Sisters") primarily with Kathy Lennon on the show. On October 8, 1966, in a Welk musical tour of [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), Smith sang "[Three Coins in the Fountain](/wiki/Three_Coins_in_the_Fountain_%28song%29 "Three Coins in the Fountain (song)")".
He left the show in 1969 to pursue a solo career of his own, which included stints on *[The Carol Burnett Show](/wiki/The_Carol_Burnett_Show "The Carol Burnett Show")* and as part of 1950s\-style group [The Diamonds](/wiki/The_Diamonds "The Diamonds").
In 1979, Smith was one of the six backup singers on [Ethel Merman](/wiki/Ethel_Merman "Ethel Merman")'s cult classic *[The Ethel Merman Disco Album](/wiki/The_Ethel_Merman_Disco_Album "The Ethel Merman Disco Album")*.
Today, Smith and his wife Hope live in the [Lake Tahoe](/wiki/Lake_Tahoe "Lake Tahoe") valley of California and [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"), where they operate a ski resort while he still pursues singing.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Born and reared in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\"); he graduated from [San Lorenzo High School](/wiki/San_Lorenzo_High_School \"San Lorenzo High School\") and attended the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") [Westmont College](/wiki/Westmont_College \"Westmont College\") in [Santa Barbara](/wiki/Santa_Barbara%2C_California \"Santa Barbara, California\"), California, where he met fellow Westmont students Bob Duncan, Greg Dixon, and Johnny Johnson. The foursome sang all over campus as a quartet, which in 1965 drew the attention of bandleader [Lawrence Welk](/wiki/Lawrence_Welk \"Lawrence Welk\"). They were at the [Hollywood Palladium](/wiki/Hollywood_Palladium \"Hollywood Palladium\") watching Welk's music makers perform when they got the chance to audition for Welk.",
"The Blenders, with Smith singing lead tenor, joined the show later that year and were a popular fixture of the Musical Family until they broke up in 1967\\.",
"Smith stayed on as a featured vocalist and, in addition to solo numbers, sang both as a part of a barber shop quartet and as lead vocals in the Curt Ramsey Quintet. Smith also did multiple duets with the [Lennon Sisters](/wiki/Lennon_Sisters \"Lennon Sisters\") primarily with Kathy Lennon on the show. On October 8, 1966, in a Welk musical tour of [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), Smith sang \"[Three Coins in the Fountain](/wiki/Three_Coins_in_the_Fountain_%28song%29 \"Three Coins in the Fountain (song)\")\".",
"He left the show in 1969 to pursue a solo career of his own, which included stints on *[The Carol Burnett Show](/wiki/The_Carol_Burnett_Show \"The Carol Burnett Show\")* and as part of 1950s\\-style group [The Diamonds](/wiki/The_Diamonds \"The Diamonds\").",
"In 1979, Smith was one of the six backup singers on [Ethel Merman](/wiki/Ethel_Merman \"Ethel Merman\")'s cult classic *[The Ethel Merman Disco Album](/wiki/The_Ethel_Merman_Disco_Album \"The Ethel Merman Disco Album\")*.",
"Today, Smith and his wife Hope live in the [Lake Tahoe](/wiki/Lake_Tahoe \"Lake Tahoe\") valley of California and [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"), where they operate a ski resort while he still pursues singing.",
""
] |
Developments
------------
### Residential
[thumb\|Residential towers in the township featuring One Madison Place, Lafayette Park Square, and The Palladium (from left to right, respectively)](/wiki/File:Iloilo_Business_Park_north_condos_top_view_%28Mandurriao%2C_Iloilo_City%3B_01-26-2023%29.jpg "Iloilo Business Park north condos top view (Mandurriao, Iloilo City; 01-26-2023).jpg")
One Madison Place Luxury Residences is Megaworld's first residential development within Iloilo Business Park. It consists of three 10\-storey mid\-rise towers along Megaworld Boulevard.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abs\-cbnnews.com/business/08/23/13/megaworld\-launches\-3rd\-tower\-luxury\-condo\-iloilo\|title\=Megaworld launches 3rd tower for luxury condo in Iloilo\|newspaper\=ABS\-CBN News\|date\=23 August 2013\|access\-date\=18 September 2015}}
Lafayette Park Square is Megaworld's second condominium project within the business park. The 14\-storey single tower features French and Spanish architectural designs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abs\-cbnnews.com/business/01/20/14/megaworld\-build\-euro\-inspired\-condo\-iloilo\|title\=Megaworld to build Euro\-inspired condo in Iloilo\|newspaper\=ABS\-CBN News\|date\=20 January 2014\|access\-date\=18 September 2015}}
The Palladium, introduced in October 2014, is the tallest modern luxury residential condominium within Iloilo Business Park. Standing 80 meters high at 22 stories, The Palladium is also the region's first residential tower with its own sky gardens in various floors overlooking Iloilo City. At the topmost floor of the tower, there are exclusive loft units ranging from 76 square meters to 115 square meters.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.interaksyon.com/business/96441/megaworld\-adds\-a\-fifth\-tower\-in\-iloilo\-business\-park\-on\-brisk\-demand\|title\=Megaworld adds a fifth tower in Iloilo business park on brisk demand\|author\=Montealegre, K. A. M.\|newspaper\=InterAksyon\|date\=30 September 2014\|access\-date\=18 September 2015\|archive\-date\=5 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305073518/http://www.interaksyon.com/business/96441/megaworld\-adds\-a\-fifth\-tower\-in\-iloilo\-business\-park\-on\-brisk\-demand\|url\-status\=dead}}
The fourth and fifth residential projects in the township launched in 2017, Saint Honore and Saint Dominique, are inspired by Parisian lifestyle. It has ten levels with 168 and 152 units respectively. Both towers share a common podium and amenity areas. Both condominiums have second towers each.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.philstar.com/real\-estate/2017/02/08/1669640/live\-parisian\-dream\-saint\-honore?nomobile\=1\|title \= Live the Parisian dream at Saint Honore\| website\=\[\[The Philippine STAR]] }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section\=Corporate\&title\=megaworld\-adds\-7supthsup\-tower\-in\-iloilo\-business\-park\&id\=148737\|title\=BusinessWorld \| Megaworld adds 7th tower in Iloilo Business Park\|website\=\[\[BusinessWorld]]\|access\-date\=2017\-08\-23\|archive\-date\=2017\-08\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824005640/http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section\=Corporate\&title\=megaworld\-adds\-7supthsup\-tower\-in\-iloilo\-business\-park\&id\=148737\|url\-status\=dead}}
The sixth condominium in the township, The Pinnacle, is a 20\-storey luxury residential project of Megaworld. It will be built adjacent to the International Corporate Plaza.{{Cite web \|title\=The Pinnacle {{!}} Condo in Iloilo City {{!}} Megaworld Corporation \|url\=https://www.megaworldcorp.com/residences/pinnacle \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-23 \|website\=www.megaworldcorp.com}}
Megaworld's seventh condominium and ninth residential tower in the township, the 22\-storey Firenze, is an Italian City of [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence")\-inspired condo that will rise beside The Palladium at the northern portion of Megaworld Boulevard.{{Cite web \|title\=Press Release \|url\=https://edge.pse.com.ph/openDiscViewer.do?edge\_no\=48602d8acd5c3ff49e4dc6f6c9b65995\&fbclid\=IwAR0Q2o\_gEHy4Dqj2cq4w4qTPKaDo0bHAIULdAiz7uzWY1EWx10z6Tt163mE \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-04 \|website\=edge.pse.com.ph}}
### Office buildings
[thumb\|240px\|*Torre del Reloj* (The Clock Tower) of Festive Walk Parade at Iloilo Business Park](/wiki/File:Festive_Walk_Parade_%28Phase_2%29.jpg "Festive Walk Parade (Phase 2).jpg")
Three Megaworld office towers were initially developed to cater mainly to [business process outsourcing](/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing "Business process outsourcing") companies. They combine a total of 25,000 square meters of leasable space and could accommodate a total of 10,000 employees. These are One Global Center, Two Global Center and the Richmonde Tower which also houses the Richmonde Hotel Iloilo. Construction of two more office buildings, namely One Techno Place and Two Techno Place, commenced last 2015 and are set to occupy a total of 19,000 square meters of leasable space housing an additional 8,000 employees.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section\=Corporate\&title\=Megaworld\-fast\-tracks\-Iloilo\-BPO\-buildings\&id\=90100\|title\=Megaworld fast\-tracks Iloilo BPO buildings\|author\=Magturo, D. J.\|newspaper\=BusinessWorld\|date\=30 June 2014\|access\-date\=18 September 2015}}{{Dead link\|date\=September 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.philstar.com:8080/business/2014/04/05/1308891/megaworld\-allots\-p5\-b\-iloilo\-office\-towers\|title\=Megaworld allots P5 B for Iloilo office towers\|author\=Morales, N. J. C.\|newspaper\=The Philippine Star\|date\=5 April 2014\|access\-date\=18 September 2015}}
Other IT\-BPO office towers in the township include the Festive Walk Parade Tower, One Fintech Place, and Two Fintech Place.
In addition to the office edifices housing mostly to IT\-BPO companies, there are also planned corporate office towers in the pipeline that will be built in the township. Notable of which is the International Corporate Plaza, a 19\-storey tower with leasable spaces for corporate tenants. It will be the first green designed office tower in the Western Visayas region. Banks such as [Metrobank](/wiki/Metrobank_%28Philippines%29 "Metrobank (Philippines)") and [UnionBank of the Philippines](/wiki/UnionBank_of_the_Philippines "UnionBank of the Philippines") has in their plans to build their regional corporate office towers in Iloilo Business Park.
### Hotels
[thumb\|Courtyard by Marriott IloiloRichmonde](/wiki/File:Courtyard_by_Marriott_Iloilo.jpg "Courtyard by Marriott Iloilo.jpg") Hotel Iloilo occupies the ground floor and 7th to 12th floors of the Iloilo Richmonde Tower. It hosts 90 guest rooms and cater to businessmen and tourists. It is the first Richmonde Hotel outside Manila.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.philstar.com/business\-life/2015/05/25/1457832/p\-noy\-unveil\-iloilo\-business\-park\-june\-11\-negros\-adapts\-change\|title\=P\-Noy to unveil Iloilo Business Park on June 11, Negros adapts to change\|author\=Flores, W. L.\|date\=25 May 2015\|access\-date\=18 September 2015\|newspaper\=The Philippine Star}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/219809/money/companies/megaworld\-starts\-construction\-of\-iloilo\-business\-park\-project\|title\=Megaworld starts construction of Iloilo Business Park project\|newspaper\=GMA News\|date\=6 May 2011\|access\-date\=18 September 2015}}
Courtyard by Marriott Iloilo is built under [Marriott International](/wiki/Marriott_International "Marriott International") through Megaworld Corporation. The 15\-storey hotel houses 314 rooms and suites.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abs\-cbnnews.com/business/08/15/13/megaworld\-build\-courtyard\-marriott\-hotel\-iloilo\|title\=Megaworld to build Courtyard by Marriott hotel in Iloilo\|date\=15 August 2013\|access\-date\=18 September 2015\|newspaper\=ABS\-CBN News}} The hotel opened on May 1, 2018 as the first Courtyard by Marriott development in the Philippines and also the first Marriott\-branded hotel in Visayas and Mindanao twenty years after the opening of Marriott Cebu (rebranded as Seda Cebu).
Belmont Hotel Iloilo is the latest hotel near the St. Honore and St. Dominique condominium towers. A 12\-storey hotel, it will be the first Belmont Hotel brand in Western Visayas and Mindanao.
### Commercial
The [Festive Walk Iloilo](/wiki/Festive_Walk_Mall "Festive Walk Mall") is the first stand alone lifestyle mall by Megaworld in Visayas and Mindanao and the first upscale mall in Iloilo. It has two buildings (Main with 3 levels \+ Annex with 3 levels) housing shops, restaurants, facilities including cinemas and "event centers".{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-02\-05 \|title\=Manila Standard \- 2018 February 06 \- Tuesday by Manila Standard \- Issuu \|url\=https://issuu.com/thestandardph/docs/mspdf20180206 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-23 \|website\=issuu.com \|language\=en}} The Marketplace by Rustan's occupies as the main supermarket chain in the mall. Festive Market by [Savemore](/wiki/Savemore_Market "Savemore Market") serves as the anchor supermarket for the mall.{{cite web\|author\=Bermejo, K. V.\|title\=Megaworld's biggest investment outside of Manila to restore Iloilo City's glory\|url\=http://iloilonewstoday.com/index.php/iloilo/10341\-mega\-city\|access\-date\=21 January 2013\|newspaper\=Iloilo News Daily\|date\=14 January 2013}}{{cite web\|author\=Taclino, N.\|title\=Megaworld to open VIP Cinema at Festive Walk Mall Iloilo\|url\=http://www.nonoynet.com/2016/12/megaworld\-to\-open\-vip\-cinema\-at\-festive.html?m\=1\|access\-date\=26 December 2016\|website\=NonoyNet\|date\=20 December 2016}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.megaworldcorp.com/megaworld\-to\-open\-p2\-2\-b\-mall\-in\-iloilo\-business\-park\-this\-year/\|title \= Megaworld Corporation \| Megaworld to open P2\.2\-B mall in Iloilo business park this year}}
Festive Walk Parade, a 1\.1\-kilometer outdoor commercial and retail strip, is the longest shopping and dining strip in the Philippines. The first phase had a soft opening on December 20, 2016 with a grand opening happening in January 2017\. Succeeding phases was completed in 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.philstar.com/real\-estate/2015/09/10/1497378/iloilo\-next\-best\-haven\-property\-investment\-visayas\|title\=Iloilo: Next best haven for property investment in Visayas\|author\=Soriano, E.\|newspaper\=The Philippine Star\|date\=10 September 2015\|access\-date\=18 September 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mb.com.ph/megaworld\-ramps\-up\-building\-construction\-at\-iloilo\-business\-park/\|title\=Megaworld ramps up building construction at Iloilo business park\|author\=Loyola, J.\|newspaper\=Manila Bulletin\|date\=30 June 2014\|access\-date\=18 September 2015}}
Landers Superstore is set to open a branch in Iloilo Business Park, introducing its [wholesale club](/wiki/Wholesale_club "Wholesale club") concept to the township.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2023\-12\-04 \|title\=Landers Superstore to expand in Visayas with new store in Iloilo Business Park \|url\=https://www.panaynews.net/landers\-superstore\-to\-expand\-in\-visayas\-with\-new\-store\-in\-iloilo\-business\-park/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-23 \|website\=Panay News \|language\=en\-GB}}
### Museums and art galleries
[thumb\|right\|246px\|Casa de Emperador houses the [Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Iloilo_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art "Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art") (ILOMOCA), the first museum dedicated to contemporary and modern art in [Visayas](/wiki/Visayas "Visayas") and [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao "Mindanao")](/wiki/File:Casa_De_Emperador_%28Megaworld_Boulevard%2C_Mandurriao%2C_Iloilo_City%3B_10-22-2022%29.jpg "Casa De Emperador (Megaworld Boulevard, Mandurriao, Iloilo City; 10-22-2022).jpg")[Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Iloilo_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art "Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art") (ILOMOCA) is the first contemporary and modern art museum in Visayas and Mindanao (first [Megaworld](/wiki/Megaworld_Corporation "Megaworld Corporation")\-built museum in the Philippines), it houses artworks of local and international artists like [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD "Salvador Dalí").
The Brandy Museum, the first and only brandy museum in the Philippines, offers a virtual tour showcasing the history of [brandy](/wiki/Brandy "Brandy") and wine manufacturing.{{Cite web \|last\=Rivas \|first\=Ralf \|date\=2022\-01\-10 \|title\=LOOK: Emperador’s brandy museum opens in Iloilo City \|url\=https://www.rappler.com/business/photos\-emperador\-brandy\-museum\-opens\-iloilo\-city/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-23 \|website\=RAPPLER \|language\=en\-US}}
### Convention center
The [Iloilo Convention Center](/wiki/Iloilo_Convention_Center "Iloilo Convention Center") stands on a 1\.7\-hectare lot donated by Megaworld Corp, the same site formerly occupied by the apron and terminal of Mandurriao Airport.{{cite news \|date\=23 November 2012 \|title\=P450\-M Iloilo Convention Center launched today \|url\=http://www.philstar.com/business/2012/11/23/871187/p450\-m\-iloilo\-convention\-center\-launched\-today \|access\-date\=21 January 2013 \|newspaper\=The Philippine Star}} It was funded by the Tourism Infrastructure and Enterprise Zone Authority (TIEZA) and the Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF) of Senator [Franklin Drilon](/wiki/Franklin_Drilon "Franklin Drilon").
### Medical services
SuperCare Medical Services, Inc. is a 9\-storey medical services in the township currently under construction.{{Cite web \|title\=SUPERCARE MEDICAL SERVICES, INC. BREAKS GROUND IN ILOILO BUSINESS PARK, BOOSTING INVESTMENT AND JOB OPPORTUNITIES IN THE CITY – Iloilo City MICE \|url\=https://visitiloilocity.com/supercare\-medical\-services\-inc\-breaks\-ground\-in\-iloilo\-business\-park\-boosting\-investment\-and\-job\-opportunities\-in\-the\-city/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-23 \|language\=en\-US}}
|
[
"Developments\n------------",
"### Residential",
"[thumb\\|Residential towers in the township featuring One Madison Place, Lafayette Park Square, and The Palladium (from left to right, respectively)](/wiki/File:Iloilo_Business_Park_north_condos_top_view_%28Mandurriao%2C_Iloilo_City%3B_01-26-2023%29.jpg \"Iloilo Business Park north condos top view (Mandurriao, Iloilo City; 01-26-2023).jpg\")\nOne Madison Place Luxury Residences is Megaworld's first residential development within Iloilo Business Park. It consists of three 10\\-storey mid\\-rise towers along Megaworld Boulevard.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abs\\-cbnnews.com/business/08/23/13/megaworld\\-launches\\-3rd\\-tower\\-luxury\\-condo\\-iloilo\\|title\\=Megaworld launches 3rd tower for luxury condo in Iloilo\\|newspaper\\=ABS\\-CBN News\\|date\\=23 August 2013\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015}}",
"Lafayette Park Square is Megaworld's second condominium project within the business park. The 14\\-storey single tower features French and Spanish architectural designs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abs\\-cbnnews.com/business/01/20/14/megaworld\\-build\\-euro\\-inspired\\-condo\\-iloilo\\|title\\=Megaworld to build Euro\\-inspired condo in Iloilo\\|newspaper\\=ABS\\-CBN News\\|date\\=20 January 2014\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015}}",
"The Palladium, introduced in October 2014, is the tallest modern luxury residential condominium within Iloilo Business Park. Standing 80 meters high at 22 stories, The Palladium is also the region's first residential tower with its own sky gardens in various floors overlooking Iloilo City. At the topmost floor of the tower, there are exclusive loft units ranging from 76 square meters to 115 square meters.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.interaksyon.com/business/96441/megaworld\\-adds\\-a\\-fifth\\-tower\\-in\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\-on\\-brisk\\-demand\\|title\\=Megaworld adds a fifth tower in Iloilo business park on brisk demand\\|author\\=Montealegre, K. A. M.\\|newspaper\\=InterAksyon\\|date\\=30 September 2014\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305073518/http://www.interaksyon.com/business/96441/megaworld\\-adds\\-a\\-fifth\\-tower\\-in\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\-on\\-brisk\\-demand\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The fourth and fifth residential projects in the township launched in 2017, Saint Honore and Saint Dominique, are inspired by Parisian lifestyle. It has ten levels with 168 and 152 units respectively. Both towers share a common podium and amenity areas. Both condominiums have second towers each.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.philstar.com/real\\-estate/2017/02/08/1669640/live\\-parisian\\-dream\\-saint\\-honore?nomobile\\=1\\|title \\= Live the Parisian dream at Saint Honore\\| website\\=\\[\\[The Philippine STAR]] }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section\\=Corporate\\&title\\=megaworld\\-adds\\-7supthsup\\-tower\\-in\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\&id\\=148737\\|title\\=BusinessWorld \\| Megaworld adds 7th tower in Iloilo Business Park\\|website\\=\\[\\[BusinessWorld]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-23\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824005640/http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section\\=Corporate\\&title\\=megaworld\\-adds\\-7supthsup\\-tower\\-in\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\&id\\=148737\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The sixth condominium in the township, The Pinnacle, is a 20\\-storey luxury residential project of Megaworld. It will be built adjacent to the International Corporate Plaza.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Pinnacle {{!}} Condo in Iloilo City {{!}} Megaworld Corporation \\|url\\=https://www.megaworldcorp.com/residences/pinnacle \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=www.megaworldcorp.com}}",
"Megaworld's seventh condominium and ninth residential tower in the township, the 22\\-storey Firenze, is an Italian City of [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\")\\-inspired condo that will rise beside The Palladium at the northern portion of Megaworld Boulevard.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Press Release \\|url\\=https://edge.pse.com.ph/openDiscViewer.do?edge\\_no\\=48602d8acd5c3ff49e4dc6f6c9b65995\\&fbclid\\=IwAR0Q2o\\_gEHy4Dqj2cq4w4qTPKaDo0bHAIULdAiz7uzWY1EWx10z6Tt163mE \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-04 \\|website\\=edge.pse.com.ph}}",
"### Office buildings",
"[thumb\\|240px\\|*Torre del Reloj* (The Clock Tower) of Festive Walk Parade at Iloilo Business Park](/wiki/File:Festive_Walk_Parade_%28Phase_2%29.jpg \"Festive Walk Parade (Phase 2).jpg\")",
"Three Megaworld office towers were initially developed to cater mainly to [business process outsourcing](/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing \"Business process outsourcing\") companies. They combine a total of 25,000 square meters of leasable space and could accommodate a total of 10,000 employees. These are One Global Center, Two Global Center and the Richmonde Tower which also houses the Richmonde Hotel Iloilo. Construction of two more office buildings, namely One Techno Place and Two Techno Place, commenced last 2015 and are set to occupy a total of 19,000 square meters of leasable space housing an additional 8,000 employees.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section\\=Corporate\\&title\\=Megaworld\\-fast\\-tracks\\-Iloilo\\-BPO\\-buildings\\&id\\=90100\\|title\\=Megaworld fast\\-tracks Iloilo BPO buildings\\|author\\=Magturo, D. J.\\|newspaper\\=BusinessWorld\\|date\\=30 June 2014\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.philstar.com:8080/business/2014/04/05/1308891/megaworld\\-allots\\-p5\\-b\\-iloilo\\-office\\-towers\\|title\\=Megaworld allots P5 B for Iloilo office towers\\|author\\=Morales, N. J. C.\\|newspaper\\=The Philippine Star\\|date\\=5 April 2014\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015}}",
"Other IT\\-BPO office towers in the township include the Festive Walk Parade Tower, One Fintech Place, and Two Fintech Place.",
"In addition to the office edifices housing mostly to IT\\-BPO companies, there are also planned corporate office towers in the pipeline that will be built in the township. Notable of which is the International Corporate Plaza, a 19\\-storey tower with leasable spaces for corporate tenants. It will be the first green designed office tower in the Western Visayas region. Banks such as [Metrobank](/wiki/Metrobank_%28Philippines%29 \"Metrobank (Philippines)\") and [UnionBank of the Philippines](/wiki/UnionBank_of_the_Philippines \"UnionBank of the Philippines\") has in their plans to build their regional corporate office towers in Iloilo Business Park.",
"### Hotels",
"[thumb\\|Courtyard by Marriott IloiloRichmonde](/wiki/File:Courtyard_by_Marriott_Iloilo.jpg \"Courtyard by Marriott Iloilo.jpg\") Hotel Iloilo occupies the ground floor and 7th to 12th floors of the Iloilo Richmonde Tower. It hosts 90 guest rooms and cater to businessmen and tourists. It is the first Richmonde Hotel outside Manila.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.philstar.com/business\\-life/2015/05/25/1457832/p\\-noy\\-unveil\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\-june\\-11\\-negros\\-adapts\\-change\\|title\\=P\\-Noy to unveil Iloilo Business Park on June 11, Negros adapts to change\\|author\\=Flores, W. L.\\|date\\=25 May 2015\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015\\|newspaper\\=The Philippine Star}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/219809/money/companies/megaworld\\-starts\\-construction\\-of\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\-project\\|title\\=Megaworld starts construction of Iloilo Business Park project\\|newspaper\\=GMA News\\|date\\=6 May 2011\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015}}",
"Courtyard by Marriott Iloilo is built under [Marriott International](/wiki/Marriott_International \"Marriott International\") through Megaworld Corporation. The 15\\-storey hotel houses 314 rooms and suites.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abs\\-cbnnews.com/business/08/15/13/megaworld\\-build\\-courtyard\\-marriott\\-hotel\\-iloilo\\|title\\=Megaworld to build Courtyard by Marriott hotel in Iloilo\\|date\\=15 August 2013\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015\\|newspaper\\=ABS\\-CBN News}} The hotel opened on May 1, 2018 as the first Courtyard by Marriott development in the Philippines and also the first Marriott\\-branded hotel in Visayas and Mindanao twenty years after the opening of Marriott Cebu (rebranded as Seda Cebu).",
"Belmont Hotel Iloilo is the latest hotel near the St. Honore and St. Dominique condominium towers. A 12\\-storey hotel, it will be the first Belmont Hotel brand in Western Visayas and Mindanao.",
"### Commercial",
"The [Festive Walk Iloilo](/wiki/Festive_Walk_Mall \"Festive Walk Mall\") is the first stand alone lifestyle mall by Megaworld in Visayas and Mindanao and the first upscale mall in Iloilo. It has two buildings (Main with 3 levels \\+ Annex with 3 levels) housing shops, restaurants, facilities including cinemas and \"event centers\".{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-02\\-05 \\|title\\=Manila Standard \\- 2018 February 06 \\- Tuesday by Manila Standard \\- Issuu \\|url\\=https://issuu.com/thestandardph/docs/mspdf20180206 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=issuu.com \\|language\\=en}} The Marketplace by Rustan's occupies as the main supermarket chain in the mall. Festive Market by [Savemore](/wiki/Savemore_Market \"Savemore Market\") serves as the anchor supermarket for the mall.{{cite web\\|author\\=Bermejo, K. V.\\|title\\=Megaworld's biggest investment outside of Manila to restore Iloilo City's glory\\|url\\=http://iloilonewstoday.com/index.php/iloilo/10341\\-mega\\-city\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2013\\|newspaper\\=Iloilo News Daily\\|date\\=14 January 2013}}{{cite web\\|author\\=Taclino, N.\\|title\\=Megaworld to open VIP Cinema at Festive Walk Mall Iloilo\\|url\\=http://www.nonoynet.com/2016/12/megaworld\\-to\\-open\\-vip\\-cinema\\-at\\-festive.html?m\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2016\\|website\\=NonoyNet\\|date\\=20 December 2016}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.megaworldcorp.com/megaworld\\-to\\-open\\-p2\\-2\\-b\\-mall\\-in\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\-this\\-year/\\|title \\= Megaworld Corporation \\| Megaworld to open P2\\.2\\-B mall in Iloilo business park this year}}",
"Festive Walk Parade, a 1\\.1\\-kilometer outdoor commercial and retail strip, is the longest shopping and dining strip in the Philippines. The first phase had a soft opening on December 20, 2016 with a grand opening happening in January 2017\\. Succeeding phases was completed in 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.philstar.com/real\\-estate/2015/09/10/1497378/iloilo\\-next\\-best\\-haven\\-property\\-investment\\-visayas\\|title\\=Iloilo: Next best haven for property investment in Visayas\\|author\\=Soriano, E.\\|newspaper\\=The Philippine Star\\|date\\=10 September 2015\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mb.com.ph/megaworld\\-ramps\\-up\\-building\\-construction\\-at\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park/\\|title\\=Megaworld ramps up building construction at Iloilo business park\\|author\\=Loyola, J.\\|newspaper\\=Manila Bulletin\\|date\\=30 June 2014\\|access\\-date\\=18 September 2015}}",
"Landers Superstore is set to open a branch in Iloilo Business Park, introducing its [wholesale club](/wiki/Wholesale_club \"Wholesale club\") concept to the township.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-04 \\|title\\=Landers Superstore to expand in Visayas with new store in Iloilo Business Park \\|url\\=https://www.panaynews.net/landers\\-superstore\\-to\\-expand\\-in\\-visayas\\-with\\-new\\-store\\-in\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=Panay News \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"### Museums and art galleries",
"[thumb\\|right\\|246px\\|Casa de Emperador houses the [Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Iloilo_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art \"Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art\") (ILOMOCA), the first museum dedicated to contemporary and modern art in [Visayas](/wiki/Visayas \"Visayas\") and [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao \"Mindanao\")](/wiki/File:Casa_De_Emperador_%28Megaworld_Boulevard%2C_Mandurriao%2C_Iloilo_City%3B_10-22-2022%29.jpg \"Casa De Emperador (Megaworld Boulevard, Mandurriao, Iloilo City; 10-22-2022).jpg\")[Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Iloilo_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art \"Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art\") (ILOMOCA) is the first contemporary and modern art museum in Visayas and Mindanao (first [Megaworld](/wiki/Megaworld_Corporation \"Megaworld Corporation\")\\-built museum in the Philippines), it houses artworks of local and international artists like [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD \"Salvador Dalí\").",
"The Brandy Museum, the first and only brandy museum in the Philippines, offers a virtual tour showcasing the history of [brandy](/wiki/Brandy \"Brandy\") and wine manufacturing.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rivas \\|first\\=Ralf \\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-10 \\|title\\=LOOK: Emperador’s brandy museum opens in Iloilo City \\|url\\=https://www.rappler.com/business/photos\\-emperador\\-brandy\\-museum\\-opens\\-iloilo\\-city/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=RAPPLER \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Convention center",
"The [Iloilo Convention Center](/wiki/Iloilo_Convention_Center \"Iloilo Convention Center\") stands on a 1\\.7\\-hectare lot donated by Megaworld Corp, the same site formerly occupied by the apron and terminal of Mandurriao Airport.{{cite news \\|date\\=23 November 2012 \\|title\\=P450\\-M Iloilo Convention Center launched today \\|url\\=http://www.philstar.com/business/2012/11/23/871187/p450\\-m\\-iloilo\\-convention\\-center\\-launched\\-today \\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2013 \\|newspaper\\=The Philippine Star}} It was funded by the Tourism Infrastructure and Enterprise Zone Authority (TIEZA) and the Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF) of Senator [Franklin Drilon](/wiki/Franklin_Drilon \"Franklin Drilon\").",
"### Medical services",
"SuperCare Medical Services, Inc. is a 9\\-storey medical services in the township currently under construction.{{Cite web \\|title\\=SUPERCARE MEDICAL SERVICES, INC. BREAKS GROUND IN ILOILO BUSINESS PARK, BOOSTING INVESTMENT AND JOB OPPORTUNITIES IN THE CITY – Iloilo City MICE \\|url\\=https://visitiloilocity.com/supercare\\-medical\\-services\\-inc\\-breaks\\-ground\\-in\\-iloilo\\-business\\-park\\-boosting\\-investment\\-and\\-job\\-opportunities\\-in\\-the\\-city/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-23 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
""
] |
Production
----------
[thumb\|A British soldier wearing a Mark III helmet during the Normandy Campaign in 1944](/wiki/File:Snipercaen.jpg "Snipercaen.jpg")
Although designed in 1941, due to production issues, the helmet was not manufactured until late 1943\. It was produced by three manufacturers in the UK:
| Code | Maker | Location |
| --- | --- | --- |
| BMB | Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd | [Dagenham](/wiki/Dagenham "Dagenham") |
| F\&L | [Fisher \& Ludlow Ltd](/wiki/Fisher_%26_Ludlow "Fisher & Ludlow") | [Castle Bromwich](/wiki/Castle_Bromwich "Castle Bromwich") |
| ROCO | [Rubery Owen Co. Ltd](/wiki/Rubery_Owen "Rubery Owen") | [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds") |
Helmet manufacture commenced in November 1943 until early 1945 when production shifted to the MK IV helmets.{{cite web\|title\=Steel Helmet, MKIII (with net): British\|url\=http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30101243\|publisher\=\[\[Imperial War Museum]]\|access\-date\=30 December 2014}} Mk III helmets were initially painted with textured khaki green colour, later replaced by a textured dark brown.
### Post\-war manufactured helmets
The Belgians produced the MkIII helmet post war, most known examples are dated 1951 and the liner bears a manufacturers name of Sartel, date and size in metric girth printed in white ink. There is no embossing on the crossed straps.
The Belgian\-produced helmet has no stainless steel parts. The chin strap clips and the rim that are normally Stainless steel on a British helmet are a carbon steel on the Belgian version.
The Belgian helmets do not have any manufacturer's stamp or date on the shell.
The Belgian helmet is a few millimeters longer, front to back, than its British Counterpart. The liner uses brown, not black leather in its construction.
The Helmet has the same country flag decal on the left hand side as the MkII and the M51 (US M1 Euro\-clone) helmets that the Belgians also made.
### Post\-war refurbished helmets
It is possible to find a war\-time dated Mk III that was later fitted with the 'lift the dot' liner. These refurbishments generally took place in the 1950s.
|
[
"Production\n----------",
"[thumb\\|A British soldier wearing a Mark III helmet during the Normandy Campaign in 1944](/wiki/File:Snipercaen.jpg \"Snipercaen.jpg\")\nAlthough designed in 1941, due to production issues, the helmet was not manufactured until late 1943\\. It was produced by three manufacturers in the UK:",
"",
"| Code | Maker | Location |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| BMB | Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd | [Dagenham](/wiki/Dagenham \"Dagenham\") |\n| F\\&L | [Fisher \\& Ludlow Ltd](/wiki/Fisher_%26_Ludlow \"Fisher & Ludlow\") | [Castle Bromwich](/wiki/Castle_Bromwich \"Castle Bromwich\") |\n| ROCO | [Rubery Owen Co. Ltd](/wiki/Rubery_Owen \"Rubery Owen\") | [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\") |",
"",
"Helmet manufacture commenced in November 1943 until early 1945 when production shifted to the MK IV helmets.{{cite web\\|title\\=Steel Helmet, MKIII (with net): British\\|url\\=http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30101243\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Imperial War Museum]]\\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2014}} Mk III helmets were initially painted with textured khaki green colour, later replaced by a textured dark brown.",
"### Post\\-war manufactured helmets",
"The Belgians produced the MkIII helmet post war, most known examples are dated 1951 and the liner bears a manufacturers name of Sartel, date and size in metric girth printed in white ink. There is no embossing on the crossed straps.",
"The Belgian\\-produced helmet has no stainless steel parts. The chin strap clips and the rim that are normally Stainless steel on a British helmet are a carbon steel on the Belgian version.",
"The Belgian helmets do not have any manufacturer's stamp or date on the shell.",
"The Belgian helmet is a few millimeters longer, front to back, than its British Counterpart. The liner uses brown, not black leather in its construction.",
"The Helmet has the same country flag decal on the left hand side as the MkII and the M51 (US M1 Euro\\-clone) helmets that the Belgians also made.",
"### Post\\-war refurbished helmets",
"It is possible to find a war\\-time dated Mk III that was later fitted with the 'lift the dot' liner. These refurbishments generally took place in the 1950s.",
""
] |
History
-------
The art gallery had started by [Albert Waalkens](/wiki/Albert_Waalkens "Albert Waalkens") in the [stable](/wiki/Stable "Stable") of his farm in 1962, where artists and their families mainly from the [Randstad](/wiki/Randstad "Randstad") could also shelter. The gallery offered a podium for young experimental [artists](/wiki/Artist "Artist"). The gallery came into prominence with some [sculpture](/wiki/Sculpture "Sculpture") [exhibitions](/wiki/Exhibition "Exhibition") along the public road. It started in ten statues in 1963 around the village of Finsterwolde, and evolved the 1967 exhibition along the public road with 200 sculptures by 63 artists. This exhibition stretched from the city of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen "Groningen") to the east of the province.
In 1984 Gunnar Daan come into prominence with an exhibition at the gallery.Hans Oldewarris, Peter de Winter, *20 Years 010\.* 2003\. p. 219\. In 2008 he made the design for the new building of the gallery.
In 1988 the art curator Poul ter Hofstede in cooperation with the [Groninger Museum](/wiki/Groninger_Museum "Groninger Museum") published a retrospective on the gallery with a chronological listing of the exhibitions.Ter Hofstede (1988\). In the year 2000 Waalkens was awarded the [Benno Premsela Prize](/wiki/Benno_Premsela_Prize "Benno Premsela Prize") by the Netherlands Foundation for Visual Arts for his stimulating attitude towards artists.
In the new millennium the son and former PvdA member of parliament Harm Evert Waalkens continued the gallery, and by 2014 his daughter Merel and her husband continued the tradition.Jan Schuurman Hess. *Voettocht naar het hart van het land.* 2014\. p. 97\. In 2017 the Stichting Beeldlijn completed a new documentary about the gallery and visual art in Groningen, entitled *Boer tussen kunst en koren.*Joep van Ruiten. "[Terug naar de tijd van Galerie Waalkens](https://www.dvhn.nl/cultuur/Terug-naar-de-tijd-van-Galerie-Waalkens-22284714.html)," *Dagblad van het Noorden.* 13 juni 2017\.
### Exhibitions, a selection
* 1963\. *Beelden in Finsterwolde*, open air exhibition.*De Kampioen,* jul. 1963\. p. 417
* 1978\. *Movement in Dark* by [Nan Hoover](/wiki/Nan_Hoover "Nan Hoover")
* 1984\. Works of [Gunnar Daan](/wiki/Gunnar_Daan "Gunnar Daan").
* 1987\. Works by [Ruud Kuijer](/wiki/Ruud_Kuijer "Ruud Kuijer")
* 1994\. *It's in the Air* by [Felix Hess](/wiki/Felix_Hess "Felix Hess").*[Ons erfdeel](https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_ons003200601_01/_ons003200601_01_0167.php),* Volume 49\. 2006\. p. 668\.
### Photo Gallery
Some examples of the type of works of the artists, that had presented their works at the Galery Waalkens.
File:Nan Hoover “The Ls” Object.jpg\|''The Ls'' by \[\[Nan Hoover]], realized in 1990 in \[\[Hardenberg]] Railway Station
image:Waterwerk\_II\_Bearable\_Lightness\_(2003\).jpg\|''Water Work II Bearable Lightness'' by \[\[Ruud Kuijer]] realization in 2003
File:Gunnar daan stadsmarkering gn.JPG\|''City marking'' by \[\[Gunnar Daan]], realization in 2006
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The art gallery had started by [Albert Waalkens](/wiki/Albert_Waalkens \"Albert Waalkens\") in the [stable](/wiki/Stable \"Stable\") of his farm in 1962, where artists and their families mainly from the [Randstad](/wiki/Randstad \"Randstad\") could also shelter. The gallery offered a podium for young experimental [artists](/wiki/Artist \"Artist\"). The gallery came into prominence with some [sculpture](/wiki/Sculpture \"Sculpture\") [exhibitions](/wiki/Exhibition \"Exhibition\") along the public road. It started in ten statues in 1963 around the village of Finsterwolde, and evolved the 1967 exhibition along the public road with 200 sculptures by 63 artists. This exhibition stretched from the city of [Groningen](/wiki/Groningen \"Groningen\") to the east of the province.",
"In 1984 Gunnar Daan come into prominence with an exhibition at the gallery.Hans Oldewarris, Peter de Winter, *20 Years 010\\.* 2003\\. p. 219\\. In 2008 he made the design for the new building of the gallery.",
"In 1988 the art curator Poul ter Hofstede in cooperation with the [Groninger Museum](/wiki/Groninger_Museum \"Groninger Museum\") published a retrospective on the gallery with a chronological listing of the exhibitions.Ter Hofstede (1988\\). In the year 2000 Waalkens was awarded the [Benno Premsela Prize](/wiki/Benno_Premsela_Prize \"Benno Premsela Prize\") by the Netherlands Foundation for Visual Arts for his stimulating attitude towards artists.",
"In the new millennium the son and former PvdA member of parliament Harm Evert Waalkens continued the gallery, and by 2014 his daughter Merel and her husband continued the tradition.Jan Schuurman Hess. *Voettocht naar het hart van het land.* 2014\\. p. 97\\. In 2017 the Stichting Beeldlijn completed a new documentary about the gallery and visual art in Groningen, entitled *Boer tussen kunst en koren.*Joep van Ruiten. \"[Terug naar de tijd van Galerie Waalkens](https://www.dvhn.nl/cultuur/Terug-naar-de-tijd-van-Galerie-Waalkens-22284714.html),\" *Dagblad van het Noorden.* 13 juni 2017\\.",
"### Exhibitions, a selection",
"* 1963\\. *Beelden in Finsterwolde*, open air exhibition.*De Kampioen,* jul. 1963\\. p. 417\n* 1978\\. *Movement in Dark* by [Nan Hoover](/wiki/Nan_Hoover \"Nan Hoover\")\n* 1984\\. Works of [Gunnar Daan](/wiki/Gunnar_Daan \"Gunnar Daan\").\n* 1987\\. Works by [Ruud Kuijer](/wiki/Ruud_Kuijer \"Ruud Kuijer\")\n* 1994\\. *It's in the Air* by [Felix Hess](/wiki/Felix_Hess \"Felix Hess\").*[Ons erfdeel](https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_ons003200601_01/_ons003200601_01_0167.php),* Volume 49\\. 2006\\. p. 668\\.",
"### Photo Gallery",
"Some examples of the type of works of the artists, that had presented their works at the Galery Waalkens.",
"File:Nan Hoover “The Ls” Object.jpg\\|''The Ls'' by \\[\\[Nan Hoover]], realized in 1990 in \\[\\[Hardenberg]] Railway Station\nimage:Waterwerk\\_II\\_Bearable\\_Lightness\\_(2003\\).jpg\\|''Water Work II Bearable Lightness'' by \\[\\[Ruud Kuijer]] realization in 2003\nFile:Gunnar daan stadsmarkering gn.JPG\\|''City marking'' by \\[\\[Gunnar Daan]], realization in 2006",
"",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the forest near the small isolated town of Maiden Woods a team of loggers go inexplicably missing. Unable to contact them the Foreman goes searching for them, finding only a logger's severed arm. He is then violently killed in his truck by an unseen creature.
Later in town Sheriff Paul Shields and his new deputy from New York, Donny Saunders, speak to farmer Ron who insists one of his valuable horses has been stolen, though without evidence of theft it is assumed the horse merely escaped through an open gate. Paul then leaves to pick up his son Adam from his wife Susan who no longer lives with him after the accidental death of their other son, Tim. That night Adam sees a creature in the back yard and when Paul investigates he hears but does not see a large creature in the trees.
The next morning Paul finds large footprints in the snow around his house that appear to come from an animal with [hooves](/wiki/Hoof "Hoof") that walks on two legs. Donny informs him the footprints are around everybody's houses in the entire town. Paul and Donny follow the footprints into the woods where they also find large claw marks on the trees where the footprints disappear. After hearing from [park rangers](/wiki/Park_rangers "Park rangers") that no known animal with hooves could walk such a distance on two legs Paul assumes the whole thing is a prank. Paul later hears from the town priest that his dog and a lot of other animals have gone missing. Paul then goes to a local store where Ron's daughter Clair and several hunters confront him with their fears about old [Indian](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") stories of creatures living in the woods, though Paul dismisses this. Earl, another hunter, informs Paul that even though it is hunting season, all the deer and other forest animals have disappeared, meaning a large new predator may be in the area.
As Paul drives Adam home they both see a very large creature in the back yard, but when Paul investigates, all he finds is a bridle up a tree that he confirms is from Ron's missing horse. The next day Paul and Susan meet Adam's teacher to talk about how Adam is not dealing with his brother's death, during which Susan becomes angry and upset. Paul meets Donny where they both witness a very large flock of birds in the sky flying south when they should be flying north. Susan tells Donny how Paul was watching their son Tim when he fell, hit his head and died and how he still blames himself even though she doesn't. That night Paul is called to Ron's farm where he sees the creature attempt to enter the horses stables before it flees, leaving behind more footprints showing the hoof is split into 3 sections, even though most cloven hoofed animals only have 2\. That night Paul discovers a dead deer that had been mauled in the road but before he can move it the creature suddenly appears and takes the body with it. Donny wonders if it is not simply a forest predator that had not yet been discovered, similar to large fish species thought to be extinct that actually still exist deep in the ocean.
The next day three hunters are attacked by the creature in the woods. Two are killed and one makes it back to town. The bodies of the two dead hunters are later found hidden high in the trees. Paul bans any more hunters from entering the forest and orders everybody in town to stay indoors at night. He also reports the two deaths and calls in 2 dozen park rangers to hunt and kill the creature within 24 hours. That night a heavy snow storm hits the surrounding area and most of the town evacuates. Paul theorizes that the creature had been pushed from its territory by the logging company and is looking for a new home and sees humans as a threat. One of the hunters shows Paul film footage of a large creature walking on two legs. As the storm gets worse the creature breaks into Paul's house, where Paul barricades himself and Adam in the bathroom until the arrival of Donny scares it away.
Paul gathers everybody who did not evacuate into the church, saying it is the safest place for everybody to stay until the park rangers arrive in the morning to hunt and kill the creature. However, the creature attacks the church and Susan manages to motivate Paul into forgiving himself for Tim's death. As the creature breaks into the church Paul leads everybody into the church's basement storm shelter. He tasks the hunters to guard the door then takes Donny to kill the creature.
As they follow the creature through the church Paul and Donny split up. Donny is attacked in the kitchen but manages to shoot the creature with his shotgun. Paul follows the creature only to be attacked and drop his rifle. He flees back into the main hall and hides beneath the pews. However, the creature finds him and he shoots it with his pistol before it disappears. Paul realises it can climb as it suddenly drops down from the ceiling. As it rushes towards him Paul shoots it once again but drops his pistol as it overpowers him. He instead draws his hunting knife and stabs the creature to death.
Returning to the basement Paul tells everybody the creature is dead and leads them back into the church. However, as Donny examines the creature's body he realises he had shot it in the shoulder with his shotgun, yet the wound was suspiciously missing. Paul and Donny suddenly realise there is more than one creature in the church, and outside dozens of creatures are seen swarming over the church roof. One creature lunges at the camera and the screen goes black.
{{cite web\|last\=Chitwood\|first\=Adam\|title\=Kevin Durand and Lukas Haas Star in DARK WAS THE NIGHT\|url\=https://collider.com/mark\-feuerstein\-in\-your\-eyes\-kevin\-durand\-lukas\-haas\-dark\-was\-the\-night/146389/\|publisher\=Collider\|accessdate\=August 30, 2012\|date\=February 17, 2012\|archive\-date\=April 25, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425163913/http://collider.com/mark\-feuerstein\-in\-your\-eyes\-kevin\-durand\-lukas\-haas\-dark\-was\-the\-night/146389\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|last\=Brooks\|first\=Brian\|title\=Kevin Durand And Lukas Haas Set For 'Dark Was The Night'\|url\=https://www.deadline.com/2012/02/kevin\-durand\-and\-lukas\-haas\-set\-for\-dark\-was\-the\-night/\|publisher\=Deadline\|accessdate\=August 30, 2012\|date\=February 17, 2012}}
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the forest near the small isolated town of Maiden Woods a team of loggers go inexplicably missing. Unable to contact them the Foreman goes searching for them, finding only a logger's severed arm. He is then violently killed in his truck by an unseen creature.",
"Later in town Sheriff Paul Shields and his new deputy from New York, Donny Saunders, speak to farmer Ron who insists one of his valuable horses has been stolen, though without evidence of theft it is assumed the horse merely escaped through an open gate. Paul then leaves to pick up his son Adam from his wife Susan who no longer lives with him after the accidental death of their other son, Tim. That night Adam sees a creature in the back yard and when Paul investigates he hears but does not see a large creature in the trees.",
"The next morning Paul finds large footprints in the snow around his house that appear to come from an animal with [hooves](/wiki/Hoof \"Hoof\") that walks on two legs. Donny informs him the footprints are around everybody's houses in the entire town. Paul and Donny follow the footprints into the woods where they also find large claw marks on the trees where the footprints disappear. After hearing from [park rangers](/wiki/Park_rangers \"Park rangers\") that no known animal with hooves could walk such a distance on two legs Paul assumes the whole thing is a prank. Paul later hears from the town priest that his dog and a lot of other animals have gone missing. Paul then goes to a local store where Ron's daughter Clair and several hunters confront him with their fears about old [Indian](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") stories of creatures living in the woods, though Paul dismisses this. Earl, another hunter, informs Paul that even though it is hunting season, all the deer and other forest animals have disappeared, meaning a large new predator may be in the area.",
"As Paul drives Adam home they both see a very large creature in the back yard, but when Paul investigates, all he finds is a bridle up a tree that he confirms is from Ron's missing horse. The next day Paul and Susan meet Adam's teacher to talk about how Adam is not dealing with his brother's death, during which Susan becomes angry and upset. Paul meets Donny where they both witness a very large flock of birds in the sky flying south when they should be flying north. Susan tells Donny how Paul was watching their son Tim when he fell, hit his head and died and how he still blames himself even though she doesn't. That night Paul is called to Ron's farm where he sees the creature attempt to enter the horses stables before it flees, leaving behind more footprints showing the hoof is split into 3 sections, even though most cloven hoofed animals only have 2\\. That night Paul discovers a dead deer that had been mauled in the road but before he can move it the creature suddenly appears and takes the body with it. Donny wonders if it is not simply a forest predator that had not yet been discovered, similar to large fish species thought to be extinct that actually still exist deep in the ocean.",
"The next day three hunters are attacked by the creature in the woods. Two are killed and one makes it back to town. The bodies of the two dead hunters are later found hidden high in the trees. Paul bans any more hunters from entering the forest and orders everybody in town to stay indoors at night. He also reports the two deaths and calls in 2 dozen park rangers to hunt and kill the creature within 24 hours. That night a heavy snow storm hits the surrounding area and most of the town evacuates. Paul theorizes that the creature had been pushed from its territory by the logging company and is looking for a new home and sees humans as a threat. One of the hunters shows Paul film footage of a large creature walking on two legs. As the storm gets worse the creature breaks into Paul's house, where Paul barricades himself and Adam in the bathroom until the arrival of Donny scares it away.",
"Paul gathers everybody who did not evacuate into the church, saying it is the safest place for everybody to stay until the park rangers arrive in the morning to hunt and kill the creature. However, the creature attacks the church and Susan manages to motivate Paul into forgiving himself for Tim's death. As the creature breaks into the church Paul leads everybody into the church's basement storm shelter. He tasks the hunters to guard the door then takes Donny to kill the creature.",
"As they follow the creature through the church Paul and Donny split up. Donny is attacked in the kitchen but manages to shoot the creature with his shotgun. Paul follows the creature only to be attacked and drop his rifle. He flees back into the main hall and hides beneath the pews. However, the creature finds him and he shoots it with his pistol before it disappears. Paul realises it can climb as it suddenly drops down from the ceiling. As it rushes towards him Paul shoots it once again but drops his pistol as it overpowers him. He instead draws his hunting knife and stabs the creature to death.",
"Returning to the basement Paul tells everybody the creature is dead and leads them back into the church. However, as Donny examines the creature's body he realises he had shot it in the shoulder with his shotgun, yet the wound was suspiciously missing. Paul and Donny suddenly realise there is more than one creature in the church, and outside dozens of creatures are seen swarming over the church roof. One creature lunges at the camera and the screen goes black.\n{{cite web\\|last\\=Chitwood\\|first\\=Adam\\|title\\=Kevin Durand and Lukas Haas Star in DARK WAS THE NIGHT\\|url\\=https://collider.com/mark\\-feuerstein\\-in\\-your\\-eyes\\-kevin\\-durand\\-lukas\\-haas\\-dark\\-was\\-the\\-night/146389/\\|publisher\\=Collider\\|accessdate\\=August 30, 2012\\|date\\=February 17, 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=April 25, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425163913/http://collider.com/mark\\-feuerstein\\-in\\-your\\-eyes\\-kevin\\-durand\\-lukas\\-haas\\-dark\\-was\\-the\\-night/146389\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Brooks\\|first\\=Brian\\|title\\=Kevin Durand And Lukas Haas Set For 'Dark Was The Night'\\|url\\=https://www.deadline.com/2012/02/kevin\\-durand\\-and\\-lukas\\-haas\\-set\\-for\\-dark\\-was\\-the\\-night/\\|publisher\\=Deadline\\|accessdate\\=August 30, 2012\\|date\\=February 17, 2012}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Franz Heinrich (Haim) Ollendorf was born in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"). In 1924, he joined the [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens "Siemens") research department in Berlin, working under [Reinhold Rüdenberg](/wiki/Reinhold_R%C3%BCdenberg "Reinhold Rüdenberg"). From 1928 he taught in the engineering faculty of the [Berlin Technische Hochschule](/wiki/Berlin_Technische_Hochschule "Berlin Technische Hochschule"). Despite protest from his supervisor and university rector Ernst Orlich, the Nazis forced Ollendorff to resign in 1933\.
Soon after the dismissal, Ollendorff joined the teaching staff of the Jewish public school in Berlin, moving to [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") when the school and staff transferred there in 1934\.
Ollendorff returned to Germany in the following year to organize the transfer of Jewish children to [Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") within the framework of the newly established [Youth Aliyah](/wiki/Youth_Aliyah "Youth Aliyah"). In 1937 he was finally expelled by the [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo "Gestapo"). In 1939, he joined the staff of the [Haifa Technion](/wiki/Haifa_Technion "Haifa Technion") and founded the faculty of electrical engineering in which he was professor. He specialized in biomedical electronics and physics.
He was a member of the [Israel Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities "Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities") and was awarded the [Israel Prize](/wiki/Israel_Prize "Israel Prize") for his research in [magnetic fields](/wiki/Magnetic_field "Magnetic field") (1954\). He was elected a fellow of the [American Institute of Electrical Engineers](/wiki/American_Institute_of_Electrical_Engineers "American Institute of Electrical Engineers") in 1963 and served as the institute's vice president.
His interest in the education of teenagers made him a keen supporter of the Technion's vocational high school.
Ollendorff wrote books and papers on electronics, physics, mathematics, acoustics, medical electronics, technical education, and other specialized fields. His publications include Die Grundlagen der Hochfrequenztechnik (1926\); Erdstroeme (1928\); Die Welt der Vektoren (1950\); and Innere Elektronik (1955\).
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Franz Heinrich (Haim) Ollendorf was born in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"). In 1924, he joined the [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens \"Siemens\") research department in Berlin, working under [Reinhold Rüdenberg](/wiki/Reinhold_R%C3%BCdenberg \"Reinhold Rüdenberg\"). From 1928 he taught in the engineering faculty of the [Berlin Technische Hochschule](/wiki/Berlin_Technische_Hochschule \"Berlin Technische Hochschule\"). Despite protest from his supervisor and university rector Ernst Orlich, the Nazis forced Ollendorff to resign in 1933\\.\nSoon after the dismissal, Ollendorff joined the teaching staff of the Jewish public school in Berlin, moving to [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") when the school and staff transferred there in 1934\\.",
"Ollendorff returned to Germany in the following year to organize the transfer of Jewish children to [Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine \"Mandatory Palestine\") within the framework of the newly established [Youth Aliyah](/wiki/Youth_Aliyah \"Youth Aliyah\"). In 1937 he was finally expelled by the [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo \"Gestapo\"). In 1939, he joined the staff of the [Haifa Technion](/wiki/Haifa_Technion \"Haifa Technion\") and founded the faculty of electrical engineering in which he was professor. He specialized in biomedical electronics and physics.",
"He was a member of the [Israel Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities \"Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities\") and was awarded the [Israel Prize](/wiki/Israel_Prize \"Israel Prize\") for his research in [magnetic fields](/wiki/Magnetic_field \"Magnetic field\") (1954\\). He was elected a fellow of the [American Institute of Electrical Engineers](/wiki/American_Institute_of_Electrical_Engineers \"American Institute of Electrical Engineers\") in 1963 and served as the institute's vice president.",
"His interest in the education of teenagers made him a keen supporter of the Technion's vocational high school.",
"Ollendorff wrote books and papers on electronics, physics, mathematics, acoustics, medical electronics, technical education, and other specialized fields. His publications include Die Grundlagen der Hochfrequenztechnik (1926\\); Erdstroeme (1928\\); Die Welt der Vektoren (1950\\); and Innere Elektronik (1955\\).",
""
] |
Design and status
-----------------
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Giant Magellan Telescope rendering](/wiki/File:Giant_Magellan_Telescope_%287815_gmto_ortho_telescope_0003%29.jpg "Giant Magellan Telescope (7815 gmto ortho telescope 0003).jpg")
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Light path on GMT](/wiki/File:Light_Path_on_GMT_%28Lightpath_series%29.jpg "Light Path on GMT (Lightpath series).jpg")
The Giant Magellan Telescope’s Gregorian design will produce the highest possible image resolution of the universe over the widest field of view with only two light collecting surfaces, making it the most optically proficient of all extremely large telescopes in the 30\-meter\-class.{{cite web\|url\=https://giantmagellan.org/wp\-content/uploads/2023/04/SPIE22\.pdf\|title\=Overview and status of the Giant Magellan Telescope project\|website\=Giant Magellan \|date\=April 12, 2023}}
### Table: Performance Specifications
| Optical Prescription | Aplanatic Gregorian |
| --- | --- |
| Focal Plane Scale | 0\.997 arcseconds/mm |
| Wavelength Range | 0\.32–25 um |
| Field of View | 20 arcminute diameter |
| Primary Mirror Diameter \& Collecting Area | 25\.4 m, 368 m² |
| Primary Mirror f/\# | 0\.71 |
| Mirror f/\#Finalƒ/\# (with Wide Field Corrector) | 8\.16 \[8\.34] |
| Diffraction\-limited Angular Resolution | 0\.01 arcsecond at 1 um |
Site preparation began with the first blast to level the mountain peak on March 23, 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna46833232\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728175149/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna46833232\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 28, 2023\|title\=Construction of Giant Telescope Begins With Explosion Today: Watch Live\|website\=NBC News\|date\=March 23, 2012}} In November 2015, construction was started at the site, with a ground\-breaking ceremony. In January 2018, WSP was awarded the contract to manage construction of the Giant Magellan Telescope.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.aerospace\-technology.com/projects/giant\-magellan\-telescope/\|title\=Giant Magellan Telescope \|website\=Aerospace Technology\|date\=July 27, 2023}}
The casting of the first mirror, in a [rotating furnace](/wiki/Rotating_furnace "Rotating furnace"), was completed on November 3, 2005\.
{{Citation \| first\= Dean \| last\= Ketelsen \| title\= GMT polishing at Mirror Lab open house 14 Jan, 2012 \| date\= 2012\-01\-15
\| quote\= While guests toured the facilities, the Lab staff ran both of our polishing machines on current projects, including this view of final polishing on the first GMT segment. \| url\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=kFxiTLIiuss
\|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/kFxiTLIiuss\| archive\-date\=2021\-12\-12 \|url\-status\=live\| access\-date\= 2012\-04\-08}}{{cbignore}}{{cite press release \|title \= Mirror Casting Event for the Giant Magellan Telescope \|publisher \= GMTO \|date \= 2012\-01\-09 \|url \= http://www.gmto.org/pressrelease05\.html \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120411155021/http://www.gmto.org/pressrelease05\.html \|archive\-date \= 2012\-04\-11}} A third segment was cast in August 2013, the fourth in September 2015,{{Cite press release \| title\= Richard F. Caris Mirror Lab Casts Fourth GMT Segment \| date\= September 18, 2015
\| publisher\= GMTO \| url\= http://www.gmto.org/2015/09/richard\-f\-caris\-mirror\-lab\-casts\-fourth\-gmt\-segment/}} the fifth in 2017,{{cite press release \|title\=Giant Magellan Telescope Organization Casts Fifth Mirror \|url\=https://giantmagellan.org/2017/11/03/giant\-magellan\-telescope\-organization\-casts\-fifth\-mirror/ \|work\=Giant Magellan Telescope \|date\=3 November 2017}} the sixth in 2021, and the last in 2023\.
Polishing of the first mirror was completed in November 2012\.{{cite web \| title\= World's Most Advanced Mirror for Giant Telescope Completed \| publisher\= Australian National University \| url\= http://rsaa.anu.edu.au/news\-events/news/world%E2%80%99s\-most\-advanced\-mirror\-giant\-telescope\-completed \| access\-date\= 2012\-01\-14 \| date\= 2012\-11\-09
\| url\-status\= dead \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130314184812/http://rsaa.anu.edu.au/news\-events/news/world%E2%80%99s\-most\-advanced\-mirror\-giant\-telescope\-completed \| archive\-date\= 2013\-03\-14}}
[Ingersoll Machine Tools](/wiki/Ingersoll_Machine_Tools "Ingersoll Machine Tools") finished constructing a manufacturing facility to manufacture the Giant Magellan Telescope mount in Rockford, Illinois in December 2021\. As of 2022, construction of the telescope mount was underway. The structure is expected to be delivered to Chile at the end of 2025\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gmto.org/2019/10/giant\-magellan\-telescope\-signs\-contract\-for\-telescope\-structure/\|title\=Giant Magellan Telescope signs contract for telescope structure {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope\|date\=30 October 2019\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gmto.org/2019/12/december\-2019/\|title\=December 2019 {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}}
### Enclosure
The Giant Magellan Telescope enclosure is a 65\-meter\-tall structure that shelters the telescope’s mirrors and components from the extreme weather and earthquakes in the Atacama Desert, Chile. The 4,800\-ton enclosure can complete a full rotation in a little more than three minutes and is designed with a closed\-cycle forced\-air convection system to maintain a thermal equilibrium within the telescope enclosure and reduce ambient thermal gradients across the primary mirror surface.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference\-proceedings\-of\-spie/11445/2560856/The\-GMT\-site\-enclosure\-and\-facilities\-\-2020\-design\-and/10\.1117/12\.2560856\.short?SSO\=1\|title\=The GMT site, enclosure, and facilities: 2020 design and construction update\|website\=SPIE \|date\=December 13, 2020}}
The enclosure design provides the telescope pier with a seismic isolation system that can survive the strongest earthquakes expected over the 50\-year lifetime of the observatory and will allow the telescope to quickly return to operations after the more frequent, but less intense seismic events that are experienced several times per month.
In March 2022, engineering and architecture firm IDOM was awarded the contract to finalize the telescope’s enclosure design by 2024\.{{cite web\|url\=https://physicalsciences.uchicago.edu/news/article/giant\-magellan\-telescope\-awards\-idom\-final\-design\-of\-its\-telescope\-enclosure/\|title\=Giant Magellan Telescope Awards IDOM Final Design of its Telescope Enclosure\|website\=University of Chicago \|date\=March 8, 2022}}
### Telescope Mount
The telescope mount structure is a 39 meters tall alt\-azimuth design that will stand on a pier that is 22 meters in diameter. The structure will weigh 1,800 tons without mirrors and instruments. With mirrors and instruments, it will weigh 2,100 tons. This structure will float on a film of oil (50 microns thick), being supported by a number of hydrostatic bearings to allow the telescope mount to glide frictionlessly in three degrees of freedom.{{cite web \|url\=https://spie.org/Publications/Proceedings/Paper/10\.1117/12\.2629729?SSO\=1\|title\=The Giant Magellan Telescope mount: the core of a next generation 25\.4\-m aperture ELT\|website\=SPIE \|date\=August 29, 2022}}
In October 2019, GMTO Corporation announced the signing of a contract with German company MT Mechatronics (subsidiary of OHB SE) and Illinois\-based Ingersoll Machine Tools, to design, build and install the Giant Magellan Telescope’s structure. Ingersoll Machine Tools finished constructing a 40,000 square foot facility to manufacture the Giant Magellan Telescope mount in Rockford, Illinois in December 2021\. As of 2022, construction of the telescope mount was underway and is expected to be completed in 2025\.
The telescope mount consists of seven “cells” that hold and protect the telescope’s 18\-ton primary mirrors. The mirror support system does not have a traditional internal load\-carrying frame. Instead, the strength comes from its unique shape and external shell. This allows the telescope mount to have a compact and lightweight design for its size. It also makes the telescope extremely stiff and stable so that it can resist image quality interruptions from wind and mechanical vibrations.
The “cell” primary mirror support system contains “active optics” with [pneumatic actuators](/wiki/Pneumatic_actuators "Pneumatic actuators") that will push on the back of the primary mirrors to correct for the effects of [gravity](/wiki/Gravity "Gravity") and [temperature](/wiki/Temperature "Temperature") variations on the seven, 8\.4 meter diameter primary mirrors.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gmto.org/resources/\#wavefront\-control\|title\=Science and Technology {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope {{!}} Wavefront Control\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}} In addition, fourteen air handler units using CO2 based refrigeration – the first system of its kind used for telescopes – are mounted to the interior of the mirror support system to circulate the air.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference\-proceedings\-of\-spie/12182/121823G/Progress\-summary\-of\-the\-Giant\-Magellan\-Telescope\-primary\-mirror\-off/10\.1117/12\.2630155\.short\|title\=Progress summary of the Giant Magellan Telescope primary mirror off\-axis segment active optics control system risk reduction effort: the Test Cell\|website\=SPIE digital library\|date\=August 29, 2022}}
A closed\-cycle forced\-air convection system is used to maintain a thermal equilibrium within the telescope enclosure and reduce thermal gradients across the primary mirror surface.
As a precursor to the fabrication of the seven mirror support systems, a full\-scale prototype has also been built to validate design decisions and demonstrate the performance.
In April 2023, OHB Italia S.p.A. finished manufacturing and testing the first of seven mirror covers for the Giant Magellan. In just over two minutes, the covers will retract in unison to protect the world’s largest mirrors when not in use.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ohb\-italia.it/giant\-magellan\-telescope\-gmt\-the\-first\-xl\-cover\-is\-ready/\|title\=Giant Magellan Telescope: The first XL cover is ready \|website\=OHB Italia\|date\=March 30, 2023}}
### Primary mirrors
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Giant Magellan Telescope Primary Mirror Back Surface](/wiki/File:Giant_Magellan_Telescope_Primary_Mirror_Back_Surface.tif "Giant Magellan Telescope Primary Mirror Back Surface.tif")
{{comparison optical telescope primary mirrors.svg}}
The telescope will use seven of the world's largest mirrors as primary mirror segments, each {{convert\|8\.417\|m\|ft\|2\|abbr\=on}} in diameter. These segments will then be arranged with one mirror in the center and the other six arranged symmetrically around it. The challenge is that the outer six mirror segments will be [off\-axis](/wiki/Off-axis_optical_system "Off-axis optical system"), and although identical to each other, will not be individually radially symmetrical, necessitating a modification of the usual polishing and testing procedures.
{{Citation
\|title \= What is Optical Metrology?
\|publisher \= GMTO
\|url \= http://www.gmto.org/opticalmetrology.html
\|access\-date \= 2012\-04\-08
\|url\-status \= dead
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120328183945/http://www.gmto.org/opticalmetrology.html
\|archive\-date \= 2012\-03\-28
}}
The mirrors are being constructed by the [University of Arizona](/wiki/University_of_Arizona "University of Arizona")'s [Steward Observatory](/wiki/Steward_Observatory "Steward Observatory") Richard F. Caris Mirror Lab.{{cite web\|url\=https://mirrorlab.arizona.edu \|title\=Home \| Richard F. Caris Mirror Lab \|publisher\=Mirrorlab.arizona.edu \|date\= \|accessdate\=2022\-12\-24}}
The casting of each mirror uses 20 tons of E6 [borosilicate glass](/wiki/Borosilicate_glass "Borosilicate glass") from the [Ohara Corporation](/wiki/Ohara_Corporation "Ohara Corporation") of Japan and takes about 12–13 weeks.{{Cite news
\| first\= Kyle
\| last\= Mittan
\| title\= Steward Observatory casts second mirror for Giant Magellan Telescope
\| date\= 2012\-01\-16
\| journal\= The Daily Wildcat
\| url\= http://www.wildcat.arizona.edu/index.php/article/2012/01/steward\_observatory\_casts\_second\_mirror\_for\_giant\_magellan\_telescope
\| access\-date\= 2012\-05\-01
\| archive\-date\= 2018\-06\-19
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180619062921/http://www.wildcat.arizona.edu/index.php/article/2012/01/steward\_observatory\_casts\_second\_mirror\_for\_giant\_magellan\_telescope
\| url\-status\= dead
}} After being cast, they need to cool for about six months. Each takes approximately 4 years to cast and polish, obtaining a finish that is so smooth that the highest peaks and valleys are smaller than 1/1000 of the width of a human hair.
As this was an off\-axis segment, a wide array of new optical tests and laboratory infrastructure had to be developed to polish the mirror.
The intention is to build seven identical off\-axis mirrors, so that a spare is available to substitute for a segment being recoated, a 1–2 week (per segment) process required every 1–2 years.
{{cite book
\|title \= GMT Conceptual Design Report
\|date \= February 2006
\|at \= p. 7\-17 § 7\.4\.5
\|chapter \= Telescope Structure
\|url \= http://www.gmto.org/science\-conceptu.html
\|access\-date \= 2007\-10\-07
\|chapter\-url \= http://www.gmto.org/Resources/GMT\-ID\-01468\-Chapter\_7\_Telescope\_Structure.pdf
\|quote \= The center segment and cell will not have a spare, thus observations will be interrupted every one or two years for the 1–2 week period required to recoat that mirror.
\|url\-status \= dead
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120328184715/http://www.gmto.org/science\-conceptu.html
\|archive\-date \= 2012\-03\-28
}}
While the complete telescope will use seven mirrors, it is planned to begin operation with four mirrors.
Segments 1–3 are complete. Segments 4–6 are undergoing polishing and testing. Segment 7 was planned for casting in 2023\.
The primary mirror array will have a [focal ratio](/wiki/Focal_ratio "Focal ratio") (focal length divided by diameter) of f/0\.71\. For an individual segment – one third that diameter – this results in a focal ratio of f/2\.14\.
{{Citation
\|title \= Mirror Castings
\|author \= Steward Observatory Mirror Lab
\|author\-link \= Steward Observatory
\|url \= http://mirrorlab.as.arizona.edu/castings
\|access\-date \= 2012\-04\-08
\|url\-status \= dead
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120623212836/http://mirrorlab.as.arizona.edu/castings
\|archive\-date \= 2012\-06\-23
}}
The overall focal ratio of the complete telescope will be f/8 and the optical prescription is an aplanatic [Gregorian telescope](/wiki/Gregorian_telescope "Gregorian telescope"). Like all modern large telescopes it will make use of [adaptive optics](/wiki/Adaptive_optics "Adaptive optics").
{{Citation
\|title \= GMT Conceptual Design Report
\|year \= 2006
\|contribution \= Chapter 2: Overview
\|contribution\-url \= http://www.gmto.org/Resources/GMT\-ID\-01463\-Chapter\_2\_Overview.pdf
\|quote \= GMT is designed from the outset around adaptive optics (AO) with the goal of producing diffraction limited images at 1 μm and longer wavelengths.
\|at \= p. 2\-4 § 2\.5\.1
\|url \= http://www.gmto.org/science\-conceptu.html
\|access\-date \= 2012\-03\-25
\|url\-status \= dead
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120328184715/http://www.gmto.org/science\-conceptu.html
\|archive\-date \= 2012\-03\-28
}}
{{cite journal
\| last \= Hippler
\| first \= Stefan
\| title \= Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes
\| journal \= \[\[Journal of Astronomical Instrumentation]]
\| volume \= 8
\| issue \= 2
\| pages \= 1950001–322
\| date \= 2019
\| doi \= 10\.1142/S2251171719500016
\| bibcode \= 2019JAI.....850001H\| arxiv \= 1808\.02693
\| s2cid \= 119505402
}}
Scientists expect very high quality images due to the very large aperture and advanced adaptive optics. Image quality is projected at a 20 arcminute field of view, correctable from 0–20 arcminutes. The images will be sharp enough to resolve the torch engraved on a U.S. dime from nearly 160 kilometers (100 miles) away and expected to exceed that of the [Hubble Space Telescope](/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope "Hubble Space Telescope").{{cite news \|last\=Amos \|first\=Jonathan \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/science\-environment\-32984957 \|title\=Magellan super\-scope gets green light for construction \|work\=BBC News \|date\=3 June 2015 \|access\-date\=2015\-06\-04 }}
The Carnegie Observatories office in Pasadena has an outline of the Giant Magellan primary mirror array painted in its parking lot. It is easily visible in satellite imagery at {{CoordDec\|34\.15591\|\-118\.13345\|region:US\-CA\_type:landmark\_dim:50\|name\=Giant Magellan Telescope outline drawing}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gmto.org/2018/01/giant\-magellan\-telescope\-organization\-names\-wsp\-as\-construction\-manager/\|title\=Giant Magellan Telescope Organization names WSP as Construction Manager\|date\=January 11, 2018\|website\=www.gmto.org\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-25}}
### Secondary mirrors and adaptive optics
[thumb\|upright\|GMT secondary mirrors rendering](/wiki/File:The_Giant_Magellan_Telescope_Interior_Illustration_%28noirlab2128k%29.jpg "The Giant Magellan Telescope Interior Illustration (noirlab2128k).jpg")
The Giant Magellan Telescope’s Adaptive Secondary Mirror consists of seven segments about 1\.1 meters in diameter. They are deformable “adaptive optics” mirrors tasked with correcting the atmospheric distortion of the light gathered by the telescope. The Adaptive Secondary Mirrors consist of a thin sheet of glass that is bonded to more than 7000 independently controlled voice coil actuators. Each segment can deform/reshape their 2\-millimeter\-thick surface 2,000 times per second to correct for the optical blurring effect of Earth’s atmosphere.
The first segment is under construction as of August 2022 and will be completed in 2024\.
The Giant Magellan Telescope will have three modes of adaptive optics.
* Ground Layer Adaptive Optics (GLAO): The Gregorian design and integrated adaptive optics system allow ground layer atmospheric turbulence to be corrected over a wide field of view, improving natural seeing image quality by 20–50% from the visible to near\-infrared (with the greatest improvements at red wavelengths). The Giant Magellan uses wavefront sensors that allow any instrument to receive GLAO corrected images.
* Natural Guide Star Adaptive Optics (NGAO): NGAO uses a single natural guide star (bright) to deliver diffraction limited, high Strehl ratio images (\>75 % Strehl in the K band) at wavelengths from 0\.6 μm into the mid\-infrared over a field of view a few arcseconds in diameter.
* Laser Tomography Adaptive Optics (LTAO): LTAO uses six laser guide stars and a single natural guide star (faint) to extend diraction\-limited performance to nearly the full sky with moderate Strehl ratio (\>30 % Strehl in the H band) at infrared wavelengths over a much wider field of view than NGAO (\~20” at 1μm) and is available to any instrument designed to use this mode.
The Giant Magellan is the only 30\-meter class telescope with ground layer adaptive optics over a full field of view.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.staging.giantmagellan.org/wp\-content/uploads/2021/11/GMTScienceBook2018\.pdf\|title\=Science Book 2018\|website\=Giant Magellan\|date\=December 1, 2018\|access\-date\=June 30, 2023\|archive\-date\=June 4, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604200117/https://www.staging.giantmagellan.org/wp\-content/uploads/2021/11/GMTScienceBook2018\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Science instruments
The Giant Magellan Telescope's Gregorian design can accommodate up to 10 visible to mid\-infrared science instruments, from wide field imagers and spectrographs that reach hundreds of objects at one time, to high\-resolution imagers and spectrographs that can study exoplanets and even find [biosignatures](/wiki/Biosignatures "Biosignatures"). Each science instrument is designed to take advantage of the telescope’s four observing modes.
The telescope will have an advanced fiber\-optic system that uses tiny robotic positioners to expand the capabilities of the spectrographs by allowing them to access the highest resolution of all telescopes in the 30\-meter class over a full field of view of 20 arcminutes. Using this system, it is possible to observe multiple targets over the entire field with one or more of the spectrographs This enables the telescope to see fainter objects with unrivaled resolution and sensitivity. The advantage is extremely powerful for spectroscopy and the precise measurements of distances, dynamics, chemistry, and masses of celestial objects in deep space.
* GMT\-Consortium Large Earth Finder (G\-CLEF) – an optical band echelle spectrograph{{cite web\|url\=http://gclef.cfa.harvard.edu/\|title\=G\-CLEF – The GMT\-Consortium Large Earth Finder\|website\=gclef.cfa.harvard.edu\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}}
* GMT Multi\-object Astronomical and Cosmological Spectrograph (GMACS) – a visible multi\-object spectrograph{{cite web \|title\=GMACS – Texas A\&M Astronomical Instrumentation \|url\=https://instrumentation.tamu.edu/gmacs.html \|website\=Texas A\&M University, College Station, TX}}
* GMT Integral\-Field Spectrograph (GMTIFS) – a near\-IR IFU and AO imager{{cite web\|url\=https://rsaa.anu.edu.au/research/established\-projects/giant\-magellan\-telescope\-integral\-field\-spectrograph\-gmtifs\|title\=Giant Magellan Telescope Integral\-Field Spectrograph (GMTIFS)\|last1\=Director\|first1\=RSAA\|last2\=webmaster@mso.anu.edu.au\|website\=rsaa.anu.edu.au\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}}
* GMT Near\-IR Spectrograph (GMTNIRS) – a near\-IR spectrograph{{cite web\|url\=http://www.as.utexas.edu/astronomy/research/people/jaffe/gmtnirs.html\|title\=GMTNIRS\|website\=www.as.utexas.edu\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}}
* The Many Instrument Fiber System (MANIFEST) – a facility fiber system{{cite web\|url\=https://www.aao.gov.au/technology/new\-instruments/manifest\|title\=MANIFEST {{!}} Australian Astronomical Observatory\|website\=Australian Astronomical Observatory\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04\|archive\-date\=2020\-12\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202164043/https://www.aao.gov.au/technology/new\-instruments/manifest\|url\-status\=dead}}
Additionally the Commissioning Camera (ComCam) will be used to validate the Ground Layer Adaptive Optics performance of the GMT facility Adaptive Optics System.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gmto.org/resources/commissioning\-camera\-comcam/\|title\=Commissioning Camera – ComCam {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}}
Science drivers for the Giant Magellan Telescope include studying planets in the habitable zones of their parent star in the search for life; the nature of dark matter, dark energy, gravity, and many other aspects of fundamental physics; the formation and evolution of the first stars and galaxies; and how black holes and galaxies co\-evolve.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gmto.org/resources/\#adaptive\-optics\|title\=Science and Technology {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope {{!}} Adaptive Optics\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-04}}
|
[
"Design and status\n-----------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Giant Magellan Telescope rendering](/wiki/File:Giant_Magellan_Telescope_%287815_gmto_ortho_telescope_0003%29.jpg \"Giant Magellan Telescope (7815 gmto ortho telescope 0003).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Light path on GMT](/wiki/File:Light_Path_on_GMT_%28Lightpath_series%29.jpg \"Light Path on GMT (Lightpath series).jpg\")\nThe Giant Magellan Telescope’s Gregorian design will produce the highest possible image resolution of the universe over the widest field of view with only two light collecting surfaces, making it the most optically proficient of all extremely large telescopes in the 30\\-meter\\-class.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://giantmagellan.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/04/SPIE22\\.pdf\\|title\\=Overview and status of the Giant Magellan Telescope project\\|website\\=Giant Magellan \\|date\\=April 12, 2023}}",
"### Table: Performance Specifications",
"",
"| Optical Prescription | Aplanatic Gregorian |\n| --- | --- |\n| Focal Plane Scale | 0\\.997 arcseconds/mm |\n| Wavelength Range | 0\\.32–25 um |\n| Field of View | 20 arcminute diameter |\n| Primary Mirror Diameter \\& Collecting Area | 25\\.4 m, 368 m² |\n| Primary Mirror f/\\# | 0\\.71 |\n| Mirror f/\\#Finalƒ/\\# (with Wide Field Corrector) | 8\\.16 \\[8\\.34] |\n| Diffraction\\-limited Angular Resolution | 0\\.01 arcsecond at 1 um |",
"Site preparation began with the first blast to level the mountain peak on March 23, 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna46833232\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728175149/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna46833232\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 28, 2023\\|title\\=Construction of Giant Telescope Begins With Explosion Today: Watch Live\\|website\\=NBC News\\|date\\=March 23, 2012}} In November 2015, construction was started at the site, with a ground\\-breaking ceremony. In January 2018, WSP was awarded the contract to manage construction of the Giant Magellan Telescope.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.aerospace\\-technology.com/projects/giant\\-magellan\\-telescope/\\|title\\=Giant Magellan Telescope \\|website\\=Aerospace Technology\\|date\\=July 27, 2023}}",
"The casting of the first mirror, in a [rotating furnace](/wiki/Rotating_furnace \"Rotating furnace\"), was completed on November 3, 2005\\.\n{{Citation \\| first\\= Dean \\| last\\= Ketelsen \\| title\\= GMT polishing at Mirror Lab open house 14 Jan, 2012 \\| date\\= 2012\\-01\\-15\n \\| quote\\= While guests toured the facilities, the Lab staff ran both of our polishing machines on current projects, including this view of final polishing on the first GMT segment. \\| url\\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=kFxiTLIiuss\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/kFxiTLIiuss\\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\| access\\-date\\= 2012\\-04\\-08}}{{cbignore}}{{cite press release \\|title \\= Mirror Casting Event for the Giant Magellan Telescope \\|publisher \\= GMTO \\|date \\= 2012\\-01\\-09 \\|url \\= http://www.gmto.org/pressrelease05\\.html \\|url\\-status \\= dead \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120411155021/http://www.gmto.org/pressrelease05\\.html \\|archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-04\\-11}} A third segment was cast in August 2013, the fourth in September 2015,{{Cite press release \\| title\\= Richard F. Caris Mirror Lab Casts Fourth GMT Segment \\| date\\= September 18, 2015\n \\| publisher\\= GMTO \\| url\\= http://www.gmto.org/2015/09/richard\\-f\\-caris\\-mirror\\-lab\\-casts\\-fourth\\-gmt\\-segment/}} the fifth in 2017,{{cite press release \\|title\\=Giant Magellan Telescope Organization Casts Fifth Mirror \\|url\\=https://giantmagellan.org/2017/11/03/giant\\-magellan\\-telescope\\-organization\\-casts\\-fifth\\-mirror/ \\|work\\=Giant Magellan Telescope \\|date\\=3 November 2017}} the sixth in 2021, and the last in 2023\\.",
"Polishing of the first mirror was completed in November 2012\\.{{cite web \\| title\\= World's Most Advanced Mirror for Giant Telescope Completed \\| publisher\\= Australian National University \\| url\\= http://rsaa.anu.edu.au/news\\-events/news/world%E2%80%99s\\-most\\-advanced\\-mirror\\-giant\\-telescope\\-completed \\| access\\-date\\= 2012\\-01\\-14 \\| date\\= 2012\\-11\\-09\n \\| url\\-status\\= dead \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130314184812/http://rsaa.anu.edu.au/news\\-events/news/world%E2%80%99s\\-most\\-advanced\\-mirror\\-giant\\-telescope\\-completed \\| archive\\-date\\= 2013\\-03\\-14}}",
"[Ingersoll Machine Tools](/wiki/Ingersoll_Machine_Tools \"Ingersoll Machine Tools\") finished constructing a manufacturing facility to manufacture the Giant Magellan Telescope mount in Rockford, Illinois in December 2021\\. As of 2022, construction of the telescope mount was underway. The structure is expected to be delivered to Chile at the end of 2025\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gmto.org/2019/10/giant\\-magellan\\-telescope\\-signs\\-contract\\-for\\-telescope\\-structure/\\|title\\=Giant Magellan Telescope signs contract for telescope structure {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope\\|date\\=30 October 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gmto.org/2019/12/december\\-2019/\\|title\\=December 2019 {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}}",
"### Enclosure",
"The Giant Magellan Telescope enclosure is a 65\\-meter\\-tall structure that shelters the telescope’s mirrors and components from the extreme weather and earthquakes in the Atacama Desert, Chile. The 4,800\\-ton enclosure can complete a full rotation in a little more than three minutes and is designed with a closed\\-cycle forced\\-air convection system to maintain a thermal equilibrium within the telescope enclosure and reduce ambient thermal gradients across the primary mirror surface.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference\\-proceedings\\-of\\-spie/11445/2560856/The\\-GMT\\-site\\-enclosure\\-and\\-facilities\\-\\-2020\\-design\\-and/10\\.1117/12\\.2560856\\.short?SSO\\=1\\|title\\=The GMT site, enclosure, and facilities: 2020 design and construction update\\|website\\=SPIE \\|date\\=December 13, 2020}}",
"The enclosure design provides the telescope pier with a seismic isolation system that can survive the strongest earthquakes expected over the 50\\-year lifetime of the observatory and will allow the telescope to quickly return to operations after the more frequent, but less intense seismic events that are experienced several times per month.",
"In March 2022, engineering and architecture firm IDOM was awarded the contract to finalize the telescope’s enclosure design by 2024\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://physicalsciences.uchicago.edu/news/article/giant\\-magellan\\-telescope\\-awards\\-idom\\-final\\-design\\-of\\-its\\-telescope\\-enclosure/\\|title\\=Giant Magellan Telescope Awards IDOM Final Design of its Telescope Enclosure\\|website\\=University of Chicago \\|date\\=March 8, 2022}}",
"### Telescope Mount",
"The telescope mount structure is a 39 meters tall alt\\-azimuth design that will stand on a pier that is 22 meters in diameter. The structure will weigh 1,800 tons without mirrors and instruments. With mirrors and instruments, it will weigh 2,100 tons. This structure will float on a film of oil (50 microns thick), being supported by a number of hydrostatic bearings to allow the telescope mount to glide frictionlessly in three degrees of freedom.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://spie.org/Publications/Proceedings/Paper/10\\.1117/12\\.2629729?SSO\\=1\\|title\\=The Giant Magellan Telescope mount: the core of a next generation 25\\.4\\-m aperture ELT\\|website\\=SPIE \\|date\\=August 29, 2022}}",
"In October 2019, GMTO Corporation announced the signing of a contract with German company MT Mechatronics (subsidiary of OHB SE) and Illinois\\-based Ingersoll Machine Tools, to design, build and install the Giant Magellan Telescope’s structure. Ingersoll Machine Tools finished constructing a 40,000 square foot facility to manufacture the Giant Magellan Telescope mount in Rockford, Illinois in December 2021\\. As of 2022, construction of the telescope mount was underway and is expected to be completed in 2025\\.",
"The telescope mount consists of seven “cells” that hold and protect the telescope’s 18\\-ton primary mirrors. The mirror support system does not have a traditional internal load\\-carrying frame. Instead, the strength comes from its unique shape and external shell. This allows the telescope mount to have a compact and lightweight design for its size. It also makes the telescope extremely stiff and stable so that it can resist image quality interruptions from wind and mechanical vibrations.",
"The “cell” primary mirror support system contains “active optics” with [pneumatic actuators](/wiki/Pneumatic_actuators \"Pneumatic actuators\") that will push on the back of the primary mirrors to correct for the effects of [gravity](/wiki/Gravity \"Gravity\") and [temperature](/wiki/Temperature \"Temperature\") variations on the seven, 8\\.4 meter diameter primary mirrors.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gmto.org/resources/\\#wavefront\\-control\\|title\\=Science and Technology {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope {{!}} Wavefront Control\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}} In addition, fourteen air handler units using CO2 based refrigeration – the first system of its kind used for telescopes – are mounted to the interior of the mirror support system to circulate the air.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference\\-proceedings\\-of\\-spie/12182/121823G/Progress\\-summary\\-of\\-the\\-Giant\\-Magellan\\-Telescope\\-primary\\-mirror\\-off/10\\.1117/12\\.2630155\\.short\\|title\\=Progress summary of the Giant Magellan Telescope primary mirror off\\-axis segment active optics control system risk reduction effort: the Test Cell\\|website\\=SPIE digital library\\|date\\=August 29, 2022}}",
"A closed\\-cycle forced\\-air convection system is used to maintain a thermal equilibrium within the telescope enclosure and reduce thermal gradients across the primary mirror surface.",
"As a precursor to the fabrication of the seven mirror support systems, a full\\-scale prototype has also been built to validate design decisions and demonstrate the performance.",
"In April 2023, OHB Italia S.p.A. finished manufacturing and testing the first of seven mirror covers for the Giant Magellan. In just over two minutes, the covers will retract in unison to protect the world’s largest mirrors when not in use.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ohb\\-italia.it/giant\\-magellan\\-telescope\\-gmt\\-the\\-first\\-xl\\-cover\\-is\\-ready/\\|title\\=Giant Magellan Telescope: The first XL cover is ready \\|website\\=OHB Italia\\|date\\=March 30, 2023}}",
"### Primary mirrors",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Giant Magellan Telescope Primary Mirror Back Surface](/wiki/File:Giant_Magellan_Telescope_Primary_Mirror_Back_Surface.tif \"Giant Magellan Telescope Primary Mirror Back Surface.tif\")\n{{comparison optical telescope primary mirrors.svg}}",
"The telescope will use seven of the world's largest mirrors as primary mirror segments, each {{convert\\|8\\.417\\|m\\|ft\\|2\\|abbr\\=on}} in diameter. These segments will then be arranged with one mirror in the center and the other six arranged symmetrically around it. The challenge is that the outer six mirror segments will be [off\\-axis](/wiki/Off-axis_optical_system \"Off-axis optical system\"), and although identical to each other, will not be individually radially symmetrical, necessitating a modification of the usual polishing and testing procedures.\n{{Citation\n \\|title \\= What is Optical Metrology?\n \\|publisher \\= GMTO\n \\|url \\= http://www.gmto.org/opticalmetrology.html\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2012\\-04\\-08\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120328183945/http://www.gmto.org/opticalmetrology.html\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-03\\-28\n}}",
"",
"The mirrors are being constructed by the [University of Arizona](/wiki/University_of_Arizona \"University of Arizona\")'s [Steward Observatory](/wiki/Steward_Observatory \"Steward Observatory\") Richard F. Caris Mirror Lab.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mirrorlab.arizona.edu \\|title\\=Home \\| Richard F. Caris Mirror Lab \\|publisher\\=Mirrorlab.arizona.edu \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-12\\-24}}",
"The casting of each mirror uses 20 tons of E6 [borosilicate glass](/wiki/Borosilicate_glass \"Borosilicate glass\") from the [Ohara Corporation](/wiki/Ohara_Corporation \"Ohara Corporation\") of Japan and takes about 12–13 weeks.{{Cite news\n \\| first\\= Kyle\n \\| last\\= Mittan\n \\| title\\= Steward Observatory casts second mirror for Giant Magellan Telescope\n \\| date\\= 2012\\-01\\-16\n \\| journal\\= The Daily Wildcat\n \\| url\\= http://www.wildcat.arizona.edu/index.php/article/2012/01/steward\\_observatory\\_casts\\_second\\_mirror\\_for\\_giant\\_magellan\\_telescope\n \\| access\\-date\\= 2012\\-05\\-01\n \\| archive\\-date\\= 2018\\-06\\-19\n \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180619062921/http://www.wildcat.arizona.edu/index.php/article/2012/01/steward\\_observatory\\_casts\\_second\\_mirror\\_for\\_giant\\_magellan\\_telescope\n \\| url\\-status\\= dead\n }} After being cast, they need to cool for about six months. Each takes approximately 4 years to cast and polish, obtaining a finish that is so smooth that the highest peaks and valleys are smaller than 1/1000 of the width of a human hair.",
"As this was an off\\-axis segment, a wide array of new optical tests and laboratory infrastructure had to be developed to polish the mirror.",
"The intention is to build seven identical off\\-axis mirrors, so that a spare is available to substitute for a segment being recoated, a 1–2 week (per segment) process required every 1–2 years.\n{{cite book\n \\|title \\= GMT Conceptual Design Report\n \\|date \\= February 2006\n \\|at \\= p. 7\\-17 § 7\\.4\\.5\n \\|chapter \\= Telescope Structure\n \\|url \\= http://www.gmto.org/science\\-conceptu.html\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2007\\-10\\-07\n \\|chapter\\-url \\= http://www.gmto.org/Resources/GMT\\-ID\\-01468\\-Chapter\\_7\\_Telescope\\_Structure.pdf\n \\|quote \\= The center segment and cell will not have a spare, thus observations will be interrupted every one or two years for the 1–2 week period required to recoat that mirror.\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120328184715/http://www.gmto.org/science\\-conceptu.html\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-03\\-28\n}}\n While the complete telescope will use seven mirrors, it is planned to begin operation with four mirrors.",
"Segments 1–3 are complete. Segments 4–6 are undergoing polishing and testing. Segment 7 was planned for casting in 2023\\.",
"The primary mirror array will have a [focal ratio](/wiki/Focal_ratio \"Focal ratio\") (focal length divided by diameter) of f/0\\.71\\. For an individual segment – one third that diameter – this results in a focal ratio of f/2\\.14\\.\n{{Citation\n \\|title \\= Mirror Castings\n \\|author \\= Steward Observatory Mirror Lab\n \\|author\\-link \\= Steward Observatory\n \\|url \\= http://mirrorlab.as.arizona.edu/castings\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2012\\-04\\-08\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120623212836/http://mirrorlab.as.arizona.edu/castings\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-06\\-23\n}}\n The overall focal ratio of the complete telescope will be f/8 and the optical prescription is an aplanatic [Gregorian telescope](/wiki/Gregorian_telescope \"Gregorian telescope\"). Like all modern large telescopes it will make use of [adaptive optics](/wiki/Adaptive_optics \"Adaptive optics\").\n{{Citation\n \\|title \\= GMT Conceptual Design Report\n \\|year \\= 2006\n \\|contribution \\= Chapter 2: Overview\n \\|contribution\\-url \\= http://www.gmto.org/Resources/GMT\\-ID\\-01463\\-Chapter\\_2\\_Overview.pdf\n \\|quote \\= GMT is designed from the outset around adaptive optics (AO) with the goal of producing diffraction limited images at 1 μm and longer wavelengths.\n \\|at \\= p. 2\\-4 § 2\\.5\\.1\n \\|url \\= http://www.gmto.org/science\\-conceptu.html\n \\|access\\-date \\= 2012\\-03\\-25\n \\|url\\-status \\= dead\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120328184715/http://www.gmto.org/science\\-conceptu.html\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2012\\-03\\-28\n}}\n{{cite journal\n \\| last \\= Hippler\n \\| first \\= Stefan\n \\| title \\= Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes\n \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Journal of Astronomical Instrumentation]]\n \\| volume \\= 8\n \\| issue \\= 2\n \\| pages \\= 1950001–322\n \\| date \\= 2019\n \\| doi \\= 10\\.1142/S2251171719500016\n \\| bibcode \\= 2019JAI.....850001H\\| arxiv \\= 1808\\.02693\n \\| s2cid \\= 119505402\n }}",
"Scientists expect very high quality images due to the very large aperture and advanced adaptive optics. Image quality is projected at a 20 arcminute field of view, correctable from 0–20 arcminutes. The images will be sharp enough to resolve the torch engraved on a U.S. dime from nearly 160 kilometers (100 miles) away and expected to exceed that of the [Hubble Space Telescope](/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope \"Hubble Space Telescope\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Amos \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/science\\-environment\\-32984957 \\|title\\=Magellan super\\-scope gets green light for construction \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=3 June 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-06\\-04 }}\n \nThe Carnegie Observatories office in Pasadena has an outline of the Giant Magellan primary mirror array painted in its parking lot. It is easily visible in satellite imagery at {{CoordDec\\|34\\.15591\\|\\-118\\.13345\\|region:US\\-CA\\_type:landmark\\_dim:50\\|name\\=Giant Magellan Telescope outline drawing}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gmto.org/2018/01/giant\\-magellan\\-telescope\\-organization\\-names\\-wsp\\-as\\-construction\\-manager/\\|title\\=Giant Magellan Telescope Organization names WSP as Construction Manager\\|date\\=January 11, 2018\\|website\\=www.gmto.org\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-25}}",
"### Secondary mirrors and adaptive optics",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|GMT secondary mirrors rendering](/wiki/File:The_Giant_Magellan_Telescope_Interior_Illustration_%28noirlab2128k%29.jpg \"The Giant Magellan Telescope Interior Illustration (noirlab2128k).jpg\")\nThe Giant Magellan Telescope’s Adaptive Secondary Mirror consists of seven segments about 1\\.1 meters in diameter. They are deformable “adaptive optics” mirrors tasked with correcting the atmospheric distortion of the light gathered by the telescope. The Adaptive Secondary Mirrors consist of a thin sheet of glass that is bonded to more than 7000 independently controlled voice coil actuators. Each segment can deform/reshape their 2\\-millimeter\\-thick surface 2,000 times per second to correct for the optical blurring effect of Earth’s atmosphere.",
"The first segment is under construction as of August 2022 and will be completed in 2024\\.",
"The Giant Magellan Telescope will have three modes of adaptive optics.",
"* Ground Layer Adaptive Optics (GLAO): The Gregorian design and integrated adaptive optics system allow ground layer atmospheric turbulence to be corrected over a wide field of view, improving natural seeing image quality by 20–50% from the visible to near\\-infrared (with the greatest improvements at red wavelengths). The Giant Magellan uses wavefront sensors that allow any instrument to receive GLAO corrected images.\n* Natural Guide Star Adaptive Optics (NGAO): NGAO uses a single natural guide star (bright) to deliver diffraction limited, high Strehl ratio images (\\>75 % Strehl in the K band) at wavelengths from 0\\.6 μm into the mid\\-infrared over a field of view a few arcseconds in diameter.\n* Laser Tomography Adaptive Optics (LTAO): LTAO uses six laser guide stars and a single natural guide star (faint) to extend diraction\\-limited performance to nearly the full sky with moderate Strehl ratio (\\>30 % Strehl in the H band) at infrared wavelengths over a much wider field of view than NGAO (\\~20” at 1μm) and is available to any instrument designed to use this mode.",
"The Giant Magellan is the only 30\\-meter class telescope with ground layer adaptive optics over a full field of view.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.staging.giantmagellan.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2021/11/GMTScienceBook2018\\.pdf\\|title\\=Science Book 2018\\|website\\=Giant Magellan\\|date\\=December 1, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=June 4, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604200117/https://www.staging.giantmagellan.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2021/11/GMTScienceBook2018\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Science instruments",
"The Giant Magellan Telescope's Gregorian design can accommodate up to 10 visible to mid\\-infrared science instruments, from wide field imagers and spectrographs that reach hundreds of objects at one time, to high\\-resolution imagers and spectrographs that can study exoplanets and even find [biosignatures](/wiki/Biosignatures \"Biosignatures\"). Each science instrument is designed to take advantage of the telescope’s four observing modes.",
"The telescope will have an advanced fiber\\-optic system that uses tiny robotic positioners to expand the capabilities of the spectrographs by allowing them to access the highest resolution of all telescopes in the 30\\-meter class over a full field of view of 20 arcminutes. Using this system, it is possible to observe multiple targets over the entire field with one or more of the spectrographs This enables the telescope to see fainter objects with unrivaled resolution and sensitivity. The advantage is extremely powerful for spectroscopy and the precise measurements of distances, dynamics, chemistry, and masses of celestial objects in deep space.\n* GMT\\-Consortium Large Earth Finder (G\\-CLEF) – an optical band echelle spectrograph{{cite web\\|url\\=http://gclef.cfa.harvard.edu/\\|title\\=G\\-CLEF – The GMT\\-Consortium Large Earth Finder\\|website\\=gclef.cfa.harvard.edu\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}}\n* GMT Multi\\-object Astronomical and Cosmological Spectrograph (GMACS) – a visible multi\\-object spectrograph{{cite web \\|title\\=GMACS – Texas A\\&M Astronomical Instrumentation \\|url\\=https://instrumentation.tamu.edu/gmacs.html \\|website\\=Texas A\\&M University, College Station, TX}}\n* GMT Integral\\-Field Spectrograph (GMTIFS) – a near\\-IR IFU and AO imager{{cite web\\|url\\=https://rsaa.anu.edu.au/research/established\\-projects/giant\\-magellan\\-telescope\\-integral\\-field\\-spectrograph\\-gmtifs\\|title\\=Giant Magellan Telescope Integral\\-Field Spectrograph (GMTIFS)\\|last1\\=Director\\|first1\\=RSAA\\|last2\\=webmaster@mso.anu.edu.au\\|website\\=rsaa.anu.edu.au\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}}\n* GMT Near\\-IR Spectrograph (GMTNIRS) – a near\\-IR spectrograph{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.as.utexas.edu/astronomy/research/people/jaffe/gmtnirs.html\\|title\\=GMTNIRS\\|website\\=www.as.utexas.edu\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}}\n* The Many Instrument Fiber System (MANIFEST) – a facility fiber system{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.aao.gov.au/technology/new\\-instruments/manifest\\|title\\=MANIFEST {{!}} Australian Astronomical Observatory\\|website\\=Australian Astronomical Observatory\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202164043/https://www.aao.gov.au/technology/new\\-instruments/manifest\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Additionally the Commissioning Camera (ComCam) will be used to validate the Ground Layer Adaptive Optics performance of the GMT facility Adaptive Optics System.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gmto.org/resources/commissioning\\-camera\\-comcam/\\|title\\=Commissioning Camera – ComCam {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}}",
"Science drivers for the Giant Magellan Telescope include studying planets in the habitable zones of their parent star in the search for life; the nature of dark matter, dark energy, gravity, and many other aspects of fundamental physics; the formation and evolution of the first stars and galaxies; and how black holes and galaxies co\\-evolve.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gmto.org/resources/\\#adaptive\\-optics\\|title\\=Science and Technology {{!}} Giant Magellan Telescope {{!}} Adaptive Optics\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-04}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
{{More citations needed section\|date\=August 2022}}
Karl Baedeker was born in [Essen](/wiki/Essen "Essen"), then in the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia"), on 3 November 1801\.
After his schooling in [Hagen](/wiki/Hagen "Hagen"), he left home in 1817 to study humanities in Heidelberg where he also worked for a while at the leading local bookseller J.C.B. Mohr. Military service followed, after which he moved to Berlin where he worked as an assistant at Georg Andreas Reimer, one of the leading booksellers in the city, from 1823 to 1825\. He then returned home to [Essen](/wiki/Essen "Essen") and worked with his father until 1827 when he left for [Coblence](/wiki/Coblence "Coblence") to start his own bookselling and publishing business. [Essen](/wiki/Essen "Essen") was then a small town with about 4000 inhabitants and he felt that [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz "Koblenz"), which was not only larger, but was also the capital of the [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") province of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") and a hub for tourism, had far more to offer.
In 1832, Baedeker's firm acquired the publishing house of Franz Friedrich Röhling in Koblenz, which in 1828 had published a handbook for travellers by Professor Oyvind Vorland entitled *Rheinreise von Mainz bis Cöln; ein Handbuch für Schnellreisende* (*A Rhine Journey from [Mainz](/wiki/Mainz "Mainz") to [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne "Cologne"); A Handbook for Travellers on the Move*). This book provided the seeds for Baedeker's own travel guides. After Klein died and the book went out of print, he decided to publish a new edition, incorporating some of Klein's material but also added many of his own ideas into what he thought a travel guide should offer the traveller or reader. Baedeker's ultimate aim was to free the traveller from having to look for information anywhere outside the travel guide: about routes, transport, accommodation, restaurants, tipping, sights, walks and, of course, prices. In short, the lot.
While the travel guide was not something new (Baedeker emulated the style of English [guide books](/wiki/Murray%27s_Handbooks_for_Travellers "Murray's Handbooks for Travellers") published by [John Murray](/wiki/John_Murray_%28publishing_house%29 "John Murray (publishing house)"){{Cite EB1911\|wstitle\=Baedeker, Karl}}), the inclusion of detailed information on routes, travel and accommodation was an [innovation](/wiki/Innovation "Innovation").
Baedeker was always generous in acknowledging the part [John Murray III](/wiki/John_Murray_III "John Murray III") had played in nurturing his outlook on the future development of his guides. As a bookseller in [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz "Koblenz"), he had often seen tourists enter his bookshop, either carrying a red Murray guide or looking for one. At the time, [John Murray III](/wiki/John_Murray_III "John Murray III") was the leader in the field, but Baedeker was about to change that. He is often referred to as the 'father of modern tourism'.
In 1846, Baedeker introduced his famous 'star' ratings
(for sights, attractions and lodgings) in the third edition of his *Handbuch für Reisende durch Deutschland und den Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaat* \- an idea based on the Murray guides star system. This edition was also his first 'experimental' red guide. He also decided to call his travel guides 'handbooks', following the example of [John Murray III](/wiki/John_Murray_III "John Murray III"). Baedeker's early guides had tan covers, but from 1856 onwards, Murray's red bindings and gilt lettering became the familiar hallmark of all Baedeker guides as well, and the content became famous for its clarity, detail and accuracy.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2022}}\nKarl Baedeker was born in [Essen](/wiki/Essen \"Essen\"), then in the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\"), on 3 November 1801\\.",
"After his schooling in [Hagen](/wiki/Hagen \"Hagen\"), he left home in 1817 to study humanities in Heidelberg where he also worked for a while at the leading local bookseller J.C.B. Mohr. Military service followed, after which he moved to Berlin where he worked as an assistant at Georg Andreas Reimer, one of the leading booksellers in the city, from 1823 to 1825\\. He then returned home to [Essen](/wiki/Essen \"Essen\") and worked with his father until 1827 when he left for [Coblence](/wiki/Coblence \"Coblence\") to start his own bookselling and publishing business. [Essen](/wiki/Essen \"Essen\") was then a small town with about 4000 inhabitants and he felt that [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz \"Koblenz\"), which was not only larger, but was also the capital of the [Prussian](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") province of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") and a hub for tourism, had far more to offer.",
"In 1832, Baedeker's firm acquired the publishing house of Franz Friedrich Röhling in Koblenz, which in 1828 had published a handbook for travellers by Professor Oyvind Vorland entitled *Rheinreise von Mainz bis Cöln; ein Handbuch für Schnellreisende* (*A Rhine Journey from [Mainz](/wiki/Mainz \"Mainz\") to [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne \"Cologne\"); A Handbook for Travellers on the Move*). This book provided the seeds for Baedeker's own travel guides. After Klein died and the book went out of print, he decided to publish a new edition, incorporating some of Klein's material but also added many of his own ideas into what he thought a travel guide should offer the traveller or reader. Baedeker's ultimate aim was to free the traveller from having to look for information anywhere outside the travel guide: about routes, transport, accommodation, restaurants, tipping, sights, walks and, of course, prices. In short, the lot.",
"While the travel guide was not something new (Baedeker emulated the style of English [guide books](/wiki/Murray%27s_Handbooks_for_Travellers \"Murray's Handbooks for Travellers\") published by [John Murray](/wiki/John_Murray_%28publishing_house%29 \"John Murray (publishing house)\"){{Cite EB1911\\|wstitle\\=Baedeker, Karl}}), the inclusion of detailed information on routes, travel and accommodation was an [innovation](/wiki/Innovation \"Innovation\").",
"Baedeker was always generous in acknowledging the part [John Murray III](/wiki/John_Murray_III \"John Murray III\") had played in nurturing his outlook on the future development of his guides. As a bookseller in [Koblenz](/wiki/Koblenz \"Koblenz\"), he had often seen tourists enter his bookshop, either carrying a red Murray guide or looking for one. At the time, [John Murray III](/wiki/John_Murray_III \"John Murray III\") was the leader in the field, but Baedeker was about to change that. He is often referred to as the 'father of modern tourism'.",
"In 1846, Baedeker introduced his famous 'star' ratings\n(for sights, attractions and lodgings) in the third edition of his *Handbuch für Reisende durch Deutschland und den Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaat* \\- an idea based on the Murray guides star system. This edition was also his first 'experimental' red guide. He also decided to call his travel guides 'handbooks', following the example of [John Murray III](/wiki/John_Murray_III \"John Murray III\"). Baedeker's early guides had tan covers, but from 1856 onwards, Murray's red bindings and gilt lettering became the familiar hallmark of all Baedeker guides as well, and the content became famous for its clarity, detail and accuracy.",
""
] |
Early life and education
------------------------
John Laurens was born in [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina "Charleston, South Carolina"), on October 28, 1754, to [Henry Laurens](/wiki/Henry_Laurens "Henry Laurens") and Eleanor Ball Laurens, both of whose families were prosperous as [planters](/wiki/Planter_%28American_South%29 "Planter (American South)") cultivating rice. By the 1750s, Henry Laurens and his business partner George Austin had become wealthy as owners of one of the largest [slave trading](/wiki/Slave_trading "Slave trading") houses in North America.
John was the eldest of the five children who survived infancy. John and his two younger brothers, Henry Jr. and James, were tutored at home, but after the death of their mother, their father took them to England for their education. His two sisters, [Martha](/wiki/Martha_Laurens_Ramsay "Martha Laurens Ramsay") and Mary, remained with an uncle in Charleston.
In October 1771, Laurens's father moved with his sons to [London](/wiki/London "London"), and Laurens was educated in Europe from the ages of 16 to 22\. For two years beginning in June 1772, he and one brother attended school in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva"), Switzerland, where they lived with a family friend.
As a youth, Laurens had expressed considerable interest in science and medicine, and later in life, he would be elected a member of the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society "American Philosophical Society").{{Cite web\|title\=APS Member History\|url\=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator\=John\+Laurens\&title\=\&subject\=\&subdiv\=\&mem\=\&year\=\&year\-max\=\&dead\=\&keyword\=\&smode\=advanced\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-31\|website\=search.amphilsoc.org}} However, upon returning to London in August 1774, he yielded to his father's wish that he study law. In November 1774, Laurens began his legal studies at the [Middle Temple](/wiki/Middle_Temple "Middle Temple"). Laurens's father returned to Charleston, leaving Laurens as guardian to his brothers, both enrolled in British schools.
On October 26, 1776, Laurens married Martha Manning, the daughter of a mentor and family friend. Laurens's brother\-in\-law was [William Manning](/wiki/William_Manning_%28British_politician%29 "William Manning (British politician)"), later Governor of the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England "Bank of England") and a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament").
During the months before and after his marriage, Laurens wrote letters expressing his determination to join the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army "Continental Army") and fight for his country, rather than complete law school in England and raise a family there. He embarked for Charleston in December 1776, leaving his pregnant wife behind in London with her family.
|
[
"Early life and education\n------------------------",
"John Laurens was born in [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\"), on October 28, 1754, to [Henry Laurens](/wiki/Henry_Laurens \"Henry Laurens\") and Eleanor Ball Laurens, both of whose families were prosperous as [planters](/wiki/Planter_%28American_South%29 \"Planter (American South)\") cultivating rice. By the 1750s, Henry Laurens and his business partner George Austin had become wealthy as owners of one of the largest [slave trading](/wiki/Slave_trading \"Slave trading\") houses in North America.",
"John was the eldest of the five children who survived infancy. John and his two younger brothers, Henry Jr. and James, were tutored at home, but after the death of their mother, their father took them to England for their education. His two sisters, [Martha](/wiki/Martha_Laurens_Ramsay \"Martha Laurens Ramsay\") and Mary, remained with an uncle in Charleston.",
"In October 1771, Laurens's father moved with his sons to [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), and Laurens was educated in Europe from the ages of 16 to 22\\. For two years beginning in June 1772, he and one brother attended school in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\"), Switzerland, where they lived with a family friend.",
"As a youth, Laurens had expressed considerable interest in science and medicine, and later in life, he would be elected a member of the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society \"American Philosophical Society\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=APS Member History\\|url\\=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator\\=John\\+Laurens\\&title\\=\\&subject\\=\\&subdiv\\=\\&mem\\=\\&year\\=\\&year\\-max\\=\\&dead\\=\\&keyword\\=\\&smode\\=advanced\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-31\\|website\\=search.amphilsoc.org}} However, upon returning to London in August 1774, he yielded to his father's wish that he study law. In November 1774, Laurens began his legal studies at the [Middle Temple](/wiki/Middle_Temple \"Middle Temple\"). Laurens's father returned to Charleston, leaving Laurens as guardian to his brothers, both enrolled in British schools.",
"On October 26, 1776, Laurens married Martha Manning, the daughter of a mentor and family friend. Laurens's brother\\-in\\-law was [William Manning](/wiki/William_Manning_%28British_politician%29 \"William Manning (British politician)\"), later Governor of the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England \"Bank of England\") and a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\").",
"During the months before and after his marriage, Laurens wrote letters expressing his determination to join the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army \"Continental Army\") and fight for his country, rather than complete law school in England and raise a family there. He embarked for Charleston in December 1776, leaving his pregnant wife behind in London with her family.",
""
] |
Military and diplomatic career
------------------------------
### Service as Washington's aide\-de\-camp
{{Details\|Washington's aides\-de\-camp}}
Laurens arrived at Charleston in April 1777\. That summer he accompanied his father from Charleston to Philadelphia, where his father was to serve in the [Continental Congress](/wiki/Continental_Congress "Continental Congress"). Henry Laurens, finding himself unable to prevent his son from joining the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army "Continental Army"), used his influence to obtain a position of honor for his 23\-year\-old son.
General [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington") invited Laurens to join his staff in early August, as a volunteer [aide\-de\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp "Aide-de-camp"). Washington wrote: {{quote\|I mean to delay the actual Appointment of my fourth Aide de Camp a while longer; but if you will do me the honour to become a member of my Family, you will make me very happy, by your Company and assistance in that Line as an Extra Aid and I shall be glad to receive you in that capacity whenever it is convenient to you. }}
Laurens became close friends with two of his fellow aides\-de\-camp, [Alexander Hamilton](/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton "Alexander Hamilton") and the [Marquis de Lafayette](/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier%2C_Marquis_de_Lafayette "Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette"). He quickly became known for his reckless courage upon first seeing combat on September 11, 1777, at the [Battle of Brandywine](/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine "Battle of Brandywine") during the [Philadelphia campaign](/wiki/Philadelphia_campaign "Philadelphia campaign"). Lafayette observed, "It was not his fault that he was not killed or wounded \[at Brandywine,] he did everything that was necessary to procure one or t'other." Laurens behaved consistently at the [Battle of Germantown](/wiki/Battle_of_Germantown "Battle of Germantown"), in which he was wounded on October 4, 1777:
{{quote\|Washington's forces surprise\-attacked the British north of Philadelphia. At one point, the Americans were stymied by a large stone mansion occupied by the enemy. After several attempts to take the building failed, Laurens and a French volunteer, the \[\[Thomas\-Antoine de Mauduit du Plessis\|chevalier Duplessis\-Mauduit]], came up with their own daring plan. They gathered some straw to set on fire and place at the front door of the house. According to another officer's account of Laurens's actions that day, "He rushed up to the door of \[\[Cliveden (Benjamin Chew House)\|Chew's House]], which he forced partly open, and fighting with his sword with one hand, with the other he applied the wood work a flaming brand, and what is very remarkable, retired from under the tremendous fire of the house, with but a very slight wound." Laurens was struck by a musket ball that went through part of his right shoulder, and he made a sling for his arm from his uniform sash.}}
[thumb\|right\|upright\|Headquarters at Emlen House in late 1777](/wiki/File:Emlen_house.jpg "Emlen house.jpg")
Two days after the Battle of Germantown, on October 6, 1777, he was given his official appointment as one of General [Washington's aides\-de\-camp](/wiki/Washington%27s_aides-de-camp "Washington's aides-de-camp"), and was commissioned with the rank of lieutenant colonel. From November 2 to December 11, 1777, Washington and several aides, including Laurens, were quartered at the Emlen House, north of Philadelphia in [Camp Hill](/wiki/Camp_Hill%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Camp Hill, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania"), which served as Washington's headquarters through the [Battle of White Marsh](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Marsh "Battle of White Marsh").
After spending the remainder of the winter of 1777–1778 encamped at [Valley Forge](/wiki/Valley_Forge "Valley Forge"), Laurens marched to New Jersey with the rest of the Continental Army at the end of June 1778, to face the British at the [Battle of Monmouth](/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth "Battle of Monmouth"). Near the start of battle, Laurens had his horse shot out from under him while he did reconnaissance for [Baron von Steuben](/wiki/Baron_von_Steuben "Baron von Steuben").
On December 23, 1778, Laurens engaged in a duel with General [Charles Lee](/wiki/Charles_Lee_%28general%29 "Charles Lee (general)") just outside Philadelphia, after Laurens took offense to Lee's slander of Washington's character. Lee was wounded in the side by Laurens's first shot, and Laurens, believing the wound was more serious than it seemed, went to help the general. However, Lee said it was fine and proposed to shoot a second time. The men's seconds, Alexander Hamilton and Evan Edwards, opposed this idea and had the duel end there, despite Lee's protests to fire again and Laurens's agreeance.
### Anti\-slavery statements and recruitment of black soldiers
[thumb\|upright\|Lt. Col. John Laurens, 1871 engraving by H.B. Hall](/wiki/File:Lt._Col._John_Laurens_crop.png "Lt. Col. John Laurens crop.png")
As the British stepped up operations in the South, Laurens promoted the idea of arming slaves and granting them freedom in return for their service. He had written, "We Americans at least in the Southern Colonies, cannot contend with a good Grace, for Liberty, until we shall have enfranchised our Slaves." Laurens was set apart from other leaders in Revolutionary\-era South Carolina by his belief that black and white people shared a similar nature and could aspire to freedom in a republican society.
In early 1778, Laurens advised his father, who was then the President of the Continental Congress, to use forty slaves he stood to inherit as part of a brigade. Henry Laurens granted the request, but with reservations that caused postponement of the project.
Congress approved the concept of a regiment of slaves in March 1779, and sent Laurens south to recruit a regiment of 3,000 black soldiers; however, the plan was opposed, and Laurens was ultimately unsuccessful. Having won election to the [South Carolina House of Representatives](/wiki/South_Carolina_House_of_Representatives "South Carolina House of Representatives"), Laurens introduced his black regiment plan in 1779, again in 1780, and a third time in 1782, meeting overwhelming rejection each time. Governor [John Rutledge](/wiki/John_Rutledge "John Rutledge") and General [Christopher Gadsden](/wiki/Christopher_Gadsden "Christopher Gadsden") were among the opponents.
### Battles in South Carolina
In 1779, when the British threatened Charleston, Governor Rutledge proposed to surrender the city with the condition that Carolina become neutral in the war. Laurens strongly opposed the idea and fought with Continental forces to repel the British.
{{Anchor\|Battle of Coosawhatchie}}
#### Battle of Coosawhatchie
On May 3, 1779, Colonel [William Moultrie](/wiki/William_Moultrie "William Moultrie")'s troops, outnumbered two to one, faced 2,400 British regulars under General [Augustine Prévost](/wiki/Augustine_Pr%C3%A9vost "Augustine Prévost"), who had crossed the [Savannah River](/wiki/Savannah_River "Savannah River"). At a point about two miles east of the [Coosawhatchie River](/wiki/Coosawhatchie_River "Coosawhatchie River"), Moultrie had left 100 men to guard a river crossing and provide warning when the British arrived.
{{quote\|As the enemy drew near, Moultrie was about to send an aide to pull these troops back to the main force when Col. John Laurens offered to lead them back. Moultrie had so much confidence in the officer that he sent along 250 men to help cover the flanks. In direct disobedience of orders, Laurens crossed the river and formed the men in line for battle. He failed to take the high ground and his men suffered greatly from well\-placed enemy fire. Laurens himself was wounded, and his second in command fell back to the main force at the Tullifinny, where Moultrie was compelled to retreat towards Charleston.}}
Due to Laurens's connections, his activities could not escape notice; for example, in a May 5 letter to the governor of Virginia, South Carolina's lieutenant governor [Thomas Bee](/wiki/Thomas_Bee "Thomas Bee") added a postscript: "Col. John Laurens received a slight wound in the arm in a skirmish with the enemy's advanced party yesterday, \& his horse was shot also – he is in a good way – pray let his father know this."
#### Battles of Savannah and Charleston
That fall, Laurens commanded an infantry regiment in General [Benjamin Lincoln](/wiki/Benjamin_Lincoln "Benjamin Lincoln")'s failed assault on [Savannah, Georgia](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia "Savannah, Georgia").
### Prisoner of war
Laurens was taken prisoner by the British in May 1780, after the fall of Charleston. As a [prisoner of war](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war "Prisoner of war"), he was shipped to Philadelphia, where he was paroled with the condition that he would not leave [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania").
In Philadelphia, Laurens was able to visit his father, who would soon take ship for the Netherlands as American ambassador, in search of loans. During the voyage to his post, Henry Laurens's ship was seized by the British, resulting in the elder Laurens's imprisonment in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London "Tower of London").
Determined to return to South Carolina, and in the expectation of being freed by a prisoner exchange in November 1780, Laurens wrote to George Washington and requested a leave of absence from his service as aide\-de\-camp: {{quote\|My dear General.
Riveted to headquarters by my attachment to Your Excellency and the patronage with which you have been pleased to honor me, nothing but the approaching critical junction of southern affairs and the expectation of my countrymen could induce me to sollicit a farther leave of absence in case of my exchange... I indulge a hope that my acquaintance with the country and connexions as a southern man may enable me to be of some ability in the new theatre of the war—and the present season of tranquility here, appears too favorable an opportunity to be overlooked—these motives which I submit to Your Excellency, prompt me to entreat your permission to join the southern army for the ensuing Campaign. }}
Washington responded, "The motives which led you to the Southward are too laudable and too important not to meet my approbation."
### Diplomatic mission to France
Upon his release, Laurens was unwillingly appointed by Congress in December 1780 as a special minister to France. Preferring to return to the South, he had originally refused the post and proposed Alexander Hamilton as the better candidate. Laurens was ultimately persuaded by both Hamilton and Congress to accept the post. He wrote again to advise Washington that "unfortunately for America, Col. Hamilton was not sufficiently known to Congress to unite their [suffrages](/wiki/Suffrage "Suffrage") in his favor and I was assured there remained no other alternative to my acceptance than the total failure of the business. Thus circumstanced I was reduced to submit—and renounce my plan of participating in the southern campaign."
In March 1781, Laurens and [Thomas Paine](/wiki/Thomas_Paine "Thomas Paine") arrived in France to assist [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin"), who had been serving as the American minister in Paris since 1777\. Together, they met with [King Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France "Louis XVI of France"), among others. Laurens gained French assurances that French ships would support American operations that year; the promised naval support was later to prove invaluable at the [Siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown "Siege of Yorktown").
Laurens was also reported to have told the French that without aid for the Revolution, the Americans might be forced by the British to fight against France. When Laurens and Paine returned to America in August 1781, they brought 2\.5 million [livres](/wiki/Livre_tournois "Livre tournois") in silver, the first part of a French gift of 6 million and a loan of 10 million.
Laurens also was able to arrange a loan and supplies from the [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic"), before returning home. His father Henry Laurens, the American ambassador to the Netherlands who had been captured by the British, was exchanged for General Cornwallis in late 1781, and the senior Laurens had proceeded to the Netherlands to continue loan negotiations.
### British surrender at Yorktown
[thumb\|upright\|Detail of *[Surrender of Lord Cornwallis](/wiki/Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis "Surrender of Lord Cornwallis")* by [John Trumbull](/wiki/John_Trumbull "John Trumbull"), showing Colonels Alexander Hamilton, John Laurens, and [Walter Stewart](/wiki/Walter_Stewart_%28general%29 "Walter Stewart (general)")](/wiki/File:Detail_of_Trumbull%27s_Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis.png "Detail of Trumbull's Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.png")
Laurens returned from France in time to see the French fleet arrive and to join Washington in Virginia at the [siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown "Siege of Yorktown"). He was given command of a battalion of light infantry on October 1, 1781, when its commander was killed. Laurens, under the command of Colonel Alexander Hamilton, led the battalion in the storming of [Redoubt](/wiki/Redoubt "Redoubt") No. 10\.
British troops surrendered on October 17, 1781, and Washington appointed Laurens as the American commissioner for drafting formal terms of the British surrender. [Louis\-Marie, Vicomte de Noailles](/wiki/Louis_Marc_Antoine_de_Noailles "Louis Marc Antoine de Noailles"), a relative of Lafayette's wife, was chosen by [Rochambeau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Donatien_de_Vimeur%2C_comte_de_Rochambeau "Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau") to represent the interests of France. At [Moore House](/wiki/Moore_House_%28Yorktown%2C_Virginia%29 "Moore House (Yorktown, Virginia)") on October 18, 1781, Laurens and the French commissioner negotiated terms with two British representatives, and the articles of capitulation were signed by [General Cornwallis](/wiki/Charles_Cornwallis%2C_1st_Marquess_Cornwallis "Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis") the following day.
### Return to Charleston
Laurens returned to South Carolina, where he continued to serve in the Continental Army under General [Nathanael Greene](/wiki/Nathanael_Greene "Nathanael Greene") until his death. As head of Greene's "intelligence department", stationed on the outskirts of the city near Wappoo Creek, Laurens created and operated a network of spies who tracked British operations in and around Charleston, and was given responsibility for guarding Greene's lines of secret communication with the British\-occupied city.
### Death at Combahee River
On August 27, 1782, at the age of 27, Laurens was shot from his saddle during the [Battle of the Combahee River](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Combahee_River "Battle of the Combahee River"), as one of the last casualties of the Revolutionary War. Laurens died in what General Greene described sadly as "a paltry little skirmish" with a foraging party, only a few weeks before the British finally withdrew from Charleston.
Laurens had been confined to bed at Wappoo Creek with a raging fever for several days, possibly due to malaria. When he learned that the British were sending a large force out of Charleston to gather supplies, he left his sickbed, "wrote a hurried note to Gen. Greene, and, in disregard of his orders and the important duties with which he had been charged – a practice which the loose discipline of the American forces rendered not unusual – put off for the scene of action."
On August 26, Laurens reported to General [Mordecai Gist](/wiki/Mordecai_Gist "Mordecai Gist") near the [Combahee River](/wiki/Combahee_River "Combahee River"). Gist had learned that 300 British troops under Major William Brereton had already captured a ferry and crossed the river, in search of rice to feed their garrison. Gist sent a detachment with orders to attack the British before sunrise the next morning. Laurens was given orders, at his own request, to take a small force further downriver to man a [redoubt](/wiki/Redoubt "Redoubt") at Chehaw Point, where they could fire on the British as they retreated.
Laurens and his troops stopped for the night at a plantation house near the Combahee River. Laurens got little or no sleep, instead "spending the evening in a delightful company of ladies... \[and] turned from this happy scene only two hours before he was to march down the river". With his command, Laurens left the plantation at about 3 o'clock on the morning of August 27\.
Leading a force of fifty Delaware infantrymen, and an artillery captain with a howitzer, Laurens rode toward Chehaw Point. However, the British had anticipated their maneuvers; before Laurens could reach the redoubt, 140 British soldiers had prepared an ambush along the road, concealed in tall grass about one mile from his destination.
When the enemy rose to fire, Laurens ordered an immediate charge, despite the British having superior numbers and the stronger position. Gist was only two miles away, and quickly approaching with reinforcements. According to William McKennan, a captain under Laurens's command, Laurens appeared "anxious to attack the enemy previous to the main body coming up," gambling that his troops, "although few in numbers, \[would be] sufficient to enable him to gain a laurel for his brow" before the end of the fighting. McKennan's opinion was that Laurens "wanted to do all himself, and have all the honor."
As Laurens led the charge, the British immediately opened fire, and Laurens fell from his horse fatally wounded. Gist's larger force arrived in time to cover a retreat, but was unable to prevent costly losses, including three American dead.
After Laurens's death, Colonel [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko "Tadeusz Kościuszko"), who had been a friend of Laurens, came from North Carolina to take his place in the final weeks of battle near Charleston, also taking over Laurens's intelligence network in the area.
Laurens was buried near the site of the battle, at William Stock's plantation where he had spent the evening before his death. After Henry Laurens returned from imprisonment in London, he had his son's remains moved and reinterred on his own property, the [Mepkin Plantation](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey "Mepkin Abbey").
The Laurens family sold their plantation in the 19th century, and in 1936 it was purchased by publisher [Henry Luce](/wiki/Henry_Luce "Henry Luce") and his wife [Clare Boothe Luce](/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce "Clare Boothe Luce"). In 1949, the Luces donated a large part of the former plantation, including an extensive landscape garden, to the [Trappists](/wiki/Trappists "Trappists") for use as a monastery. As [Mepkin Abbey](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey "Mepkin Abbey") and the [Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey_Botanical_Garden "Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden"), located near [Moncks Corner, South Carolina](/wiki/Moncks_Corner%2C_South_Carolina "Moncks Corner, South Carolina"), the site is open to the public, including the Laurens family graveyard on the monastery grounds.
|
[
"Military and diplomatic career\n------------------------------",
"### Service as Washington's aide\\-de\\-camp",
"{{Details\\|Washington's aides\\-de\\-camp}}\nLaurens arrived at Charleston in April 1777\\. That summer he accompanied his father from Charleston to Philadelphia, where his father was to serve in the [Continental Congress](/wiki/Continental_Congress \"Continental Congress\"). Henry Laurens, finding himself unable to prevent his son from joining the [Continental Army](/wiki/Continental_Army \"Continental Army\"), used his influence to obtain a position of honor for his 23\\-year\\-old son.",
"General [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\") invited Laurens to join his staff in early August, as a volunteer [aide\\-de\\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\"). Washington wrote: {{quote\\|I mean to delay the actual Appointment of my fourth Aide de Camp a while longer; but if you will do me the honour to become a member of my Family, you will make me very happy, by your Company and assistance in that Line as an Extra Aid and I shall be glad to receive you in that capacity whenever it is convenient to you. }}",
"Laurens became close friends with two of his fellow aides\\-de\\-camp, [Alexander Hamilton](/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton \"Alexander Hamilton\") and the [Marquis de Lafayette](/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier%2C_Marquis_de_Lafayette \"Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette\"). He quickly became known for his reckless courage upon first seeing combat on September 11, 1777, at the [Battle of Brandywine](/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine \"Battle of Brandywine\") during the [Philadelphia campaign](/wiki/Philadelphia_campaign \"Philadelphia campaign\"). Lafayette observed, \"It was not his fault that he was not killed or wounded \\[at Brandywine,] he did everything that was necessary to procure one or t'other.\" Laurens behaved consistently at the [Battle of Germantown](/wiki/Battle_of_Germantown \"Battle of Germantown\"), in which he was wounded on October 4, 1777:",
"{{quote\\|Washington's forces surprise\\-attacked the British north of Philadelphia. At one point, the Americans were stymied by a large stone mansion occupied by the enemy. After several attempts to take the building failed, Laurens and a French volunteer, the \\[\\[Thomas\\-Antoine de Mauduit du Plessis\\|chevalier Duplessis\\-Mauduit]], came up with their own daring plan. They gathered some straw to set on fire and place at the front door of the house. According to another officer's account of Laurens's actions that day, \"He rushed up to the door of \\[\\[Cliveden (Benjamin Chew House)\\|Chew's House]], which he forced partly open, and fighting with his sword with one hand, with the other he applied the wood work a flaming brand, and what is very remarkable, retired from under the tremendous fire of the house, with but a very slight wound.\" Laurens was struck by a musket ball that went through part of his right shoulder, and he made a sling for his arm from his uniform sash.}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|Headquarters at Emlen House in late 1777](/wiki/File:Emlen_house.jpg \"Emlen house.jpg\")\nTwo days after the Battle of Germantown, on October 6, 1777, he was given his official appointment as one of General [Washington's aides\\-de\\-camp](/wiki/Washington%27s_aides-de-camp \"Washington's aides-de-camp\"), and was commissioned with the rank of lieutenant colonel. From November 2 to December 11, 1777, Washington and several aides, including Laurens, were quartered at the Emlen House, north of Philadelphia in [Camp Hill](/wiki/Camp_Hill%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Camp Hill, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania\"), which served as Washington's headquarters through the [Battle of White Marsh](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Marsh \"Battle of White Marsh\").",
"After spending the remainder of the winter of 1777–1778 encamped at [Valley Forge](/wiki/Valley_Forge \"Valley Forge\"), Laurens marched to New Jersey with the rest of the Continental Army at the end of June 1778, to face the British at the [Battle of Monmouth](/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth \"Battle of Monmouth\"). Near the start of battle, Laurens had his horse shot out from under him while he did reconnaissance for [Baron von Steuben](/wiki/Baron_von_Steuben \"Baron von Steuben\").",
"On December 23, 1778, Laurens engaged in a duel with General [Charles Lee](/wiki/Charles_Lee_%28general%29 \"Charles Lee (general)\") just outside Philadelphia, after Laurens took offense to Lee's slander of Washington's character. Lee was wounded in the side by Laurens's first shot, and Laurens, believing the wound was more serious than it seemed, went to help the general. However, Lee said it was fine and proposed to shoot a second time. The men's seconds, Alexander Hamilton and Evan Edwards, opposed this idea and had the duel end there, despite Lee's protests to fire again and Laurens's agreeance.",
"### Anti\\-slavery statements and recruitment of black soldiers",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Lt. Col. John Laurens, 1871 engraving by H.B. Hall](/wiki/File:Lt._Col._John_Laurens_crop.png \"Lt. Col. John Laurens crop.png\")\nAs the British stepped up operations in the South, Laurens promoted the idea of arming slaves and granting them freedom in return for their service. He had written, \"We Americans at least in the Southern Colonies, cannot contend with a good Grace, for Liberty, until we shall have enfranchised our Slaves.\" Laurens was set apart from other leaders in Revolutionary\\-era South Carolina by his belief that black and white people shared a similar nature and could aspire to freedom in a republican society.",
"In early 1778, Laurens advised his father, who was then the President of the Continental Congress, to use forty slaves he stood to inherit as part of a brigade. Henry Laurens granted the request, but with reservations that caused postponement of the project.",
"Congress approved the concept of a regiment of slaves in March 1779, and sent Laurens south to recruit a regiment of 3,000 black soldiers; however, the plan was opposed, and Laurens was ultimately unsuccessful. Having won election to the [South Carolina House of Representatives](/wiki/South_Carolina_House_of_Representatives \"South Carolina House of Representatives\"), Laurens introduced his black regiment plan in 1779, again in 1780, and a third time in 1782, meeting overwhelming rejection each time. Governor [John Rutledge](/wiki/John_Rutledge \"John Rutledge\") and General [Christopher Gadsden](/wiki/Christopher_Gadsden \"Christopher Gadsden\") were among the opponents.",
"### Battles in South Carolina",
"In 1779, when the British threatened Charleston, Governor Rutledge proposed to surrender the city with the condition that Carolina become neutral in the war. Laurens strongly opposed the idea and fought with Continental forces to repel the British.",
"{{Anchor\\|Battle of Coosawhatchie}}",
"#### Battle of Coosawhatchie",
"On May 3, 1779, Colonel [William Moultrie](/wiki/William_Moultrie \"William Moultrie\")'s troops, outnumbered two to one, faced 2,400 British regulars under General [Augustine Prévost](/wiki/Augustine_Pr%C3%A9vost \"Augustine Prévost\"), who had crossed the [Savannah River](/wiki/Savannah_River \"Savannah River\"). At a point about two miles east of the [Coosawhatchie River](/wiki/Coosawhatchie_River \"Coosawhatchie River\"), Moultrie had left 100 men to guard a river crossing and provide warning when the British arrived.",
"{{quote\\|As the enemy drew near, Moultrie was about to send an aide to pull these troops back to the main force when Col. John Laurens offered to lead them back. Moultrie had so much confidence in the officer that he sent along 250 men to help cover the flanks. In direct disobedience of orders, Laurens crossed the river and formed the men in line for battle. He failed to take the high ground and his men suffered greatly from well\\-placed enemy fire. Laurens himself was wounded, and his second in command fell back to the main force at the Tullifinny, where Moultrie was compelled to retreat towards Charleston.}}",
"Due to Laurens's connections, his activities could not escape notice; for example, in a May 5 letter to the governor of Virginia, South Carolina's lieutenant governor [Thomas Bee](/wiki/Thomas_Bee \"Thomas Bee\") added a postscript: \"Col. John Laurens received a slight wound in the arm in a skirmish with the enemy's advanced party yesterday, \\& his horse was shot also – he is in a good way – pray let his father know this.\"",
"#### Battles of Savannah and Charleston",
"That fall, Laurens commanded an infantry regiment in General [Benjamin Lincoln](/wiki/Benjamin_Lincoln \"Benjamin Lincoln\")'s failed assault on [Savannah, Georgia](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia \"Savannah, Georgia\").",
"### Prisoner of war",
"Laurens was taken prisoner by the British in May 1780, after the fall of Charleston. As a [prisoner of war](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war \"Prisoner of war\"), he was shipped to Philadelphia, where he was paroled with the condition that he would not leave [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\").",
"In Philadelphia, Laurens was able to visit his father, who would soon take ship for the Netherlands as American ambassador, in search of loans. During the voyage to his post, Henry Laurens's ship was seized by the British, resulting in the elder Laurens's imprisonment in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\").",
"Determined to return to South Carolina, and in the expectation of being freed by a prisoner exchange in November 1780, Laurens wrote to George Washington and requested a leave of absence from his service as aide\\-de\\-camp: {{quote\\|My dear General.",
"Riveted to headquarters by my attachment to Your Excellency and the patronage with which you have been pleased to honor me, nothing but the approaching critical junction of southern affairs and the expectation of my countrymen could induce me to sollicit a farther leave of absence in case of my exchange... I indulge a hope that my acquaintance with the country and connexions as a southern man may enable me to be of some ability in the new theatre of the war—and the present season of tranquility here, appears too favorable an opportunity to be overlooked—these motives which I submit to Your Excellency, prompt me to entreat your permission to join the southern army for the ensuing Campaign. }}",
"Washington responded, \"The motives which led you to the Southward are too laudable and too important not to meet my approbation.\"",
"### Diplomatic mission to France",
"Upon his release, Laurens was unwillingly appointed by Congress in December 1780 as a special minister to France. Preferring to return to the South, he had originally refused the post and proposed Alexander Hamilton as the better candidate. Laurens was ultimately persuaded by both Hamilton and Congress to accept the post. He wrote again to advise Washington that \"unfortunately for America, Col. Hamilton was not sufficiently known to Congress to unite their [suffrages](/wiki/Suffrage \"Suffrage\") in his favor and I was assured there remained no other alternative to my acceptance than the total failure of the business. Thus circumstanced I was reduced to submit—and renounce my plan of participating in the southern campaign.\"",
"In March 1781, Laurens and [Thomas Paine](/wiki/Thomas_Paine \"Thomas Paine\") arrived in France to assist [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\"), who had been serving as the American minister in Paris since 1777\\. Together, they met with [King Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France \"Louis XVI of France\"), among others. Laurens gained French assurances that French ships would support American operations that year; the promised naval support was later to prove invaluable at the [Siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown \"Siege of Yorktown\").",
"Laurens was also reported to have told the French that without aid for the Revolution, the Americans might be forced by the British to fight against France. When Laurens and Paine returned to America in August 1781, they brought 2\\.5 million [livres](/wiki/Livre_tournois \"Livre tournois\") in silver, the first part of a French gift of 6 million and a loan of 10 million.",
"Laurens also was able to arrange a loan and supplies from the [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\"), before returning home. His father Henry Laurens, the American ambassador to the Netherlands who had been captured by the British, was exchanged for General Cornwallis in late 1781, and the senior Laurens had proceeded to the Netherlands to continue loan negotiations.",
"### British surrender at Yorktown",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Detail of *[Surrender of Lord Cornwallis](/wiki/Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis \"Surrender of Lord Cornwallis\")* by [John Trumbull](/wiki/John_Trumbull \"John Trumbull\"), showing Colonels Alexander Hamilton, John Laurens, and [Walter Stewart](/wiki/Walter_Stewart_%28general%29 \"Walter Stewart (general)\")](/wiki/File:Detail_of_Trumbull%27s_Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis.png \"Detail of Trumbull's Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.png\") \nLaurens returned from France in time to see the French fleet arrive and to join Washington in Virginia at the [siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown \"Siege of Yorktown\"). He was given command of a battalion of light infantry on October 1, 1781, when its commander was killed. Laurens, under the command of Colonel Alexander Hamilton, led the battalion in the storming of [Redoubt](/wiki/Redoubt \"Redoubt\") No. 10\\.",
"British troops surrendered on October 17, 1781, and Washington appointed Laurens as the American commissioner for drafting formal terms of the British surrender. [Louis\\-Marie, Vicomte de Noailles](/wiki/Louis_Marc_Antoine_de_Noailles \"Louis Marc Antoine de Noailles\"), a relative of Lafayette's wife, was chosen by [Rochambeau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Donatien_de_Vimeur%2C_comte_de_Rochambeau \"Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau\") to represent the interests of France. At [Moore House](/wiki/Moore_House_%28Yorktown%2C_Virginia%29 \"Moore House (Yorktown, Virginia)\") on October 18, 1781, Laurens and the French commissioner negotiated terms with two British representatives, and the articles of capitulation were signed by [General Cornwallis](/wiki/Charles_Cornwallis%2C_1st_Marquess_Cornwallis \"Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis\") the following day.",
"### Return to Charleston",
"Laurens returned to South Carolina, where he continued to serve in the Continental Army under General [Nathanael Greene](/wiki/Nathanael_Greene \"Nathanael Greene\") until his death. As head of Greene's \"intelligence department\", stationed on the outskirts of the city near Wappoo Creek, Laurens created and operated a network of spies who tracked British operations in and around Charleston, and was given responsibility for guarding Greene's lines of secret communication with the British\\-occupied city.",
"### Death at Combahee River",
"On August 27, 1782, at the age of 27, Laurens was shot from his saddle during the [Battle of the Combahee River](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Combahee_River \"Battle of the Combahee River\"), as one of the last casualties of the Revolutionary War. Laurens died in what General Greene described sadly as \"a paltry little skirmish\" with a foraging party, only a few weeks before the British finally withdrew from Charleston.",
"Laurens had been confined to bed at Wappoo Creek with a raging fever for several days, possibly due to malaria. When he learned that the British were sending a large force out of Charleston to gather supplies, he left his sickbed, \"wrote a hurried note to Gen. Greene, and, in disregard of his orders and the important duties with which he had been charged – a practice which the loose discipline of the American forces rendered not unusual – put off for the scene of action.\"",
"On August 26, Laurens reported to General [Mordecai Gist](/wiki/Mordecai_Gist \"Mordecai Gist\") near the [Combahee River](/wiki/Combahee_River \"Combahee River\"). Gist had learned that 300 British troops under Major William Brereton had already captured a ferry and crossed the river, in search of rice to feed their garrison. Gist sent a detachment with orders to attack the British before sunrise the next morning. Laurens was given orders, at his own request, to take a small force further downriver to man a [redoubt](/wiki/Redoubt \"Redoubt\") at Chehaw Point, where they could fire on the British as they retreated.",
"Laurens and his troops stopped for the night at a plantation house near the Combahee River. Laurens got little or no sleep, instead \"spending the evening in a delightful company of ladies... \\[and] turned from this happy scene only two hours before he was to march down the river\". With his command, Laurens left the plantation at about 3 o'clock on the morning of August 27\\.",
"Leading a force of fifty Delaware infantrymen, and an artillery captain with a howitzer, Laurens rode toward Chehaw Point. However, the British had anticipated their maneuvers; before Laurens could reach the redoubt, 140 British soldiers had prepared an ambush along the road, concealed in tall grass about one mile from his destination.",
"When the enemy rose to fire, Laurens ordered an immediate charge, despite the British having superior numbers and the stronger position. Gist was only two miles away, and quickly approaching with reinforcements. According to William McKennan, a captain under Laurens's command, Laurens appeared \"anxious to attack the enemy previous to the main body coming up,\" gambling that his troops, \"although few in numbers, \\[would be] sufficient to enable him to gain a laurel for his brow\" before the end of the fighting. McKennan's opinion was that Laurens \"wanted to do all himself, and have all the honor.\"",
"As Laurens led the charge, the British immediately opened fire, and Laurens fell from his horse fatally wounded. Gist's larger force arrived in time to cover a retreat, but was unable to prevent costly losses, including three American dead.",
"After Laurens's death, Colonel [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko \"Tadeusz Kościuszko\"), who had been a friend of Laurens, came from North Carolina to take his place in the final weeks of battle near Charleston, also taking over Laurens's intelligence network in the area.",
"Laurens was buried near the site of the battle, at William Stock's plantation where he had spent the evening before his death. After Henry Laurens returned from imprisonment in London, he had his son's remains moved and reinterred on his own property, the [Mepkin Plantation](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey \"Mepkin Abbey\").",
"The Laurens family sold their plantation in the 19th century, and in 1936 it was purchased by publisher [Henry Luce](/wiki/Henry_Luce \"Henry Luce\") and his wife [Clare Boothe Luce](/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce \"Clare Boothe Luce\"). In 1949, the Luces donated a large part of the former plantation, including an extensive landscape garden, to the [Trappists](/wiki/Trappists \"Trappists\") for use as a monastery. As [Mepkin Abbey](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey \"Mepkin Abbey\") and the [Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey_Botanical_Garden \"Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden\"), located near [Moncks Corner, South Carolina](/wiki/Moncks_Corner%2C_South_Carolina \"Moncks Corner, South Carolina\"), the site is open to the public, including the Laurens family graveyard on the monastery grounds.",
"",
""
] |
### Death at Combahee River
On August 27, 1782, at the age of 27, Laurens was shot from his saddle during the [Battle of the Combahee River](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Combahee_River "Battle of the Combahee River"), as one of the last casualties of the Revolutionary War. Laurens died in what General Greene described sadly as "a paltry little skirmish" with a foraging party, only a few weeks before the British finally withdrew from Charleston.
Laurens had been confined to bed at Wappoo Creek with a raging fever for several days, possibly due to malaria. When he learned that the British were sending a large force out of Charleston to gather supplies, he left his sickbed, "wrote a hurried note to Gen. Greene, and, in disregard of his orders and the important duties with which he had been charged – a practice which the loose discipline of the American forces rendered not unusual – put off for the scene of action."
On August 26, Laurens reported to General [Mordecai Gist](/wiki/Mordecai_Gist "Mordecai Gist") near the [Combahee River](/wiki/Combahee_River "Combahee River"). Gist had learned that 300 British troops under Major William Brereton had already captured a ferry and crossed the river, in search of rice to feed their garrison. Gist sent a detachment with orders to attack the British before sunrise the next morning. Laurens was given orders, at his own request, to take a small force further downriver to man a [redoubt](/wiki/Redoubt "Redoubt") at Chehaw Point, where they could fire on the British as they retreated.
Laurens and his troops stopped for the night at a plantation house near the Combahee River. Laurens got little or no sleep, instead "spending the evening in a delightful company of ladies... \[and] turned from this happy scene only two hours before he was to march down the river". With his command, Laurens left the plantation at about 3 o'clock on the morning of August 27\.
Leading a force of fifty Delaware infantrymen, and an artillery captain with a howitzer, Laurens rode toward Chehaw Point. However, the British had anticipated their maneuvers; before Laurens could reach the redoubt, 140 British soldiers had prepared an ambush along the road, concealed in tall grass about one mile from his destination.
When the enemy rose to fire, Laurens ordered an immediate charge, despite the British having superior numbers and the stronger position. Gist was only two miles away, and quickly approaching with reinforcements. According to William McKennan, a captain under Laurens's command, Laurens appeared "anxious to attack the enemy previous to the main body coming up," gambling that his troops, "although few in numbers, \[would be] sufficient to enable him to gain a laurel for his brow" before the end of the fighting. McKennan's opinion was that Laurens "wanted to do all himself, and have all the honor."
As Laurens led the charge, the British immediately opened fire, and Laurens fell from his horse fatally wounded. Gist's larger force arrived in time to cover a retreat, but was unable to prevent costly losses, including three American dead.
After Laurens's death, Colonel [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko "Tadeusz Kościuszko"), who had been a friend of Laurens, came from North Carolina to take his place in the final weeks of battle near Charleston, also taking over Laurens's intelligence network in the area.
Laurens was buried near the site of the battle, at William Stock's plantation where he had spent the evening before his death. After Henry Laurens returned from imprisonment in London, he had his son's remains moved and reinterred on his own property, the [Mepkin Plantation](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey "Mepkin Abbey").
The Laurens family sold their plantation in the 19th century, and in 1936 it was purchased by publisher [Henry Luce](/wiki/Henry_Luce "Henry Luce") and his wife [Clare Boothe Luce](/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce "Clare Boothe Luce"). In 1949, the Luces donated a large part of the former plantation, including an extensive landscape garden, to the [Trappists](/wiki/Trappists "Trappists") for use as a monastery. As [Mepkin Abbey](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey "Mepkin Abbey") and the [Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey_Botanical_Garden "Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden"), located near [Moncks Corner, South Carolina](/wiki/Moncks_Corner%2C_South_Carolina "Moncks Corner, South Carolina"), the site is open to the public, including the Laurens family graveyard on the monastery grounds.
|
[
"### Death at Combahee River",
"On August 27, 1782, at the age of 27, Laurens was shot from his saddle during the [Battle of the Combahee River](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Combahee_River \"Battle of the Combahee River\"), as one of the last casualties of the Revolutionary War. Laurens died in what General Greene described sadly as \"a paltry little skirmish\" with a foraging party, only a few weeks before the British finally withdrew from Charleston.",
"Laurens had been confined to bed at Wappoo Creek with a raging fever for several days, possibly due to malaria. When he learned that the British were sending a large force out of Charleston to gather supplies, he left his sickbed, \"wrote a hurried note to Gen. Greene, and, in disregard of his orders and the important duties with which he had been charged – a practice which the loose discipline of the American forces rendered not unusual – put off for the scene of action.\"",
"On August 26, Laurens reported to General [Mordecai Gist](/wiki/Mordecai_Gist \"Mordecai Gist\") near the [Combahee River](/wiki/Combahee_River \"Combahee River\"). Gist had learned that 300 British troops under Major William Brereton had already captured a ferry and crossed the river, in search of rice to feed their garrison. Gist sent a detachment with orders to attack the British before sunrise the next morning. Laurens was given orders, at his own request, to take a small force further downriver to man a [redoubt](/wiki/Redoubt \"Redoubt\") at Chehaw Point, where they could fire on the British as they retreated.",
"Laurens and his troops stopped for the night at a plantation house near the Combahee River. Laurens got little or no sleep, instead \"spending the evening in a delightful company of ladies... \\[and] turned from this happy scene only two hours before he was to march down the river\". With his command, Laurens left the plantation at about 3 o'clock on the morning of August 27\\.",
"Leading a force of fifty Delaware infantrymen, and an artillery captain with a howitzer, Laurens rode toward Chehaw Point. However, the British had anticipated their maneuvers; before Laurens could reach the redoubt, 140 British soldiers had prepared an ambush along the road, concealed in tall grass about one mile from his destination.",
"When the enemy rose to fire, Laurens ordered an immediate charge, despite the British having superior numbers and the stronger position. Gist was only two miles away, and quickly approaching with reinforcements. According to William McKennan, a captain under Laurens's command, Laurens appeared \"anxious to attack the enemy previous to the main body coming up,\" gambling that his troops, \"although few in numbers, \\[would be] sufficient to enable him to gain a laurel for his brow\" before the end of the fighting. McKennan's opinion was that Laurens \"wanted to do all himself, and have all the honor.\"",
"As Laurens led the charge, the British immediately opened fire, and Laurens fell from his horse fatally wounded. Gist's larger force arrived in time to cover a retreat, but was unable to prevent costly losses, including three American dead.",
"After Laurens's death, Colonel [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko \"Tadeusz Kościuszko\"), who had been a friend of Laurens, came from North Carolina to take his place in the final weeks of battle near Charleston, also taking over Laurens's intelligence network in the area.",
"Laurens was buried near the site of the battle, at William Stock's plantation where he had spent the evening before his death. After Henry Laurens returned from imprisonment in London, he had his son's remains moved and reinterred on his own property, the [Mepkin Plantation](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey \"Mepkin Abbey\").",
"The Laurens family sold their plantation in the 19th century, and in 1936 it was purchased by publisher [Henry Luce](/wiki/Henry_Luce \"Henry Luce\") and his wife [Clare Boothe Luce](/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce \"Clare Boothe Luce\"). In 1949, the Luces donated a large part of the former plantation, including an extensive landscape garden, to the [Trappists](/wiki/Trappists \"Trappists\") for use as a monastery. As [Mepkin Abbey](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey \"Mepkin Abbey\") and the [Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden](/wiki/Mepkin_Abbey_Botanical_Garden \"Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden\"), located near [Moncks Corner, South Carolina](/wiki/Moncks_Corner%2C_South_Carolina \"Moncks Corner, South Carolina\"), the site is open to the public, including the Laurens family graveyard on the monastery grounds.",
""
] |
Personal life
-------------
### Marriage and children
[thumb\|right\|Marriage record for John Laurens and Martha Manning](/wiki/File:Marriage_record_for_John_Laurens_and_Martha_Manning.png "Marriage record for John Laurens and Martha Manning.png")
On October 26, 1776, Laurens married Martha Manning in London. Her father, one of Henry Laurens's business agents, was a mentor and family friend whose home Laurens had frequently visited during his years in London. Laurens wrote to an uncle, "Pity has obliged me to marry", an unplanned marriage being necessary to preserve his honor, the reputation of the six\-month pregnant Martha, and the legitimacy of their child.
Laurens and his new wife moved from London to a home in Chelsea, but Laurens was zealous in his patriotism and unwilling to remain in England, believing that honor and duty required him to fight in the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War"). In December 1776, he sailed for Charleston. His pregnant wife, unable to risk a months\-long journey by sea during wartime, stayed behind with her family in London.
Laurens's only child, their daughter Frances Eleanor Laurens (1777–1860\), was born {{circa\|January 1777}} and baptized on February 18, 1777\. Laurens' father\-in\-law wrote to him that the infant had "undergone much pain, \& misery by a swelling in her hip, \& thigh, I believe from a hurt by the carelessness of the nurse". Fanny was not expected to live, but by July 1777, she had recovered from a successful surgery to her hip. At the age of eight, after the loss of both parents, Fanny was brought to Charleston in May 1785, and was raised there by John Laurens's sister [Martha Laurens Ramsay](/wiki/Martha_Laurens_Ramsay "Martha Laurens Ramsay") and her husband. Against the wishes of the Ramsays, Fanny eloped in 1795 with Francis Henderson, a Scottish merchant. Later in life, she was married to James Cunnington, and died in South Carolina at the age of 83\.
Laurens had one grandson, Francis Henderson Jr. (1797–1847\), a South Carolina lawyer who died young after struggling with alcoholism, and who did not marry or have children.
### Sexuality and relationship with Alexander Hamilton
As a young man in Geneva, from ages 16 to 19, Laurens "never had difficulty attracting women and men", while reserving "his primary emotional commitments for other men." According to Laurens's biographer Gregory D. Massey, this period "marked the beginning of a pattern; he continually centered his life around homosocial attachments to other men." [Homosociality](/wiki/Homosociality "Homosociality"), in [sociology](/wiki/Sociology "Sociology"), refers to [same\-sex relationships](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship "Same-sex relationship") that are not of a [romantic](/wiki/Romance_%28love%29 "Romance (love)") or sexual nature, such as [friendship](/wiki/Friendship "Friendship"), [mentorship](/wiki/Mentorship "Mentorship"), and [male bonding](/wiki/Male_bonding "Male bonding").
Shortly after his marriage, while in Washington's camp, Laurens met and became extremely close friends with Alexander Hamilton. They exchanged many letters during the several years when different assignments and Laurens's capture by the British kept them apart; for example, when the terms of Laurens's parole prevented him from being present at Hamilton's wedding to [Elizabeth Schuyler](/wiki/Elizabeth_Schuyler_Hamilton "Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton") in December 1780, even though Hamilton had invited him. While emotional language was not uncommon in [romantic friendships](/wiki/Romantic_friendship "Romantic friendship") among those of the same gender in this historical period, Hamilton biographer [James Thomas Flexner](/wiki/James_Thomas_Flexner "James Thomas Flexner") stated that the intensely expressive language contained in the Hamilton\-Laurens letters "raises questions concerning homosexuality" that "cannot be categorically answered".
Stating that "one must tread gingerly in approaching this matter," Hamilton biographer [Ron Chernow](/wiki/Ron_Chernow "Ron Chernow") wrote that it is impossible to say "with any certainty" that Laurens and Hamilton were lovers, noting that such an affair would have required the exercise of "extraordinary precautions" because sodomy was a capital offense throughout the colonies at the time. Chernow concluded that based on available evidence, "At the very least, we can say that Hamilton developed something like an adolescent crush on his friend." According to Chernow, "Hamilton did not form friendships easily and never again revealed his interior life to another man as he had to Laurens", and after Laurens's death, "Hamilton shut off some compartment of his emotions and never reopened it."
In contrast to Hamilton's effusive letters, surviving letters from Laurens to Hamilton were notably less frequent and less passionately worded, although some letters written by Laurens have been lost or may have been destroyed.
Massey has dismissed speculations on John Laurens's supposed homosexuality and on a Laurens\-Hamilton relationship as unsubstantiated, concluding, "Their relationship was platonic, a bond formed by their devotion to the Revolution and mutual ambition for fame." Years later, Massey regretted that the tone of his assertion had been decisive rather than equivocal, conceding that the matter "can not be definitively resolved."
|
[
"Personal life\n-------------",
"### Marriage and children",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Marriage record for John Laurens and Martha Manning](/wiki/File:Marriage_record_for_John_Laurens_and_Martha_Manning.png \"Marriage record for John Laurens and Martha Manning.png\")\nOn October 26, 1776, Laurens married Martha Manning in London. Her father, one of Henry Laurens's business agents, was a mentor and family friend whose home Laurens had frequently visited during his years in London. Laurens wrote to an uncle, \"Pity has obliged me to marry\", an unplanned marriage being necessary to preserve his honor, the reputation of the six\\-month pregnant Martha, and the legitimacy of their child.",
"Laurens and his new wife moved from London to a home in Chelsea, but Laurens was zealous in his patriotism and unwilling to remain in England, believing that honor and duty required him to fight in the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"). In December 1776, he sailed for Charleston. His pregnant wife, unable to risk a months\\-long journey by sea during wartime, stayed behind with her family in London.",
"Laurens's only child, their daughter Frances Eleanor Laurens (1777–1860\\), was born {{circa\\|January 1777}} and baptized on February 18, 1777\\. Laurens' father\\-in\\-law wrote to him that the infant had \"undergone much pain, \\& misery by a swelling in her hip, \\& thigh, I believe from a hurt by the carelessness of the nurse\". Fanny was not expected to live, but by July 1777, she had recovered from a successful surgery to her hip. At the age of eight, after the loss of both parents, Fanny was brought to Charleston in May 1785, and was raised there by John Laurens's sister [Martha Laurens Ramsay](/wiki/Martha_Laurens_Ramsay \"Martha Laurens Ramsay\") and her husband. Against the wishes of the Ramsays, Fanny eloped in 1795 with Francis Henderson, a Scottish merchant. Later in life, she was married to James Cunnington, and died in South Carolina at the age of 83\\.",
"Laurens had one grandson, Francis Henderson Jr. (1797–1847\\), a South Carolina lawyer who died young after struggling with alcoholism, and who did not marry or have children.",
"### Sexuality and relationship with Alexander Hamilton",
"As a young man in Geneva, from ages 16 to 19, Laurens \"never had difficulty attracting women and men\", while reserving \"his primary emotional commitments for other men.\" According to Laurens's biographer Gregory D. Massey, this period \"marked the beginning of a pattern; he continually centered his life around homosocial attachments to other men.\" [Homosociality](/wiki/Homosociality \"Homosociality\"), in [sociology](/wiki/Sociology \"Sociology\"), refers to [same\\-sex relationships](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship \"Same-sex relationship\") that are not of a [romantic](/wiki/Romance_%28love%29 \"Romance (love)\") or sexual nature, such as [friendship](/wiki/Friendship \"Friendship\"), [mentorship](/wiki/Mentorship \"Mentorship\"), and [male bonding](/wiki/Male_bonding \"Male bonding\").",
"Shortly after his marriage, while in Washington's camp, Laurens met and became extremely close friends with Alexander Hamilton. They exchanged many letters during the several years when different assignments and Laurens's capture by the British kept them apart; for example, when the terms of Laurens's parole prevented him from being present at Hamilton's wedding to [Elizabeth Schuyler](/wiki/Elizabeth_Schuyler_Hamilton \"Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton\") in December 1780, even though Hamilton had invited him. While emotional language was not uncommon in [romantic friendships](/wiki/Romantic_friendship \"Romantic friendship\") among those of the same gender in this historical period, Hamilton biographer [James Thomas Flexner](/wiki/James_Thomas_Flexner \"James Thomas Flexner\") stated that the intensely expressive language contained in the Hamilton\\-Laurens letters \"raises questions concerning homosexuality\" that \"cannot be categorically answered\".",
"Stating that \"one must tread gingerly in approaching this matter,\" Hamilton biographer [Ron Chernow](/wiki/Ron_Chernow \"Ron Chernow\") wrote that it is impossible to say \"with any certainty\" that Laurens and Hamilton were lovers, noting that such an affair would have required the exercise of \"extraordinary precautions\" because sodomy was a capital offense throughout the colonies at the time. Chernow concluded that based on available evidence, \"At the very least, we can say that Hamilton developed something like an adolescent crush on his friend.\" According to Chernow, \"Hamilton did not form friendships easily and never again revealed his interior life to another man as he had to Laurens\", and after Laurens's death, \"Hamilton shut off some compartment of his emotions and never reopened it.\"",
"In contrast to Hamilton's effusive letters, surviving letters from Laurens to Hamilton were notably less frequent and less passionately worded, although some letters written by Laurens have been lost or may have been destroyed.",
"Massey has dismissed speculations on John Laurens's supposed homosexuality and on a Laurens\\-Hamilton relationship as unsubstantiated, concluding, \"Their relationship was platonic, a bond formed by their devotion to the Revolution and mutual ambition for fame.\" Years later, Massey regretted that the tone of his assertion had been decisive rather than equivocal, conceding that the matter \"can not be definitively resolved.\"",
""
] |
Overview of the Czech National Bank
-----------------------------------
{{unreferenced section\|date\=April 2015}}
### Mission
The primary objective of CNB as stated in the Act on the Czech National Bank and the [Constitution of the Czech Republic](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Czech_Republic "Constitution of the Czech Republic") is [price stability](/wiki/Price_stability "Price stability"). The secondary objective is to support sustainable [economic growth](/wiki/Economic_growth "Economic growth"). It currently employs [inflation targeting](/wiki/Inflation_targeting "Inflation targeting") monetary transmission mechanism. The goal is to stabilize inflation around 2\.0% per annum.
### Organization
The Czech National Bank, located in Prague at 28 Na Příkopě, has remained in the same building through multiple government transitions. The leaders of the Czech National Bank are on the "Bank Board". The Bank Board is responsible for setting and implementing monetary policy.
The Bank Board consists of seven members: The Governor of the Czech National Bank, two Vice\-Governors and four other members of the Bank Board. The Governor and Vice\-Governors are appointed and relieved by the President of the Republic. No person is able to hold a position on the Bank Board for more than two terms. Each term lasts for six years and acts independent of other Governing bodies.
### Currency
The CNB maintains exclusive rights to issue and regulate banknotes and coins. The Bank oversees the legal and technical protection of the currency, the Koruna (also called the Crown). The Czech Republic was scheduled to adopt the Euro in 2010, but due to popular opinion, the Czech government opted to stay with the crown. Consequently, the implementation of the Euro was suspended indefinitely.
The Czech National Bank issues 1Kč, 2 Kč, 5 Kč, 10 Kč, 20 Kč and 50 Kč coins. The note denominations consist of 100 Kč, 200 Kč, 500 Kč, 1,000 Kč, 2,000 Kč and 5,000 Kč.
### Czech National Bank and the Euro
{{See also\|Czech Republic and the euro}}
The Czech Republic officially joined the European Union on 1 May 2004\. The original intention of the Czech National Bank was to adopt the Euro, but after relatively strong economic progress within the Czech Republic and a favorable national attitude for the Czech Koruna there are no current plans to change the currency. With no political or public urgency, the Czech Republic will most likely not join the Euro Area and adopt the Exchange Rate Mechanism in the coming years.
### Czech National Bank regulation of the markets
As the supervisor of the financial markets in the Czech Republic, the CNB maintains authority over, the banking sector, capital markets, the insurance industry, pension funds, credit unions, and payment system institutions.(CNB Website) The CNB sets the rules and regulations for the industries that they preside over and systematically check in on the many financial institutions. Any institution that does not conform to the regulations outlined by the CNB is subject to penalties and restrictions.
### Monetary policy
The CNB states that their primary objective is to maintain price stability. In order to keep prices stable, the Central bank implements tools, such as setting interest rates. Upon entry into the European Union the CNB will yield policy and control over to the European Central Bank.
The favored pursuit of the CNB in order to control monetary policy is inflation targeting. By using inflation forecasts and macroeconomic predictions the CNB attempts to achieve an optimal inflation rate of between 1\-3%. By forecasting the various factors and inputs of inflation and adjusting interest rates accordingly, the CNB has been able to control their inflation.
Banks can deposit excess liquidity overnight with the CNB at the discount rate and can borrow overnight funds at the [lombard](/wiki/Lombard_credit "Lombard credit") rate. Thus these two rates create a corridor for the short\-term money market rates. Moreover, the CNB conducts [open market operations](/wiki/Open_market_operations "Open market operations") in the form of [repurchase agreements](/wiki/Repurchase_agreement "Repurchase agreement") (REPOs). The basic duration is 2 weeks. Currently the CNB is absorbing excess liquidity. The aim of these operations is to influence short\-term rates which subsequently affect economic activity, the flow of capital, and inflation.
#### Main instruments of monetary policy
**Open Market Operations**: Open market operations are used to steer interest rates. Most of the Open Market Operations are completed through Repo operations. Repo operations are repurchase agreements, where the government sells securities to traders, usually on a short\-term agreement.
**Automatic Facilities**: Automatic facilities create liquidity for the Czech National Bank through independent banks depositing money overnight or other banks that have a Repo agreement with the central bank may take out a loan.
**Extraordinary Facilities**: In order to support the government bond market, the Central Bank introduced Extraordinary Facilities in 2008\. This Extraordinary liquidity provided Repo operations on a longer\-term basis of two weeks to three months.
**Minimum Reserves**: As one of the main monetary instruments in order to control the amount of liquidity on the market, the Central Bank establishes a reserve requirement. By controlling the Minimum Reserves, the Central bank helps the interbank system run smoothly.
**FX interventions**: By purchasing foreign currencies against the Czech Crown, the Central Bank limits risk in the market. FX interventions decrease volatility and help to ease or tighten monetary policy when necessary.
### Financial markets
The Czech National bank determines the value of the Czech currency against foreign currencies. Under the regulation of the Ministry of Finance, the central bank continually adjusts and fixes the exchange rate.
Further involvement of the Czech National Bank in Financial markets is the analysis of inflation expectations. The National Bank analyzes the factors, such as interest rate and exchange rate, that determine the inflation rate and make predictions on expected fluctuations. The prediction of the changes in inflation rate is key to the monetary policy of the central bank. Because of the central banks immediate response to new reports regarding exogenous shocks, policy changes and other market conditions, changes in interest rates and exchange rates prove to be good signals for the central banks market expectations.
|
[
"Overview of the Czech National Bank\n-----------------------------------",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=April 2015}}",
"### Mission",
"The primary objective of CNB as stated in the Act on the Czech National Bank and the [Constitution of the Czech Republic](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Czech_Republic \"Constitution of the Czech Republic\") is [price stability](/wiki/Price_stability \"Price stability\"). The secondary objective is to support sustainable [economic growth](/wiki/Economic_growth \"Economic growth\"). It currently employs [inflation targeting](/wiki/Inflation_targeting \"Inflation targeting\") monetary transmission mechanism. The goal is to stabilize inflation around 2\\.0% per annum.",
"### Organization",
"The Czech National Bank, located in Prague at 28 Na Příkopě, has remained in the same building through multiple government transitions. The leaders of the Czech National Bank are on the \"Bank Board\". The Bank Board is responsible for setting and implementing monetary policy.",
"The Bank Board consists of seven members: The Governor of the Czech National Bank, two Vice\\-Governors and four other members of the Bank Board. The Governor and Vice\\-Governors are appointed and relieved by the President of the Republic. No person is able to hold a position on the Bank Board for more than two terms. Each term lasts for six years and acts independent of other Governing bodies.",
"### Currency",
"The CNB maintains exclusive rights to issue and regulate banknotes and coins. The Bank oversees the legal and technical protection of the currency, the Koruna (also called the Crown). The Czech Republic was scheduled to adopt the Euro in 2010, but due to popular opinion, the Czech government opted to stay with the crown. Consequently, the implementation of the Euro was suspended indefinitely.",
"The Czech National Bank issues 1Kč, 2 Kč, 5 Kč, 10 Kč, 20 Kč and 50 Kč coins. The note denominations consist of 100 Kč, 200 Kč, 500 Kč, 1,000 Kč, 2,000 Kč and 5,000 Kč.",
"### Czech National Bank and the Euro",
"{{See also\\|Czech Republic and the euro}}\nThe Czech Republic officially joined the European Union on 1 May 2004\\. The original intention of the Czech National Bank was to adopt the Euro, but after relatively strong economic progress within the Czech Republic and a favorable national attitude for the Czech Koruna there are no current plans to change the currency. With no political or public urgency, the Czech Republic will most likely not join the Euro Area and adopt the Exchange Rate Mechanism in the coming years.",
"### Czech National Bank regulation of the markets",
"As the supervisor of the financial markets in the Czech Republic, the CNB maintains authority over, the banking sector, capital markets, the insurance industry, pension funds, credit unions, and payment system institutions.(CNB Website) The CNB sets the rules and regulations for the industries that they preside over and systematically check in on the many financial institutions. Any institution that does not conform to the regulations outlined by the CNB is subject to penalties and restrictions.",
"### Monetary policy",
"The CNB states that their primary objective is to maintain price stability. In order to keep prices stable, the Central bank implements tools, such as setting interest rates. Upon entry into the European Union the CNB will yield policy and control over to the European Central Bank.",
"The favored pursuit of the CNB in order to control monetary policy is inflation targeting. By using inflation forecasts and macroeconomic predictions the CNB attempts to achieve an optimal inflation rate of between 1\\-3%. By forecasting the various factors and inputs of inflation and adjusting interest rates accordingly, the CNB has been able to control their inflation.",
"Banks can deposit excess liquidity overnight with the CNB at the discount rate and can borrow overnight funds at the [lombard](/wiki/Lombard_credit \"Lombard credit\") rate. Thus these two rates create a corridor for the short\\-term money market rates. Moreover, the CNB conducts [open market operations](/wiki/Open_market_operations \"Open market operations\") in the form of [repurchase agreements](/wiki/Repurchase_agreement \"Repurchase agreement\") (REPOs). The basic duration is 2 weeks. Currently the CNB is absorbing excess liquidity. The aim of these operations is to influence short\\-term rates which subsequently affect economic activity, the flow of capital, and inflation.",
"#### Main instruments of monetary policy",
"**Open Market Operations**: Open market operations are used to steer interest rates. Most of the Open Market Operations are completed through Repo operations. Repo operations are repurchase agreements, where the government sells securities to traders, usually on a short\\-term agreement.",
"**Automatic Facilities**: Automatic facilities create liquidity for the Czech National Bank through independent banks depositing money overnight or other banks that have a Repo agreement with the central bank may take out a loan.",
"**Extraordinary Facilities**: In order to support the government bond market, the Central Bank introduced Extraordinary Facilities in 2008\\. This Extraordinary liquidity provided Repo operations on a longer\\-term basis of two weeks to three months.",
"**Minimum Reserves**: As one of the main monetary instruments in order to control the amount of liquidity on the market, the Central Bank establishes a reserve requirement. By controlling the Minimum Reserves, the Central bank helps the interbank system run smoothly.",
"**FX interventions**: By purchasing foreign currencies against the Czech Crown, the Central Bank limits risk in the market. FX interventions decrease volatility and help to ease or tighten monetary policy when necessary.",
"### Financial markets",
"The Czech National bank determines the value of the Czech currency against foreign currencies. Under the regulation of the Ministry of Finance, the central bank continually adjusts and fixes the exchange rate.",
"Further involvement of the Czech National Bank in Financial markets is the analysis of inflation expectations. The National Bank analyzes the factors, such as interest rate and exchange rate, that determine the inflation rate and make predictions on expected fluctuations. The prediction of the changes in inflation rate is key to the monetary policy of the central bank. Because of the central banks immediate response to new reports regarding exogenous shocks, policy changes and other market conditions, changes in interest rates and exchange rates prove to be good signals for the central banks market expectations.",
""
] |
Early life
----------
{{BLP sources section\|date\=August 2013}}
Morneau is the youngest son of George Morneau, a hitting coach for many softball and baseball teams, childcare worker, and sporting goods store owner. His mother Audra Chartrand is an elementary school teacher and former fast\-pitch [softball](/wiki/Softball "Softball") player. Justin has an older brother, Geordie. His father once played hockey for the [Brandon Wheat Kings](/wiki/Brandon_Wheat_Kings "Brandon Wheat Kings") and attended the training camp of the [Minnesota North Stars](/wiki/Minnesota_North_Stars "Minnesota North Stars").{{Cite web \|title\=George Morneau Hockey Stats and Profile at hockeydb.com \|url\=https://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/pdisplay.php?pid\=92218 \|access\-date\=July 5, 2023 \|website\=HockeyDB \|language\=en}}
Morneau grew up in [New Westminster](/wiki/New_Westminster "New Westminster"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), the historic "Royal City", adjacent to [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver"), where he played hockey for the local minor team, the New Westminster Royals, and emerged as a star goaltender, playing for teams a year older than he was. He also played baseball in the New Westminster Minor Baseball Association and for the [North Delta Blue Jays](/wiki/North_Delta_Blue_Jays "North Delta Blue Jays") in the [B.C. Premier Baseball League](/wiki/B.C._Premier_Baseball_League "B.C. Premier Baseball League").
Morneau attended [Lord Tweedsmuir Elementary School](/wiki/Lord_Tweedsmuir_Elementary_School "Lord Tweedsmuir Elementary School") in New Westminster, later transferring to [Richard McBride Elementary School](/wiki/Richard_McBride_Elementary_School "Richard McBride Elementary School"), where his mother was a teacher and coach and where he enrolled in a [French immersion](/wiki/French_immersion "French immersion") program. He played basketball and volleyball and ball hockey on the school teams.
Growing up, Morneau was an avid sports fan, whose favourite athletes included hockey players [Patrick Roy](/wiki/Patrick_Roy "Patrick Roy"), [Cam Neely](/wiki/Cam_Neely "Cam Neely") (also a native of British Columbia), and [Ray Bourque](/wiki/Ray_Bourque "Ray Bourque"); and baseball players [John Olerud](/wiki/John_Olerud "John Olerud"), [Ken Griffey Jr.](/wiki/Ken_Griffey_Jr. "Ken Griffey Jr."), [Jack Morris](/wiki/Jack_Morris "Jack Morris") and [Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker "Larry Walker"). His favorite NHL team was the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins "Boston Bruins"), and his favorite MLB team was the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays").
Morneau attended [St. Thomas More Collegiate](/wiki/St._Thomas_More_Collegiate "St. Thomas More Collegiate") in 1994–95 for his eighth grade year, where he played basketball. Coaches approached him to play for the school's famed football program, based on his athletic ability, but he declined.
Morneau transferred to [New Westminster Secondary School](/wiki/New_Westminster_Secondary_School "New Westminster Secondary School") and graduated in 1999\. He continued to play basketball and hockey while in high school. He was named the New Westminster High School Athlete of the year and was a member of Canadian national champion baseball teams in 1997 and 1998\. In 1998, he was selected the best hitter and catcher of the National Championships playing for Team British Columbia.
Morneau was associated with the [Portland Winter Hawks](/wiki/Portland_Winter_Hawks "Portland Winter Hawks") of the [Western Hockey League](/wiki/Western_Hockey_League "Western Hockey League"); he attended training camp and played one preseason game of Major Junior hockey as a goaltender. Morneau chose his jersey number (33\) for goalie [Patrick Roy](/wiki/Patrick_Roy "Patrick Roy"). He is listed as winning the Memorial Cup in 1998 with the Winter Hawks. As Morneau put it, "I was the third goalie. A backup to the backup. If somebody got hurt, I might have gotten out there as a backup. I played in an exhibition game and backed up some regular\-season games.".{{Cite web \|last\=Brown \|first\=David \|date\=April 17, 2008 \|title\=Answer Man: Justin Morneau talks hockey, middle names \|url\=https://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/blog/big\_league\_stew/post/Answer\-Man\-Justin\-Morneau\-talks\-hockey\-middle\-?urn\=mlb,77430 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430220649/https://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/blog/big\_league\_stew/post/Answer\-Man\-Justin\-Morneau\-talks\-hockey\-middle\-?urn\=mlb,77430 \|archive\-date\=April 30, 2008 \|access\-date\= \|website\=\[\[Yahoo! Sports]] \|language\=en\-US}} Morneau remained on Portland's Protected Player List until he decided to focus on baseball instead of hockey. According to Winter Hawks assistant coach at the time, Mike Williamson, "He was young and raw — a big guy who covered a lot of the net. I remember a conversation we had with him when recruiting him. We told him he should go to hockey because not many Canadian guys end up going very far and doing very well in baseball. He showed us otherwise."{{cite web \|author\=Mirtle \|first\=James \|date\=November 29, 2006 \|title\=Could Morneau have made it in hockey? \|url\=http://mirtle.blogspot.com/2006/11/could\-morneau\-have\-made\-it\-in\-hockey.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708053405/http://mirtle.blogspot.com/2006/11/could\-morneau\-have\-made\-it\-in\-hockey.html \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2011 \|website\=James Mirtle}}
|
[
"Early life\n----------",
"{{BLP sources section\\|date\\=August 2013}}\nMorneau is the youngest son of George Morneau, a hitting coach for many softball and baseball teams, childcare worker, and sporting goods store owner. His mother Audra Chartrand is an elementary school teacher and former fast\\-pitch [softball](/wiki/Softball \"Softball\") player. Justin has an older brother, Geordie. His father once played hockey for the [Brandon Wheat Kings](/wiki/Brandon_Wheat_Kings \"Brandon Wheat Kings\") and attended the training camp of the [Minnesota North Stars](/wiki/Minnesota_North_Stars \"Minnesota North Stars\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=George Morneau Hockey Stats and Profile at hockeydb.com \\|url\\=https://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/pdisplay.php?pid\\=92218 \\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2023 \\|website\\=HockeyDB \\|language\\=en}}",
"Morneau grew up in [New Westminster](/wiki/New_Westminster \"New Westminster\"), [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), the historic \"Royal City\", adjacent to [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\"), where he played hockey for the local minor team, the New Westminster Royals, and emerged as a star goaltender, playing for teams a year older than he was. He also played baseball in the New Westminster Minor Baseball Association and for the [North Delta Blue Jays](/wiki/North_Delta_Blue_Jays \"North Delta Blue Jays\") in the [B.C. Premier Baseball League](/wiki/B.C._Premier_Baseball_League \"B.C. Premier Baseball League\").",
"Morneau attended [Lord Tweedsmuir Elementary School](/wiki/Lord_Tweedsmuir_Elementary_School \"Lord Tweedsmuir Elementary School\") in New Westminster, later transferring to [Richard McBride Elementary School](/wiki/Richard_McBride_Elementary_School \"Richard McBride Elementary School\"), where his mother was a teacher and coach and where he enrolled in a [French immersion](/wiki/French_immersion \"French immersion\") program. He played basketball and volleyball and ball hockey on the school teams.",
"Growing up, Morneau was an avid sports fan, whose favourite athletes included hockey players [Patrick Roy](/wiki/Patrick_Roy \"Patrick Roy\"), [Cam Neely](/wiki/Cam_Neely \"Cam Neely\") (also a native of British Columbia), and [Ray Bourque](/wiki/Ray_Bourque \"Ray Bourque\"); and baseball players [John Olerud](/wiki/John_Olerud \"John Olerud\"), [Ken Griffey Jr.](/wiki/Ken_Griffey_Jr. \"Ken Griffey Jr.\"), [Jack Morris](/wiki/Jack_Morris \"Jack Morris\") and [Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker \"Larry Walker\"). His favorite NHL team was the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins \"Boston Bruins\"), and his favorite MLB team was the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\").",
"Morneau attended [St. Thomas More Collegiate](/wiki/St._Thomas_More_Collegiate \"St. Thomas More Collegiate\") in 1994–95 for his eighth grade year, where he played basketball. Coaches approached him to play for the school's famed football program, based on his athletic ability, but he declined.",
"Morneau transferred to [New Westminster Secondary School](/wiki/New_Westminster_Secondary_School \"New Westminster Secondary School\") and graduated in 1999\\. He continued to play basketball and hockey while in high school. He was named the New Westminster High School Athlete of the year and was a member of Canadian national champion baseball teams in 1997 and 1998\\. In 1998, he was selected the best hitter and catcher of the National Championships playing for Team British Columbia.",
"Morneau was associated with the [Portland Winter Hawks](/wiki/Portland_Winter_Hawks \"Portland Winter Hawks\") of the [Western Hockey League](/wiki/Western_Hockey_League \"Western Hockey League\"); he attended training camp and played one preseason game of Major Junior hockey as a goaltender. Morneau chose his jersey number (33\\) for goalie [Patrick Roy](/wiki/Patrick_Roy \"Patrick Roy\"). He is listed as winning the Memorial Cup in 1998 with the Winter Hawks. As Morneau put it, \"I was the third goalie. A backup to the backup. If somebody got hurt, I might have gotten out there as a backup. I played in an exhibition game and backed up some regular\\-season games.\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Brown \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=April 17, 2008 \\|title\\=Answer Man: Justin Morneau talks hockey, middle names \\|url\\=https://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/blog/big\\_league\\_stew/post/Answer\\-Man\\-Justin\\-Morneau\\-talks\\-hockey\\-middle\\-?urn\\=mlb,77430 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430220649/https://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/blog/big\\_league\\_stew/post/Answer\\-Man\\-Justin\\-Morneau\\-talks\\-hockey\\-middle\\-?urn\\=mlb,77430 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 30, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=\\[\\[Yahoo! Sports]] \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Morneau remained on Portland's Protected Player List until he decided to focus on baseball instead of hockey. According to Winter Hawks assistant coach at the time, Mike Williamson, \"He was young and raw — a big guy who covered a lot of the net. I remember a conversation we had with him when recruiting him. We told him he should go to hockey because not many Canadian guys end up going very far and doing very well in baseball. He showed us otherwise.\"{{cite web \\|author\\=Mirtle \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=November 29, 2006 \\|title\\=Could Morneau have made it in hockey? \\|url\\=http://mirtle.blogspot.com/2006/11/could\\-morneau\\-have\\-made\\-it\\-in\\-hockey.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708053405/http://mirtle.blogspot.com/2006/11/could\\-morneau\\-have\\-made\\-it\\-in\\-hockey.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2011 \\|website\\=James Mirtle}}",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
[thumb\|225 px\|Home run for Morneau, [Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome](/wiki/Hubert_H._Humphrey_Metrodome "Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome")](/wiki/File:Justin_Morneau-Metrodome-20060611.jpg "Justin Morneau-Metrodome-20060611.jpg")
### Minor leagues
Morneau did not attend college, despite receiving many attractive offers from NCAA schools. He was selected by the Twins in the third round (89th overall) of the [1999 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/1999_Major_League_Baseball_draft "1999 Major League Baseball draft").{{Cite web \|title\=3rd Round of the 1999 MLB June Amateur Draft \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/draft/?year\_ID\=1999\&draft\_round\=3\&draft\_type\=junreg\&query\_type\=year\_round \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]] \|language\=en}} He converted to first base in 2001 while playing for the Class\-A [Quad Cities River Bandits](/wiki/Quad_Cities_River_Bandits "Quad Cities River Bandits"). In six minor league seasons, he hit .310 with 87 home runs, 153 RBI and 122 doubles.{{Cite web \|title\=Justin Morneau Minor Leagues Statistics \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/register/player.fcgi?id\=mornea001jus \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]] \|language\=en}}
Morneau participated in the 2002 and 2004 [All\-Star Futures Games](/wiki/All-Star_Futures_Game "All-Star Futures Game"), playing for the World teams. He was twice named Eastern League Player of the Week in 2002 (April 22–28 and July 15–21\). On September 3, 2002, Morneau was promoted to Minnesota's Triple\-A team, the [Edmonton Trappers](/wiki/Edmonton_Trappers "Edmonton Trappers"), but did not play in a game for the team that season. He made his first Triple\-A appearance in 2003 with the Twins' new affiliate, the [Rochester Red Wings](/wiki/Rochester_Red_Wings "Rochester Red Wings"), and finished the season batting .268 with 16 home runs and 42 RBI in 71 games.
### Minnesota Twins (2003–2013\)
#### Early career (2003–2005\)
Morneau made his major league debut with the Twins on June 10, 2003 against the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies "Colorado Rockies"), batting [clean\-up](/wiki/Cleanup_hitter "Cleanup hitter"). He [singled](/wiki/Single_%28baseball%29 "Single (baseball)") in his first career at\-bat off [Jason Jennings](/wiki/Jason_Jennings "Jason Jennings") and went 2\-for\-4 in the game.{{Cite web \|date\=June 10, 2003 \|title\=Colorado Rockies vs Minnesota Twins Box Score: June 10, 2003 \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/MIN/MIN200306100\.shtml \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]] \|language\=en}} A week later on June 17, he hit his first career home run off [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals "Kansas City Royals") reliever [Albie Lopez](/wiki/Albie_Lopez "Albie Lopez").{{Cite web \|date\=June 17, 2003 \|title\=Minnesota Twins vs Kansas City Royals Box Score: June 17, 2003 \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/KCA/KCA200306170\.shtml \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]] \|language\=en}} Morneau played in 40 games with the Twins in 2003, batting .226 with four home runs and 10 RBI.{{Cite web \|title\=Justin Morneau Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Rookie Status \& More \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/players/m/morneju01\.shtml \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]] \|language\=en}}
In 2004, after Morneau compiled impressive minor league numbers, the Twins dealt veteran first baseman [Doug Mientkiewicz](/wiki/Doug_Mientkiewicz "Doug Mientkiewicz") to the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox "Boston Red Sox") and Morneau became the Twins' starting first baseman.{{Cite web \|last\=Hohler \|first\=Bob \|date\=August 1, 2004 \|title\=Boston Red Sox \- Sox trade Nomar to Cubs at deadline \- The Boston Globe \|url\=https://archive.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/articles/2004/08/01/sox\_trade\_nomar\_to\_cubs\_at\_deadline/ \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[The Boston Globe]] \|language\=en}} He appeared in 74 games for the Twins in 2004, hitting .271 with 19 home runs and 58 RBI in 280 at bats while committing just three errors.
The 2005 season was a struggle for Morneau, as he dealt with off\-season illnesses as well as being hit in the head by a pitch in April.{{Cite web \|last\=Sheldon \|first\=Mark \|date\=April 6, 2005 \|title\=Morneau takes pitch to the head \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20050406\&content\_id\=1002145\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127195900/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20050406\&content\_id\=1002145\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=November 27, 2005 \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]]}} He finished the season with a .239 batting average, 22 home runs and 79 RBI in 141 games. Although he never appeared to fully shake off his early season setbacks, Morneau finished first on the Twins in RBI and second in home runs.{{Cite web \|title\=2005 Minnesota Twins Statistics \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/teams/MIN/2005\.shtml \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]] \|language\=en}}
#### Dominance (2006–2009\)
During Morneau's first three seasons with the Twins, he wore \#27\. Starting in 2006, he wore \#33 for the rest of his Twins career. After a slow start to [2006](/wiki/2006_Minnesota_Twins_season "2006 Minnesota Twins season"), Morneau exploded offensively in the months of June, July, and August, raising his batting average nearly 50 points in June after beginning the month hitting .240\.{{Cite web \|title\=Justin Morneau Game by Game Stats and Performance \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/player/gamelog/\_/id/5379/year/2006 \|access\-date\=July 6, 2023 \|website\=\[\[ESPN]] \|language\=en}} He raised his average another 33 points in July and after June consistently appeared near the top of the [American League](/wiki/American_League "American League") leaderboard in batting average, home runs, and RBI. On August 9, Morneau became the first Twin since 1987 to hit 30 home runs in a single season.{{Cite web \|last\=Thesier \|first\=Kelly \|date\=August 9, 2006 \|title\=Morneau's 30th takes finale in Detroit \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/gameday\_recap.jsp?ymd\=20060809\&content\_id\=1601394\&vkey\=recap\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060814075140/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/gameday\_recap.jsp?ymd\=20060809\&content\_id\=1601394\&vkey\=recap\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=August 14, 2006 \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]]}} He finished the season hitting .321 (seventh in the AL) and slugging .559 (sixth in AL) with 34 home runs and 130 RBI in 157 games. He was second in the league in RBIs and tied [Larry Walker's](/wiki/Larry_Walker "Larry Walker") 1997 total for the most RBIs in a season by a Canadian.{{Cite web \|title\=2006 American League Batting Leaders \|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/leagues/AL/2006\-batting\-leaders.shtml \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]] \|language\=en}} For his hitting, he won the 2006 American League [Silver Slugger Award](/wiki/Silver_Slugger_Award "Silver Slugger Award") representing first basemen. His efforts helped the Twins win their fourth division title in five years.{{Cite web \|date\=October 1, 2006 \|title\=Twins win Central; Mauer first AL catcher to take batting title \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/261001109 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709060716/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/261001109 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023 \|website\=\[\[ESPN]] \|language\=en \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}}
On November 21, 2006, Morneau won the [American League Most Valuable Player Award](/wiki/MLB_Most_Valuable_Player_Award "MLB Most Valuable Player Award") in a close vote over [Derek Jeter](/wiki/Derek_Jeter "Derek Jeter") of the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees "New York Yankees"), becoming only the fourth player in Twins history (after [Zoilo Versalles](/wiki/Zoilo_Versalles "Zoilo Versalles"), [Harmon Killebrew](/wiki/Harmon_Killebrew "Harmon Killebrew"), and [Rod Carew](/wiki/Rod_Carew "Rod Carew")) to receive the honour. He became the first Canadian to win the AL MVP award, and the second Canadian to win a major league MVP award ([Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker "Larry Walker") was the first, having won the NL MVP Award in [1997](/wiki/1997_Major_League_Baseball_season "1997 Major League Baseball season"); Walker and Morneau were joined in [2010](/wiki/2010_Major_League_Baseball_season "2010 Major League Baseball season") by [Joey Votto](/wiki/Joey_Votto "Joey Votto")).{{Cite web \|last\=Thesier \|first\=Kelly \|date\=November 21, 2006 \|title\=Morneau upsets field in AL MVP race \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20061121\&content\_id\=1744779\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212081155/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20061121\&content\_id\=1744779\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=February 12, 2007 \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]]}}
In 2007, Morneau played in 157 games, batting .271 with 31 home runs and 111 RBI. In May 2007, Morneau won the [Player of the Month](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_Player_of_the_Month_Award "Major League Baseball Player of the Month Award") in the American League for the first time in his career.{{Cite news \|date\=June 4, 2007 \|title\=Morneau named AL's player of month for May \|language\=en\-CA \|work\=\[\[The Globe and Mail]] \|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/morneau\-named\-als\-player\-of\-month\-for\-may/article1086443/ \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023}} Morneau appeared on the cover of the arcade baseball video game [The Bigs](/wiki/The_Bigs "The Bigs") in Canadian stores and at [Best Buy](/wiki/Best_Buy "Best Buy") stores in the United States. Morneau was named to the [2007 Major League Baseball All\-Star Game](/wiki/2007_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game "2007 Major League Baseball All-Star Game") roster in 2007 for the first time. He also participated in the [2007 State Farm Home Run Derby](/wiki/2007_State_Farm_Home_Run_Derby "2007 State Farm Home Run Derby") for the first time. He was up first and hit four homers and ended up tying with [Albert Pujols](/wiki/Albert_Pujols "Albert Pujols") in the first round. He was subsequently eliminated with only one homer on five chances in a tie\-off. Pujols advanced to the second round with two homers.{{Cite web \|last\=Bloom \|first\=Barry M. \|date\=July 10, 2007 \|title\=Vlad captures first Derby crown \|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20070709\&content\_id\=2078659\&vkey\=allstar2007\&fext\=.jsp \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712190440/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20070709\&content\_id\=2078659\&vkey\=allstar2007\&fext\=.jsp \|archive\-date\=July 12, 2007 \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023 \|website\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB Advanced Media]]}} Morneau had his first career three home run game on July 6, 2007, against the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox"). He had a solo, a two\-run, and a three\-run homer. He had an at\-bat to try for his fourth home run, but his bat got under the ball, and he flew out to deep left field.{{Cite web \|date\=July 6, 2007 \|title\=Morneau goes deep 3 times in twinbill sweep of ChiSox \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/270706304 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709060715/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/270706304 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023 \|website\=\[\[ESPN]] \|language\=en \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}}
In January 2008, Morneau agreed to a six\-year contract extension worth $80 million, which at the time was the longest and richest contract in Twins history until in 2010, teammate [Joe Mauer](/wiki/Joe_Mauer "Joe Mauer") signed an eight\-year, $184 million contract.{{Cite web \|last\=Thesier \|first\=Kelly \|date\=January 25, 2008 \|title\=Morneau, Cuddyer ink multiyear deals \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080125\&content\_id\=2355423\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080129070954/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080125\&content\_id\=2355423\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=January 29, 2008 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2008 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|df\=mdy\-all}} Morneau produced with his new contract, as he played in all 163 of the Twins' games and hit .300 with 23 home runs and 129 RBI.
On July 10, 2008, Morneau tied a career high with five hits in a game as the Twins defeated the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers "Detroit Tigers"). He hit what went on to be the game\-winning home run to finish the day 5\-for\-5 with a walk in a 7–6 extra\-innings win.{{Cite web \|date\=July 10, 2008 \|title\=Twins halt 3\-game slide with 11th\-inning win over Tigers \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/280710106 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709060716/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/280710106 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|access\-date\=July 8, 2023 \|website\=\[\[ESPN]] \|language\=en \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}} Morneau was then announced as a reserve player for the [American League](/wiki/American_League "American League") in the [2008 Major League Baseball All\-Star Game](/wiki/2008_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game "2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game").{{Cite web \|last\=Thesier \|first\=Kelly \|date\=July 6, 2008 \|title\=Mauer earns first All\-Star Game start \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080706\&content\_id\=3076222\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111191928/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080706\&content\_id\=3076222\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=November 11, 2013 \|access\-date\=July 7, 2008 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|df\=mdy\-all}}
Morneau won the [2008 Home Run Derby](/wiki/2008_Major_League_Baseball_Home_Run_Derby "2008 Major League Baseball Home Run Derby"), defeating [Josh Hamilton](/wiki/Josh_Hamilton "Josh Hamilton") of the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)"). He became the first Canadian to win the [Home Run Derby](/wiki/Home_Run_Derby "Home Run Derby").{{Cite web \|last\=Ladson \|first\=Bill \|date\=July 15, 2008 \|title\=Morneau steals show to rule Derby \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080714\&content\_id\=3134852\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080718063431/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080714\&content\_id\=3134852\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=July 18, 2008 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2008 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|df\=mdy\-all}} Later during the All\-Star event, Morneau scored the winning run for the American League in the [MLB All Star Game](/wiki/MLB_All_Star_Game "MLB All Star Game") at [Yankee Stadium](/wiki/Yankee_Stadium "Yankee Stadium") on a sacrifice fly to right field off the bat of [Michael Young](/wiki/Michael_Young_%28baseball%29 "Michael Young (baseball)").{{Cite web \|last\=Castrovince \|first\=Anthony \|date\=July 16, 2008 \|title\=Morneau's mad dash pays off \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080715\&content\_id\=3138670\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406184728/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20080715\&content\_id\=3138670\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=April 6, 2012 \|access\-date\=July 16, 2008 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|df\=mdy\-all}} Morneau was awarded the [Lionel Conacher Award](/wiki/Lionel_Conacher_Award "Lionel Conacher Award") as the Canadian Press Male Athlete of the Year, joining [Ferguson Jenkins](/wiki/Ferguson_Jenkins "Ferguson Jenkins") and [Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker "Larry Walker") as the only Major League Baseball players to win the award.{{cite web \|date\=December 28, 2008 \|title\=Twins' Justin Morneau named Canadian male athlete of the year \|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\=261092\&lid\=headline\&lpos\=secStory\_main \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522222939/https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\=261092\&lid\=headline\&lpos\=secStory\_main \|archive\-date\=May 22, 2011 \|website\=\[\[The Sports Network\|TSN]]}} Morneau finished second in the balloting for AL MVP, as [Dustin Pedroia](/wiki/Dustin_Pedroia "Dustin Pedroia") won, and [Kevin Youkilis](/wiki/Kevin_Youkilis "Kevin Youkilis") came in third.{{cite news \|last\=Browne \|first\=Ian \|date\=November 18, 2008 \|title\=Youkilis finishes third in AL MVP race \|work\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB Advanced Media]] \|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20081118\&content\_id\=3683501\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207195806/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20081118\&content\_id\=3683501\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=mlb \|archive\-date\=February 7, 2009}}
In 2009, Morneau batted .274 with 30 home runs and 100 RBI in 135 games. He was selected as a reserve position player at first base for the [2009 All\-Star Game](/wiki/2009_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game "2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game"), marking Morneau's third selection to the All\-Star Game. On September 14, Morneau was officially diagnosed with a stress fracture in his back after a long slump; he missed the rest of the 2009 season and the playoffs.{{cite web \|last\=Mason \|first\=Tyler \|date\=September 15, 2009 \|title\=Morneau's season ends with back injury \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090914\&content\_id\=6966256\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406184734/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090914\&content\_id\=6966256\&vkey\=news\_min\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=April 6, 2012 \|access\-date\=October 4, 2014 \|work\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|df\=mdy\-all}}
#### Injuries and struggles (2010–2013\)
Morneau got off to a strong start in the 2010 campaign, batting .345 with 18 home runs and 56 RBI in 81 games. He also posted a major\-league leading .437 [on\-base percentage](/wiki/On-base_percentage "On-base percentage") and .617 [slugging percentage](/wiki/Slugging_percentage "Slugging percentage") at the All\-Star break. For the first time in his career, he was voted in by the fans to start the 2010 All\-Star Game at first base, but ended up pulling out from the event after sustaining a concussion on July 7\.{{cite web \|date\=July 10, 2010 \|title\=Minnesota Twins' Justin Morneau to Miss All\-Star Game \|url\=http://msn.foxsports.com/mlb/story/minnesota\-twins\-justin\-morneau\-to\-miss\-all\-star\-game\-071010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712193058/http://msn.foxsports.com/mlb/story/minnesota\-twins\-justin\-morneau\-to\-miss\-all\-star\-game\-071010 \|archive\-date\=July 12, 2010 \|access\-date\=October 4, 2014 \|work\=\[\[Fox Sports]] \|agency\=\[\[MSN]]}}
Morneau missed the remainder of the 2010 regular season with the effects of [post\-concussion syndrome](/wiki/Post-concussion_syndrome "Post-concussion syndrome"). After the Twins clinched the [American League Central Division](/wiki/American_League_Central_Division "American League Central Division") championship, Morneau said that he was finally symptom\-free. Morneau said he would be unavailable for the [ALDS](/wiki/2010_American_League_Division_Series "2010 American League Division Series"), but that he hoped to be available for the [ALCS](/wiki/2010_American_League_Championship_Series "2010 American League Championship Series") should the Twins advance.{{cite web \|last\=Thesier \|first\=Kelly \|date\=September 30, 2010 \|title\=Morneau takes BP, may aim for ALCS return \|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20100930\&content\_id\=15259298\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&c\_id\=mlb \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006033836/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20100930\&content\_id\=15259298\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&c\_id\=mlb \|archive\-date\=October 6, 2010 \|access\-date\=October 4, 2014 \|work\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB Advanced Media]]}} On October 4, 2010, the Twins announced that Morneau would not return for the 2010 season, regardless of how far the team went in the postseason.{{cite web \|last\=Thesier \|first\=Kelly \|date\=October 4, 2010 \|title\=Twins announce end to Morneau's season \|url\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20101004\&content\_id\=15409506\&vkey\=news\_min\&c\_id\=min \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406190726/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20101004\&content\_id\=15409506\&vkey\=news\_min\&c\_id\=min \|archive\-date\=April 6, 2012 \|access\-date\=August 31, 2013 \|website\=\[\[Minnesota Twins]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|df\=mdy\-all}}
In 2011, the Twins were glad to see Morneau somewhat recovered from his season\-ending concussion in the previous season. He was in the Opening Day starting line\-up against the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays"). This did not last long, though, as he missed five games with the flu later in April and a couple of games in June with a sore wrist. He underwent neck surgery in June to correct pinched nerves in his neck, causing him to miss two months from mid\-June to mid\-August. Just ten days later, he missed two games with a bruised foot. On August 29, 2011, Morneau suffered a left shoulder injury that would lead to mild concussion\-like symptoms. These symptoms eventually led to Morneau missing the remainder of the season.{{Cite web \|date\=August 30, 2011 \|title\=Twins' Morneau to sit with concussion symptoms \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/6910857/justin\-morneau\-minnesota\-twins\-miss\-several\-games\-concussion\-symptoms \|access\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|website\=\[\[ESPN]] \|language\=en \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}}{{Cite web \|date\=September 18, 2011 \|title\=Twins shut down Morneau for remainder of 2011 \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/6989162/minnesota\-twins\-shut\-justin\-morneau\-rest\-2011 \|access\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|website\=\[\[ESPN]] \|language\=en \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}} In 2011, Morneau appeared in just 69 games collecting just 60 hits, only four of them home runs. He batted a meager .227 with 19 walks and 30 RBI. All of the previous are career lows disregarding his rookie season.{{cite web \|date\= \|title\=Justin Morneau Stats, Fantasy \& News \|url\=https://www.mlb.com/player/justin\-morneau\-408047 \|access\-date\=August 31, 2013 \|website\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB Advanced Media]]}}
In 2012, Morneau returned as an everyday first baseman for the Twins. Appearing in 134 games, Morneau finished the season with a .257 batting average, 19 home runs and 77 RBI.
Prior to being traded, Morneau played in 127 games for the Twins in 2013\. He had nearly matched his total stats for 2012, batting .259 with 17 home runs and 74 RBI.
### Pittsburgh Pirates (2013\)
On August 31, 2013, Morneau was traded to the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates "Pittsburgh Pirates") in exchange for [Alex Presley](/wiki/Alex_Presley "Alex Presley") and a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later "Player to be named later"),{{Cite web \|last\=Todd \|first\=Jeff \|date\=September 1, 2013 \|title\=Pirates Acquire Justin Morneau \|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2013/09/pirates\-to\-acquire\-morneau\-1\.html \|access\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|website\=MLB Trade Rumors \|language\=en\-US}} who was later identified as [Duke Welker](/wiki/Duke_Welker "Duke Welker") on October 5, 2013\.{{cite web \|last\=Lund \|first\=Jesse \|date\=October 5, 2013 \|title\=CONFIRMED: Duke Welker IS the PTBNL In Justin Morneau Trade, Added to 40\-Man Roster \|url\=http://www.twinkietown.com/2013/10/5/4807028/confirmed\-duke\-welker\-is\-the\-ptbnl\-in\-justin\-morneau\-trade\-added\-to/in/4446163 \|access\-date\=October 4, 2014 \|work\=Twinkie Town \|publisher\=\[\[SB Nation]]}} On September 1, 2013 he made his debut with the Pirates, playing first base and wearing number 66\. Morneau wore number 33 in Minnesota, but due to number being retired in Pittsburgh (in honor of [Honus Wagner](/wiki/Honus_Wagner "Honus Wagner")), he simply decided to double it.{{cite news \|last\=Souhan \|first\=Jim \|date\=September 4, 2013 \|title\=Morneau changes number \|newspaper\=\[\[Star Tribune]] \|location\=Twin Cities, Minnesota \|url\=http://www.startribune.com/sports/twins/blogs/222421041\.html \|access\-date\=October 10, 2013}} He batted .260 with 3 RBI in 25 games as a Pirate.
### Colorado Rockies (2014–2015\)
[200px\|thumb\|Morneau batting with the Colorado Rockies](/wiki/File:MG_8889_Justin_Morneau.jpg "MG 8889 Justin Morneau.jpg")
On December 3, 2013, Morneau agreed to a two\-year, $14 million deal with the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies "Colorado Rockies"), pending a physical.{{cite web \|date\=December 3, 2013 \|title\=Colorado Rockies agree to deal with Justin Morneau \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/10076483/colorado\-rockies\-agree\-deal\-justin\-morneau \|access\-date\=October 4, 2014 \|work\=\[\[ESPN]]}} The deal became official on December 13\.{{cite web \|date\=December 13, 2013 \|title\=Justin Morneau signs with Rockies \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/10134598/justin\-morneau\-signs\-2\-year\-contract\-colorado\-rockies \|access\-date\=December 13, 2013 \|work\=\[\[ESPN]] \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]]}} Morneau became the first Rockies player since [Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker "Larry Walker") to wear \#33 as it had been out of circulation, but not retired for Walker since he was traded to the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals "St. Louis Cardinals") in 2004\. Morneau went on to have a solid year in Colorado, batting .319 with 17 home runs and 82 RBI in 135 games. He also claimed the National League batting title, the first batting title of his career.{{Cite web \|last\=Harrison \|first\=Doug \|date\=September 28, 2014 \|title\=Justin Morneau wins his 1st major league batting title \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/baseball/mlb/justin\-morneau\-wins\-his\-1st\-major\-league\-batting\-title\-1\.2780791 \|access\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|website\=\[\[CBC.ca]]}} Morneau had a .310 batting average with three home runs and 15 RBI in 49 games with the Rockies in 2015\.
### Chicago White Sox (2016\)
On June 9, 2016, Morneau signed a one\-year, $1 million contract with the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox").{{cite web \|last\=Todd \|first\=Jeff \|date\=June 9, 2016 \|title\=White Sox Sign Justin Morneau \|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2016/06/white\-sox\-sign\-justin\-morneau.html \|access\-date\=June 9, 2016 \|work\=MLB Trade Rumors}} He was immediately placed on the 15\-day disabled list, and was projected to return after the [All\-Star break](/wiki/2016_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game "2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game").{{cite news \|date\=June 9, 2016 \|title\=Chicago White Sox cut Mat Latos, sign Justin Morneau \|work\=\[\[ESPN]] \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/16078452/chicago\-white\-sox\-cut\-mat\-latos\-sign\-justin\-morneau \|access\-date\=June 9, 2016}} Due to [Zach Duke](/wiki/Zach_Duke "Zach Duke") wearing number 33, Morneau decided to wear number 44 instead. In 58 games with the White Sox, he batted .261 with six home runs and 25 RBI.
### Career statistics
In 1,545 games over 14 seasons, Morneau posted a .281 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)") (1,603\-for\-5,699\) with 772 [runs](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 "Run (baseball)"), 349 [doubles](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 "Double (baseball)"), 23 [triples](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 "Triple (baseball)"), 247 [home runs](/wiki/Home_runs "Home runs"), 985 [RBI](/wiki/Run_batted_in "Run batted in"), 573 [bases on balls](/wiki/Bases_on_balls "Bases on balls"), a .348 [on\-base percentage](/wiki/On-base_percentage "On-base percentage") and a .481 [slugging percentage](/wiki/Slugging_percentage "Slugging percentage"). He finished his career with a .996 [fielding percentage](/wiki/Fielding_percentage "Fielding percentage") playing at first base. In 13 postseason games, he hit .302 (16\-for\-53\) with eight runs, four doubles, two home runs and 4 RBI.
Morneau was included on the ballot for the [National Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/National_Baseball_Hall_of_Fame "National Baseball Hall of Fame") class of {{bhofy\|2022}} when it was announced on November 22, 2021\.{{cite news \|last\=Randhawa \|first\=Manny \|date\=November 22, 2021 \|title\=Every player making HOF ballot debut in '22 \|website\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB Advanced Media]] \|url\=https://www.mlb.com/news/2022\-hall\-of\-fame\-ballot\-mlb \|accessdate\=November 22, 2021}} He received five votes (1\.3%), making him ineligible for future ballots.{{Cite web \|date\=January 25, 2022 \|title\=Complete 2022 Hall of Fame voting results \|url\=https://www.mlb.com/news/baseball\-hall\-of\-fame\-2022\-voting \|access\-date\=July 9, 2023 \|website\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|publisher\=\[\[MLB Advanced Media]] \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|225 px\\|Home run for Morneau, [Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome](/wiki/Hubert_H._Humphrey_Metrodome \"Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome\")](/wiki/File:Justin_Morneau-Metrodome-20060611.jpg \"Justin Morneau-Metrodome-20060611.jpg\")",
"### Minor leagues",
"Morneau did not attend college, despite receiving many attractive offers from NCAA schools. He was selected by the Twins in the third round (89th overall) of the [1999 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/1999_Major_League_Baseball_draft \"1999 Major League Baseball draft\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=3rd Round of the 1999 MLB June Amateur Draft \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/draft/?year\\_ID\\=1999\\&draft\\_round\\=3\\&draft\\_type\\=junreg\\&query\\_type\\=year\\_round \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]] \\|language\\=en}} He converted to first base in 2001 while playing for the Class\\-A [Quad Cities River Bandits](/wiki/Quad_Cities_River_Bandits \"Quad Cities River Bandits\"). In six minor league seasons, he hit .310 with 87 home runs, 153 RBI and 122 doubles.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Justin Morneau Minor Leagues Statistics \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/register/player.fcgi?id\\=mornea001jus \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]] \\|language\\=en}}",
"Morneau participated in the 2002 and 2004 [All\\-Star Futures Games](/wiki/All-Star_Futures_Game \"All-Star Futures Game\"), playing for the World teams. He was twice named Eastern League Player of the Week in 2002 (April 22–28 and July 15–21\\). On September 3, 2002, Morneau was promoted to Minnesota's Triple\\-A team, the [Edmonton Trappers](/wiki/Edmonton_Trappers \"Edmonton Trappers\"), but did not play in a game for the team that season. He made his first Triple\\-A appearance in 2003 with the Twins' new affiliate, the [Rochester Red Wings](/wiki/Rochester_Red_Wings \"Rochester Red Wings\"), and finished the season batting .268 with 16 home runs and 42 RBI in 71 games.",
"### Minnesota Twins (2003–2013\\)",
"#### Early career (2003–2005\\)",
"Morneau made his major league debut with the Twins on June 10, 2003 against the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies \"Colorado Rockies\"), batting [clean\\-up](/wiki/Cleanup_hitter \"Cleanup hitter\"). He [singled](/wiki/Single_%28baseball%29 \"Single (baseball)\") in his first career at\\-bat off [Jason Jennings](/wiki/Jason_Jennings \"Jason Jennings\") and went 2\\-for\\-4 in the game.{{Cite web \\|date\\=June 10, 2003 \\|title\\=Colorado Rockies vs Minnesota Twins Box Score: June 10, 2003 \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/MIN/MIN200306100\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]] \\|language\\=en}} A week later on June 17, he hit his first career home run off [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals \"Kansas City Royals\") reliever [Albie Lopez](/wiki/Albie_Lopez \"Albie Lopez\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=June 17, 2003 \\|title\\=Minnesota Twins vs Kansas City Royals Box Score: June 17, 2003 \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/KCA/KCA200306170\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]] \\|language\\=en}} Morneau played in 40 games with the Twins in 2003, batting .226 with four home runs and 10 RBI.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Justin Morneau Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Rookie Status \\& More \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/players/m/morneju01\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]] \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 2004, after Morneau compiled impressive minor league numbers, the Twins dealt veteran first baseman [Doug Mientkiewicz](/wiki/Doug_Mientkiewicz \"Doug Mientkiewicz\") to the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox \"Boston Red Sox\") and Morneau became the Twins' starting first baseman.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hohler \\|first\\=Bob \\|date\\=August 1, 2004 \\|title\\=Boston Red Sox \\- Sox trade Nomar to Cubs at deadline \\- The Boston Globe \\|url\\=https://archive.boston.com/sports/baseball/redsox/articles/2004/08/01/sox\\_trade\\_nomar\\_to\\_cubs\\_at\\_deadline/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Boston Globe]] \\|language\\=en}} He appeared in 74 games for the Twins in 2004, hitting .271 with 19 home runs and 58 RBI in 280 at bats while committing just three errors.",
"The 2005 season was a struggle for Morneau, as he dealt with off\\-season illnesses as well as being hit in the head by a pitch in April.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sheldon \\|first\\=Mark \\|date\\=April 6, 2005 \\|title\\=Morneau takes pitch to the head \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20050406\\&content\\_id\\=1002145\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127195900/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20050406\\&content\\_id\\=1002145\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=November 27, 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]}} He finished the season with a .239 batting average, 22 home runs and 79 RBI in 141 games. Although he never appeared to fully shake off his early season setbacks, Morneau finished first on the Twins in RBI and second in home runs.{{Cite web \\|title\\=2005 Minnesota Twins Statistics \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/teams/MIN/2005\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]] \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Dominance (2006–2009\\)",
"During Morneau's first three seasons with the Twins, he wore \\#27\\. Starting in 2006, he wore \\#33 for the rest of his Twins career. After a slow start to [2006](/wiki/2006_Minnesota_Twins_season \"2006 Minnesota Twins season\"), Morneau exploded offensively in the months of June, July, and August, raising his batting average nearly 50 points in June after beginning the month hitting .240\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Justin Morneau Game by Game Stats and Performance \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/player/gamelog/\\_/id/5379/year/2006 \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|language\\=en}} He raised his average another 33 points in July and after June consistently appeared near the top of the [American League](/wiki/American_League \"American League\") leaderboard in batting average, home runs, and RBI. On August 9, Morneau became the first Twin since 1987 to hit 30 home runs in a single season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Thesier \\|first\\=Kelly \\|date\\=August 9, 2006 \\|title\\=Morneau's 30th takes finale in Detroit \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/gameday\\_recap.jsp?ymd\\=20060809\\&content\\_id\\=1601394\\&vkey\\=recap\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060814075140/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/gameday\\_recap.jsp?ymd\\=20060809\\&content\\_id\\=1601394\\&vkey\\=recap\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]}} He finished the season hitting .321 (seventh in the AL) and slugging .559 (sixth in AL) with 34 home runs and 130 RBI in 157 games. He was second in the league in RBIs and tied [Larry Walker's](/wiki/Larry_Walker \"Larry Walker\") 1997 total for the most RBIs in a season by a Canadian.{{Cite web \\|title\\=2006 American League Batting Leaders \\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/leagues/AL/2006\\-batting\\-leaders.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]] \\|language\\=en}} For his hitting, he won the 2006 American League [Silver Slugger Award](/wiki/Silver_Slugger_Award \"Silver Slugger Award\") representing first basemen. His efforts helped the Twins win their fourth division title in five years.{{Cite web \\|date\\=October 1, 2006 \\|title\\=Twins win Central; Mauer first AL catcher to take batting title \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/261001109 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709060716/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/261001109 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|language\\=en \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}}",
"On November 21, 2006, Morneau won the [American League Most Valuable Player Award](/wiki/MLB_Most_Valuable_Player_Award \"MLB Most Valuable Player Award\") in a close vote over [Derek Jeter](/wiki/Derek_Jeter \"Derek Jeter\") of the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\"), becoming only the fourth player in Twins history (after [Zoilo Versalles](/wiki/Zoilo_Versalles \"Zoilo Versalles\"), [Harmon Killebrew](/wiki/Harmon_Killebrew \"Harmon Killebrew\"), and [Rod Carew](/wiki/Rod_Carew \"Rod Carew\")) to receive the honour. He became the first Canadian to win the AL MVP award, and the second Canadian to win a major league MVP award ([Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker \"Larry Walker\") was the first, having won the NL MVP Award in [1997](/wiki/1997_Major_League_Baseball_season \"1997 Major League Baseball season\"); Walker and Morneau were joined in [2010](/wiki/2010_Major_League_Baseball_season \"2010 Major League Baseball season\") by [Joey Votto](/wiki/Joey_Votto \"Joey Votto\")).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Thesier \\|first\\=Kelly \\|date\\=November 21, 2006 \\|title\\=Morneau upsets field in AL MVP race \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20061121\\&content\\_id\\=1744779\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212081155/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20061121\\&content\\_id\\=1744779\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=February 12, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]]}}",
"In 2007, Morneau played in 157 games, batting .271 with 31 home runs and 111 RBI. In May 2007, Morneau won the [Player of the Month](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_Player_of_the_Month_Award \"Major League Baseball Player of the Month Award\") in the American League for the first time in his career.{{Cite news \\|date\\=June 4, 2007 \\|title\\=Morneau named AL's player of month for May \\|language\\=en\\-CA \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Globe and Mail]] \\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/morneau\\-named\\-als\\-player\\-of\\-month\\-for\\-may/article1086443/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023}} Morneau appeared on the cover of the arcade baseball video game [The Bigs](/wiki/The_Bigs \"The Bigs\") in Canadian stores and at [Best Buy](/wiki/Best_Buy \"Best Buy\") stores in the United States. Morneau was named to the [2007 Major League Baseball All\\-Star Game](/wiki/2007_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game \"2007 Major League Baseball All-Star Game\") roster in 2007 for the first time. He also participated in the [2007 State Farm Home Run Derby](/wiki/2007_State_Farm_Home_Run_Derby \"2007 State Farm Home Run Derby\") for the first time. He was up first and hit four homers and ended up tying with [Albert Pujols](/wiki/Albert_Pujols \"Albert Pujols\") in the first round. He was subsequently eliminated with only one homer on five chances in a tie\\-off. Pujols advanced to the second round with two homers.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bloom \\|first\\=Barry M. \\|date\\=July 10, 2007 \\|title\\=Vlad captures first Derby crown \\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20070709\\&content\\_id\\=2078659\\&vkey\\=allstar2007\\&fext\\=.jsp \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712190440/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20070709\\&content\\_id\\=2078659\\&vkey\\=allstar2007\\&fext\\=.jsp \\|archive\\-date\\=July 12, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB Advanced Media]]}} Morneau had his first career three home run game on July 6, 2007, against the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\"). He had a solo, a two\\-run, and a three\\-run homer. He had an at\\-bat to try for his fourth home run, but his bat got under the ball, and he flew out to deep left field.{{Cite web \\|date\\=July 6, 2007 \\|title\\=Morneau goes deep 3 times in twinbill sweep of ChiSox \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/270706304 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709060715/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/270706304 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|language\\=en \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}}",
"In January 2008, Morneau agreed to a six\\-year contract extension worth $80 million, which at the time was the longest and richest contract in Twins history until in 2010, teammate [Joe Mauer](/wiki/Joe_Mauer \"Joe Mauer\") signed an eight\\-year, $184 million contract.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Thesier \\|first\\=Kelly \\|date\\=January 25, 2008 \\|title\\=Morneau, Cuddyer ink multiyear deals \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080125\\&content\\_id\\=2355423\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080129070954/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080125\\&content\\_id\\=2355423\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=January 29, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2008 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}} Morneau produced with his new contract, as he played in all 163 of the Twins' games and hit .300 with 23 home runs and 129 RBI.",
"On July 10, 2008, Morneau tied a career high with five hits in a game as the Twins defeated the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers \"Detroit Tigers\"). He hit what went on to be the game\\-winning home run to finish the day 5\\-for\\-5 with a walk in a 7–6 extra\\-innings win.{{Cite web \\|date\\=July 10, 2008 \\|title\\=Twins halt 3\\-game slide with 11th\\-inning win over Tigers \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/280710106 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709060716/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/280710106 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|language\\=en \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}} Morneau was then announced as a reserve player for the [American League](/wiki/American_League \"American League\") in the [2008 Major League Baseball All\\-Star Game](/wiki/2008_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game \"2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Thesier \\|first\\=Kelly \\|date\\=July 6, 2008 \\|title\\=Mauer earns first All\\-Star Game start \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080706\\&content\\_id\\=3076222\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111191928/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080706\\&content\\_id\\=3076222\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=November 11, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2008 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
"Morneau won the [2008 Home Run Derby](/wiki/2008_Major_League_Baseball_Home_Run_Derby \"2008 Major League Baseball Home Run Derby\"), defeating [Josh Hamilton](/wiki/Josh_Hamilton \"Josh Hamilton\") of the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\"). He became the first Canadian to win the [Home Run Derby](/wiki/Home_Run_Derby \"Home Run Derby\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ladson \\|first\\=Bill \\|date\\=July 15, 2008 \\|title\\=Morneau steals show to rule Derby \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080714\\&content\\_id\\=3134852\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080718063431/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080714\\&content\\_id\\=3134852\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=July 18, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2008 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}} Later during the All\\-Star event, Morneau scored the winning run for the American League in the [MLB All Star Game](/wiki/MLB_All_Star_Game \"MLB All Star Game\") at [Yankee Stadium](/wiki/Yankee_Stadium \"Yankee Stadium\") on a sacrifice fly to right field off the bat of [Michael Young](/wiki/Michael_Young_%28baseball%29 \"Michael Young (baseball)\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Castrovince \\|first\\=Anthony \\|date\\=July 16, 2008 \\|title\\=Morneau's mad dash pays off \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080715\\&content\\_id\\=3138670\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406184728/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20080715\\&content\\_id\\=3138670\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=July 16, 2008 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}} Morneau was awarded the [Lionel Conacher Award](/wiki/Lionel_Conacher_Award \"Lionel Conacher Award\") as the Canadian Press Male Athlete of the Year, joining [Ferguson Jenkins](/wiki/Ferguson_Jenkins \"Ferguson Jenkins\") and [Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker \"Larry Walker\") as the only Major League Baseball players to win the award.{{cite web \\|date\\=December 28, 2008 \\|title\\=Twins' Justin Morneau named Canadian male athlete of the year \\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\\=261092\\&lid\\=headline\\&lpos\\=secStory\\_main \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522222939/https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\\=261092\\&lid\\=headline\\&lpos\\=secStory\\_main \\|archive\\-date\\=May 22, 2011 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Sports Network\\|TSN]]}} Morneau finished second in the balloting for AL MVP, as [Dustin Pedroia](/wiki/Dustin_Pedroia \"Dustin Pedroia\") won, and [Kevin Youkilis](/wiki/Kevin_Youkilis \"Kevin Youkilis\") came in third.{{cite news \\|last\\=Browne \\|first\\=Ian \\|date\\=November 18, 2008 \\|title\\=Youkilis finishes third in AL MVP race \\|work\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB Advanced Media]] \\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20081118\\&content\\_id\\=3683501\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207195806/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20081118\\&content\\_id\\=3683501\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=mlb \\|archive\\-date\\=February 7, 2009}}",
"In 2009, Morneau batted .274 with 30 home runs and 100 RBI in 135 games. He was selected as a reserve position player at first base for the [2009 All\\-Star Game](/wiki/2009_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game \"2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game\"), marking Morneau's third selection to the All\\-Star Game. On September 14, Morneau was officially diagnosed with a stress fracture in his back after a long slump; he missed the rest of the 2009 season and the playoffs.{{cite web \\|last\\=Mason \\|first\\=Tyler \\|date\\=September 15, 2009 \\|title\\=Morneau's season ends with back injury \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090914\\&content\\_id\\=6966256\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406184734/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090914\\&content\\_id\\=6966256\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=October 4, 2014 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
"#### Injuries and struggles (2010–2013\\)",
"Morneau got off to a strong start in the 2010 campaign, batting .345 with 18 home runs and 56 RBI in 81 games. He also posted a major\\-league leading .437 [on\\-base percentage](/wiki/On-base_percentage \"On-base percentage\") and .617 [slugging percentage](/wiki/Slugging_percentage \"Slugging percentage\") at the All\\-Star break. For the first time in his career, he was voted in by the fans to start the 2010 All\\-Star Game at first base, but ended up pulling out from the event after sustaining a concussion on July 7\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=July 10, 2010 \\|title\\=Minnesota Twins' Justin Morneau to Miss All\\-Star Game \\|url\\=http://msn.foxsports.com/mlb/story/minnesota\\-twins\\-justin\\-morneau\\-to\\-miss\\-all\\-star\\-game\\-071010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712193058/http://msn.foxsports.com/mlb/story/minnesota\\-twins\\-justin\\-morneau\\-to\\-miss\\-all\\-star\\-game\\-071010 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 12, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=October 4, 2014 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[MSN]]}}",
"Morneau missed the remainder of the 2010 regular season with the effects of [post\\-concussion syndrome](/wiki/Post-concussion_syndrome \"Post-concussion syndrome\"). After the Twins clinched the [American League Central Division](/wiki/American_League_Central_Division \"American League Central Division\") championship, Morneau said that he was finally symptom\\-free. Morneau said he would be unavailable for the [ALDS](/wiki/2010_American_League_Division_Series \"2010 American League Division Series\"), but that he hoped to be available for the [ALCS](/wiki/2010_American_League_Championship_Series \"2010 American League Championship Series\") should the Twins advance.{{cite web \\|last\\=Thesier \\|first\\=Kelly \\|date\\=September 30, 2010 \\|title\\=Morneau takes BP, may aim for ALCS return \\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20100930\\&content\\_id\\=15259298\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&c\\_id\\=mlb \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006033836/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20100930\\&content\\_id\\=15259298\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&c\\_id\\=mlb \\|archive\\-date\\=October 6, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=October 4, 2014 \\|work\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB Advanced Media]]}} On October 4, 2010, the Twins announced that Morneau would not return for the 2010 season, regardless of how far the team went in the postseason.{{cite web \\|last\\=Thesier \\|first\\=Kelly \\|date\\=October 4, 2010 \\|title\\=Twins announce end to Morneau's season \\|url\\=http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20101004\\&content\\_id\\=15409506\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406190726/http://minnesota.twins.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20101004\\&content\\_id\\=15409506\\&vkey\\=news\\_min\\&c\\_id\\=min \\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=August 31, 2013 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Minnesota Twins]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
"In 2011, the Twins were glad to see Morneau somewhat recovered from his season\\-ending concussion in the previous season. He was in the Opening Day starting line\\-up against the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\"). This did not last long, though, as he missed five games with the flu later in April and a couple of games in June with a sore wrist. He underwent neck surgery in June to correct pinched nerves in his neck, causing him to miss two months from mid\\-June to mid\\-August. Just ten days later, he missed two games with a bruised foot. On August 29, 2011, Morneau suffered a left shoulder injury that would lead to mild concussion\\-like symptoms. These symptoms eventually led to Morneau missing the remainder of the season.{{Cite web \\|date\\=August 30, 2011 \\|title\\=Twins' Morneau to sit with concussion symptoms \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/6910857/justin\\-morneau\\-minnesota\\-twins\\-miss\\-several\\-games\\-concussion\\-symptoms \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|language\\=en \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=September 18, 2011 \\|title\\=Twins shut down Morneau for remainder of 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/6989162/minnesota\\-twins\\-shut\\-justin\\-morneau\\-rest\\-2011 \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|language\\=en \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}} In 2011, Morneau appeared in just 69 games collecting just 60 hits, only four of them home runs. He batted a meager .227 with 19 walks and 30 RBI. All of the previous are career lows disregarding his rookie season.{{cite web \\|date\\= \\|title\\=Justin Morneau Stats, Fantasy \\& News \\|url\\=https://www.mlb.com/player/justin\\-morneau\\-408047 \\|access\\-date\\=August 31, 2013 \\|website\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB Advanced Media]]}}",
"In 2012, Morneau returned as an everyday first baseman for the Twins. Appearing in 134 games, Morneau finished the season with a .257 batting average, 19 home runs and 77 RBI.",
"Prior to being traded, Morneau played in 127 games for the Twins in 2013\\. He had nearly matched his total stats for 2012, batting .259 with 17 home runs and 74 RBI.",
"### Pittsburgh Pirates (2013\\)",
"On August 31, 2013, Morneau was traded to the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates \"Pittsburgh Pirates\") in exchange for [Alex Presley](/wiki/Alex_Presley \"Alex Presley\") and a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later \"Player to be named later\"),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Todd \\|first\\=Jeff \\|date\\=September 1, 2013 \\|title\\=Pirates Acquire Justin Morneau \\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2013/09/pirates\\-to\\-acquire\\-morneau\\-1\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|website\\=MLB Trade Rumors \\|language\\=en\\-US}} who was later identified as [Duke Welker](/wiki/Duke_Welker \"Duke Welker\") on October 5, 2013\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Lund \\|first\\=Jesse \\|date\\=October 5, 2013 \\|title\\=CONFIRMED: Duke Welker IS the PTBNL In Justin Morneau Trade, Added to 40\\-Man Roster \\|url\\=http://www.twinkietown.com/2013/10/5/4807028/confirmed\\-duke\\-welker\\-is\\-the\\-ptbnl\\-in\\-justin\\-morneau\\-trade\\-added\\-to/in/4446163 \\|access\\-date\\=October 4, 2014 \\|work\\=Twinkie Town \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SB Nation]]}} On September 1, 2013 he made his debut with the Pirates, playing first base and wearing number 66\\. Morneau wore number 33 in Minnesota, but due to number being retired in Pittsburgh (in honor of [Honus Wagner](/wiki/Honus_Wagner \"Honus Wagner\")), he simply decided to double it.{{cite news \\|last\\=Souhan \\|first\\=Jim \\|date\\=September 4, 2013 \\|title\\=Morneau changes number \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Star Tribune]] \\|location\\=Twin Cities, Minnesota \\|url\\=http://www.startribune.com/sports/twins/blogs/222421041\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=October 10, 2013}} He batted .260 with 3 RBI in 25 games as a Pirate.",
"### Colorado Rockies (2014–2015\\)",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|Morneau batting with the Colorado Rockies](/wiki/File:MG_8889_Justin_Morneau.jpg \"MG 8889 Justin Morneau.jpg\")\nOn December 3, 2013, Morneau agreed to a two\\-year, $14 million deal with the [Colorado Rockies](/wiki/Colorado_Rockies \"Colorado Rockies\"), pending a physical.{{cite web \\|date\\=December 3, 2013 \\|title\\=Colorado Rockies agree to deal with Justin Morneau \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/10076483/colorado\\-rockies\\-agree\\-deal\\-justin\\-morneau \\|access\\-date\\=October 4, 2014 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]}} The deal became official on December 13\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=December 13, 2013 \\|title\\=Justin Morneau signs with Rockies \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/10134598/justin\\-morneau\\-signs\\-2\\-year\\-contract\\-colorado\\-rockies \\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2013 \\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]}} Morneau became the first Rockies player since [Larry Walker](/wiki/Larry_Walker \"Larry Walker\") to wear \\#33 as it had been out of circulation, but not retired for Walker since he was traded to the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals \"St. Louis Cardinals\") in 2004\\. Morneau went on to have a solid year in Colorado, batting .319 with 17 home runs and 82 RBI in 135 games. He also claimed the National League batting title, the first batting title of his career.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Harrison \\|first\\=Doug \\|date\\=September 28, 2014 \\|title\\=Justin Morneau wins his 1st major league batting title \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/baseball/mlb/justin\\-morneau\\-wins\\-his\\-1st\\-major\\-league\\-batting\\-title\\-1\\.2780791 \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[CBC.ca]]}} Morneau had a .310 batting average with three home runs and 15 RBI in 49 games with the Rockies in 2015\\.",
"### Chicago White Sox (2016\\)",
"On June 9, 2016, Morneau signed a one\\-year, $1 million contract with the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Todd \\|first\\=Jeff \\|date\\=June 9, 2016 \\|title\\=White Sox Sign Justin Morneau \\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2016/06/white\\-sox\\-sign\\-justin\\-morneau.html \\|access\\-date\\=June 9, 2016 \\|work\\=MLB Trade Rumors}} He was immediately placed on the 15\\-day disabled list, and was projected to return after the [All\\-Star break](/wiki/2016_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game \"2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game\").{{cite news \\|date\\=June 9, 2016 \\|title\\=Chicago White Sox cut Mat Latos, sign Justin Morneau \\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/16078452/chicago\\-white\\-sox\\-cut\\-mat\\-latos\\-sign\\-justin\\-morneau \\|access\\-date\\=June 9, 2016}} Due to [Zach Duke](/wiki/Zach_Duke \"Zach Duke\") wearing number 33, Morneau decided to wear number 44 instead. In 58 games with the White Sox, he batted .261 with six home runs and 25 RBI.",
"### Career statistics",
"In 1,545 games over 14 seasons, Morneau posted a .281 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\") (1,603\\-for\\-5,699\\) with 772 [runs](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 \"Run (baseball)\"), 349 [doubles](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 \"Double (baseball)\"), 23 [triples](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 \"Triple (baseball)\"), 247 [home runs](/wiki/Home_runs \"Home runs\"), 985 [RBI](/wiki/Run_batted_in \"Run batted in\"), 573 [bases on balls](/wiki/Bases_on_balls \"Bases on balls\"), a .348 [on\\-base percentage](/wiki/On-base_percentage \"On-base percentage\") and a .481 [slugging percentage](/wiki/Slugging_percentage \"Slugging percentage\"). He finished his career with a .996 [fielding percentage](/wiki/Fielding_percentage \"Fielding percentage\") playing at first base. In 13 postseason games, he hit .302 (16\\-for\\-53\\) with eight runs, four doubles, two home runs and 4 RBI.",
"Morneau was included on the ballot for the [National Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/National_Baseball_Hall_of_Fame \"National Baseball Hall of Fame\") class of {{bhofy\\|2022}} when it was announced on November 22, 2021\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Randhawa \\|first\\=Manny \\|date\\=November 22, 2021 \\|title\\=Every player making HOF ballot debut in '22 \\|website\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB Advanced Media]] \\|url\\=https://www.mlb.com/news/2022\\-hall\\-of\\-fame\\-ballot\\-mlb \\|accessdate\\=November 22, 2021}} He received five votes (1\\.3%), making him ineligible for future ballots.{{Cite web \\|date\\=January 25, 2022 \\|title\\=Complete 2022 Hall of Fame voting results \\|url\\=https://www.mlb.com/news/baseball\\-hall\\-of\\-fame\\-2022\\-voting \\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[MLB Advanced Media]] \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1950s and 1960s
The film studio [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros.") had no record label division at the time one of its contracted actors, [Tab Hunter](/wiki/Tab_Hunter "Tab Hunter"), scored a [No. 1 hit song](/wiki/Young_Love_%281956_song%29 "Young Love (1956 song)") in 1957 for [Dot Records](/wiki/Dot_Records "Dot Records"), a division of rival [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures "Paramount Pictures"). In order to prevent any repetition of its actors recording for rival companies, and to also capitalize on the music business, [Warner Bros. Records](/wiki/Warner_Bros._Records "Warner Bros. Records") was created in 1958; its original office was located above the film studio's machine shop on 3701 Warner Boulevard in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California "Burbank, California").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \|title\=FAQ \|publisher\=Warner Bros. Records \|access\-date\=February 20, 2011 \|archive\-date\=July 16, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716141442/http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\-hunter\-dead\-damn\-yankees\-star\-was\-86\-1057871\|title\=Tab Hunter, Star of 'Damn Yankees,' Dies at 86\|work\=The Hollywood Reporter\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=August 2, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802051944/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\-hunter\-dead\-damn\-yankees\-star\-was\-86\-1057871\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\_for\_posterity\_revolutions\_in\_so/\|title\=Recorded for Posterity: 'Revolutions in Sound: Warner Brothers Records, The First 50 Years'\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213112/https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\_for\_posterity\_revolutions\_in\_so/\|url\-status\=live}} In 1963, Warner purchased [Reprise Records](/wiki/Reprise_Records "Reprise Records"), which had been founded by [Frank Sinatra](/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra") three years earlier so that he could have more creative control over his recordings.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\-buys\-reprise\-records\-but\-sinatra\-retains\-onethird.html\|title\=Warner Buys Reprise Records, But Sinatra Retains One\-third\|last\=Schumach\|first\=Murray\|date\=August 8, 1963\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003645/https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\-buys\-reprise\-records\-but\-sinatra\-retains\-onethird.html\|url\-status\=live}} With the Reprise acquisition, Warner gained the services of [Mo Ostin](/wiki/Mo_Ostin "Mo Ostin"), who was mainly responsible for the success of Warner/Reprise.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\-bros\-ceo\-mo\-ostin\-prince\|title\=Former Warner Bros. CEO Mo Ostin Recalls His Long Relationship With Prince: 'He Was a Fearless Artist'\|last\=Aswad\|first\=Jem\|date\=April 26, 2016\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731221805/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\-bros\-ceo\-mo\-ostin\-prince\|url\-status\=live}}
After Warner Bros. was sold to [Seven Arts Productions](/wiki/Seven_Arts_Productions "Seven Arts Productions") in 1967 (forming [Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts](/wiki/Warner_Bros.-Seven_Arts "Warner Bros.-Seven Arts")), it purchased [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records "Atlantic Records"), founded in 1947 and WMG's oldest label (until WMG completed its acquisition of Parlophone in 2013\), as well as its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records"). This acquisition brought [Neil Young](/wiki/Neil_Young "Neil Young") into the company fold, initially as a member of [Buffalo Springfield](/wiki/Buffalo_Springfield "Buffalo Springfield"). Young became one of Warner's longest\-established artists, recording both as a solo artist and with groups under the Warner\-owned Atlantic, Atco, and Reprise labels. Young also recorded five albums for [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records "Geffen Records") during that label's period of Warner distribution. The Geffen catalogue, now owned by [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group"), represents Young's only major recordings not under WMG ownership.
Atlantic, its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records"), and its affiliate [Stax Records](/wiki/Stax_Records "Stax Records") paved the way for Warner's rise to industry prominence. The purchase brought in Atlantic's lucrative back catalogue, which included classic recordings by [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles"), [the Drifters](/wiki/The_Drifters "The Drifters"), [the Coasters](/wiki/The_Coasters "The Coasters"), and many more. In the mid\-1960s, Atlantic/Stax released a string of landmark [soul music](/wiki/Soul_music "Soul music") recordings by artists including [Booker T \& the MGs](/wiki/Booker_T_%26_the_MGs "Booker T & the MGs"), [Sam \& Dave](/wiki/Sam_%26_Dave "Sam & Dave"), [Wilson Pickett](/wiki/Wilson_Pickett "Wilson Pickett"), [Otis Redding](/wiki/Otis_Redding "Otis Redding"), [Ben E. King](/wiki/Ben_E._King "Ben E. King"), and [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin "Aretha Franklin"). Ultimately, the sale led to Stax leaving Atlantic because Seven Arts Productions insisted on keeping the rights to Stax recordings. Atlantic moved decisively into rock and pop in the late 1960s and 1970s, signing major British and American acts including [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin"), [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)"), [Crosby Stills \& Nash](/wiki/Crosby_Stills_%26_Nash "Crosby Stills & Nash"), [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 "Yes (band)"), [Emerson, Lake \& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer "Emerson, Lake & Palmer"), [Genesis](/wiki/Genesis_%28band%29 "Genesis (band)"), [Average White Band](/wiki/Average_White_Band "Average White Band"), [Dr. John](/wiki/Dr._John "Dr. John"), [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson"), [Bette Midler](/wiki/Bette_Midler "Bette Midler"), [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music "Roxy Music"), and [Foreigner](/wiki/Foreigner_%28band%29 "Foreigner (band)").
In 1969, two years after being purchased by Seven Arts, the Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts company was sold to the [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company "Kinney National Company"). In mid\-1972, Kinney Music of Canada, Ltd. was renamed [WEA Music of Canada, Ltd.](/wiki/Warner_Music_Canada "Warner Music Canada") (French: *WEA Musique du Canada, Ltée*) as the Canadian branch of the WEA (Warner, Elektra, Atlantic) company – a division of Warner Communications Inc. Founder and president Ken Middleton ran the Canadian company until his retirement in 1982\. The name remained until 1989, when in 1990, it became Warner Music Canada Ltd – a subsidiary of the US\-based Warner Music International. Warner Communications CEO [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 "Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)") led the group through its most successful period until his death in 1992\.
An earlier attempt by Warner Bros. Records to create an in\-house distribution arm in 1958 did not materialize. So in 1969, [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records "Elektra Records") boss [Jac Holzman](/wiki/Jac_Holzman "Jac Holzman") approached Atlantic's [Jerry Wexler](/wiki/Jerry_Wexler "Jerry Wexler") with the idea of setting up a joint distribution network for Warner, Elektra, and Atlantic. An experimental branch was established in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") as a possible prototype for an expanded operation.{{cite news\|title\=WEA at 25\|last\=Seay\|first\=David\|date\=August 31, 1996\|magazine\=Billboard\|page\=36}}
#### Atlantic exerts autonomy
It was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president [Ahmet Ertegun](/wiki/Ahmet_Ertegun "Ahmet Ertegun") viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as a rival. Maitland believed that, as vice\-president in charge of the Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts music division, he should have final say over all recording operations, and he further angered Ertegun by proposing that most of Atlantic's back\-office functions (such as marketing and distribution) be combined with the existing departments at Warner/Reprise. In retrospect Ertegun clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him, and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland.
Maitland had put off renegotiating the contracts of Joe Smith and Mo Ostin, the presidents of the Warner Bros. and Reprise labels, and this provided Ertegun with an effective means of undermining Maitland. When Wexler—now a major shareholder—found out about the contract issue he and Ertegun began pressuring [Eliot Hyman](/wiki/Eliot_Hyman "Eliot Hyman") to get Smith and Ostin under contract, ostensibly because they were worried that the two executives might move to rival labels—and in fact Ostin had received overtures from both the MGM and ABC labels.
In 1969, the wisdom of Hyman's investments was proved when [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company "Kinney National Company") purchased Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts for $400 million, more than eight times what Hyman had paid for Warner/Reprise and Atlantic combined. From the base of his family's funeral parlour business, Kinney president [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 "Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)") had rapidly built the Kinney company into a profitable conglomerate with interests that included [comic publishing](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics"), the [Ashley\-Famous](/wiki/Ashley-Famous "Ashley-Famous") talent agency, parking lots and cleaning services. Following the takeover, Warners' music group briefly adopted the 'umbrella' name Kinney Music, because U.S. anti\-trust laws at the time prevented the three labels from trading as one.
Ross was primarily focused on rebuilding the company's ailing movie division and was happy to defer to the advice of the managers of the company's record labels, since he knew that they were generating most of the group's profits. Ertegun's campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, beginning with its soon\-to\-be\-established Warner Bros. subsidiary in Australia, but when Warner executive Phil Rose arrived in Australia, he discovered that just one week earlier Atlantic had signed a new four\-year distribution deal with a rival local label, [Festival Records](/wiki/Festival_Records_%28Australia%29 "Festival Records (Australia)") (owned by [Rupert Murdoch](/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch "Rupert Murdoch")'s [News Limited](/wiki/News_Limited "News Limited")). Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive [Ted Ashley](/wiki/Ted_Ashley "Ted Ashley"), but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland.Goodman, 1997, p. 146
As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smith's contracts, a recommendation Ross was happy to accept. Ostin however had received overtures from other companies including [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records "MGM Records") and [ABC Records](/wiki/ABC_Records "ABC Records") and when he met with Ertegun in January 1970 and was offered Maitland's job, he was unwilling to re\-sign immediately. In response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitland's days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division.
Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantic's execs the Ertegun brothers (Ahmet and Neshui) and Wexler owned stock in Kinney.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\-tuned\-by\-stan\-cornyn\-maitland\-moves\-on\|title\=Stay Tuned By Stan Cornyn: Maitland Moves On\|work\=rhino.com\|access\-date\=February 2, 2015\|archive\-date\=February 2, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202200329/http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\-tuned\-by\-stan\-cornyn\-maitland\-moves\-on\|url\-status\=live}}
Ostin was understandably concerned that, if he accepted the position, the Warner Bros. staff would feel that he had stabbed Maitland in the back, but his attorney convinced him that Maitland's departure was inevitable, regardless of whether or not he accepted the post (succinctly advising him, "Don't be a schmuck"). On Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitland's house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros. Records, with Joe Smith as his executive vice\-president.Goodman, 1997, pp. 146–147 Ertegun nominally remained the head of Atlantic, but since both Ostin and Smith owed their new positions to him, Ertegun was now the *de facto* head of the Warner music division. Ertegun was given the formal title of executive vice\-president\-Music Group. Maitland moved to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records "MCA Records") later that year and successfully consolidated MCA's labels, which he couldn't do at Warner.
### 1970s
During the 1970s, the Kinney group built up a commanding position in the music industry. In 1970, Kinney bought [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records "Elektra Records") and its sister label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records "Nonesuch Records") (founded by Jac Holzman in 1950\) for $10 million, bringing in leading rock acts, including [the Doors](/wiki/The_Doors "The Doors"), [Tim Buckley](/wiki/Tim_Buckley "Tim Buckley"), and [Love](/wiki/Love_%28band%29 "Love (band)"), and its historically significant folk archive, along with the successful budget Western classical\-music label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records "Nonesuch Records").
The purchase of Elektra\-Nonesuch brought a rich back catalogue of folk music as well as the renowned Nonesuch catalogue of classical and world music. Elektra founder Jac Holzman ran the label under Warners for two years, but by that time, he was by his own admission "burnt out" after twenty years in the business. Kinney president Steve Ross subsequently appointed Holzman as part of a seven\-person "[brain trust](/wiki/Brain_trust "Brain trust")" tasked with investigating opportunities presented by new technologies, a role Holzman was eager to accept.Goodman, 1997, p. 248 The same year, the group established its first overseas offices in Canada and Australia. By that time the "Seven Arts" moniker was dropped from the Warner Bros. name. Warner Bros. also founded the [Casablanca Records](/wiki/Casablanca_Records "Casablanca Records") subsidiary, headed by [Neil Bogart](/wiki/Neil_Bogart "Neil Bogart"); but several years later Casablanca became independent from Warner Bros.
#### Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic and worldwide distribution
{{Anchor\|Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic\|WEA}}
With the Elektra acquisition, the next step was forming an in\-house distribution arm for the co\-owned labels. By this time, Warner\-Reprise's frustrations with its current distributors had reached breaking point; Joe Smith (then executive vice\-president of Warner Bros.) recalled that the [Grateful Dead](/wiki/Grateful_Dead "Grateful Dead") were becoming a major act but the distributor was constantly out of stock of their albums. These circumstances facilitated the full establishment of the group's in\-house distribution arm, initially called .{{cite web\|url\=http://www.discogs.com/label/640338\-Kinney\-Record\-Group\-International\|title\=Kinney Record Group International\|website\=Discogs.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 10, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071820/https://www.discogs.com/label/640338\-Kinney\-Record\-Group\-International\|url\-status\=live}}Seay, 1996, p. 40 By late 1972, US anti\-trust laws had changed and the company was renamed **Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic**, WEA for short, which was renamed Warner Music in 1991 (the word "group" was added after the formation of [AOL Time Warner](/wiki/AOL_Time_Warner "AOL Time Warner") in 2001\).
WEA was an early champion of [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music "Heavy metal music") rock music. Several such bands, including three major British pioneers [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin"), [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath "Black Sabbath"), and [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple "Deep Purple"), were all signed to WEA's labels, at least in the United States. Among the earliest American metal acts to be signed to WEA were [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper"), [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose_%28band%29 "Montrose (band)"), and [Van Halen](/wiki/Van_Halen "Van Halen").
Up to this point the Kinney\-owned record companies had relied on licensing deals with overseas record labels to manufacture, distribute and promote its products in other countries; concurrent with the establishment of its new distribution arm, the company now began establishing subsidiaries in the other major markets, beginning with the creation of Warner Bros. Records Australia in 1970, soon followed by branch offices in the UK, Europe and Japan.{{cite web\|url\=http://ketupa.net/time3\.htm\|title\=Time Warner: Landmarks\|work\=ketupa.net\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217133642/http://ketupa.net/time3\.htm\|archive\-date\=February 17, 2011}} In July 1971, the new in\-house distribution company was incorporated as Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic Distributing Corp. (WEA) and branch offices were established in eight major US cities; Joel Friedman a one\-time *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")* writer who had been the head of Warner's advertising/merchandising division in its early years, was appointed to head WEA's US domestic division, and Ahmet Ertegun's brother [Nesuhi](/wiki/Nesuhi_Ertegun "Nesuhi Ertegun") was appointed to oversee its international operations. Neshui Ertegun, originally a Turkish native like his brother, displayed a global perspective and independence from its U.S. counterpart by successfully promoting international acts in their target markets worldwide. Ertegun headed WEA International until his retirement in 1987\. A *de facto* committee of three senior marketing executives—Dave Glew from Atlantic, Ed Rosenblatt from Warner Bros. and Mel Posner from Elektra—oversaw the integration of each label's marketing and distribution through the new division, but each label continued to operate totally independently in [A\&R](/wiki/A%26R "A&R") matters and also applied their own expertise in marketing and advertising.{{cite news\|title\=Kinney Set Up Distrib Corp To Handle Labels in 8 Key Cities\|magazine\=Billboard\|date\=July 3, 1971\|page\=3}}
On July 1, 1971, following the pattern set by similar joint ventures in Canada and Australia, the Warner labels entered into a partnership with the British arm of [CBS Records](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment "Sony Music Entertainment") to press and distribute Warner\-Reprise product in the United Kingdom, although this was undertaken as a cooperative venture rather than a formally incorporated business partnership. The *Billboard* article that reported the new arrangement also noted that, despite their intense competition in the US market, CBS continued to press Warner\-Reprise recordings in the US. However the new UK arrangement was a major blow to Warner's previous British manufacturer [Pye Records](/wiki/Pye_Records "Pye Records"), for whom Warner\-Reprise had been their largest account. With the scheduled addition of the UK rights to the Atlantic catalogue, which would revert to Kinney in early 1972, *Billboard* predicted that the Warner\-CBS partnership would have a 25–30% share of the UK music market.{{cite news\|title\=Kinney\-CBS Enters Joint Distrib and Pressing Deal in England\|last\=Blevins\|first\=Brian\|date\=March 27, 1971\|magazine\=Billboard\|page\=54}}
In April 1971, thanks mainly to the influence of Ahmet Ertegun, the Kinney group announced a major coup with its acquisition of the worldwide rights to [the Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones "The Rolling Stones")' new label [Rolling Stones Records](/wiki/Rolling_Stones_Records "Rolling Stones Records"), following the expiration of the band's contract with [British Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") (then separate from the American label) and the acrimonious end to their business relationship with their former manager [Allen Klein](/wiki/Allen_Klein "Allen Klein"). Under the terms of the deal, Atlantic subsidiary [Atco](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records") would distribute the Stones' recordings in the US, with other territories mainly handled by Warner Bros. international divisions.{{cite news\|title\=Kinney Group Gets Rolling Stones Disks\|magazine\=Billboard\|date\=April 17, 1971\|page\=3}}
One of Kinney's wisest investments was [Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac "Fleetwood Mac"). The band signed with Reprise in the early 1970s after relocating to the US, and the label supported the group through numerous lineup changes and several lean years during which the band's records sold relatively poorly, although they remained a popular concert attraction. Ironically, after the group's transfer to Warner Bros. in 1975 and the recruitment of new members [Lindsey Buckingham](/wiki/Lindsey_Buckingham "Lindsey Buckingham") and [Stevie Nicks](/wiki/Stevie_Nicks "Stevie Nicks"), the group scored a major international hit with the single "Rhiannon" and consolidated with the best selling albums *[Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac_%281975_album%29 "Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)")*, *[Rumours](/wiki/Rumours_%28album%29 "Rumours (album)")* and *[Tusk](/wiki/Tusk_%28album%29 "Tusk (album)")*.
#### Warner Communications (1972–1990\)
Due to a financial scandal involving price fixing in its parking operations, Kinney National spun off its non\-entertainment assets in 1972 (as [National Kinney Corporation](/wiki/National_Kinney_Corporation "National Kinney Corporation")) and changed its name to [Warner Communications Inc.](/wiki/WarnerMedia%23Warner_Communications_%281972%E2%80%931990%29 "WarnerMedia#Warner Communications (1972–1990)"){{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\&q\=kinney\&pg\=PT290\|title\=Master of the Game: How Steve Ross Rode the Light Fantastic from Undertaker to Creator of the Largest Media Conglomerate in the World\|last\=Bruck\|first\=Connie.\|publisher\=Simon \& Schuster\|year\=2013\|isbn\=9781476737706\|location\=Riverside\|oclc\=1086102756\|access\-date\=October 23, 2020\|archive\-date\=March 9, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309201531/https://books.google.com/books?id\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\&q\=kinney\&pg\=PT290\|url\-status\=live}}
In 1972, the Warner group acquired another rich prize, [David Geffen](/wiki/David_Geffen "David Geffen")'s [Asylum Records](/wiki/Asylum_Records "Asylum Records"). The $7 million purchase brought in several acts that proved crucial to WEA's subsequent success, including [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt "Linda Ronstadt"), [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles "The Eagles"), [Jackson Browne](/wiki/Jackson_Browne "Jackson Browne"), [Joni Mitchell](/wiki/Joni_Mitchell "Joni Mitchell"), and later [Warren Zevon](/wiki/Warren_Zevon "Warren Zevon"). On the downside, however, it was rumored that Warner was soon concerned about its possible liability under the California State Labor Code because of Geffen's questionable status as both the manager of most of the Asylum acts and the head of the record label to which they were signed. The sale included the Asylum Records label and its recordings, as well as Geffen's lucrative music publishing assets and the interests in the royalties of some of the artists managed by Geffen and partner [Elliot Roberts](/wiki/Elliot_Roberts "Elliot Roberts"). Geffen accepted a five\-year contract with WCI and turned over his 75% share in the Geffen\-Roberts management company to Roberts and Warner paid Geffen and Roberts 121,952 common shares worth $4,750,000 at the time of the sale, plus $400,000 in cash and a further $1\.6 million in promissory notes convertible to common stock.Goodman, 1997, pp. 240–241
Although it seemed a lucrative deal at the time, Geffen soon had reason to regret it. Uncharacteristically, he had greatly underestimated the value of his assets—within Asylum's first year as a Warner subsidiary, albums by [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt "Linda Ronstadt") and [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles "The Eagles") alone had earned more than the entire value of the Asylum sale. Geffen's discomfort was compounded by the fact that, within six months of the sale, the value of his volatile Warner shares had plummeted from $4\.5 million to just $800,000\. He appealed to Steve Ross to intervene, and as part of a make\-good deal, Ross agreed to pay him the difference in the share value over five years. Acting on Jac Holzman's suggestion that Kinney should take Asylum from Atlantic and merge it with Elektra, Ross then appointed Geffen to run the new combined label.Goodman, 1997, pp. 249–250
In 1976, Warner gained a brief early lead in digital media when it purchased the [Atari](/wiki/Atari "Atari") computer company, and in 1981 it bought [The Franklin Mint](/wiki/The_Franklin_Mint "The Franklin Mint") company. WCI also blazed the trail in visual music with MTV, which it created and co\-owned in partnership with [American Express](/wiki/American_Express "American Express"). In 1984–85, Warner rapidly divested many of these recent acquisitions, including Atari, Franklin Mint, [Panavision](/wiki/Panavision "Panavision"), [MTV Networks](/wiki/MTV_Networks "MTV Networks") and a cosmetics business.
In 1977, Warner Bros. Music, led by president Ed Silvers, formed Pacific Records for their composers and distributed (appropriately) by [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records "Atlantic Records"). [Alan O'Day](/wiki/Alan_O%27Day "Alan O'Day") was the first artist signed to the label, and the first release was "[Undercover Angel](/wiki/Undercover_Angel_%28song%29 "Undercover Angel (song)")". The song, which he described as a "nocturnal novelette", was released in February 1977\. Within a few months it had become No. 1 in the country, and has sold approximately two million copies. It was also a hit in Australia, reaching No. 9 on the Australian Singles Chart. "Undercover Angel" also landed O'Day in an exclusive club as one of only a handful of writers/performers to pen a No. 1 hit for themselves and a No. 1 for another artist.{{cite web\|url\=http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\_files/19770702\.html\|title\=Cash Box Top 100 7/02/77\|website\=Tropicalglen.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020124149/http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\_files/19770702\.html\|archive\-date\=October 20, 2018\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.superseventies.com/1977\_4singles.html\|title\="Undercover Angel" – Alan O'Day\|website\=Superseventies.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 10, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071916/https://www.superseventies.com/1977\_4singles.html\|url\-status\=live}}
New signings in the late 1970s placed WEA in a strong position for the 1980s. A deal with [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein "Seymour Stein")'s [Sire Records](/wiki/Sire_Records "Sire Records") label (which Warner Bros. Records later took over) brought in several major [punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock "Punk rock") and [new wave](/wiki/New_wave_music "New wave music") acts including [the Pretenders](/wiki/The_Pretenders "The Pretenders"), [the Ramones](/wiki/The_Ramones "The Ramones") and [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads "Talking Heads") and, most importantly, rising star [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna "Madonna"); Elektra signed [the Cars](/wiki/The_Cars "The Cars") and Warner Bros. signed [Prince](/wiki/Prince_%28musician%29 "Prince (musician)"), giving WEA several of the biggest\-selling acts of the decade.
WEA's labels also distributed a number of otherwise independent labels. For example, Warner Bros. distributed [Straight Records](/wiki/Straight_Records "Straight Records"), [DiscReet Records](/wiki/DiscReet_Records "DiscReet Records"), [Bizarre Records](/wiki/Bizarre_Records "Bizarre Records"), [Bearsville Records](/wiki/Bearsville_Records "Bearsville Records"), and [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records "Geffen Records") (the latter was sold to [MCA](/wiki/MCA_Inc. "MCA Inc.") in 1990\). Atlantic Records distributed [Swan Song Records](/wiki/Swan_Song_Records "Swan Song Records"). In 1975, WEA scored a major coup by signing a distribution agreement with [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records "Island Records"), which only covered the United States and select other countries. For the next 14 years (initially with Warner Bros. until 1982, then with Atlantic afterward), WEA would distribute such artists as [Bob Marley](/wiki/Bob_Marley "Bob Marley"), [U2](/wiki/U2 "U2"), [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 "Robert Palmer (singer)"), [Anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax_%28American_band%29 "Anthrax (American band)"), and [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits "Tom Waits"). This relationship ended when Island was sold to [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram "PolyGram") in 1989\.
### 1980s
[upright\=1\.3\|thumb\|Logo of WEA International](/wiki/File:WEA_International_logo.svg "WEA International logo.svg")
A name\-only unit appearing exclusively in the copyright, WEA International Inc., was created in early 1982, to handle distribution of all Warner Bros., Elektra, and Atlantic (all these namings accounting for the initials in the title "*WEA*") releases for international countries.
A proposed 1983 international merger between [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram "PolyGram") and WEA was forbidden by both the US [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission "Federal Trade Commission") and [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany")'s cartel office, so PolyGram's half\-owner [Philips](/wiki/Philips "Philips") then purchased a further 40% of the company from its partner [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens "Siemens"), and bought the remaining shares in 1987\. The same year, PolyGram divested its film and publishing operations, closed [PolyGram Pictures](/wiki/PolyGram_Filmed_Entertainment "PolyGram Filmed Entertainment") and sold [Chappell Music](/wiki/Chappell_Music "Chappell Music") to Warner for US$275 million.
WEA formed [WEA Manufacturing](/wiki/WEA_Manufacturing "WEA Manufacturing") in 1986\.{{cite web\|title\=Timeline\|publisher\=Warner Music Group\|url\=http://mobile.wmg.com/wmglinks?page\=aboutwmg\&subpage\=timeline\&viewFullPage\=true\|year\=2009\|access\-date\=January 17, 2012\|archive\-date\=October 9, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009095837/http://mobile.wmg.com/wmglinks?page\=aboutwmg\&subpage\=timeline\&viewFullPage\=true\|url\-status\=live}} In 1988 WEA took over the German classical label [Teldec](/wiki/Teldec "Teldec") and the British [Magnet](/wiki/Magnet_Records "Magnet Records") label.
In 1989, it was announced that Warner Communications was to merge with [Time Inc.](/wiki/Time_Inc. "Time Inc.") to form [Time Warner](/wiki/Time_Warner "Time Warner"), a transaction that was completed in 1990\. Following the merger, WEA continued acquiring independent labels, buying [CGD Records](/wiki/CGD_Records "CGD Records") (Italy) and [MMG Records](/wiki/East_West_Records "East West Records") (Japan) in 1989\.{{Cite news \|last\=Norris \|first\=Floyd \|date\=March 5, 1989 \|title\=Time Inc. and Warner to Merge, Creating Largest Media Company \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/05/us/time\-inc\-and\-warner\-to\-merge\-creating\-largest\-media\-company.html \|access\-date\=March 29, 2022 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=September 1, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901012649/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/05/us/time\-inc\-and\-warner\-to\-merge\-creating\-largest\-media\-company.html \|url\-status\=live }}
### 1990s
Through the 1990s, Time Warner was the largest media company in the world, with assets in excess of US$20 billion and annual revenues in the billions of dollars; by 1991, Warner's music labels were generating sales valued at more than US$3 billion, with operating profits of $550 million, and by 1995, its music division dominated the US music industry with a 22% share of the domestic market.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\-creator\-of\-time\-warner\-steven\-j\-ross\-is\-dead\-at\-65\.html\|title\=The Creator of Time Warner, Steven J. Ross, Is Dead at 65\|last\=Cohen\|first\=Roger\|date\=December 21, 1992\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=February 22, 2010\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=May 9, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509131107/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\-creator\-of\-time\-warner\-steven\-j\-ross\-is\-dead\-at\-65\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1995\-05\-03\-fi\-61908\-story.html\|title\=Warner Music Chief Expected to Quit Today\|last\=Philips\|first\=Chuck\|date\=May 3, 1995\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=June 21, 2010\|archive\-date\=June 18, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618173658/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\-05\-03/business/fi\-61908\_1\_warner\-music\-group\|url\-status\=live}} Acquisitions and corporate changes within the Warner group of labels continued after the Time Warner merger—in 1990, WEA purchased French label [Carrere Records](/wiki/Carrere_Records "Carrere Records"), in 1992 it bought the leading French classical label [Erato](/wiki/Erato_Records "Erato Records"), and in 1993, it bought the Spanish [DRO Records](/wiki/DRO_Records "DRO Records"), Hungary's Magneoton label, the Swedish Telegram Records, Brazil's [Continental Records](/wiki/Continental_Records "Continental Records") and Finnish label Fazer Musiikki. WEA was renamed Warner Music in 1991\.
Atlantic launched two new subsidiary labels in the early 1990s: [East West Records](/wiki/East_West_Records "East West Records") and [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records "Interscope Records"). In 1995, East West absorbed Atco Records and was eventually folded into Elektra Records. In 1996, after causing much controversy, Interscope was purchased by [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Inc. "MCA Inc.").
During 1992, Warner Music faced one of the most serious public\-relations crises in its history when a major controversy erupted over the provocative Warner Bros. recording "[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 "Cop Killer (song)")" from the self\-titled album by [Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28band%29 "Body Count (band)"), a [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music "Heavy metal music")/[rap](/wiki/Rap "Rap") fusion band led by [Ice\-T](/wiki/Ice-T "Ice-T"). Unfortunately for Warner, the song (which mentioned the [Rodney King](/wiki/Rodney_King "Rodney King") case) was issued just before the controversial acquittal of the police charged with King's beating, which sparked the [1992 Los Angeles Riots](/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_Riots "1992 Los Angeles Riots") and the confluence of events put the song under the national spotlight. Complaints escalated over the summer—conservative police associations called for a boycott of Time Warner products, politicians including President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") denounced the label for releasing the song, Warner executives received death threats, Time Warner stockholders threatened to pull out of the company and the New Zealand police commissioner unsuccessfully tried to have the record banned there. Although Ice\-T later voluntarily reissued *Body Count* without "Cop Killer", the furor seriously rattled Warner Music and in January 1993 the label made an undisclosed deal releasing Ice\-T from his contract and returning the *[Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28album%29 "Body Count (album)")* master tapes to him.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\-t\-and\-warner\-are\-parting\-company.html\|title\=Ice\-T and Warner Are Parting Company\|last\=Rule\|first\=Sheila\|date\=January 29, 1993\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233827/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\-t\-and\-warner\-are\-parting\-company.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Also in 1992, the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records "Rhino Records") label signed a distribution agreement with Atlantic Records and Time Warner Entertainment bought a 50% stake in the Rhino Records label. The distribution agreement allowed Rhino to begin reissuing recordings from Atlantic's back catalogue.
In 1994, Canadian beverage giant [Seagram](/wiki/Seagram "Seagram") bought a 14\.5% stake in Time Warner, and the Warner publishing division — now called [Warner/Chappell Music](/wiki/Warner/Chappell_Music "Warner/Chappell Music") – acquired CPP/Belwin, becoming the world's largest owner of song copyrights and the world's largest publisher of printed music. In 1996, Time Warner Entertainment made another dramatic expansion of its media holdings, taking over the [Turner Broadcasting System](/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System "Turner Broadcasting System"), which by then included the Turner cable TV network, [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN") and the screen production houses [Castle Rock Entertainment](/wiki/Castle_Rock_Entertainment "Castle Rock Entertainment") and [New Line Cinema](/wiki/New_Line_Cinema "New Line Cinema"), acquisitions that brought huge profits into the Warner Group thanks to content assets like *[Seinfeld](/wiki/Seinfeld "Seinfeld")* and the highly successful *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_%28film_series%29 "The Lord of the Rings (film series)")* film trilogy.
By the early 1990s, senior Warner staff like Ostin and Waronker had remained in their positions for several decades—a highly unusual situation in the American music industry—but the death of Steve Ross destabilized the Time Warner hierarchy, and over the next few years the music group was increasingly disrupted by internal power struggles, leading to a string of major executive upheavals in 1994–95, which *The New York Times* described as "a virtual civil war".{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\-media\-business\-rifts\-shake\-and\-rattle\-warner\-music.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Rifts Shake and Rattle Warner Music\|last\=Hofmeister\|first\=Sallie\|date\=November 1, 1994\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 23, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823194048/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\-media\-business\-rifts\-shake\-and\-rattle\-warner\-music.html\|url\-status\=live}}
The central conflict was between Mo Ostin and Warner Music Group chairman Robert Morgado, who had joined the Warner group in the late 1980s. Because of his political background (he had been the chief\-of\-staff to former New York governor [Hugh L. Carey](/wiki/Hugh_L._Carey "Hugh L. Carey")) and his lack of music industry experience — especially compared to the widely revered Ostin—Morgado was viewed as an outsider at Warner. Nevertheless, he gained favour with Ross and Levin and was promoted in 1985 to oversee the Warner international music division after helping the company slash costs in its computer game sector.
Since his appointment as head of WBR, Ostin had always reported directly to Steve Ross and his successor [Gerald Levin](/wiki/Gerald_Levin "Gerald Levin"), but in late 1993, when Ostin's contract came up for renewal, Morgado asserted his authority, insisting that Ostin should now report directly to him. The tensions between them reached boiling point in July 1994 when Morgado appointed former Atlantic chief [Doug Morris](/wiki/Doug_Morris "Doug Morris") to head the Warner Music Group in the US, a decision that many saw as a deliberate move to hasten the departure of Ostin and Elektra head [Robert Krasnow](/wiki/Bob_Krasnow "Bob Krasnow"). Morgado's new structure was announced in August 1994 and Bob Krasnow resigned from Elektra the next day. Within days, after more than 30 years with the Warner music group and more than 20 years as president and chairman of Warner Bros. Records, Ostin announced he would not renew his current contract and would leave Warners when it expired on December 31, 1994\. There was more negative publicity the following month, when leading Elektra act [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica "Metallica") launched a lawsuit against the label, seeking a release from their contract and ownership of their master tapes, and claiming that Morgado had refused to honor a deal they had worked out with Krasnow before he quit.
Ostin's departure marked a seismic shift in the corporate culture at WBR and the news was greeted with dismay by industry insiders and the many artists whose careers he had helped to nurture. Lenny Waronker had agreed to take over as WBR chairman and CEO but in October 1994 he announced that he would not be taking up the position; he initially said that he would remain as President of WBR, but by this time there was already widespread speculation that he would leave, and he did so soon afterwards.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1994\-08\-16\-fi\-27820\-story.html\|title\=Company Town at Warner Bros. Records, Mo Ostin Loyal to the End\|last\=Phillips\|first\=Chuck\|date\=August 16, 1994\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=March 22, 2010\|archive\-date\=June 18, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618092055/http://articles.latimes.com/1994\-08\-16/business/fi\-27820\_1\_warner\-bros\|url\-status\=live}} The following year he re\-joined Ostin and son Michael as joint head of the newly launched [DreamWorks](/wiki/DreamWorks_Records "DreamWorks Records") label.{{cite web\|url\=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\=34768724\&privcapId\=25409512\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140328111004/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\=34768724\&privcapId\=25409512\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=March 28, 2014\|title\=Michael Ostin: Executive Profile \& Biography – Businessweek\|work\=Businessweek.com}}
Beginning in August 1994, Morgado alienated Morris by his clumsy handling of Warner's relationship with [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records "Interscope Records"), the successful label founded by [Ted Field](/wiki/Ted_Field "Ted Field") and [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine "Jimmy Iovine") and part\-owned by Warner. Morgado had resisted making a decision about increasing the Warner stake in Interscope, which encouraged other companies to make overtures to the label; in response, Morgado threatened to send cease\-and\-desist notices to executives at several record companies, demanding that they stop approaching Interscope with buyout offers, a move that reportedly infuriated Iovine.
By late 1994, Morris was gaining the upper hand over his rival and media reports claimed that Morris had moved to settle with Metallica, offering a deal that was reportedly even more generous than the one they had worked out with Krasnow. Morgado now faced a showdown with Morris, who felt he was not being allowed to run WMG as he saw fit. In October 1994, Morris and 11 other Warner executives "staged an unprecedented insurrection that nearly paralyzed the world's largest record company". This led to a climactic meeting between Morris and Gerald Levin in late October, at which Morris reportedly threatened to quit if he had to continue to report to Morgado.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\-media\-business\-warner\-music\-officials\-settle\-a\-power\-struggle.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Warner Music Officials Settle a Power Struggle\|last\=Hofmeister\|first\=Sallie\|date\=October 28, 1994\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233826/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\-media\-business\-warner\-music\-officials\-settle\-a\-power\-struggle.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Morgado gave in to the demand that Morris be granted autonomy to run the North American operations and he was forced to upgrade Morris's position from chief operating officer to Chief Executive of Warner Music Group (US); Morris promptly named [Danny Goldberg](/wiki/Danny_Goldberg "Danny Goldberg"), former president of Atlantic Records, to run WBR in defiance of Morgado, who had a different candidate in mind and Levin also reduced Morgado's power to oversee Warner's mail\-order record club division and its international operations.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\-media\-business\-time\-warner\-replaces\-chairman\-of\-music\-group\-with\-hbo\-chief.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Time Warner Replaces Chairman Of Music Group With HBO Chief\|last\=Landler\|first\=Mark\|date\=May 4, 1995\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233824/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\-media\-business\-time\-warner\-replaces\-chairman\-of\-music\-group\-with\-hbo\-chief.html\|url\-status\=live}} Morris then brought in [Sylvia Rhone](/wiki/Sylvia_Rhone "Sylvia Rhone") and [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein "Seymour Stein") to stabilize Elektra, settled the Metallica lawsuit and persuaded Levin to purchase an additional 25% of Interscope, although this initiative proved short\-lived.
The power struggle between Morgado and Morris reached a dramatic climax in May 1995 when Morgado was asked to resign by Gerald Levin, following a welter of complaints from executives at the three major Warner Music labels, who said that Morgado was undermining Morris's authority and damaging Warner's reputation among performers. Morgado was immediately replaced by [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office "Home Box Office") chairman [Michael J. Fuchs](/wiki/Michael_J._Fuchs "Michael J. Fuchs") but the corporate upheavals did not end there; in late June 1995 Fuchs abruptly dismissed Doug Morris, saying that Morris had been "leading a campaign to destabilize Warner Music in an effort to seize control of the company". As Morris's strongest ally, Danny Goldberg was also under threat; he was initially told that he could stay on as President of WBR as long as he refrained from office politics and concentrate on the day\-to\-day management of the label, but he resigned as President of Warner Bros. Records soon after to pursue "other interests", and was replaced by WBR vice\-chairman [Russ Thyret](/wiki/Russ_Thyret "Russ Thyret").
Despite early success with [Dr. Dre](/wiki/Dr._Dre "Dr. Dre") and [Snoop Dogg](/wiki/Snoop_Dogg "Snoop Dogg"), and Morris's decision to increase Warner's stake to 50%, by the mid\-1990s [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records "Interscope Records") was being seen as a liability for the Warner group. Time Warner's board and investors had already been bruised by the damaging 1992 "[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 "Cop Killer (song)")" controversy and now they were faced with renewed criticism about the [gangsta rap](/wiki/Gangsta_rap "Gangsta rap") genre, in which Interscope's associate imprint [Death Row Records](/wiki/Death_Row_Records "Death Row Records") was a key label. In mid\-1995, Time Warner refused to distribute the Interscope album *[Dogg Food](/wiki/Dogg_Food "Dogg Food")* by [Tha Dogg Pound](/wiki/Tha_Dogg_Pound "Tha Dogg Pound"), forcing the label to seek outside distribution, and late in the year TW sold its stake in Death Row back to co\-owners [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine "Jimmy Iovine") and Ted Field and soon after it sold off its share in Interscope to [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Music_Entertainment "MCA Music Entertainment").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\-warner\-to\-sell\-stake\-in\-rap\-label.html\|title\=Time Warner to Sell Stake in Rap Label\|last\=Landler\|first\=Mark\|date\=September 28, 1995\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\-warner\-to\-sell\-stake\-in\-rap\-label.html\|url\-status\=live}}
The upheaval at Warner was beneficial to its rivals, who picked up valuable executives who had left Warner. Goldberg moved over to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records "Mercury Records"); Morris joined [MCA Music Entertainment Group](/wiki/MCA_Records "MCA Records") and led its reorganization into [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group"), now the world's largest record company. In November 1995, Fuchs was himself sacked by Levin, leaving the company with a reported US$60 million "[golden parachute](/wiki/Golden_parachute "Golden parachute")", and Time Warner co\-chairmen [Robert A. Daly](/wiki/Robert_A._Daly "Robert A. Daly") and [Terry Semel](/wiki/Terry_Semel "Terry Semel") took over the running of the music division.{{cite web\|url\=http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\-j\-fuchs\|title\=Cityfile profile: Michael J. Fuchs\|website\=Cityfile.com\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928143809/http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\-j\-fuchs\|archive\-date\=September 28, 2011}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\-media\-business\-the\-music\-and\-the\-dissonance\-at\-time\-warner.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS;The Music, and the Dissonance, at Time Warner\|last\=Landler\|first\=Mark\|date\=November 17, 1995\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\-media\-business\-the\-music\-and\-the\-dissonance\-at\-time\-warner.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1995\-11\-17\-fi\-4210\-story.html\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|first\=Chuck\|last\=Philips\|date\=November 17, 1995\|access\-date\=May 27, 2010\|title\=Company Town : SHAKE\-UP AT TIME WARNER : A Very Bizarre Year at Time Warner : Chronology: Industry waits to see if established and new artists defect to rivals in wake of executive turnover at music giant\|archive\-date\=July 7, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120707001753/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\-11\-17/business/fi\-4210\_1\_time\-warner/2\|url\-status\=live}}
In 1998, Seagram boss [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. "Edgar Bronfman Jr.") held talks aimed at merging Seagram's Universal Music, headed by Morris, with the venerable British recording company [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI"), but the discussions came to nothing; Bronfman then oversaw Universal's takeover by [Vivendi](/wiki/Vivendi "Vivendi"). WEA meanwhile continued to expand its publishing empire, buying a 90% stake in the Italian recording and music publishing group Nuova [Fonit Cetra](/wiki/Fonit_Cetra "Fonit Cetra").{{Cite web\| last1 \= Zecchinelli\| first1 \= Cecilia\| title \= RAI sells off Fonit Cetra\| work \= Variety\| access\-date \= April 5, 2020\| date \= July 27, 1998\| url \= https://variety.com/1998/music/news/rai\-sells\-off\-fonit\-cetra\-1117478829/}}{{Dead link\|date\=March 2022 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
Also in 1998, Time Warner Entertainment bought the remaining 50% of the Rhino Records label they did not own. The Rhino Records retail store in Los Angeles was not included. Rhino then began reissuing the back catalogues of the Warner/Reprise and Elektra/Asylum labels. In 1999, Rhino launched Rhino Handmade, which released limited\-edition reissues of lesser\-known but still\-significant recordings from the WEA labels.
### 2000s
[thumb\|right\|[Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. "Edgar Bronfman Jr."), scion of the Canadian\-based [Bronfman family](/wiki/Bronfman_family "Bronfman family"), took control of WMG in 2004\.](/wiki/File:Edgar_Bronfman_Jr._%283016810069%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "Edgar Bronfman Jr. (3016810069) (cropped).jpg")
In 2000, [Time Warner Entertainment](/wiki/Time_Warner_Entertainment "Time Warner Entertainment") merged with leading American [internet service provider](/wiki/Internet_service_provider "Internet service provider") [AOL](/wiki/AOL "AOL") to create [AOL Time Warner](/wiki/Time_Warner "Time Warner"). The new conglomerate again tried (and failed) to acquire EMI, and subsequent discussions about the takeover of [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group "Bertelsmann Music Group") stalled, with Bertelsmann eventually offloading BMG into a joint venture with [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony"). In 2002, AOLTW further consolidated its hold over the publishing industry, buying 50% of music publisher Deston Songs from [Edel AG](/wiki/Edel_AG "Edel AG"). By the early 2000s, however, the effects of the [dot\-com crash](/wiki/Dot-com_crash "Dot-com crash") had eroded AOL's profits and stock value, and in 2003 the Time Warner board sidelined its under\-performing partner by dropping *AOL* from its business name.{{cite web\|url\=http://ketupa.net/time.htm\|title\=Time Warner\|work\=ketupa.net\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201182054/http://ketupa.net/time.htm\|archive\-date\=February 1, 2016}}
As a result of the [CD price fixing](/wiki/CD_price_fixing "CD price fixing") issue, a settlement was reached in 2002 involving the music publishers and distributors [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music"), WMG, [Bertelsmann Music Group](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group "Bertelsmann Music Group"), [EMI Music](/wiki/EMI "EMI"), and [Universal Music](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group"). In restitution for [price fixing](/wiki/Price_fixing "Price fixing") they agreed to pay a $67\.4 million fine and distribute $75\.7 million in CDs to public and non\-profit groups but admitted no wrongdoing.{{cite web\|url\=http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2002\-09\-30\-cd\-settlement\_x.htm\|title\=5 Music Companies Settle Federal Case On CD Price\-Fixing\|last\=Lieberman\|first\=David\|date\=September 30, 2002\|website\=USA Today\|access\-date\=April 26, 2016\|archive\-date\=February 7, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207165313/http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2002\-09\-30\-cd\-settlement\_x.htm\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|right\|200px\|The "Big W" logo designed by [Saul Bass](/wiki/Saul_Bass "Saul Bass"), formerly used as the logo of [Warner Bros. Entertainment](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros."), now used as the corporate logo of Warner Music Group](/wiki/File:Warner_logo_by_Saul_Bass_sans_text.svg "Warner logo by Saul Bass sans text.svg")
Looking to reduce its debt load, Time Warner — the corporate successor to Warner Communications — sold Warner Music Group in 2004 to a group of investors led by [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. "Edgar Bronfman Jr.") for US$2\.6 billion. This spinoff was completed on February 27, 2004\. In the 2004 transition to independent ownership, WMG hired record industry heavyweight [Lyor Cohen](/wiki/Lyor_Cohen "Lyor Cohen") from [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group") (the result of the merger between the PolyGram and MCA label families) to attempt to reduce cost and increase performance. Time Warner (now Warner Bros. Discovery) no longer retains any ownership in WMG, though it had the option to reacquire up to 20% of WMG for three years following the closing of the transaction. WMG did, however, have a royalty\-free license to use the Warner Bros. shield for 15 years, as well as the old Warner Communications logo as WMG's main logo.{{cite web\|url\=http://investors.wmg.com/phoenix.zhtml?c\=182480\&p\=irol\-newsArticle\&ID\=708718\&highlight\=\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061110040634/http://investors.wmg.com/phoenix.zhtml?c\=182480\&p\=irol\-newsArticle\&ID\=708718\&highlight\=\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=November 10, 2006\|title\=Warner Music Group – Investor Relations – News Release\|author\=Warner Music Group Digital Properties\|work\=wmg.com}} With the expiration of the royalty\-free license in May 2019, Warner Bros. Records (which became separate from the eponymous film studio after the spinoff) was renamed Warner Records and a new logo was introduced to replace the WB shield.{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8513172/warner\-bros\-records\-warner\-records\-new\-label\-name\-logo\|title\=After 61 Years, Warner Bros. Records Rechristened as Warner Records\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=July 11, 2019\|archive\-date\=June 8, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608053220/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8513172/warner\-bros\-records\-warner\-records\-new\-label\-name\-logo\|url\-status\=live}}
Once free of Time Warner, WMG began cutting costs by offloading loss\-making or low\-earning divisions. Like its rival EMI, Warner reacted to the growth of the digital music market by making a historic change, moving out of record production by closing or selling off disc\-pressing plants, particularly in territories such as the US and the Netherlands, where production costs are high. The US manufacturing operations were sold to [Cinram](/wiki/Cinram "Cinram") in 2003, before the purchase from Time Warner.
In 2005, the Miami\-based Warner Bros. Publications, which printed and distributed a broad selection of sheet music, books, educational material, orchestrations, arrangements and tutorials, was sold to [Alfred Music Publishing](/wiki/Alfred_Music_Publishing "Alfred Music Publishing"), although the sale excluded the print music business of WMG's Word Music (church hymnals, choral music and associated instrumental music).
On May 3, 2006, WMG apparently rejected a buyout offer from [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI").{{cite web\|title\=Warner Music Group Statement Regarding EMI Proposal\|publisher\=WMG\|date\=May 3, 2006\|access\-date\=March 20, 2009\|url\=http://www.wmg.com/news/article/?id\=newsarticle30520078\|archive\-date\=November 14, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114123540/http://www.wmg.com/news/article/?id\=newsarticle30520078\|url\-status\=live}} Then WMG offered to buy [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI") and it also rejected the offer. In August 2007, EMI was purchased by [Terra Firma Capital Partners](/wiki/Terra_Firma_Capital_Partners "Terra Firma Capital Partners").{{cite news\|title\=Profile: British music giant EMI\|work\=BBC News\|date\=January 15, 2008\|access\-date\=March 20, 2009\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7188861\.stm\|archive\-date\=March 8, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308231332/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7188861\.stm\|url\-status\=live}} Talk of a possible WMG acquisition of EMI was fanned once again in 2009 after WMG executed a bond offering for $1\.1 billion, which brought to light WMG's relatively strong financial position, which was contrasted with the weakened and debt\-laden state of EMI.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/search/article\_display.jsp?vnu\_content\_id\=1003975772\|title\=Analysis: WMG's Moves Could Make Room for M\&A\|website\=Billboard.biz\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 27, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227202828/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/search/article\_display.jsp?vnu\_content\_id\=1003975772\|url\-status\=live}} The same year WMG acquired [Rykodisc](/wiki/Rykodisc "Rykodisc") and [Roadrunner Records](/wiki/Roadrunner_Records "Roadrunner Records").
In September 2006, after pulling its content from the service earlier in the year, WMG entered into a new licensing deal with the video streaming service [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube"). Under the deal, WMG would be able to handle advertising sales for its artists' music videos on the service (as well as monetize user\-created videos that include WMG\-owned recordings) and partake in revenue sharing with YouTube, and also collaborate with YouTube on building a "premium" user experience for its content and associated channels.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/youtube\-wmg\-agree\-licensing\-deal\-89436\|title\=YouTube, WMG agree on new licensing deal\|website\=The Hollywood Reporter\|date\=September 29, 2009\|language\=en\|access\-date\=October 3, 2019\|archive\-date\=October 3, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003051331/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/youtube\-wmg\-agree\-licensing\-deal\-89436\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news \|author\=Jeff Leeds \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/19/business/media/19tube.html?\_r\=1\&scp\=9\&sq\=Warner%20Bros%20Records\&st\=cse \|title\=Warner Music Makes Licensing Deal With YouTube \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=September 19, 2006 \|access\-date\=October 3, 2019 \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308194107/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/19/business/media/19tube.html?\_r\=1\&scp\=9\&sq\=Warner%20Bros%20Records\&st\=cse \|url\-status\=live }}
On December 27, 2007, Warner announced that it would sell [digital music](/wiki/Digital_music "Digital music") without [digital rights management](/wiki/Digital_rights_management "Digital rights management") through [AmazonMP3](/wiki/AmazonMP3 "AmazonMP3"), making it the third major label to do so.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/28/technology/28music.html\|title\=Amazon to Sell Warner Music Minus Copy Protection\|last\=Leeds\|first\=Jeff\|date\=December 28, 2007\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=December 11, 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211172006/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/28/technology/28music.html\|url\-status\=live}} In 2008, *The New York Times* reported that WMG's [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records "Atlantic Records") became the first major record label to generate more than half of its music sales in the U.S. from digital products.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/media/26music.html\|title\=Atlantic Records Says Digital Sales Surpass CDs\|last\=Arango\|first\=Tim\|date\=November 25, 2008\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=April 13, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413041709/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/media/26music.html\|url\-status\=live}} In 2010, *[Fast Company](/wiki/Fast_Company_%28magazine%29 "Fast Company (magazine)")* magazine detailed the company's transformation efforts in its recorded music division, where it has redefined the relationships it has with artists and diversified its revenue streams through its expansion into growing areas of the music business.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/147/take\-us\-to\-the\-river.html\|title\=Take Us to the River: How Warner Music and Its Musicians Are Combating Declining Album Sales\|last\=Fitzgerald\|first\=Michael\|date\=July 1, 2010\|work\=Fast Company\|access\-date\=November 24, 2010\|archive\-date\=August 30, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830125219/http://www.fastcompany.com//magazine//147//take\-us\-to\-the\-river.html\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2008, WMG and several other major labels made investments in the new [music streaming service](/wiki/Music_streaming_service "Music streaming service") [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify "Spotify").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id\=238993\|title\=Spotify Announces Licensing Deals and Upcoming Launch\|author\=Spotify AB\|date\=October 7, 2008\|work\=prnewswire.co.uk\|access\-date\=March 14, 2009\|archive\-date\=June 8, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608194505/http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id\=238993\|url\-status\=live}}{{primary source inline\|date\=October 2019}}
Due to licensing deal negotiations between Google and WMG in 2008, music video content licensed by WMG was removed from YouTube.{{cite news\|url\=http://mediamemo.allthingsd.com/20081220/warner\-music\-group\-disappearing\-from\-youtube\-both\-sides\-take\-credit/\|title\=Warner Music Group Disappearing From YouTube: Both Sides Take Credit\|last\=Kafka\|first\=Peter\|date\=December 20, 2008\|access\-date\=January 14, 2012\|publisher\=AllThingsD\|archive\-date\=May 12, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512041753/http://mediamemo.allthingsd.com/20081220/warner\-music\-group\-disappearing\-from\-youtube\-both\-sides\-take\-credit/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/youtube\-hits\-the\-mute\-button\-as\-royalty\-fight\-with\-warner\-bros\-continues\-246490/\|title\=YouTube Hits The Mute Button as Royalty Fight With Warner Bros. Continues\|last\=Kreps\|first\=Daniel\|date\=January 16, 2009\|magazine\=Rolling Stone\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213529/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/youtube\-hits\-the\-mute\-button\-as\-royalty\-fight\-with\-warner\-bros\-continues\-246490/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2009, it was announced that the companies had reached a deal, and videos would be re\-added to YouTube.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/warner\-music\-youtube\-reportedly\-strike\-deal\-to\-restore\-videos\-254831/\|title\=Warner Music, YouTube Reportedly Strike Deal to Restore Videos\|last\=Kreps\|first\=Daniel\|date\=September 28, 2009\|magazine\=Rolling Stone\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213529/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-news/warner\-music\-youtube\-reportedly\-strike\-deal\-to\-restore\-videos\-254831/\|url\-status\=live}} As of 2017, WMG had extended its deal with YouTube.{{Cite news\|url\=https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/warner\-music\-extends\-youtube\-1202410931/\|title\=Warner Music Extends Deal With YouTube After 'Months of Tough Negotiations'\|last\=Aswad\|first\=Jem\|date\=May 5, 2017\|work\=Variety\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213232/https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/warner\-music\-extends\-youtube\-1202410931/\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2009, Warner Music took over its South\-East Asian and Korean distribution of EMI audio and video products, including newer domestic releases, which was announced in September 2008\. The two companies already enjoyed a successful partnership in India, the Middle East and North Africa, where EMI marketed and distributed Warner Music's physical product from 2005\.{{Cite web \|title\=EMI and Warner Music Group Announce Marketing and Distribution Partnership in South East Asia {{!}} Warner Music Inc. \|url\=https://investors.wmg.com/news\-releases/news\-release\-details/emi\-and\-warner\-music\-group\-announce\-marketing\-and\-distribution \|access\-date\=March 29, 2022 \|website\=investors.wmg.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=May 26, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526040913/https://investors.wmg.com/news\-releases/news\-release\-details/emi\-and\-warner\-music\-group\-announce\-marketing\-and\-distribution \|url\-status\=live }}
### 2010s
[thumb\|right\|[Leonard Blavatnik](/wiki/Leonard_Blavatnik "Leonard Blavatnik"), founder of [Access Industries](/wiki/Access_Industries "Access Industries"), purchased WMG in 2011\.](/wiki/File:Leonard_Blavatnik%2C_February_2018_%284568%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "Leonard Blavatnik, February 2018 (4568) (cropped).jpg")
WMG formed a partnership with [MTV Networks](/wiki/MTV_Networks "MTV Networks") in June 2010 that allowed MTVN to exclusively sell ads on WMG's premium content; in turn, views of WMG videos would be counted as views for MTVN.{{cite news\|url\=https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/09/08/mtv\-overtakes\-vevo\-as\-top\-online\-music\-destination/\|title\=MTV Overtakes Vevo as Top Online Music Destination\|work\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]] (Speakeasy Blog)\|date\=September 8, 2010\|first\=Ethan\|last\=Smith\|access\-date\=August 4, 2017\|archive\-date\=September 20, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920123241/https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/09/08/mtv\-overtakes\-vevo\-as\-top\-online\-music\-destination/\|url\-status\=live}}
In May 2011, WMG announced its sale to [Access Industries](/wiki/Access_Industries "Access Industries"), a [conglomerate](/wiki/Conglomerate_%28company%29 "Conglomerate (company)") controlled by Soviet\-born billionaire [Len Blavatnik](/wiki/Len_Blavatnik "Len Blavatnik"), for US$3\.3 billion in cash.{{Cite news\|last\=Adegoke\|first\=Yinka\|date\=May 6, 2011\|title\=Blavatnik's Access wins Warner Music for $3\.3 billion\|work\=Reuters\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-warnermusic/blavatniks\-access\-wins\-warner\-music\-for\-3\-3\-billion\-idUSTRE74407920110506\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=May 9, 2011\|archive\-date\=September 16, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916010622/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-warnermusic/blavatniks\-access\-wins\-warner\-music\-for\-3\-3\-billion\-idUSTRE74407920110506}} The price represented $8\.25 a share; a 34% premium over the six\-month\-before average price, and a 4% premium over the day\-before price. Overall, this was a drop of over 70% since 2007\.{{cite news \|last\=Wilkerson \|first\=David B. \|title\=Warner Music to be sold in $3\.3 billion cash deal \|url\=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/warner\-music\-to\-be\-sold\-in\-33\-billion\-cash\-deal\-2011\-05\-06 \|access\-date\=July 16, 2019 \|work\=MarketWatch \|date\=May 6, 2011 \|archive\-date\=November 6, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106235534/https://www.marketwatch.com/story/warner\-music\-to\-be\-sold\-in\-33\-billion\-cash\-deal\-2011\-05\-06 \|url\-status\=live }} According to the *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal "Wall Street Journal")*, the deal ended a three\-month sale process in which as many as 10 bidders, including Los Angeles\-based brothers [Tom](/wiki/Tom_Gores "Tom Gores") and [Alec Gores](/wiki/Alec_Gores "Alec Gores"), and [Sony Corp.](/wiki/Sony_Corp. "Sony Corp.") vied for the company.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703859304576306993963966516\|title\=Deal Values Warner Music at $3 Billion\|last\=Smith\|first\=Ethan\|date\=May 6, 2011\|work\=\[\[The Wall Street Journal]]\|access\-date\=May 6, 2011\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0099\-9660\|archive\-date\=December 21, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221120622/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703859304576306993963966516\|url\-status\=live}} Blavatnik was a shareholder and former board member of WMG at the time of the purchase announcement.{{Cite news\|url\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/05/06/warner\-music\-to\-sell\-itself\-to\-access\-for\-3\-3\-billion/\|title\=Warner Music Is Sold, Ending a Long Auction\|last1\=de la Merced\|first1\=Michael J.\|date\=May 6, 2011\|work\=DealBook\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|last2\=Sisario\|first2\=Ben\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003808/https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/05/06/warner\-music\-to\-sell\-itself\-to\-access\-for\-3\-3\-billion/\|url\-status\=live}} The purchase was completed on July 20, 2011, and the company became private.{{Cite news\|url\=https://variety.com/2011/music/news/access\-industries\-acquires\-wmg\-1118040177/\|title\=Access Industries acquires WMG\|last\=Morris\|first\=Chris\|date\=July 20, 2011\|work\=Variety\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003950/https://variety.com/2011/music/news/access\-industries\-acquires\-wmg\-1118040177/\|url\-status\=live}} In August 2011, [Stephen Cooper](/wiki/Stephen_Cooper_%28businessman%29 "Stephen Cooper (businessman)") became CEO of Warner Music Group replacing [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. "Edgar Bronfman Jr."), who became chairman of the company.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\-labels/warner\-music\-ceo\-edgar\-bronfman\-jr\-and\-chairman\-1005322912\.story\|title\=Warner Music CEO Edgar Bronfman, Jr. and Chairman Stephen Cooper Switch Jobs\|last\=Christman\|first\=Ed\|date\=August 19, 2011\|magazine\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]]\|access\-date\=January 14, 2012\|archive\-date\=November 17, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117044337/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\-labels/warner\-music\-ceo\-edgar\-bronfman\-jr\-and\-chairman\-1005322912\.story\|url\-status\=live}} Bronfman Jr. stepped down as chairman of the company on January 31, 2012\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\-labels/updated\-edgar\-bronfman\-jr\-to\-step\-down\-as\-1005616802\.story\|title\=Updated: Edgar Bronfman Jr. to Step Down as Warner Music Group Chairman, No Successor Named\|date\=December 5, 2011\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=January 14, 2012\|archive\-date\=January 11, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111035129/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\-labels/updated\-edgar\-bronfman\-jr\-to\-step\-down\-as\-1005616802\.story\|url\-status\=live}}
#### EMI label purchase and divestment
In 2013, Warner acquired longtime EMI division [Parlophone](/wiki/Parlophone "Parlophone"), along with [EMI Classics](/wiki/EMI_Classics "EMI Classics") and some regional EMI operations, from UMG for £487 million (around $764\.54 million US).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wmg.com/newsdetails/id/8a0af8123caef576013cb54ca59b00a9\|title\=Warner Music Group to acquire the Parlophone Label Group\|publisher\=WMG\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817141122/http://www.wmg.com/newsdetails/id/8a0af8123caef576013cb54ca59b00a9\|archive\-date\=August 17, 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|access\-date\=February 7, 2013}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/07/warner\-music\-group\-buys\-emi\-assets\-for\-765\-million/?mtrref\=www.google.com\&gwh\=C91F7EC9A48C186906621B2366A3CF15\&gwt\=pay\|title\=Warner Music Group Buys EMI Assets for $765 Million\|last\=Sisario\|first\=Ben\|work\=Media Decoder Blog\|date\=February 7, 2013 \|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801004221/https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/07/warner\-music\-group\-buys\-emi\-assets\-for\-765\-million/?mtrref\=www.google.com\&gwh\=C91F7EC9A48C186906621B2366A3CF15\&gwt\=pay\|url\-status\=live}} This news came after reports that WMG was in talks to acquire [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI")'s recorded music business, which was eventually bought by [Universal](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/22/business/global/universal\-takeover\-of\-emi\-music\-is\-approved.html\|title\=Universal Takeover of EMI Music Is Approved\|last\=Sisario\|first\=Ben\|date\=September 21, 2012\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003943/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/22/business/global/universal\-takeover\-of\-emi\-music\-is\-approved.html\|url\-status\=live}} The European Commission approved the sale in May 2013, and Warner closed the acquisition on July 1\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/legal\-and\-management/1561787/warner\-music\-groups\-acquisition\-of\-parlophone \|title\=Updated: Warner Music Group's Acquisition of Parlophone Approved by European Commission \|publisher\=Billboard \|date\=November 1, 2012 \|access\-date\=July 22, 2013}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/1568720/warner\-music\-group\-closes\-on\-acquisition\-of\-parlophone\-label\-group \|title\=Warner Music Group Closes on Acquisition of Parlophone Label Group \|publisher\=Billboard \|date\=July 1, 2013 \|access\-date\=July 22, 2013 \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708193306/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/1568720/warner\-music\-group\-closes\-on\-acquisition\-of\-parlophone\-label\-group \|url\-status\=live }} The EMI Classics roster was absorbed into [Warner Classics](/wiki/Warner_Classics "Warner Classics") and the [Virgin Classics](/wiki/Virgin_Classics "Virgin Classics") roster was absorbed into the revived [Erato Records](/wiki/Erato_Records "Erato Records").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.classical\-music.com/news/warner\-clarifies\-future\-emi\-and\-virgin\-classics\-artists\|title\=Warner clarifies future of EMI and Virgin Classics artists\|work\=classical\-music.com\|access\-date\=January 3, 2014\|archive\-date\=November 29, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129093332/http://www.classical\-music.com/news/warner\-clarifies\-future\-emi\-and\-virgin\-classics\-artists\|url\-status\=live}} In November 2013, WMG paid Universal an additional €30 million for Parlophone, following an arbitration process in respect to the original sale price.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-paid\-more\-money\-for\-parlophone\-than\-we\-thought\|title\=Warner Music Group paid more money for Parlophone than we thought...\|last\=Ingham\|first\=Tim\|date\=August 3, 2015\|website\=\[\[Music Business Worldwide]]\|access\-date\=August 5, 2015\|archive\-date\=August 6, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806101515/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-paid\-more\-money\-for\-parlophone\-than\-we\-thought/\|url\-status\=live}}
In order to accommodate a deal made with [IMPALA](/wiki/Independent_Music_Companies_Association "Independent Music Companies Association") and the [Merlin Network](/wiki/Merlin_Network "Merlin Network") when it acquired Parlophone, WMG agreed to offload over $200 million worth in catalogues to various independent labels.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\-labels/5923064/warner\-music\-begins\-auctioning\-off\-assets\-to\-indies\|title\=Warner Music Begins Auctioning Off Assets to Indies Following Parlophone Acquisition\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801014524/https://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\-labels/5923064/warner\-music\-begins\-auctioning\-off\-assets\-to\-indies\|url\-status\=live}} The labels had until February 28, 2014, to inform Warner Music of which artist catalogues they were interested in acquiring, and said artists had to approve of the divestments.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\-labels/5923064/warner\-music\-begins\-auctioning\-off\-assets\-to\-indies\|title\=Warner Music Begins Auctioning Off Assets to Indies Following Parlophone Acquisition\|website\=Billboard.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=November 15, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115115254/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\-labels/5923064/warner\-music\-begins\-auctioning\-off\-assets\-to\-indies\|url\-status\=live}} By March 2015, over 140 independent labels had placed bids on over 11,000 Warner Music artists valuing $6 billion, far higher than expectations.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-50\-times\-oversubscribed\-as\-140\-indies\-bid\-for\-assets/\|title\=Warner '50 times oversubscribed' as 140 indies bid for assets\|last\=Ingham\|first\=Tim\|date\=March 19, 2015\|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=August 5, 2015\|archive\-date\=August 16, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150816030349/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-50\-times\-oversubscribed\-as\-140\-indies\-bid\-for\-assets/\|url\-status\=live}} In March 2016, [Curb Records](/wiki/Curb_Records "Curb Records") acquired Warner Music's 80% share of [Word Entertainment](/wiki/Word_Entertainment "Word Entertainment"), though WMG would continue to distribute the label.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tennessean.com/story/money/industries/music/2016/03/02/curb\-records\-acquires\-word\-entertainment/81230554\|title\=Curb Records acquires Word Entertainment\|website\=\[\[The Tennessean]]\|access\-date\=December 20, 2017\|archive\-date\=July 8, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708170425/https://www.tennessean.com/story/money/industries/music/2016/03/02/curb\-records\-acquires\-word\-entertainment/81230554/\|url\-status\=live}} In April 2016, the first confirmed sale of a Warner Music artist was the back catalogue of English band [Radiohead](/wiki/Radiohead "Radiohead") to [XL Recordings](/wiki/XL_Recordings "XL Recordings").{{cite web\|url\=http://consequenceofsound.net/2016/04/radioheads\-back\-catalog\-purchased\-by\-xl\-recordings\-report/\|title\=Radiohead's back catalog purchased by XL Recordings: Report\|date\=April 4, 2016\|publisher\=Billboard\|access\-date\=April 5, 2016\|archive\-date\=April 5, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405153729/http://consequenceofsound.net/2016/04/radioheads\-back\-catalog\-purchased\-by\-xl\-recordings\-report/\|url\-status\=live}} As of the end of May 2016, WMG had sold the catalogue of [Chrysalis Records](/wiki/Chrysalis_Records "Chrysalis Records") to [Blue Raincoat Music](/wiki/Blue_Raincoat_Music "Blue Raincoat Music"), as well as the catalogues of ten other artists, including [Everything But the Girl](/wiki/Everything_But_the_Girl "Everything But the Girl"), [Steve Harley \& Cockney Rebel](/wiki/Steve_Harley_%26_Cockney_Rebel "Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel"), and [Lucinda Williams](/wiki/Lucinda_Williams "Lucinda Williams").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-chrysalis\-records\-back\-to\-chris\-wright\-and\-blue\-raincoat/\|title\=Warner sells Chrysalis Records back to Chris Wright and Blue Raincoat\|date\=June 1, 2016\|publisher\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=June 1, 2016\|archive\-date\=June 3, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603213321/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-chrysalis\-records\-back\-to\-chris\-wright\-and\-blue\-raincoat\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/girl\-power\-inside\-chrysalis\-new\-deal\-for\-everything\-but\-the\-girl\-s\-catalogue/069191\|title\=Girl power: Inside Chrysalis' new deal for Everything But The Girl's catalogue\|last\=Garner\|first\=George\|date\=July 18, 2017\|website\=\[\[Music Week]]\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=September 24, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924144802/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/girl\-power\-inside\-chrysalis\-new\-deal\-for\-everything\-but\-the\-girl\-s\-catalogue/069191\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/now\-warner\-sells\-records\-by\-athlete\-steve\-harley\-and\-more\-to\-chrysalis/\|title\=Now Warner sells records by Athlete, Steve Harley and more to Chrysalis – Music Business Worldwide\|date\=July 7, 2016\|website\=Musicweek.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=July 6, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706064051/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/now\-warner\-sells\-records\-by\-athlete\-steve\-harley\-and\-more\-to\-chrysalis/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/chrysalis\-acquires\-parlophone\-catalogues\-under\-divestment\-deal/070316\|title\=Chrysalis acquires Parlophone catalogues under divestment deal\|website\=Musicweek.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 4, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204230956/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/chrysalis\-acquires\-parlophone\-catalogues\-under\-divestment\-deal/070316\|url\-status\=live}} In September 2016, [Nettwerk](/wiki/Nettwerk "Nettwerk") acquired the rights to albums by [Guster](/wiki/Guster "Guster") and [Airbourne](/wiki/Airbourne_%28band%29 "Airbourne (band)") from Warner Music.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-artist\-catalogues\-nettwerk\-divestment\-process\-picks\-pace/\|title\=Warner sells assets to Nettwerk as divestment process picks up pace\|date\=September 28, 2016\|publisher\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=March 15, 2017\|archive\-date\=March 16, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316204801/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-artist\-catalogues\-nettwerk\-divestment\-process\-picks\-pace/\|url\-status\=live}}
In April 2017, Warner Music agreed to sell the independent distributor [Zebralution](/wiki/Zebralution "Zebralution") back to its founders.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\-and\-mobile/7744636/warner\-music\-sells\-digital\-distributor\-zebralution\|title\=Warner Music Sells Digital Distributor Zebralution\|publisher\=Billboard\|access\-date\=April 3, 2017\|archive\-date\=April 3, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403214039/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\-and\-mobile/7744636/warner\-music\-sells\-digital\-distributor\-zebralution\|url\-status\=live}} On June 1, 2017, WMG divested additional artists, including the catalogues of [Hot Chip](/wiki/Hot_Chip "Hot Chip") and [Buzzcocks](/wiki/Buzzcocks "Buzzcocks") to [Domino Recording Company](/wiki/Domino_Recording_Company "Domino Recording Company"); [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits "Tom Waits") to [Anti\-](/wiki/Anti-_%28record_label%29 "Anti- (record label)"); and [Howard Jones](/wiki/Howard_Jones_%28British_musician%29 "Howard Jones (British musician)"), [Dinosaur Jr.](/wiki/Dinosaur_Jr. "Dinosaur Jr."), and [Kim Wilde](/wiki/Kim_Wilde "Kim Wilde") to [Cherry Red Records](/wiki/Cherry_Red_Records "Cherry Red Records").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/cherry\-red\-set\-to\-capitalise\-on\-warner\-divestment/068542\|title\=Cherry Red set to capitalise on Warner divestment\|website\=\[\[Music Week]]\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=August 14, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814220610/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/cherry\-red\-set\-to\-capitalise\-on\-warner\-divestment/068542\|url\-status\=live}} [Cosmos Music Group](/wiki/Cosmos_Music_Group "Cosmos Music Group") acquired the rights to [Per Gessle](/wiki/Per_Gessle "Per Gessle") and [Marie Fredriksson](/wiki/Marie_Fredriksson "Marie Fredriksson"), while [Neil Finn](/wiki/Neil_Finn "Neil Finn")'s catalogue moved to his Lester Records label.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-flurry\-copyrights\-indie\-divestment\-process\-heads\-towards\-finish\-line\|title\=Warner sells flurry of copyrights as indie divestment process heads towards finish line\|date\=June 1, 2017\|publisher\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=June 6, 2017\|archive\-date\=June 6, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606191005/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-flurry\-copyrights\-indie\-divestment\-process\-heads\-towards\-finish\-line/\|url\-status\=live}} On July 6, 2017, [Because Music](/wiki/Because_Music "Because Music") acquired 10 French artists, most of [London Records](/wiki/London_Records "London Records")' back catalogue, and [The Beta Band](/wiki/The_Beta_Band "The Beta Band"), while [Concord Music](/wiki/Concord_Music "Concord Music") acquired albums by [Jewel](/wiki/Jewel_%28singer%29 "Jewel (singer)"), [Sérgio Mendes](/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_Mendes "Sérgio Mendes"), [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M. "R.E.M."), the [Traveling Wilburys](/wiki/Traveling_Wilburys "Traveling Wilburys"), and several rock, blues, and jazz artists.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/confirms\-acquisition\-london\-records\-catalogue\|title\=Because confirms acquisition of London Records catalogue\|date\=July 6, 2017\|publisher\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=July 7, 2017\|archive\-date\=September 12, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912091856/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/confirms\-acquisition\-london\-records\-catalogue/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lesechos.fr/tech\-medias/medias/010175993947\-bananarama\-rejoint\-le\-label\-de\-christine\-and\-the\-queen\-2107284\.php\|title\=Bananarama rejoint le label de Christine and The Queen\|website\=Lesechos.fr\|date\=August 10, 2017\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=October 17, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017044342/https://www.lesechos.fr/tech\-medias/medias/010175993947\-bananarama\-rejoint\-le\-label\-de\-christine\-and\-the\-queen\-2107284\.php\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/because\-buys\-beta\-band\-catalogue\-other\-deals\-imminent\-as\-warner\-divestment\-deadline\-day\-looms/069966\|title\=Because buys Beta Band catalogue, other deals imminent as Warner divestment deadline day looms\|website\=\[\[Music Week]]\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 3, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203112016/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/because\-buys\-beta\-band\-catalogue\-other\-deals\-imminent\-as\-warner\-divestment\-deadline\-day\-looms/069966\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/concord\-buys\-yet\-multi\-million\-dollar\-deal\-warner\|title\=Concord buys yet again in multi\-million dollar deal with Warner\|date\=July 6, 2017\|publisher\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=July 7, 2017\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715141646/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/concord\-buys\-yet\-multi\-million\-dollar\-deal\-warner/\|url\-status\=live}} In August 2017, [The Lemonheads](/wiki/The_Lemonheads "The Lemonheads") and [The Groundhogs](/wiki/The_Groundhogs "The Groundhogs") were transferred to [Fire Records](/wiki/Fire_Records_%28UK%29 "Fire Records (UK)").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-atlantics\-the\-lemonheads\-catalogue\-to\-fire\-records/\|title\=Warner sells Atlantic's The Lemonheads catalogue to Fire Records\|date\=August 14, 2017\|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=June 18, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175520/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-sells\-atlantics\-the\-lemonheads\-catalogue\-to\-fire\-records/\|url\-status\=live}} In October 2017, [Strut Records](/wiki/Strut_Records "Strut Records") acquired albums by [Patrice Rushen](/wiki/Patrice_Rushen "Patrice Rushen") and [Miriam Makeba](/wiki/Miriam_Makeba "Miriam Makeba").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/k7\-music\-picks\-up\-catalogues\-in\-parlophone\-divestment/070196\|title\=!K7 Music picks up catalogues in Parlophone divestment\|website\=Musicweek.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=October 19, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019055203/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/k7\-music\-picks\-up\-catalogues\-in\-parlophone\-divestment/070196\|url\-status\=live}}
In November 2017, [T.I.](/wiki/T.I. "T.I.")'s catalogue was sold to [Cinq Music Group](/wiki/Cinq_Music_Group "Cinq Music Group").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/8031092/cinq\-music\-acquires\-ti\-catalog\-plans\-greatest\-hits\-album\-exclusive\|title\=Cinq Music Acquires T.I. Catalog, Plans 'Paper Trail' Reissue: Exclusive\|website\=Billboard.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=November 13, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112018/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/8031092/cinq\-music\-acquires\-ti\-catalog\-plans\-greatest\-hits\-album\-exclusive\|url\-status\=live}} Woah Dad! (and later [Round Hill Music](/wiki/Round_Hill_Music "Round Hill Music")) acquired over 20 catalogues, including those of [Ziggy Marley](/wiki/Ziggy_Marley "Ziggy Marley"), [Estelle](/wiki/Estelle_%28musician%29 "Estelle (musician)"), and several Swedish artists. while [Believe Digital](/wiki/Believe_Digital "Believe Digital") acquired the rights to [EMF](/wiki/EMF_%28band%29 "EMF (band)") and several French artists.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gp.se/n%C3%B6je/musik/g%C3%B6teborgsbolaget\-woah\-dad\-satsar\-internationellt\-1\.4832023\|title\=Göteborgsbolaget Woah dad satsar internationellt\|website\=Gp.se\|date\=November 15, 2017\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=November 21, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121064954/http://www.gp.se/n%C3%B6je/musik/g%C3%B6teborgsbolaget\-woah\-dad\-satsar\-internationellt\-1\.4832023\|url\-status\=live}} In April 2018, [RT Industries](/wiki/Razor_%26_Tie "Razor & Tie") acquired seven catalogues from WMG, including [Sugar Ray](/wiki/Sugar_Ray "Sugar Ray") and [Fat Joe](/wiki/Fat_Joe "Fat Joe").{{cite web \|last\=Jones \|first\=Rhian \|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/independent\-label\-rt\-industries\-launches\-with\-divestments\-from\-warner \|title\=Independent label RT Industries launches with divestments from Warner \|publisher\=Music Business Worldwide \|date\=April 17, 2018 \|access\-date\=September 4, 2018 \|archive\-date\=August 9, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809111749/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/independent\-label\-rt\-industries\-launches\-with\-divestments\-from\-warner/ \|url\-status\=live }} In May 2018, New State Music acquired the catalogues of [Paul Oakenfold](/wiki/Paul_Oakenfold "Paul Oakenfold") and [Dirty Vegas](/wiki/Dirty_Vegas "Dirty Vegas").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.recordoftheday.com/news\-and\-press/proper\-makes\-trio\-of\-hires\-signs\-up\-newstate \|title\=Proper makes trio of hires, signs up NewState \|publisher\=Recordoftheday.com \|date\=May 16, 2018 \|access\-date\=September 4, 2018 \|archive\-date\=September 20, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920121138/https://www.recordoftheday.com/news\-and\-press/proper\-makes\-trio\-of\-hires\-signs\-up\-newstate \|url\-status\=live }} Other winning bidders included [The Echo Label](/wiki/The_Echo_Label "The Echo Label") ([Thomas Dolby](/wiki/Thomas_Dolby "Thomas Dolby"), [Sigue Sigue Sputnik](/wiki/Sigue_Sigue_Sputnik "Sigue Sigue Sputnik") and [Supergrass](/wiki/Supergrass "Supergrass")), [Nature Sounds](/wiki/Nature_Sounds "Nature Sounds") ([Roy Ayers](/wiki/Roy_Ayers "Roy Ayers")), The state51 Conspiracy ([Donovan](/wiki/Donovan "Donovan")), [PIAS Recordings](/wiki/PIAS_Recordings "PIAS Recordings") ([Failure](/wiki/Failure_%28band%29 "Failure (band)")), Evolution Music Group ([Mr. Big](/wiki/Mr._Big_%28American_band%29 "Mr. Big (American band)")), [Playground Music Scandinavia](/wiki/Playground_Music_Scandinavia "Playground Music Scandinavia") ([Olle Adolphson](/wiki/Olle_Adolphson "Olle Adolphson")), [Metal Blade Records](/wiki/Metal_Blade_Records "Metal Blade Records") ([King Diamond](/wiki/King_Diamond "King Diamond")), [Snapper Music](/wiki/Snapper_Music "Snapper Music") ([Mansun](/wiki/Mansun "Mansun")) and its sublabel [Kscope](/wiki/Kscope "Kscope") ([Porcupine Tree](/wiki/Porcupine_Tree "Porcupine Tree")), Phoenix Music International ([Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28singer%29 "Lulu (singer)")), [Kobalt Label Services](/wiki/Kobalt_Label_Services "Kobalt Label Services") ([HIM](/wiki/HIM_%28Finnish_band%29 "HIM (Finnish band)")), and [Tommy Boy Music](/wiki/Tommy_Boy_Music "Tommy Boy Music") (which reclaimed its pre\-2002 catalogue and the rights to [Brand Nubian](/wiki/Brand_Nubian "Brand Nubian"), [Handsome Boy Modeling School](/wiki/Handsome_Boy_Modeling_School "Handsome Boy Modeling School")'s *[White People](/wiki/White_People_%28album%29 "White People (album)")*, [Grand Puba](/wiki/Grand_Puba "Grand Puba"), and [Club Nouveau](/wiki/Club_Nouveau "Club Nouveau")). All the labels had to complete their deals by September 30, 2017; though a few announcements came after that date.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/everything\-must\-go\-warner\-music\-s\-indie\-divestment\-will\-end\-september\-30/069580\|title\=Everything must go: Warner Music's indie divestment 'will end September 30'\|website\=\[\[Music Week]]\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 2, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202022318/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/everything\-must\-go\-warner\-music\-s\-indie\-divestment\-will\-end\-september\-30/069580\|url\-status\=live}}
#### Expansion
In October 2012, WMG became one of the last major labels to sign with Google's music service. It was also one of the last labels to reach an agreement with Spotify.{{Cite web\|url\=https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/29/google\-signs\-deal\-with\-warner\-music\-group/\|title\=Google Signs Deal With Warner Music Group\|last\=Sisario\|first\=Ben\|date\=October 29, 2012\|website\=Media Decoder Blog\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=February 18, 2013\|archive\-date\=March 8, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308162152/http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/29/google\-signs\-deal\-with\-warner\-music\-group/\|url\-status\=live}}
In June 2013, WMG expanded into Russia by acquiring Gala Records, best known as the longtime distributor of [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI").{{cite web\|url\=http://m.biobiochile.cl/notas/2013/06/18/warner\-music\-se\-implanta\-en\-rusia\-tras\-comprar\-el\-sello\-gala.shtml\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130620022204/http://m.biobiochile.cl/notas/2013/06/18/warner\-music\-se\-implanta\-en\-rusia\-tras\-comprar\-el\-sello\-gala.shtml\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=June 20, 2013\|title\=Warner Music se implanta en Rusia tras comprar el sello Gala\|publisher\=Radio Bío\-Bío\|date\=June 18, 2013\|access\-date\=July 22, 2013}} Later that year, Warner Music Russia agreed to locally distribute releases by [Disney Music Group](/wiki/Disney_Music_Group "Disney Music Group"){{cite news \| url\=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/disney\-warner\-music\-russia\-deal\-659698 \| work\=The Hollywood Reporter \| first\=Vladimir \| last\=Kozlov \| title\=Disney, Warner Music Strike Russia Distribution Deal \| date\=November 25, 2013 \| access\-date\=June 5, 2014 \| archive\-date\=February 27, 2014 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227101148/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/disney\-warner\-music\-russia\-deal\-659698 \| url\-status\=live }} and [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\-to\-handle\-cd\-distribution\-for\-sony\-in\-russia\|title\=Warner to handle CD distribution for Sony in Russia\|first\=Chris\|last\=Cooke\|website\=\[\[Complete Music Update]]\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=October 1, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001074947/http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\-to\-handle\-cd\-distribution\-for\-sony\-in\-russia/\|url\-status\=live}} Later that year, WMG closed a deal with [Clear Channel Media](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Media_and_Entertainment "Clear Channel Media and Entertainment") that saw its artists paid for terrestrial radio play for the first time. Clear Channel would get preferential rates for streaming songs through its [iHeartRadio](/wiki/IHeartRadio "IHeartRadio") service and other online platforms. It was believed that the agreement would put pressure on other big labels, including Sony and Universal, to reach similar deals.{{cite news\|url\=https://nypost.com/2013/09/12/warner\-artists\-get\-paid\-for\-radio\-play\-under\-landmark\-clear\-channel\-deal/\|title\=Warner artists get paid for radio play under landmark Clear Channel deal\|last\=Atkinson\|first\=Claire\|date\=September 12, 2013\|work\=New York Post\|access\-date\=September 14, 2013\|archive\-date\=September 16, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916204420/http://nypost.com/2013/09/12/warner\-artists\-get\-paid\-for\-radio\-play\-under\-landmark\-clear\-channel\-deal/\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2017, WMG formed a TV and film division, Warner Music Entertainment, led by former MGM executive Charlie Cohen. In March 2020, it hired Kate Shepherd, the former head of entertainment at Ridley Scott Creative Group.{{cite news \|last1\=Aswad \|first1\=Jem \|last2\=Davis \|first2\=Rebecca \|title\=Tencent Acquires $200 Million Stake in Warner Music \|url\=https://variety.com/2020/music/news/tencent\-acquires\-100\-million\-stake\-in\-warner\-music\-1234632894/ \|access\-date\=July 7, 2020 \|work\=Variety \|date\=June 12, 2020 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708011536/https://variety.com/2020/music/news/tencent\-acquires\-100\-million\-stake\-in\-warner\-music\-1234632894/ \|url\-status\=live }} This division paired with [Imagine Entertainment](/wiki/Imagine_Entertainment "Imagine Entertainment") on a [Nat Geo](/wiki/National_Geographic_%28American_TV_channel%29 "National Geographic (American TV channel)") limited series *[Genius](/wiki/Genius_%28American_TV_series%29 "Genius (American TV series)"): Aretha*, which led to a co\-producing and co\-financing agreement for a music slate in July 2020\.{{cite news \|last1\=Littleton \|first1\=Cynthia \|title\=Imagine Sets Production and Financing Pact With Warner Music Group (EXCLUSIVE) \|url\=https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/imagine\-warner\-music\-aretha\-production\-financing\-1234698427/ \|access\-date\=July 7, 2020 \|work\=Variety \|date\=July 6, 2020 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=July 6, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706210648/https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/imagine\-warner\-music\-aretha\-production\-financing\-1234698427/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In February 2022, Warner announced acquisition of controlling interest in a [South India](/wiki/South_India "South India") based distribution label Divo Music.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wmg.com/news/warner\-music\-india\-signs\-deal\-to\-acquire\-a\-majority\-stake\-in\-divo\-the\-largest\-digital\-media\-and\-music\-company\-in\-south\-india\|title\=Warner Music India Signs Deal to Acquire a Majority Stake in Divo, the Largest Digital Media and Music Company in South India\|first\=W. R. M.\|last\=Communications\|date\=February 8, 2023\|website\=Warner Music Group\|access\-date\=May 23, 2023\|archive\-date\=March 22, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322232026/https://www.wmg.com/news/warner\-music\-india\-signs\-deal\-to\-acquire\-a\-majority\-stake\-in\-divo\-the\-largest\-digital\-media\-and\-music\-company\-in\-south\-india\|url\-status\=live}}
#### International labels
On November 14, 2013, it was determined that Warner Music's releases in the Middle East would be distributed by [Universal Music](/wiki/Universal_Music "Universal Music") as a result of the integration of [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI")'s branch in said region.[EMI Music Arabia](https://twitter.com/EMIMusicArabia/status/400857423516561408) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203055614/https://twitter.com/EMIMusicArabia/status/400857423516561408 \|date\=December 3, 2013 }} November 14, 2013\. Retrieved on December 1, 2013\. [Sony Music India](/wiki/Sony_Music_India "Sony Music India") would assume distribution of WMG in India, Sri Lanka, and rest of [SAARC](/wiki/SAARC "SAARC") countries except Bangladesh.{{cite news \| url\=http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/sony\-warner\-ink\-licensing\-deal/article5447952\.ece \| location\=Chennai, India \| work\=The Hindu \| first\=K. T. \| last\=Jagannathan \| title\=Sony, Warner ink licensing deal \| date\=December 11, 2013 \| access\-date\=December 14, 2013 \| archive\-date\=December 16, 2013 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216013805/http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/sony\-warner\-ink\-licensing\-deal/article5447952\.ece \| url\-status\=live }} In December 2013, Warner Music began operating the wholly owned South African subsidiary after acquiring the Gallo's stakes that it did not own.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\-announces\-launch\-of\-new\-south\-african\-business/ \|title\=Warner announces launch of new South African business \|publisher\=Complete Music Update \|date\=December 6, 2013 \|access\-date\=December 13, 2013 \|archive\-date\=January 13, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113092304/http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\-announces\-launch\-of\-new\-south\-african\-business/ \|url\-status\=live }} In April 2014, WMG announced that it had acquired Chinese record label [Gold Typhoon](/wiki/Gold_Typhoon "Gold Typhoon").{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/6070250/warner\-acquires\-gold\-typhoon\-group\-to\-grow\-china\-presence\|title\=Warner Acquires Gold Typhoon Group To Grow China Presence\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=April 30, 2014\|archive\-date\=May 1, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501231815/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/6070250/warner\-acquires\-gold\-typhoon\-group\-to\-grow\-china\-presence\|url\-status\=live}}
In April 2016, WMG agreed to distribute most of [BMG Rights Management](/wiki/BMG_Rights_Management "BMG Rights Management")'s catalogue worldwide through Warner's [ADA](/wiki/Alternative_Distribution_Alliance "Alternative Distribution Alliance") division, though a few frontline releases would remain distributed by other labels.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.allaccess.com/net\-news/archive/story/152757/warner\-music\-group\-lands\-distribution\-for\-bmg\-cata\|title\=Warner Music Group Lands Distribution For BMG Catalog\|website\=Allaccess.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 10, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210072136/https://www.allaccess.com/net\-news/archive/story/152757/warner\-music\-group\-lands\-distribution\-for\-bmg\-cata\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/bmg\-moves\-distribution\-8000\-albums\-warners\-ada/\|title\=BMG moves distribution of 8,000 albums to Warner's ADA\|date\=March 7, 2017\|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=March 13, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313000938/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/bmg\-moves\-distribution\-8000\-albums\-warners\-ada/\|url\-status\=live}}
Around the end of May 2016, WMG acquired the Indonesian label PT Indo Semar Sakti.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\-music\-group\-does\-deals\-with\-times\-music\-and\-pt\-indo\-semar\-sakti/\|title\=Warner Music Group does deals with Times Music and PT Indo Semar Sakti\|website\=\[\[Complete Music Update]]\|access\-date\=June 1, 2016\|archive\-date\=June 2, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602104625/http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\-music\-group\-does\-deals\-with\-times\-music\-and\-pt\-indo\-semar\-sakti/\|url\-status\=live}} Warner Music UK launched [The Firepit](/wiki/The_Firepit "The Firepit") in May 2016, a creative content division, innovation centre and recording studio located at their United Kingdom headquarters in London.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7385124/warner\-music\-uk\-firepit\|title\=Warner Music U.K. Launches Creative Content Division The Firepit\|website\=Billboard.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=October 14, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014071016/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7385124/warner\-music\-uk\-firepit\|url\-status\=live}} On June 2, 2016, Warner Music acquired Swedish compilation label [X5 Music Group](/wiki/X5_Music_Group "X5 Music Group").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/warner\-music\-group\-acquires\-x5\-898923\|title\=Warner Music Group Acquires Digital Compilation Company X5\|work\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\|date\=June 2, 2016\|access\-date\=December 20, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 22, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222053120/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/warner\-music\-group\-acquires\-x5\-898923\|url\-status\=live}}
In September 2017, one week after acquiring American rock label [Artery Recordings](/wiki/Artery_Recordings "Artery Recordings"), WMG acquired the Dutch EDM label [Spinnin' Records](/wiki/Spinnin%27_Records "Spinnin' Records").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/wmg\-acquires\-spinnin\-records/069715\|title\=WMG acquires Spinnin' Records\|website\=\[\[Music Week]]\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=January 8, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108173809/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/wmg\-acquires\-spinnin\-records/069715\|url\-status\=live}} In February 2018, Warner Music launched a division in the Middle East, based in Beirut, Lebanon. Warner Music Middle East will cover 17 markets across North Africa and the Middle East.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-launch\-record\-label\-middle\-east \|title\= Warner Music Group launches record company in the Middle East \|publisher\= Music Business Worldwide \|date\= February 1, 2018 \|access\-date\= February 2, 2018 \|archive\-date\= December 29, 2018 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181229174327/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-launch\-record\-label\-middle\-east/ \|url\-status\= live }}
In January 2019, WMG signed a Turkish distribution deal with [Doğan Media Group](/wiki/Do%C4%9Fan_Media_Group "Doğan Media Group"), which will represent the record company for physical and digital releases.{{cite web \|last\=Stassen \|first\=Murray \|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-inks\-wide\-ranging\-deal\-with\-istanbul\-based\-dogan\-group \|title\=Warner Music inks wide\-ranging deal with Istanbul\-based Doğan Group \|publisher\=Music Business Worldwide \|date\=January 30, 2019 \|access\-date\=January 30, 2019 \|archive\-date\=January 30, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130185104/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-inks\-wide\-ranging\-deal\-with\-istanbul\-based\-dogan\-group/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In May 2019, Warner Music Finland acquired the hip\-hop label [Monsp Records](/wiki/Monsp_Records "Monsp Records").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurenalvarez/2019/05/31/warner\-music\-finland\-acquires\-indie\-hip\-hop\-label\-monsp\-records \|title\=Warner Music Finland Acquires Indie Hip\-Hop Label Monsp Records \|work\=Forbes.com \|access\-date\=June 3, 2019 \|archive\-date\=June 3, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603062001/https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurenalvarez/2019/05/31/warner\-music\-finland\-acquires\-indie\-hip\-hop\-label\-monsp\-records/ \|url\-status\=live }} In July 2019, Warner Music Slovakia acquired Forza Music, which owned the former state\-owned label [Opus Records](/wiki/Opus_Records "Opus Records").{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8518809/warner\-music\-acquires\-forza\-music\-slovakia\|title\=Warner Music Acquires Slovakia's Forza Music\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=July 9, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 9, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709192125/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8518809/warner\-music\-acquires\-forza\-music\-slovakia\|url\-status\=live}} In February 2021, WMG purchased a minority stake in the Saudi Arabian record label [Rotana Records](/wiki/Rotana_Records "Rotana Records").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-invests\-in\-saudi\-arabias\-rotana\-music \|title\=Warner Music Group buys minority stake in Saudi Arabia's Rotana Music \|date\=February 16, 2021 \|access\-date\=February 18, 2021 \|archive\-date\=February 16, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216191739/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-invests\-in\-saudi\-arabias\-rotana\-music/ \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Elektra Music Group and further investments
In July 2017, Warner Music acquired the concert discovery website [Songkick](/wiki/Songkick "Songkick").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\-and\-mobile/7865999/warner\-music\-acquires\-songkick\-the\-concert\-discovery\|title\=Warner Music Acquires Songkick, the Concert Discovery App\|website\=Billboard.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=November 19, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119131053/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\-and\-mobile/7865999/warner\-music\-acquires\-songkick\-the\-concert\-discovery\|url\-status\=live}} In May, news media reported that Warner Music led an investment round in [Hooch](/wiki/Hooch_%28application%29 "Hooch (application)"), a popular subscription\-lifestyle application including blockchain\-based payment technology.{{cite web \| url \= https://cheddar.com/videos/hooch\-plans\-to\-launch\-blockchain\-powered\-tap\-coin \| publisher \= Cheddar TV \| title \= Hooch Plans to Launch Blockchain\-Powered Tap Coin \| access\-date \= June 6, 2018 \| archive\-date \= June 18, 2018 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175449/https://cheddar.com/videos/hooch\-plans\-to\-launch\-blockchain\-powered\-tap\-coin \| url\-status \= live }}
Announced on June 18, 2018, but effective on October 1, 2018, Warner Music Group launched Elektra Music Group as a stand\-alone staffed music company with the labels [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records "Elektra Records"), [Fueled By Ramen](/wiki/Fueled_By_Ramen "Fueled By Ramen"), [Low Country Sound](/wiki/Low_Country_Sound "Low Country Sound"), Black Cement, and [Roadrunner Records](/wiki/Roadrunner_Records "Roadrunner Records"). A handful of major artists would transfer from Atlantic. This returned the group back to the Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic (WEA) triad that had marked the original company organization for decades.{{cite news \|last\=Aswad \|first\=Jem \|title\=Warner to Launch Elektra Music Group as Stand\-Alone Company \|url\=https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\-to\-launch\-elektra\-music\-group\-as\-stand\-alone\-company\-1202849325/ \|access\-date\=June 18, 2018 \|work\=Variety \|date\=June 18, 2018 \|archive\-date\=June 18, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618155901/https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\-to\-launch\-elektra\-music\-group\-as\-stand\-alone\-company\-1202849325/ \|url\-status\=live }}
On August 2, 2018, Warner Music announced that it acquired [Uproxx Media Group](/wiki/Uproxx "Uproxx") and its properties (except for BroBible, which will continue to publish independently) for an undisclosed sum, although Uproxx has raised around $43m (£33m) from previous investment, which provides some sense of the firm's valuation.{{cite news \|last\=Maytom \|first\=Tim \|title\=Uproxx Media Group Acquired by Warner Music Group \|url\=https://www.mobilemarketingmagazine.com/uproxx\-media\-group\-acquires\-by\-warner\-music\-group \|access\-date\=August 4, 2018 \|work\=Mobile Marketing Magazine \|date\=August 3, 2018 \|archive\-date\=August 4, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804140556/https://www.mobilemarketingmagazine.com/uproxx\-media\-group\-acquires\-by\-warner\-music\-group \|url\-status\=live }} In September 2018, WMG acquired German merchandise retailer [EMP Merchandising](/wiki/EMP_Merchandising "EMP Merchandising") from [Sycamore Partners](/wiki/Sycamore_Partners "Sycamore Partners") for $180 million.{{cite web \|url\=https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\-music\-to\-acquire\-emp\-merchandising\-for\-180\-million\-1202944001 \|title\=Warner Music to Acquire EMP Merchandising for $180 Million \|work\=Variety.com \|date\=September 17, 2018 \|access\-date\=September 17, 2018 \|archive\-date\=September 17, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170108/https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\-music\-to\-acquire\-emp\-merchandising\-for\-180\-million\-1202944001/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In October 2018, Warner Music Group announced the launch of the WMG Boost seed venture fund.{{cite news \|last\=Bowenbank \|first\=Starr \|title\=Warner Music Announces WMG Boost, An Investment Fund for Start\-Ups \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8478476/warner\-music\-wmg\-boost\-investment\-fund\-start\-ups \|access\-date\=October 8, 2018 \|magazine\=Billboard \|date\=October 5, 2018 \|archive\-date\=October 6, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006014046/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8478476/warner\-music\-wmg\-boost\-investment\-fund\-start\-ups \|url\-status\=live }} Several labels of Warner Music moved into the [Los Angeles Arts District](/wiki/Arts_District%2C_Los_Angeles "Arts District, Los Angeles") in 2019 where the company had purchased a former [Ford Motor Company](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") assembly plant.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/business/la\-fi\-arts\-district\-ford\-factory\-warner\-music\-20190407\-story.html\|title\=Warner Music turns former Ford assembly plant into Arts District music factory\|last\=Vincent\|first\=Roger\|date\=April 7, 2019\|newspaper\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|access\-date\=April 8, 2019\|archive\-date\=April 8, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408002418/https://www.latimes.com/business/la\-fi\-arts\-district\-ford\-factory\-warner\-music\-20190407\-story.html\|url\-status\=live}}
### 2020s
On March 9, 2020, WMG expanded to India, creating the Warner Music India unit based in [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai") and handling business in other countries for the [South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation](/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation "South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation"). Jay Mehta (former executive of [Sony Music India](/wiki/Sony_Music_India "Sony Music India")) would take change of the unit as the managing director in April.{{cite news\|date\=March 9, 2020\|title\=Warner Music Launches in India, With Former Sony Exec Jay Mehta at the Helm\|language\=en\|work\=Variety\|url\=https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/warner\-music\-india\-launch\-jay\-mehta\-1203527524/\|access\-date\=May 1, 2020\|archive\-date\=April 7, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407012012/https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/warner\-music\-india\-launch\-jay\-mehta\-1203527524/\|url\-status\=live}} Before the division's foundation, Warner's releases were distributed in the country by [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI")/[Virgin Records (India) Pvt.](/wiki/Virgin_Records "Virgin Records"), and by Sony Music India since EMI's breakup.
In August 2020, Warner Music acquired Tel Aviv\- and New York\-based IMGN Media in a deal worth approximately $100 million.{{Cite web\|title\=Warner Music acquires IMGN, a social media publishing platform, for under $100M\|url\=https://techcrunch.com/2020/08/14/warner\-music\-acquires\-imgn\-a\-social\-media\-publishing\-platform\-for\-under\-100m/\|access\-date\=September 17, 2020\|website\=TechCrunch\|date\=August 14, 2020 \|language\=en\-US}} In September 2020, WMG acquired the online hip\-hop magazine [HipHopDX](/wiki/HipHopDX "HipHopDX").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-acquires\-hip\-hop\-media\-platform\-hiphopdx/\|title\=Warner Music Group acquires hip\-hop media platform HipHopDX\|date\=September 15, 2020\|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=November 15, 2020\|archive\-date\=November 17, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117010801/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-acquires\-hip\-hop\-media\-platform\-hiphopdx/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2021, WMG invested an eight figure sum into global multiplayer gaming platform [Roblox](/wiki/Roblox "Roblox"). This followed WMG artist Ava Max's live performance on the platform the previous year.{{Cite magazine\|title\=Roblox Raises $520M From Warner Music Group and Others\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/tech/9507991/roblox\-warner\-music\-group\-gaming\-investment/\|access\-date\=January 16, 2021\|magazine\=Billboard\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=January 13, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113202756/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/tech/9507991/roblox\-warner\-music\-group\-gaming\-investment/\|url\-status\=live}}
Warner Music Group had planned an [IPO](/wiki/IPO "IPO") of current investors' stock in March 2020, but withdrew its IPO just before the March 2 kick off due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").{{cite news\|last1\=Franklin\|first1\=Joshua\|date\=March 2, 2020\|title\=Warner Music, Cole Haan delay IPOs amid coronavirus jitters \-sources\|language\=en\|work\=CNBC\|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/02/reuters\-america\-warner\-music\-cole\-haan\-delay\-ipos\-amid\-coronavirus\-jitters\-sources.html\|access\-date\=May 1, 2020\|archive\-date\=April 4, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404055051/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/02/reuters\-america\-warner\-music\-cole\-haan\-delay\-ipos\-amid\-coronavirus\-jitters\-sources.html\|url\-status\=live}} On June 3, 2020, it completed its IPO on [Nasdaq](/wiki/Nasdaq "Nasdaq"), raising almost $2 billion with a valuation of $12\.75 billion, making WMG once again a publicly traded company after previously going private in 2011\. On June 12, 2020, [Tencent](/wiki/Tencent "Tencent") announced that it had purchased 10\.4% of Warner Music's Class A shares, or 1\.6% of the company.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/tencent\-music\-buys\-100m\-stake\-in\-warner\-music\-group/\|title\=Tencent buys $200m\+ stake in Warner Music Group (update)\|date\=June 12, 2020\|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|access\-date\=November 15, 2020\|archive\-date\=November 27, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127081423/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/tencent\-music\-buys\-100m\-stake\-in\-warner\-music\-group\|url\-status\=live}} Tencent already owns 10% of shares of WMG's largest competitor, [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group"), which it acquired from [Vivendi](/wiki/Vivendi "Vivendi") in March. Also, this makes [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music") the only major music company not directly owned in any percentage by a Chinese company (it is wholly owned by the Japanese conglomerate [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony")).{{Cite magazine\|last\=Ingham\|first\=Tim\|date\=July 13, 2020\|title\=What's Sony Planning in Music – and Will It Involve Tencent?\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/pro/features/sony\-music\-future\-tencent\-1027314/\|access\-date\=March 8, 2021\|magazine\=Rolling Stone\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=March 8, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308051941/https://www.rollingstone.com/pro/features/sony\-music\-future\-tencent\-1027314/\|url\-status\=live}}
In December 2020, WMG signed a partnership deal with [TikTok](/wiki/TikTok "TikTok") to provide music to their platform for users to use for their content. The deal is expected to help their revenue grow.{{cite web \|title\=Warner Music Group: Modernized And Ready To Play In The New Streaming World \|url\=https://seekingalpha.com/article/4419318\-warner\-music\-tuned\-up\-for\-new\-streaming\-world \|website\=seekingalpha.com \|date\=April 15, 2021 \|access\-date\=April 15, 2021 \|archive\-date\=April 15, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415224425/https://seekingalpha.com/article/4419318\-warner\-music\-tuned\-up\-for\-new\-streaming\-world \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|title\=Warner Music signs with TikTok as more record companies jump on social media bandwagon \|url\=https://themusicnetwork.com/warner\-music\-tiktok\-deal/ \|website\=themusicnetwork.com \|date\=January 7, 2021 \|access\-date\=January 7, 2021 \|archive\-date\=April 29, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429070202/https://themusicnetwork.com/warner\-music\-tiktok\-deal/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In January 2023, Stephen Cooper was succeeded by [Robert Kyncl](/wiki/Robert_Kyncl "Robert Kyncl") as CEO of WMG.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Marshall \|first\=Elizabeth Dilts \|date\=November 22, 2022 \|title\=Warner Music's Outgoing CEO Steve Cooper Sees 'New Golden Age of Music' Ahead \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/pro/wmg\-earnings\-call\-ceo\-steve\-cooper\-takeaways/ \|access\-date\=January 11, 2023 \|magazine\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}}
In July 2023, Warner Music Group formed a partnership with [Canva](/wiki/Canva "Canva"), the graphic design platform, to add commercial music to [Canva](/wiki/Canva "Canva")'s asset library and enable its customers to insert music clips to their designs.{{Cite web \|title\=Canva inks deals with Warner and Merlin to let creators use songs in their content \|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/canva\-inks\-deals\-with\-warner\-and\-merlin\-to\-let\-creators\-use\-songs\-in\-their\-content/ \|access\-date\=12 September 2023 \|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|date\=June 29, 2023 }}{{Cite web \|title\=Canva Inks Deals With Warner Music Group, Merlin to Let Users Incorporate Song Clips in Their Visual Designs \|url\=https://variety.com/2023/digital/news/canva\-song\-clips\-warner\-music\-group\-merlin\-1235657782/ \|access\-date\=12 September 2023 \|website\=Variety\|date\=June 29, 2023 }} Also in July 2023, WMG made a music\-licensing deal with [TikTok](/wiki/TikTok "TikTok") which included licensing the Warner Recorded Music and Warner Chappell Music to [TikTok](/wiki/TikTok "TikTok"), TikTok Music and TikTok's Commercial Music Library.{{Cite web \|title\=TikTok, Warner Music Group to partner in music licensing deal \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/technology/tiktok\-warner\-music\-group\-partner\-music\-licensing\-deal\-2023\-07\-18/ \|access\-date\=12 September 2023 \|website\=Reuters}}{{Cite web \|title\=TikTok and Warner Music Group sign 'first of its kind' multi\-year licensing deal – including scope for 'additional and alternative economic models' \|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/tiktok\-warner\-music\-group\-sign\-first\-of\-its\-kind\-multi\-year\-licensing\-deal\-including\-scope\-for\-additional\-and\-alternative\-economic\-models/ \|access\-date\=12 September 2023 \|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|date\=July 18, 2023 }}
In September 2023, WMG opened a new creative hub in Berlin.{{Cite web \|title\=Warner Music Group launches new creative hub in Berlin \|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-group\-launches\-new\-creative\-hub\-in\-berlin/ \|access\-date\=13 November 2023 \|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|date\=September 18, 2023 }} Later in October 2023, Warner Music Group launched a new creative hub in Amsterdam to house Benelux units and Spinnin' Records.{{Cite web \|title\=Warner Music opens new creative hub in Amsterdam to house Benelux units and Spinnin' Records \|url\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\-music\-opens\-new\-creative\-hub\-in\-amsterdam\-to\-house\-benelux\-units\-and\-spinnin\-records/ \|access\-date\=13 November 2023 \|website\=Music Business Worldwide\|date\=October 23, 2023 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1950s and 1960s",
"The film studio [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\") had no record label division at the time one of its contracted actors, [Tab Hunter](/wiki/Tab_Hunter \"Tab Hunter\"), scored a [No. 1 hit song](/wiki/Young_Love_%281956_song%29 \"Young Love (1956 song)\") in 1957 for [Dot Records](/wiki/Dot_Records \"Dot Records\"), a division of rival [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures \"Paramount Pictures\"). In order to prevent any repetition of its actors recording for rival companies, and to also capitalize on the music business, [Warner Bros. Records](/wiki/Warner_Bros._Records \"Warner Bros. Records\") was created in 1958; its original office was located above the film studio's machine shop on 3701 Warner Boulevard in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California \"Burbank, California\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \\|title\\=FAQ \\|publisher\\=Warner Bros. Records \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716141442/http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\\-hunter\\-dead\\-damn\\-yankees\\-star\\-was\\-86\\-1057871\\|title\\=Tab Hunter, Star of 'Damn Yankees,' Dies at 86\\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=August 2, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802051944/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\\-hunter\\-dead\\-damn\\-yankees\\-star\\-was\\-86\\-1057871\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\\_for\\_posterity\\_revolutions\\_in\\_so/\\|title\\=Recorded for Posterity: 'Revolutions in Sound: Warner Brothers Records, The First 50 Years'\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213112/https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\\_for\\_posterity\\_revolutions\\_in\\_so/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 1963, Warner purchased [Reprise Records](/wiki/Reprise_Records \"Reprise Records\"), which had been founded by [Frank Sinatra](/wiki/Frank_Sinatra \"Frank Sinatra\") three years earlier so that he could have more creative control over his recordings.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\\-buys\\-reprise\\-records\\-but\\-sinatra\\-retains\\-onethird.html\\|title\\=Warner Buys Reprise Records, But Sinatra Retains One\\-third\\|last\\=Schumach\\|first\\=Murray\\|date\\=August 8, 1963\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003645/https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\\-buys\\-reprise\\-records\\-but\\-sinatra\\-retains\\-onethird.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} With the Reprise acquisition, Warner gained the services of [Mo Ostin](/wiki/Mo_Ostin \"Mo Ostin\"), who was mainly responsible for the success of Warner/Reprise.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\\-bros\\-ceo\\-mo\\-ostin\\-prince\\|title\\=Former Warner Bros. CEO Mo Ostin Recalls His Long Relationship With Prince: 'He Was a Fearless Artist'\\|last\\=Aswad\\|first\\=Jem\\|date\\=April 26, 2016\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731221805/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\\-bros\\-ceo\\-mo\\-ostin\\-prince\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"After Warner Bros. was sold to [Seven Arts Productions](/wiki/Seven_Arts_Productions \"Seven Arts Productions\") in 1967 (forming [Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts](/wiki/Warner_Bros.-Seven_Arts \"Warner Bros.-Seven Arts\")), it purchased [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records \"Atlantic Records\"), founded in 1947 and WMG's oldest label (until WMG completed its acquisition of Parlophone in 2013\\), as well as its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\"). This acquisition brought [Neil Young](/wiki/Neil_Young \"Neil Young\") into the company fold, initially as a member of [Buffalo Springfield](/wiki/Buffalo_Springfield \"Buffalo Springfield\"). Young became one of Warner's longest\\-established artists, recording both as a solo artist and with groups under the Warner\\-owned Atlantic, Atco, and Reprise labels. Young also recorded five albums for [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records \"Geffen Records\") during that label's period of Warner distribution. The Geffen catalogue, now owned by [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"), represents Young's only major recordings not under WMG ownership.",
"Atlantic, its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\"), and its affiliate [Stax Records](/wiki/Stax_Records \"Stax Records\") paved the way for Warner's rise to industry prominence. The purchase brought in Atlantic's lucrative back catalogue, which included classic recordings by [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles \"Ray Charles\"), [the Drifters](/wiki/The_Drifters \"The Drifters\"), [the Coasters](/wiki/The_Coasters \"The Coasters\"), and many more. In the mid\\-1960s, Atlantic/Stax released a string of landmark [soul music](/wiki/Soul_music \"Soul music\") recordings by artists including [Booker T \\& the MGs](/wiki/Booker_T_%26_the_MGs \"Booker T & the MGs\"), [Sam \\& Dave](/wiki/Sam_%26_Dave \"Sam & Dave\"), [Wilson Pickett](/wiki/Wilson_Pickett \"Wilson Pickett\"), [Otis Redding](/wiki/Otis_Redding \"Otis Redding\"), [Ben E. King](/wiki/Ben_E._King \"Ben E. King\"), and [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\"). Ultimately, the sale led to Stax leaving Atlantic because Seven Arts Productions insisted on keeping the rights to Stax recordings. Atlantic moved decisively into rock and pop in the late 1960s and 1970s, signing major British and American acts including [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\"), [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\"), [Crosby Stills \\& Nash](/wiki/Crosby_Stills_%26_Nash \"Crosby Stills & Nash\"), [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 \"Yes (band)\"), [Emerson, Lake \\& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer \"Emerson, Lake & Palmer\"), [Genesis](/wiki/Genesis_%28band%29 \"Genesis (band)\"), [Average White Band](/wiki/Average_White_Band \"Average White Band\"), [Dr. John](/wiki/Dr._John \"Dr. John\"), [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\"), [Bette Midler](/wiki/Bette_Midler \"Bette Midler\"), [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music \"Roxy Music\"), and [Foreigner](/wiki/Foreigner_%28band%29 \"Foreigner (band)\").",
"In 1969, two years after being purchased by Seven Arts, the Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts company was sold to the [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company \"Kinney National Company\"). In mid\\-1972, Kinney Music of Canada, Ltd. was renamed [WEA Music of Canada, Ltd.](/wiki/Warner_Music_Canada \"Warner Music Canada\") (French: *WEA Musique du Canada, Ltée*) as the Canadian branch of the WEA (Warner, Elektra, Atlantic) company – a division of Warner Communications Inc. Founder and president Ken Middleton ran the Canadian company until his retirement in 1982\\. The name remained until 1989, when in 1990, it became Warner Music Canada Ltd – a subsidiary of the US\\-based Warner Music International. Warner Communications CEO [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 \"Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)\") led the group through its most successful period until his death in 1992\\.",
"An earlier attempt by Warner Bros. Records to create an in\\-house distribution arm in 1958 did not materialize. So in 1969, [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records \"Elektra Records\") boss [Jac Holzman](/wiki/Jac_Holzman \"Jac Holzman\") approached Atlantic's [Jerry Wexler](/wiki/Jerry_Wexler \"Jerry Wexler\") with the idea of setting up a joint distribution network for Warner, Elektra, and Atlantic. An experimental branch was established in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") as a possible prototype for an expanded operation.{{cite news\\|title\\=WEA at 25\\|last\\=Seay\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=August 31, 1996\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|page\\=36}}",
"#### Atlantic exerts autonomy",
"It was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president [Ahmet Ertegun](/wiki/Ahmet_Ertegun \"Ahmet Ertegun\") viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as a rival. Maitland believed that, as vice\\-president in charge of the Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts music division, he should have final say over all recording operations, and he further angered Ertegun by proposing that most of Atlantic's back\\-office functions (such as marketing and distribution) be combined with the existing departments at Warner/Reprise. In retrospect Ertegun clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him, and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland.",
"Maitland had put off renegotiating the contracts of Joe Smith and Mo Ostin, the presidents of the Warner Bros. and Reprise labels, and this provided Ertegun with an effective means of undermining Maitland. When Wexler—now a major shareholder—found out about the contract issue he and Ertegun began pressuring [Eliot Hyman](/wiki/Eliot_Hyman \"Eliot Hyman\") to get Smith and Ostin under contract, ostensibly because they were worried that the two executives might move to rival labels—and in fact Ostin had received overtures from both the MGM and ABC labels.",
"In 1969, the wisdom of Hyman's investments was proved when [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company \"Kinney National Company\") purchased Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts for $400 million, more than eight times what Hyman had paid for Warner/Reprise and Atlantic combined. From the base of his family's funeral parlour business, Kinney president [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 \"Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)\") had rapidly built the Kinney company into a profitable conglomerate with interests that included [comic publishing](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\"), the [Ashley\\-Famous](/wiki/Ashley-Famous \"Ashley-Famous\") talent agency, parking lots and cleaning services. Following the takeover, Warners' music group briefly adopted the 'umbrella' name Kinney Music, because U.S. anti\\-trust laws at the time prevented the three labels from trading as one.",
"Ross was primarily focused on rebuilding the company's ailing movie division and was happy to defer to the advice of the managers of the company's record labels, since he knew that they were generating most of the group's profits. Ertegun's campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, beginning with its soon\\-to\\-be\\-established Warner Bros. subsidiary in Australia, but when Warner executive Phil Rose arrived in Australia, he discovered that just one week earlier Atlantic had signed a new four\\-year distribution deal with a rival local label, [Festival Records](/wiki/Festival_Records_%28Australia%29 \"Festival Records (Australia)\") (owned by [Rupert Murdoch](/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch \"Rupert Murdoch\")'s [News Limited](/wiki/News_Limited \"News Limited\")). Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive [Ted Ashley](/wiki/Ted_Ashley \"Ted Ashley\"), but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland.Goodman, 1997, p. 146",
"As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smith's contracts, a recommendation Ross was happy to accept. Ostin however had received overtures from other companies including [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records \"MGM Records\") and [ABC Records](/wiki/ABC_Records \"ABC Records\") and when he met with Ertegun in January 1970 and was offered Maitland's job, he was unwilling to re\\-sign immediately. In response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitland's days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division.",
"Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantic's execs the Ertegun brothers (Ahmet and Neshui) and Wexler owned stock in Kinney.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\\-tuned\\-by\\-stan\\-cornyn\\-maitland\\-moves\\-on\\|title\\=Stay Tuned By Stan Cornyn: Maitland Moves On\\|work\\=rhino.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 2, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=February 2, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202200329/http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\\-tuned\\-by\\-stan\\-cornyn\\-maitland\\-moves\\-on\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Ostin was understandably concerned that, if he accepted the position, the Warner Bros. staff would feel that he had stabbed Maitland in the back, but his attorney convinced him that Maitland's departure was inevitable, regardless of whether or not he accepted the post (succinctly advising him, \"Don't be a schmuck\"). On Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitland's house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros. Records, with Joe Smith as his executive vice\\-president.Goodman, 1997, pp. 146–147 Ertegun nominally remained the head of Atlantic, but since both Ostin and Smith owed their new positions to him, Ertegun was now the *de facto* head of the Warner music division. Ertegun was given the formal title of executive vice\\-president\\-Music Group. Maitland moved to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records \"MCA Records\") later that year and successfully consolidated MCA's labels, which he couldn't do at Warner.",
"### 1970s",
"During the 1970s, the Kinney group built up a commanding position in the music industry. In 1970, Kinney bought [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records \"Elektra Records\") and its sister label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records \"Nonesuch Records\") (founded by Jac Holzman in 1950\\) for $10 million, bringing in leading rock acts, including [the Doors](/wiki/The_Doors \"The Doors\"), [Tim Buckley](/wiki/Tim_Buckley \"Tim Buckley\"), and [Love](/wiki/Love_%28band%29 \"Love (band)\"), and its historically significant folk archive, along with the successful budget Western classical\\-music label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records \"Nonesuch Records\").",
"The purchase of Elektra\\-Nonesuch brought a rich back catalogue of folk music as well as the renowned Nonesuch catalogue of classical and world music. Elektra founder Jac Holzman ran the label under Warners for two years, but by that time, he was by his own admission \"burnt out\" after twenty years in the business. Kinney president Steve Ross subsequently appointed Holzman as part of a seven\\-person \"[brain trust](/wiki/Brain_trust \"Brain trust\")\" tasked with investigating opportunities presented by new technologies, a role Holzman was eager to accept.Goodman, 1997, p. 248 The same year, the group established its first overseas offices in Canada and Australia. By that time the \"Seven Arts\" moniker was dropped from the Warner Bros. name. Warner Bros. also founded the [Casablanca Records](/wiki/Casablanca_Records \"Casablanca Records\") subsidiary, headed by [Neil Bogart](/wiki/Neil_Bogart \"Neil Bogart\"); but several years later Casablanca became independent from Warner Bros.",
"#### Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic and worldwide distribution",
"{{Anchor\\|Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic\\|WEA}}\nWith the Elektra acquisition, the next step was forming an in\\-house distribution arm for the co\\-owned labels. By this time, Warner\\-Reprise's frustrations with its current distributors had reached breaking point; Joe Smith (then executive vice\\-president of Warner Bros.) recalled that the [Grateful Dead](/wiki/Grateful_Dead \"Grateful Dead\") were becoming a major act but the distributor was constantly out of stock of their albums. These circumstances facilitated the full establishment of the group's in\\-house distribution arm, initially called .{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.discogs.com/label/640338\\-Kinney\\-Record\\-Group\\-International\\|title\\=Kinney Record Group International\\|website\\=Discogs.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071820/https://www.discogs.com/label/640338\\-Kinney\\-Record\\-Group\\-International\\|url\\-status\\=live}}Seay, 1996, p. 40 By late 1972, US anti\\-trust laws had changed and the company was renamed **Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic**, WEA for short, which was renamed Warner Music in 1991 (the word \"group\" was added after the formation of [AOL Time Warner](/wiki/AOL_Time_Warner \"AOL Time Warner\") in 2001\\).",
"WEA was an early champion of [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music \"Heavy metal music\") rock music. Several such bands, including three major British pioneers [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\"), [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath \"Black Sabbath\"), and [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple \"Deep Purple\"), were all signed to WEA's labels, at least in the United States. Among the earliest American metal acts to be signed to WEA were [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\"), [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose_%28band%29 \"Montrose (band)\"), and [Van Halen](/wiki/Van_Halen \"Van Halen\").",
"Up to this point the Kinney\\-owned record companies had relied on licensing deals with overseas record labels to manufacture, distribute and promote its products in other countries; concurrent with the establishment of its new distribution arm, the company now began establishing subsidiaries in the other major markets, beginning with the creation of Warner Bros. Records Australia in 1970, soon followed by branch offices in the UK, Europe and Japan.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ketupa.net/time3\\.htm\\|title\\=Time Warner: Landmarks\\|work\\=ketupa.net\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217133642/http://ketupa.net/time3\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=February 17, 2011}} In July 1971, the new in\\-house distribution company was incorporated as Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic Distributing Corp. (WEA) and branch offices were established in eight major US cities; Joel Friedman a one\\-time *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* writer who had been the head of Warner's advertising/merchandising division in its early years, was appointed to head WEA's US domestic division, and Ahmet Ertegun's brother [Nesuhi](/wiki/Nesuhi_Ertegun \"Nesuhi Ertegun\") was appointed to oversee its international operations. Neshui Ertegun, originally a Turkish native like his brother, displayed a global perspective and independence from its U.S. counterpart by successfully promoting international acts in their target markets worldwide. Ertegun headed WEA International until his retirement in 1987\\. A *de facto* committee of three senior marketing executives—Dave Glew from Atlantic, Ed Rosenblatt from Warner Bros. and Mel Posner from Elektra—oversaw the integration of each label's marketing and distribution through the new division, but each label continued to operate totally independently in [A\\&R](/wiki/A%26R \"A&R\") matters and also applied their own expertise in marketing and advertising.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kinney Set Up Distrib Corp To Handle Labels in 8 Key Cities\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|date\\=July 3, 1971\\|page\\=3}}",
"On July 1, 1971, following the pattern set by similar joint ventures in Canada and Australia, the Warner labels entered into a partnership with the British arm of [CBS Records](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment \"Sony Music Entertainment\") to press and distribute Warner\\-Reprise product in the United Kingdom, although this was undertaken as a cooperative venture rather than a formally incorporated business partnership. The *Billboard* article that reported the new arrangement also noted that, despite their intense competition in the US market, CBS continued to press Warner\\-Reprise recordings in the US. However the new UK arrangement was a major blow to Warner's previous British manufacturer [Pye Records](/wiki/Pye_Records \"Pye Records\"), for whom Warner\\-Reprise had been their largest account. With the scheduled addition of the UK rights to the Atlantic catalogue, which would revert to Kinney in early 1972, *Billboard* predicted that the Warner\\-CBS partnership would have a 25–30% share of the UK music market.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kinney\\-CBS Enters Joint Distrib and Pressing Deal in England\\|last\\=Blevins\\|first\\=Brian\\|date\\=March 27, 1971\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|page\\=54}}",
"In April 1971, thanks mainly to the influence of Ahmet Ertegun, the Kinney group announced a major coup with its acquisition of the worldwide rights to [the Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones \"The Rolling Stones\")' new label [Rolling Stones Records](/wiki/Rolling_Stones_Records \"Rolling Stones Records\"), following the expiration of the band's contract with [British Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") (then separate from the American label) and the acrimonious end to their business relationship with their former manager [Allen Klein](/wiki/Allen_Klein \"Allen Klein\"). Under the terms of the deal, Atlantic subsidiary [Atco](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\") would distribute the Stones' recordings in the US, with other territories mainly handled by Warner Bros. international divisions.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kinney Group Gets Rolling Stones Disks\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|date\\=April 17, 1971\\|page\\=3}}",
"One of Kinney's wisest investments was [Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac \"Fleetwood Mac\"). The band signed with Reprise in the early 1970s after relocating to the US, and the label supported the group through numerous lineup changes and several lean years during which the band's records sold relatively poorly, although they remained a popular concert attraction. Ironically, after the group's transfer to Warner Bros. in 1975 and the recruitment of new members [Lindsey Buckingham](/wiki/Lindsey_Buckingham \"Lindsey Buckingham\") and [Stevie Nicks](/wiki/Stevie_Nicks \"Stevie Nicks\"), the group scored a major international hit with the single \"Rhiannon\" and consolidated with the best selling albums *[Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac_%281975_album%29 \"Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)\")*, *[Rumours](/wiki/Rumours_%28album%29 \"Rumours (album)\")* and *[Tusk](/wiki/Tusk_%28album%29 \"Tusk (album)\")*.",
"#### Warner Communications (1972–1990\\)",
"Due to a financial scandal involving price fixing in its parking operations, Kinney National spun off its non\\-entertainment assets in 1972 (as [National Kinney Corporation](/wiki/National_Kinney_Corporation \"National Kinney Corporation\")) and changed its name to [Warner Communications Inc.](/wiki/WarnerMedia%23Warner_Communications_%281972%E2%80%931990%29 \"WarnerMedia#Warner Communications (1972–1990)\"){{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\\&q\\=kinney\\&pg\\=PT290\\|title\\=Master of the Game: How Steve Ross Rode the Light Fantastic from Undertaker to Creator of the Largest Media Conglomerate in the World\\|last\\=Bruck\\|first\\=Connie.\\|publisher\\=Simon \\& Schuster\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=9781476737706\\|location\\=Riverside\\|oclc\\=1086102756\\|access\\-date\\=October 23, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309201531/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\\&q\\=kinney\\&pg\\=PT290\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 1972, the Warner group acquired another rich prize, [David Geffen](/wiki/David_Geffen \"David Geffen\")'s [Asylum Records](/wiki/Asylum_Records \"Asylum Records\"). The $7 million purchase brought in several acts that proved crucial to WEA's subsequent success, including [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt \"Linda Ronstadt\"), [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles \"The Eagles\"), [Jackson Browne](/wiki/Jackson_Browne \"Jackson Browne\"), [Joni Mitchell](/wiki/Joni_Mitchell \"Joni Mitchell\"), and later [Warren Zevon](/wiki/Warren_Zevon \"Warren Zevon\"). On the downside, however, it was rumored that Warner was soon concerned about its possible liability under the California State Labor Code because of Geffen's questionable status as both the manager of most of the Asylum acts and the head of the record label to which they were signed. The sale included the Asylum Records label and its recordings, as well as Geffen's lucrative music publishing assets and the interests in the royalties of some of the artists managed by Geffen and partner [Elliot Roberts](/wiki/Elliot_Roberts \"Elliot Roberts\"). Geffen accepted a five\\-year contract with WCI and turned over his 75% share in the Geffen\\-Roberts management company to Roberts and Warner paid Geffen and Roberts 121,952 common shares worth $4,750,000 at the time of the sale, plus $400,000 in cash and a further $1\\.6 million in promissory notes convertible to common stock.Goodman, 1997, pp. 240–241",
"Although it seemed a lucrative deal at the time, Geffen soon had reason to regret it. Uncharacteristically, he had greatly underestimated the value of his assets—within Asylum's first year as a Warner subsidiary, albums by [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt \"Linda Ronstadt\") and [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles \"The Eagles\") alone had earned more than the entire value of the Asylum sale. Geffen's discomfort was compounded by the fact that, within six months of the sale, the value of his volatile Warner shares had plummeted from $4\\.5 million to just $800,000\\. He appealed to Steve Ross to intervene, and as part of a make\\-good deal, Ross agreed to pay him the difference in the share value over five years. Acting on Jac Holzman's suggestion that Kinney should take Asylum from Atlantic and merge it with Elektra, Ross then appointed Geffen to run the new combined label.Goodman, 1997, pp. 249–250",
"In 1976, Warner gained a brief early lead in digital media when it purchased the [Atari](/wiki/Atari \"Atari\") computer company, and in 1981 it bought [The Franklin Mint](/wiki/The_Franklin_Mint \"The Franklin Mint\") company. WCI also blazed the trail in visual music with MTV, which it created and co\\-owned in partnership with [American Express](/wiki/American_Express \"American Express\"). In 1984–85, Warner rapidly divested many of these recent acquisitions, including Atari, Franklin Mint, [Panavision](/wiki/Panavision \"Panavision\"), [MTV Networks](/wiki/MTV_Networks \"MTV Networks\") and a cosmetics business.",
"In 1977, Warner Bros. Music, led by president Ed Silvers, formed Pacific Records for their composers and distributed (appropriately) by [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records \"Atlantic Records\"). [Alan O'Day](/wiki/Alan_O%27Day \"Alan O'Day\") was the first artist signed to the label, and the first release was \"[Undercover Angel](/wiki/Undercover_Angel_%28song%29 \"Undercover Angel (song)\")\". The song, which he described as a \"nocturnal novelette\", was released in February 1977\\. Within a few months it had become No. 1 in the country, and has sold approximately two million copies. It was also a hit in Australia, reaching No. 9 on the Australian Singles Chart. \"Undercover Angel\" also landed O'Day in an exclusive club as one of only a handful of writers/performers to pen a No. 1 hit for themselves and a No. 1 for another artist.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\\_files/19770702\\.html\\|title\\=Cash Box Top 100 7/02/77\\|website\\=Tropicalglen.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020124149/http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\\_files/19770702\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=October 20, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.superseventies.com/1977\\_4singles.html\\|title\\=\"Undercover Angel\" – Alan O'Day\\|website\\=Superseventies.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071916/https://www.superseventies.com/1977\\_4singles.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"New signings in the late 1970s placed WEA in a strong position for the 1980s. A deal with [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein \"Seymour Stein\")'s [Sire Records](/wiki/Sire_Records \"Sire Records\") label (which Warner Bros. Records later took over) brought in several major [punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock \"Punk rock\") and [new wave](/wiki/New_wave_music \"New wave music\") acts including [the Pretenders](/wiki/The_Pretenders \"The Pretenders\"), [the Ramones](/wiki/The_Ramones \"The Ramones\") and [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads \"Talking Heads\") and, most importantly, rising star [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna \"Madonna\"); Elektra signed [the Cars](/wiki/The_Cars \"The Cars\") and Warner Bros. signed [Prince](/wiki/Prince_%28musician%29 \"Prince (musician)\"), giving WEA several of the biggest\\-selling acts of the decade.",
"WEA's labels also distributed a number of otherwise independent labels. For example, Warner Bros. distributed [Straight Records](/wiki/Straight_Records \"Straight Records\"), [DiscReet Records](/wiki/DiscReet_Records \"DiscReet Records\"), [Bizarre Records](/wiki/Bizarre_Records \"Bizarre Records\"), [Bearsville Records](/wiki/Bearsville_Records \"Bearsville Records\"), and [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records \"Geffen Records\") (the latter was sold to [MCA](/wiki/MCA_Inc. \"MCA Inc.\") in 1990\\). Atlantic Records distributed [Swan Song Records](/wiki/Swan_Song_Records \"Swan Song Records\"). In 1975, WEA scored a major coup by signing a distribution agreement with [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records \"Island Records\"), which only covered the United States and select other countries. For the next 14 years (initially with Warner Bros. until 1982, then with Atlantic afterward), WEA would distribute such artists as [Bob Marley](/wiki/Bob_Marley \"Bob Marley\"), [U2](/wiki/U2 \"U2\"), [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 \"Robert Palmer (singer)\"), [Anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax_%28American_band%29 \"Anthrax (American band)\"), and [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits \"Tom Waits\"). This relationship ended when Island was sold to [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram \"PolyGram\") in 1989\\.",
"### 1980s",
"[upright\\=1\\.3\\|thumb\\|Logo of WEA International](/wiki/File:WEA_International_logo.svg \"WEA International logo.svg\")\nA name\\-only unit appearing exclusively in the copyright, WEA International Inc., was created in early 1982, to handle distribution of all Warner Bros., Elektra, and Atlantic (all these namings accounting for the initials in the title \"*WEA*\") releases for international countries.",
"A proposed 1983 international merger between [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram \"PolyGram\") and WEA was forbidden by both the US [Federal Trade Commission](/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission \"Federal Trade Commission\") and [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\")'s cartel office, so PolyGram's half\\-owner [Philips](/wiki/Philips \"Philips\") then purchased a further 40% of the company from its partner [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens \"Siemens\"), and bought the remaining shares in 1987\\. The same year, PolyGram divested its film and publishing operations, closed [PolyGram Pictures](/wiki/PolyGram_Filmed_Entertainment \"PolyGram Filmed Entertainment\") and sold [Chappell Music](/wiki/Chappell_Music \"Chappell Music\") to Warner for US$275 million.",
"WEA formed [WEA Manufacturing](/wiki/WEA_Manufacturing \"WEA Manufacturing\") in 1986\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Timeline\\|publisher\\=Warner Music Group\\|url\\=http://mobile.wmg.com/wmglinks?page\\=aboutwmg\\&subpage\\=timeline\\&viewFullPage\\=true\\|year\\=2009\\|access\\-date\\=January 17, 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=October 9, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009095837/http://mobile.wmg.com/wmglinks?page\\=aboutwmg\\&subpage\\=timeline\\&viewFullPage\\=true\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 1988 WEA took over the German classical label [Teldec](/wiki/Teldec \"Teldec\") and the British [Magnet](/wiki/Magnet_Records \"Magnet Records\") label.",
"In 1989, it was announced that Warner Communications was to merge with [Time Inc.](/wiki/Time_Inc. \"Time Inc.\") to form [Time Warner](/wiki/Time_Warner \"Time Warner\"), a transaction that was completed in 1990\\. Following the merger, WEA continued acquiring independent labels, buying [CGD Records](/wiki/CGD_Records \"CGD Records\") (Italy) and [MMG Records](/wiki/East_West_Records \"East West Records\") (Japan) in 1989\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Norris \\|first\\=Floyd \\|date\\=March 5, 1989 \\|title\\=Time Inc. and Warner to Merge, Creating Largest Media Company \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/05/us/time\\-inc\\-and\\-warner\\-to\\-merge\\-creating\\-largest\\-media\\-company.html \\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2022 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 1, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901012649/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/05/us/time\\-inc\\-and\\-warner\\-to\\-merge\\-creating\\-largest\\-media\\-company.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### 1990s",
"Through the 1990s, Time Warner was the largest media company in the world, with assets in excess of US$20 billion and annual revenues in the billions of dollars; by 1991, Warner's music labels were generating sales valued at more than US$3 billion, with operating profits of $550 million, and by 1995, its music division dominated the US music industry with a 22% share of the domestic market.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\\-creator\\-of\\-time\\-warner\\-steven\\-j\\-ross\\-is\\-dead\\-at\\-65\\.html\\|title\\=The Creator of Time Warner, Steven J. Ross, Is Dead at 65\\|last\\=Cohen\\|first\\=Roger\\|date\\=December 21, 1992\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2010\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=May 9, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509131107/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\\-creator\\-of\\-time\\-warner\\-steven\\-j\\-ross\\-is\\-dead\\-at\\-65\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1995\\-05\\-03\\-fi\\-61908\\-story.html\\|title\\=Warner Music Chief Expected to Quit Today\\|last\\=Philips\\|first\\=Chuck\\|date\\=May 3, 1995\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=June 21, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618173658/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\\-05\\-03/business/fi\\-61908\\_1\\_warner\\-music\\-group\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Acquisitions and corporate changes within the Warner group of labels continued after the Time Warner merger—in 1990, WEA purchased French label [Carrere Records](/wiki/Carrere_Records \"Carrere Records\"), in 1992 it bought the leading French classical label [Erato](/wiki/Erato_Records \"Erato Records\"), and in 1993, it bought the Spanish [DRO Records](/wiki/DRO_Records \"DRO Records\"), Hungary's Magneoton label, the Swedish Telegram Records, Brazil's [Continental Records](/wiki/Continental_Records \"Continental Records\") and Finnish label Fazer Musiikki. WEA was renamed Warner Music in 1991\\.",
"Atlantic launched two new subsidiary labels in the early 1990s: [East West Records](/wiki/East_West_Records \"East West Records\") and [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records \"Interscope Records\"). In 1995, East West absorbed Atco Records and was eventually folded into Elektra Records. In 1996, after causing much controversy, Interscope was purchased by [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Inc. \"MCA Inc.\").",
"During 1992, Warner Music faced one of the most serious public\\-relations crises in its history when a major controversy erupted over the provocative Warner Bros. recording \"[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 \"Cop Killer (song)\")\" from the self\\-titled album by [Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28band%29 \"Body Count (band)\"), a [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music \"Heavy metal music\")/[rap](/wiki/Rap \"Rap\") fusion band led by [Ice\\-T](/wiki/Ice-T \"Ice-T\"). Unfortunately for Warner, the song (which mentioned the [Rodney King](/wiki/Rodney_King \"Rodney King\") case) was issued just before the controversial acquittal of the police charged with King's beating, which sparked the [1992 Los Angeles Riots](/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_Riots \"1992 Los Angeles Riots\") and the confluence of events put the song under the national spotlight. Complaints escalated over the summer—conservative police associations called for a boycott of Time Warner products, politicians including President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") denounced the label for releasing the song, Warner executives received death threats, Time Warner stockholders threatened to pull out of the company and the New Zealand police commissioner unsuccessfully tried to have the record banned there. Although Ice\\-T later voluntarily reissued *Body Count* without \"Cop Killer\", the furor seriously rattled Warner Music and in January 1993 the label made an undisclosed deal releasing Ice\\-T from his contract and returning the *[Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28album%29 \"Body Count (album)\")* master tapes to him.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\\-t\\-and\\-warner\\-are\\-parting\\-company.html\\|title\\=Ice\\-T and Warner Are Parting Company\\|last\\=Rule\\|first\\=Sheila\\|date\\=January 29, 1993\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233827/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\\-t\\-and\\-warner\\-are\\-parting\\-company.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Also in 1992, the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records \"Rhino Records\") label signed a distribution agreement with Atlantic Records and Time Warner Entertainment bought a 50% stake in the Rhino Records label. The distribution agreement allowed Rhino to begin reissuing recordings from Atlantic's back catalogue.",
"In 1994, Canadian beverage giant [Seagram](/wiki/Seagram \"Seagram\") bought a 14\\.5% stake in Time Warner, and the Warner publishing division — now called [Warner/Chappell Music](/wiki/Warner/Chappell_Music \"Warner/Chappell Music\") – acquired CPP/Belwin, becoming the world's largest owner of song copyrights and the world's largest publisher of printed music. In 1996, Time Warner Entertainment made another dramatic expansion of its media holdings, taking over the [Turner Broadcasting System](/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System \"Turner Broadcasting System\"), which by then included the Turner cable TV network, [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\") and the screen production houses [Castle Rock Entertainment](/wiki/Castle_Rock_Entertainment \"Castle Rock Entertainment\") and [New Line Cinema](/wiki/New_Line_Cinema \"New Line Cinema\"), acquisitions that brought huge profits into the Warner Group thanks to content assets like *[Seinfeld](/wiki/Seinfeld \"Seinfeld\")* and the highly successful *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_%28film_series%29 \"The Lord of the Rings (film series)\")* film trilogy.",
"By the early 1990s, senior Warner staff like Ostin and Waronker had remained in their positions for several decades—a highly unusual situation in the American music industry—but the death of Steve Ross destabilized the Time Warner hierarchy, and over the next few years the music group was increasingly disrupted by internal power struggles, leading to a string of major executive upheavals in 1994–95, which *The New York Times* described as \"a virtual civil war\".{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-rifts\\-shake\\-and\\-rattle\\-warner\\-music.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Rifts Shake and Rattle Warner Music\\|last\\=Hofmeister\\|first\\=Sallie\\|date\\=November 1, 1994\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 23, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823194048/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-rifts\\-shake\\-and\\-rattle\\-warner\\-music.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The central conflict was between Mo Ostin and Warner Music Group chairman Robert Morgado, who had joined the Warner group in the late 1980s. Because of his political background (he had been the chief\\-of\\-staff to former New York governor [Hugh L. Carey](/wiki/Hugh_L._Carey \"Hugh L. Carey\")) and his lack of music industry experience — especially compared to the widely revered Ostin—Morgado was viewed as an outsider at Warner. Nevertheless, he gained favour with Ross and Levin and was promoted in 1985 to oversee the Warner international music division after helping the company slash costs in its computer game sector.",
"Since his appointment as head of WBR, Ostin had always reported directly to Steve Ross and his successor [Gerald Levin](/wiki/Gerald_Levin \"Gerald Levin\"), but in late 1993, when Ostin's contract came up for renewal, Morgado asserted his authority, insisting that Ostin should now report directly to him. The tensions between them reached boiling point in July 1994 when Morgado appointed former Atlantic chief [Doug Morris](/wiki/Doug_Morris \"Doug Morris\") to head the Warner Music Group in the US, a decision that many saw as a deliberate move to hasten the departure of Ostin and Elektra head [Robert Krasnow](/wiki/Bob_Krasnow \"Bob Krasnow\"). Morgado's new structure was announced in August 1994 and Bob Krasnow resigned from Elektra the next day. Within days, after more than 30 years with the Warner music group and more than 20 years as president and chairman of Warner Bros. Records, Ostin announced he would not renew his current contract and would leave Warners when it expired on December 31, 1994\\. There was more negative publicity the following month, when leading Elektra act [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica \"Metallica\") launched a lawsuit against the label, seeking a release from their contract and ownership of their master tapes, and claiming that Morgado had refused to honor a deal they had worked out with Krasnow before he quit.",
"Ostin's departure marked a seismic shift in the corporate culture at WBR and the news was greeted with dismay by industry insiders and the many artists whose careers he had helped to nurture. Lenny Waronker had agreed to take over as WBR chairman and CEO but in October 1994 he announced that he would not be taking up the position; he initially said that he would remain as President of WBR, but by this time there was already widespread speculation that he would leave, and he did so soon afterwards.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1994\\-08\\-16\\-fi\\-27820\\-story.html\\|title\\=Company Town at Warner Bros. Records, Mo Ostin Loyal to the End\\|last\\=Phillips\\|first\\=Chuck\\|date\\=August 16, 1994\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618092055/http://articles.latimes.com/1994\\-08\\-16/business/fi\\-27820\\_1\\_warner\\-bros\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The following year he re\\-joined Ostin and son Michael as joint head of the newly launched [DreamWorks](/wiki/DreamWorks_Records \"DreamWorks Records\") label.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\\=34768724\\&privcapId\\=25409512\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140328111004/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\\=34768724\\&privcapId\\=25409512\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=March 28, 2014\\|title\\=Michael Ostin: Executive Profile \\& Biography – Businessweek\\|work\\=Businessweek.com}}",
"Beginning in August 1994, Morgado alienated Morris by his clumsy handling of Warner's relationship with [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records \"Interscope Records\"), the successful label founded by [Ted Field](/wiki/Ted_Field \"Ted Field\") and [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine \"Jimmy Iovine\") and part\\-owned by Warner. Morgado had resisted making a decision about increasing the Warner stake in Interscope, which encouraged other companies to make overtures to the label; in response, Morgado threatened to send cease\\-and\\-desist notices to executives at several record companies, demanding that they stop approaching Interscope with buyout offers, a move that reportedly infuriated Iovine.",
"By late 1994, Morris was gaining the upper hand over his rival and media reports claimed that Morris had moved to settle with Metallica, offering a deal that was reportedly even more generous than the one they had worked out with Krasnow. Morgado now faced a showdown with Morris, who felt he was not being allowed to run WMG as he saw fit. In October 1994, Morris and 11 other Warner executives \"staged an unprecedented insurrection that nearly paralyzed the world's largest record company\". This led to a climactic meeting between Morris and Gerald Levin in late October, at which Morris reportedly threatened to quit if he had to continue to report to Morgado.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-warner\\-music\\-officials\\-settle\\-a\\-power\\-struggle.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Warner Music Officials Settle a Power Struggle\\|last\\=Hofmeister\\|first\\=Sallie\\|date\\=October 28, 1994\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233826/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-warner\\-music\\-officials\\-settle\\-a\\-power\\-struggle.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Morgado gave in to the demand that Morris be granted autonomy to run the North American operations and he was forced to upgrade Morris's position from chief operating officer to Chief Executive of Warner Music Group (US); Morris promptly named [Danny Goldberg](/wiki/Danny_Goldberg \"Danny Goldberg\"), former president of Atlantic Records, to run WBR in defiance of Morgado, who had a different candidate in mind and Levin also reduced Morgado's power to oversee Warner's mail\\-order record club division and its international operations.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-time\\-warner\\-replaces\\-chairman\\-of\\-music\\-group\\-with\\-hbo\\-chief.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Time Warner Replaces Chairman Of Music Group With HBO Chief\\|last\\=Landler\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=May 4, 1995\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233824/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-time\\-warner\\-replaces\\-chairman\\-of\\-music\\-group\\-with\\-hbo\\-chief.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Morris then brought in [Sylvia Rhone](/wiki/Sylvia_Rhone \"Sylvia Rhone\") and [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein \"Seymour Stein\") to stabilize Elektra, settled the Metallica lawsuit and persuaded Levin to purchase an additional 25% of Interscope, although this initiative proved short\\-lived.",
"The power struggle between Morgado and Morris reached a dramatic climax in May 1995 when Morgado was asked to resign by Gerald Levin, following a welter of complaints from executives at the three major Warner Music labels, who said that Morgado was undermining Morris's authority and damaging Warner's reputation among performers. Morgado was immediately replaced by [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office \"Home Box Office\") chairman [Michael J. Fuchs](/wiki/Michael_J._Fuchs \"Michael J. Fuchs\") but the corporate upheavals did not end there; in late June 1995 Fuchs abruptly dismissed Doug Morris, saying that Morris had been \"leading a campaign to destabilize Warner Music in an effort to seize control of the company\". As Morris's strongest ally, Danny Goldberg was also under threat; he was initially told that he could stay on as President of WBR as long as he refrained from office politics and concentrate on the day\\-to\\-day management of the label, but he resigned as President of Warner Bros. Records soon after to pursue \"other interests\", and was replaced by WBR vice\\-chairman [Russ Thyret](/wiki/Russ_Thyret \"Russ Thyret\").",
"Despite early success with [Dr. Dre](/wiki/Dr._Dre \"Dr. Dre\") and [Snoop Dogg](/wiki/Snoop_Dogg \"Snoop Dogg\"), and Morris's decision to increase Warner's stake to 50%, by the mid\\-1990s [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records \"Interscope Records\") was being seen as a liability for the Warner group. Time Warner's board and investors had already been bruised by the damaging 1992 \"[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 \"Cop Killer (song)\")\" controversy and now they were faced with renewed criticism about the [gangsta rap](/wiki/Gangsta_rap \"Gangsta rap\") genre, in which Interscope's associate imprint [Death Row Records](/wiki/Death_Row_Records \"Death Row Records\") was a key label. In mid\\-1995, Time Warner refused to distribute the Interscope album *[Dogg Food](/wiki/Dogg_Food \"Dogg Food\")* by [Tha Dogg Pound](/wiki/Tha_Dogg_Pound \"Tha Dogg Pound\"), forcing the label to seek outside distribution, and late in the year TW sold its stake in Death Row back to co\\-owners [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine \"Jimmy Iovine\") and Ted Field and soon after it sold off its share in Interscope to [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Music_Entertainment \"MCA Music Entertainment\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\\-warner\\-to\\-sell\\-stake\\-in\\-rap\\-label.html\\|title\\=Time Warner to Sell Stake in Rap Label\\|last\\=Landler\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=September 28, 1995\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\\-warner\\-to\\-sell\\-stake\\-in\\-rap\\-label.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The upheaval at Warner was beneficial to its rivals, who picked up valuable executives who had left Warner. Goldberg moved over to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records \"Mercury Records\"); Morris joined [MCA Music Entertainment Group](/wiki/MCA_Records \"MCA Records\") and led its reorganization into [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"), now the world's largest record company. In November 1995, Fuchs was himself sacked by Levin, leaving the company with a reported US$60 million \"[golden parachute](/wiki/Golden_parachute \"Golden parachute\")\", and Time Warner co\\-chairmen [Robert A. Daly](/wiki/Robert_A._Daly \"Robert A. Daly\") and [Terry Semel](/wiki/Terry_Semel \"Terry Semel\") took over the running of the music division.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\\-j\\-fuchs\\|title\\=Cityfile profile: Michael J. Fuchs\\|website\\=Cityfile.com\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928143809/http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\\-j\\-fuchs\\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2011}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-the\\-music\\-and\\-the\\-dissonance\\-at\\-time\\-warner.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS;The Music, and the Dissonance, at Time Warner\\|last\\=Landler\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=November 17, 1995\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-the\\-music\\-and\\-the\\-dissonance\\-at\\-time\\-warner.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1995\\-11\\-17\\-fi\\-4210\\-story.html\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|first\\=Chuck\\|last\\=Philips\\|date\\=November 17, 1995\\|access\\-date\\=May 27, 2010\\|title\\=Company Town : SHAKE\\-UP AT TIME WARNER : A Very Bizarre Year at Time Warner : Chronology: Industry waits to see if established and new artists defect to rivals in wake of executive turnover at music giant\\|archive\\-date\\=July 7, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120707001753/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\\-11\\-17/business/fi\\-4210\\_1\\_time\\-warner/2\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 1998, Seagram boss [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. \"Edgar Bronfman Jr.\") held talks aimed at merging Seagram's Universal Music, headed by Morris, with the venerable British recording company [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\"), but the discussions came to nothing; Bronfman then oversaw Universal's takeover by [Vivendi](/wiki/Vivendi \"Vivendi\"). WEA meanwhile continued to expand its publishing empire, buying a 90% stake in the Italian recording and music publishing group Nuova [Fonit Cetra](/wiki/Fonit_Cetra \"Fonit Cetra\").{{Cite web\\| last1 \\= Zecchinelli\\| first1 \\= Cecilia\\| title \\= RAI sells off Fonit Cetra\\| work \\= Variety\\| access\\-date \\= April 5, 2020\\| date \\= July 27, 1998\\| url \\= https://variety.com/1998/music/news/rai\\-sells\\-off\\-fonit\\-cetra\\-1117478829/}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=March 2022 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"Also in 1998, Time Warner Entertainment bought the remaining 50% of the Rhino Records label they did not own. The Rhino Records retail store in Los Angeles was not included. Rhino then began reissuing the back catalogues of the Warner/Reprise and Elektra/Asylum labels. In 1999, Rhino launched Rhino Handmade, which released limited\\-edition reissues of lesser\\-known but still\\-significant recordings from the WEA labels.",
"### 2000s",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. \"Edgar Bronfman Jr.\"), scion of the Canadian\\-based [Bronfman family](/wiki/Bronfman_family \"Bronfman family\"), took control of WMG in 2004\\.](/wiki/File:Edgar_Bronfman_Jr._%283016810069%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Edgar Bronfman Jr. (3016810069) (cropped).jpg\")\nIn 2000, [Time Warner Entertainment](/wiki/Time_Warner_Entertainment \"Time Warner Entertainment\") merged with leading American [internet service provider](/wiki/Internet_service_provider \"Internet service provider\") [AOL](/wiki/AOL \"AOL\") to create [AOL Time Warner](/wiki/Time_Warner \"Time Warner\"). The new conglomerate again tried (and failed) to acquire EMI, and subsequent discussions about the takeover of [BMG](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group \"Bertelsmann Music Group\") stalled, with Bertelsmann eventually offloading BMG into a joint venture with [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\"). In 2002, AOLTW further consolidated its hold over the publishing industry, buying 50% of music publisher Deston Songs from [Edel AG](/wiki/Edel_AG \"Edel AG\"). By the early 2000s, however, the effects of the [dot\\-com crash](/wiki/Dot-com_crash \"Dot-com crash\") had eroded AOL's profits and stock value, and in 2003 the Time Warner board sidelined its under\\-performing partner by dropping *AOL* from its business name.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ketupa.net/time.htm\\|title\\=Time Warner\\|work\\=ketupa.net\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201182054/http://ketupa.net/time.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=February 1, 2016}}",
"As a result of the [CD price fixing](/wiki/CD_price_fixing \"CD price fixing\") issue, a settlement was reached in 2002 involving the music publishers and distributors [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\"), WMG, [Bertelsmann Music Group](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group \"Bertelsmann Music Group\"), [EMI Music](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\"), and [Universal Music](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"). In restitution for [price fixing](/wiki/Price_fixing \"Price fixing\") they agreed to pay a $67\\.4 million fine and distribute $75\\.7 million in CDs to public and non\\-profit groups but admitted no wrongdoing.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2002\\-09\\-30\\-cd\\-settlement\\_x.htm\\|title\\=5 Music Companies Settle Federal Case On CD Price\\-Fixing\\|last\\=Lieberman\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=September 30, 2002\\|website\\=USA Today\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=February 7, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207165313/http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2002\\-09\\-30\\-cd\\-settlement\\_x.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|The \"Big W\" logo designed by [Saul Bass](/wiki/Saul_Bass \"Saul Bass\"), formerly used as the logo of [Warner Bros. Entertainment](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\"), now used as the corporate logo of Warner Music Group](/wiki/File:Warner_logo_by_Saul_Bass_sans_text.svg \"Warner logo by Saul Bass sans text.svg\")\nLooking to reduce its debt load, Time Warner — the corporate successor to Warner Communications — sold Warner Music Group in 2004 to a group of investors led by [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. \"Edgar Bronfman Jr.\") for US$2\\.6 billion. This spinoff was completed on February 27, 2004\\. In the 2004 transition to independent ownership, WMG hired record industry heavyweight [Lyor Cohen](/wiki/Lyor_Cohen \"Lyor Cohen\") from [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\") (the result of the merger between the PolyGram and MCA label families) to attempt to reduce cost and increase performance. Time Warner (now Warner Bros. Discovery) no longer retains any ownership in WMG, though it had the option to reacquire up to 20% of WMG for three years following the closing of the transaction. WMG did, however, have a royalty\\-free license to use the Warner Bros. shield for 15 years, as well as the old Warner Communications logo as WMG's main logo.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://investors.wmg.com/phoenix.zhtml?c\\=182480\\&p\\=irol\\-newsArticle\\&ID\\=708718\\&highlight\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061110040634/http://investors.wmg.com/phoenix.zhtml?c\\=182480\\&p\\=irol\\-newsArticle\\&ID\\=708718\\&highlight\\=\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=November 10, 2006\\|title\\=Warner Music Group – Investor Relations – News Release\\|author\\=Warner Music Group Digital Properties\\|work\\=wmg.com}} With the expiration of the royalty\\-free license in May 2019, Warner Bros. Records (which became separate from the eponymous film studio after the spinoff) was renamed Warner Records and a new logo was introduced to replace the WB shield.{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8513172/warner\\-bros\\-records\\-warner\\-records\\-new\\-label\\-name\\-logo\\|title\\=After 61 Years, Warner Bros. Records Rechristened as Warner Records\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=July 11, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=June 8, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608053220/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8513172/warner\\-bros\\-records\\-warner\\-records\\-new\\-label\\-name\\-logo\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Once free of Time Warner, WMG began cutting costs by offloading loss\\-making or low\\-earning divisions. Like its rival EMI, Warner reacted to the growth of the digital music market by making a historic change, moving out of record production by closing or selling off disc\\-pressing plants, particularly in territories such as the US and the Netherlands, where production costs are high. The US manufacturing operations were sold to [Cinram](/wiki/Cinram \"Cinram\") in 2003, before the purchase from Time Warner.",
"In 2005, the Miami\\-based Warner Bros. Publications, which printed and distributed a broad selection of sheet music, books, educational material, orchestrations, arrangements and tutorials, was sold to [Alfred Music Publishing](/wiki/Alfred_Music_Publishing \"Alfred Music Publishing\"), although the sale excluded the print music business of WMG's Word Music (church hymnals, choral music and associated instrumental music).",
"On May 3, 2006, WMG apparently rejected a buyout offer from [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Warner Music Group Statement Regarding EMI Proposal\\|publisher\\=WMG\\|date\\=May 3, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2009\\|url\\=http://www.wmg.com/news/article/?id\\=newsarticle30520078\\|archive\\-date\\=November 14, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114123540/http://www.wmg.com/news/article/?id\\=newsarticle30520078\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Then WMG offered to buy [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\") and it also rejected the offer. In August 2007, EMI was purchased by [Terra Firma Capital Partners](/wiki/Terra_Firma_Capital_Partners \"Terra Firma Capital Partners\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Profile: British music giant EMI\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=January 15, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2009\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7188861\\.stm\\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308231332/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7188861\\.stm\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Talk of a possible WMG acquisition of EMI was fanned once again in 2009 after WMG executed a bond offering for $1\\.1 billion, which brought to light WMG's relatively strong financial position, which was contrasted with the weakened and debt\\-laden state of EMI.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/search/article\\_display.jsp?vnu\\_content\\_id\\=1003975772\\|title\\=Analysis: WMG's Moves Could Make Room for M\\&A\\|website\\=Billboard.biz\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 27, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227202828/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/search/article\\_display.jsp?vnu\\_content\\_id\\=1003975772\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The same year WMG acquired [Rykodisc](/wiki/Rykodisc \"Rykodisc\") and [Roadrunner Records](/wiki/Roadrunner_Records \"Roadrunner Records\").",
"In September 2006, after pulling its content from the service earlier in the year, WMG entered into a new licensing deal with the video streaming service [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\"). Under the deal, WMG would be able to handle advertising sales for its artists' music videos on the service (as well as monetize user\\-created videos that include WMG\\-owned recordings) and partake in revenue sharing with YouTube, and also collaborate with YouTube on building a \"premium\" user experience for its content and associated channels.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/youtube\\-wmg\\-agree\\-licensing\\-deal\\-89436\\|title\\=YouTube, WMG agree on new licensing deal\\|website\\=The Hollywood Reporter\\|date\\=September 29, 2009\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=October 3, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003051331/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/youtube\\-wmg\\-agree\\-licensing\\-deal\\-89436\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news \\|author\\=Jeff Leeds \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/19/business/media/19tube.html?\\_r\\=1\\&scp\\=9\\&sq\\=Warner%20Bros%20Records\\&st\\=cse \\|title\\=Warner Music Makes Licensing Deal With YouTube \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=September 19, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308194107/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/19/business/media/19tube.html?\\_r\\=1\\&scp\\=9\\&sq\\=Warner%20Bros%20Records\\&st\\=cse \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On December 27, 2007, Warner announced that it would sell [digital music](/wiki/Digital_music \"Digital music\") without [digital rights management](/wiki/Digital_rights_management \"Digital rights management\") through [AmazonMP3](/wiki/AmazonMP3 \"AmazonMP3\"), making it the third major label to do so.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/28/technology/28music.html\\|title\\=Amazon to Sell Warner Music Minus Copy Protection\\|last\\=Leeds\\|first\\=Jeff\\|date\\=December 28, 2007\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=December 11, 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211172006/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/28/technology/28music.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2008, *The New York Times* reported that WMG's [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records \"Atlantic Records\") became the first major record label to generate more than half of its music sales in the U.S. from digital products.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/media/26music.html\\|title\\=Atlantic Records Says Digital Sales Surpass CDs\\|last\\=Arango\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=November 25, 2008\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=April 13, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413041709/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/media/26music.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2010, *[Fast Company](/wiki/Fast_Company_%28magazine%29 \"Fast Company (magazine)\")* magazine detailed the company's transformation efforts in its recorded music division, where it has redefined the relationships it has with artists and diversified its revenue streams through its expansion into growing areas of the music business.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/147/take\\-us\\-to\\-the\\-river.html\\|title\\=Take Us to the River: How Warner Music and Its Musicians Are Combating Declining Album Sales\\|last\\=Fitzgerald\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=July 1, 2010\\|work\\=Fast Company\\|access\\-date\\=November 24, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=August 30, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830125219/http://www.fastcompany.com//magazine//147//take\\-us\\-to\\-the\\-river.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2008, WMG and several other major labels made investments in the new [music streaming service](/wiki/Music_streaming_service \"Music streaming service\") [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify \"Spotify\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id\\=238993\\|title\\=Spotify Announces Licensing Deals and Upcoming Launch\\|author\\=Spotify AB\\|date\\=October 7, 2008\\|work\\=prnewswire.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=March 14, 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=June 8, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608194505/http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id\\=238993\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{primary source inline\\|date\\=October 2019}}",
"Due to licensing deal negotiations between Google and WMG in 2008, music video content licensed by WMG was removed from YouTube.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://mediamemo.allthingsd.com/20081220/warner\\-music\\-group\\-disappearing\\-from\\-youtube\\-both\\-sides\\-take\\-credit/\\|title\\=Warner Music Group Disappearing From YouTube: Both Sides Take Credit\\|last\\=Kafka\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=December 20, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2012\\|publisher\\=AllThingsD\\|archive\\-date\\=May 12, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512041753/http://mediamemo.allthingsd.com/20081220/warner\\-music\\-group\\-disappearing\\-from\\-youtube\\-both\\-sides\\-take\\-credit/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/youtube\\-hits\\-the\\-mute\\-button\\-as\\-royalty\\-fight\\-with\\-warner\\-bros\\-continues\\-246490/\\|title\\=YouTube Hits The Mute Button as Royalty Fight With Warner Bros. Continues\\|last\\=Kreps\\|first\\=Daniel\\|date\\=January 16, 2009\\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213529/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/youtube\\-hits\\-the\\-mute\\-button\\-as\\-royalty\\-fight\\-with\\-warner\\-bros\\-continues\\-246490/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2009, it was announced that the companies had reached a deal, and videos would be re\\-added to YouTube.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/warner\\-music\\-youtube\\-reportedly\\-strike\\-deal\\-to\\-restore\\-videos\\-254831/\\|title\\=Warner Music, YouTube Reportedly Strike Deal to Restore Videos\\|last\\=Kreps\\|first\\=Daniel\\|date\\=September 28, 2009\\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213529/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/warner\\-music\\-youtube\\-reportedly\\-strike\\-deal\\-to\\-restore\\-videos\\-254831/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As of 2017, WMG had extended its deal with YouTube.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/warner\\-music\\-extends\\-youtube\\-1202410931/\\|title\\=Warner Music Extends Deal With YouTube After 'Months of Tough Negotiations'\\|last\\=Aswad\\|first\\=Jem\\|date\\=May 5, 2017\\|work\\=Variety\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213232/https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/warner\\-music\\-extends\\-youtube\\-1202410931/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2009, Warner Music took over its South\\-East Asian and Korean distribution of EMI audio and video products, including newer domestic releases, which was announced in September 2008\\. The two companies already enjoyed a successful partnership in India, the Middle East and North Africa, where EMI marketed and distributed Warner Music's physical product from 2005\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=EMI and Warner Music Group Announce Marketing and Distribution Partnership in South East Asia {{!}} Warner Music Inc. \\|url\\=https://investors.wmg.com/news\\-releases/news\\-release\\-details/emi\\-and\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\-announce\\-marketing\\-and\\-distribution \\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2022 \\|website\\=investors.wmg.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=May 26, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526040913/https://investors.wmg.com/news\\-releases/news\\-release\\-details/emi\\-and\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\-announce\\-marketing\\-and\\-distribution \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### 2010s",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Leonard Blavatnik](/wiki/Leonard_Blavatnik \"Leonard Blavatnik\"), founder of [Access Industries](/wiki/Access_Industries \"Access Industries\"), purchased WMG in 2011\\.](/wiki/File:Leonard_Blavatnik%2C_February_2018_%284568%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Leonard Blavatnik, February 2018 (4568) (cropped).jpg\")\nWMG formed a partnership with [MTV Networks](/wiki/MTV_Networks \"MTV Networks\") in June 2010 that allowed MTVN to exclusively sell ads on WMG's premium content; in turn, views of WMG videos would be counted as views for MTVN.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/09/08/mtv\\-overtakes\\-vevo\\-as\\-top\\-online\\-music\\-destination/\\|title\\=MTV Overtakes Vevo as Top Online Music Destination\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]] (Speakeasy Blog)\\|date\\=September 8, 2010\\|first\\=Ethan\\|last\\=Smith\\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=September 20, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920123241/https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/09/08/mtv\\-overtakes\\-vevo\\-as\\-top\\-online\\-music\\-destination/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In May 2011, WMG announced its sale to [Access Industries](/wiki/Access_Industries \"Access Industries\"), a [conglomerate](/wiki/Conglomerate_%28company%29 \"Conglomerate (company)\") controlled by Soviet\\-born billionaire [Len Blavatnik](/wiki/Len_Blavatnik \"Len Blavatnik\"), for US$3\\.3 billion in cash.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Adegoke\\|first\\=Yinka\\|date\\=May 6, 2011\\|title\\=Blavatnik's Access wins Warner Music for $3\\.3 billion\\|work\\=Reuters\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-warnermusic/blavatniks\\-access\\-wins\\-warner\\-music\\-for\\-3\\-3\\-billion\\-idUSTRE74407920110506\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=May 9, 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=September 16, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916010622/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-warnermusic/blavatniks\\-access\\-wins\\-warner\\-music\\-for\\-3\\-3\\-billion\\-idUSTRE74407920110506}} The price represented $8\\.25 a share; a 34% premium over the six\\-month\\-before average price, and a 4% premium over the day\\-before price. Overall, this was a drop of over 70% since 2007\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Wilkerson \\|first\\=David B. \\|title\\=Warner Music to be sold in $3\\.3 billion cash deal \\|url\\=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/warner\\-music\\-to\\-be\\-sold\\-in\\-33\\-billion\\-cash\\-deal\\-2011\\-05\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=July 16, 2019 \\|work\\=MarketWatch \\|date\\=May 6, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 6, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106235534/https://www.marketwatch.com/story/warner\\-music\\-to\\-be\\-sold\\-in\\-33\\-billion\\-cash\\-deal\\-2011\\-05\\-06 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} According to the *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal \"Wall Street Journal\")*, the deal ended a three\\-month sale process in which as many as 10 bidders, including Los Angeles\\-based brothers [Tom](/wiki/Tom_Gores \"Tom Gores\") and [Alec Gores](/wiki/Alec_Gores \"Alec Gores\"), and [Sony Corp.](/wiki/Sony_Corp. \"Sony Corp.\") vied for the company.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703859304576306993963966516\\|title\\=Deal Values Warner Music at $3 Billion\\|last\\=Smith\\|first\\=Ethan\\|date\\=May 6, 2011\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Wall Street Journal]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 6, 2011\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0099\\-9660\\|archive\\-date\\=December 21, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221120622/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703859304576306993963966516\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Blavatnik was a shareholder and former board member of WMG at the time of the purchase announcement.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/05/06/warner\\-music\\-to\\-sell\\-itself\\-to\\-access\\-for\\-3\\-3\\-billion/\\|title\\=Warner Music Is Sold, Ending a Long Auction\\|last1\\=de la Merced\\|first1\\=Michael J.\\|date\\=May 6, 2011\\|work\\=DealBook\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|last2\\=Sisario\\|first2\\=Ben\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003808/https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/05/06/warner\\-music\\-to\\-sell\\-itself\\-to\\-access\\-for\\-3\\-3\\-billion/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The purchase was completed on July 20, 2011, and the company became private.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2011/music/news/access\\-industries\\-acquires\\-wmg\\-1118040177/\\|title\\=Access Industries acquires WMG\\|last\\=Morris\\|first\\=Chris\\|date\\=July 20, 2011\\|work\\=Variety\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003950/https://variety.com/2011/music/news/access\\-industries\\-acquires\\-wmg\\-1118040177/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In August 2011, [Stephen Cooper](/wiki/Stephen_Cooper_%28businessman%29 \"Stephen Cooper (businessman)\") became CEO of Warner Music Group replacing [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. \"Edgar Bronfman Jr.\"), who became chairman of the company.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\\-labels/warner\\-music\\-ceo\\-edgar\\-bronfman\\-jr\\-and\\-chairman\\-1005322912\\.story\\|title\\=Warner Music CEO Edgar Bronfman, Jr. and Chairman Stephen Cooper Switch Jobs\\|last\\=Christman\\|first\\=Ed\\|date\\=August 19, 2011\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117044337/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\\-labels/warner\\-music\\-ceo\\-edgar\\-bronfman\\-jr\\-and\\-chairman\\-1005322912\\.story\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Bronfman Jr. stepped down as chairman of the company on January 31, 2012\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\\-labels/updated\\-edgar\\-bronfman\\-jr\\-to\\-step\\-down\\-as\\-1005616802\\.story\\|title\\=Updated: Edgar Bronfman Jr. to Step Down as Warner Music Group Chairman, No Successor Named\\|date\\=December 5, 2011\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111035129/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record\\-labels/updated\\-edgar\\-bronfman\\-jr\\-to\\-step\\-down\\-as\\-1005616802\\.story\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### EMI label purchase and divestment",
"In 2013, Warner acquired longtime EMI division [Parlophone](/wiki/Parlophone \"Parlophone\"), along with [EMI Classics](/wiki/EMI_Classics \"EMI Classics\") and some regional EMI operations, from UMG for £487 million (around $764\\.54 million US).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wmg.com/newsdetails/id/8a0af8123caef576013cb54ca59b00a9\\|title\\=Warner Music Group to acquire the Parlophone Label Group\\|publisher\\=WMG\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817141122/http://www.wmg.com/newsdetails/id/8a0af8123caef576013cb54ca59b00a9\\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2013}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/07/warner\\-music\\-group\\-buys\\-emi\\-assets\\-for\\-765\\-million/?mtrref\\=www.google.com\\&gwh\\=C91F7EC9A48C186906621B2366A3CF15\\&gwt\\=pay\\|title\\=Warner Music Group Buys EMI Assets for $765 Million\\|last\\=Sisario\\|first\\=Ben\\|work\\=Media Decoder Blog\\|date\\=February 7, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801004221/https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/07/warner\\-music\\-group\\-buys\\-emi\\-assets\\-for\\-765\\-million/?mtrref\\=www.google.com\\&gwh\\=C91F7EC9A48C186906621B2366A3CF15\\&gwt\\=pay\\|url\\-status\\=live}} This news came after reports that WMG was in talks to acquire [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\")'s recorded music business, which was eventually bought by [Universal](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/22/business/global/universal\\-takeover\\-of\\-emi\\-music\\-is\\-approved.html\\|title\\=Universal Takeover of EMI Music Is Approved\\|last\\=Sisario\\|first\\=Ben\\|date\\=September 21, 2012\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003943/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/22/business/global/universal\\-takeover\\-of\\-emi\\-music\\-is\\-approved.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The European Commission approved the sale in May 2013, and Warner closed the acquisition on July 1\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/legal\\-and\\-management/1561787/warner\\-music\\-groups\\-acquisition\\-of\\-parlophone \\|title\\=Updated: Warner Music Group's Acquisition of Parlophone Approved by European Commission \\|publisher\\=Billboard \\|date\\=November 1, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2013}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/1568720/warner\\-music\\-group\\-closes\\-on\\-acquisition\\-of\\-parlophone\\-label\\-group \\|title\\=Warner Music Group Closes on Acquisition of Parlophone Label Group \\|publisher\\=Billboard \\|date\\=July 1, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708193306/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/1568720/warner\\-music\\-group\\-closes\\-on\\-acquisition\\-of\\-parlophone\\-label\\-group \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The EMI Classics roster was absorbed into [Warner Classics](/wiki/Warner_Classics \"Warner Classics\") and the [Virgin Classics](/wiki/Virgin_Classics \"Virgin Classics\") roster was absorbed into the revived [Erato Records](/wiki/Erato_Records \"Erato Records\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.classical\\-music.com/news/warner\\-clarifies\\-future\\-emi\\-and\\-virgin\\-classics\\-artists\\|title\\=Warner clarifies future of EMI and Virgin Classics artists\\|work\\=classical\\-music.com\\|access\\-date\\=January 3, 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=November 29, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129093332/http://www.classical\\-music.com/news/warner\\-clarifies\\-future\\-emi\\-and\\-virgin\\-classics\\-artists\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In November 2013, WMG paid Universal an additional €30 million for Parlophone, following an arbitration process in respect to the original sale price.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-paid\\-more\\-money\\-for\\-parlophone\\-than\\-we\\-thought\\|title\\=Warner Music Group paid more money for Parlophone than we thought...\\|last\\=Ingham\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=August 3, 2015\\|website\\=\\[\\[Music Business Worldwide]]\\|access\\-date\\=August 5, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=August 6, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806101515/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-paid\\-more\\-money\\-for\\-parlophone\\-than\\-we\\-thought/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In order to accommodate a deal made with [IMPALA](/wiki/Independent_Music_Companies_Association \"Independent Music Companies Association\") and the [Merlin Network](/wiki/Merlin_Network \"Merlin Network\") when it acquired Parlophone, WMG agreed to offload over $200 million worth in catalogues to various independent labels.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\\-labels/5923064/warner\\-music\\-begins\\-auctioning\\-off\\-assets\\-to\\-indies\\|title\\=Warner Music Begins Auctioning Off Assets to Indies Following Parlophone Acquisition\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801014524/https://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\\-labels/5923064/warner\\-music\\-begins\\-auctioning\\-off\\-assets\\-to\\-indies\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The labels had until February 28, 2014, to inform Warner Music of which artist catalogues they were interested in acquiring, and said artists had to approve of the divestments.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\\-labels/5923064/warner\\-music\\-begins\\-auctioning\\-off\\-assets\\-to\\-indies\\|title\\=Warner Music Begins Auctioning Off Assets to Indies Following Parlophone Acquisition\\|website\\=Billboard.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=November 15, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115115254/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/record\\-labels/5923064/warner\\-music\\-begins\\-auctioning\\-off\\-assets\\-to\\-indies\\|url\\-status\\=live}} By March 2015, over 140 independent labels had placed bids on over 11,000 Warner Music artists valuing $6 billion, far higher than expectations.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-50\\-times\\-oversubscribed\\-as\\-140\\-indies\\-bid\\-for\\-assets/\\|title\\=Warner '50 times oversubscribed' as 140 indies bid for assets\\|last\\=Ingham\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=March 19, 2015\\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=August 5, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=August 16, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150816030349/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-50\\-times\\-oversubscribed\\-as\\-140\\-indies\\-bid\\-for\\-assets/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In March 2016, [Curb Records](/wiki/Curb_Records \"Curb Records\") acquired Warner Music's 80% share of [Word Entertainment](/wiki/Word_Entertainment \"Word Entertainment\"), though WMG would continue to distribute the label.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tennessean.com/story/money/industries/music/2016/03/02/curb\\-records\\-acquires\\-word\\-entertainment/81230554\\|title\\=Curb Records acquires Word Entertainment\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Tennessean]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 20, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708170425/https://www.tennessean.com/story/money/industries/music/2016/03/02/curb\\-records\\-acquires\\-word\\-entertainment/81230554/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In April 2016, the first confirmed sale of a Warner Music artist was the back catalogue of English band [Radiohead](/wiki/Radiohead \"Radiohead\") to [XL Recordings](/wiki/XL_Recordings \"XL Recordings\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://consequenceofsound.net/2016/04/radioheads\\-back\\-catalog\\-purchased\\-by\\-xl\\-recordings\\-report/\\|title\\=Radiohead's back catalog purchased by XL Recordings: Report\\|date\\=April 4, 2016\\|publisher\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=April 5, 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=April 5, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405153729/http://consequenceofsound.net/2016/04/radioheads\\-back\\-catalog\\-purchased\\-by\\-xl\\-recordings\\-report/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As of the end of May 2016, WMG had sold the catalogue of [Chrysalis Records](/wiki/Chrysalis_Records \"Chrysalis Records\") to [Blue Raincoat Music](/wiki/Blue_Raincoat_Music \"Blue Raincoat Music\"), as well as the catalogues of ten other artists, including [Everything But the Girl](/wiki/Everything_But_the_Girl \"Everything But the Girl\"), [Steve Harley \\& Cockney Rebel](/wiki/Steve_Harley_%26_Cockney_Rebel \"Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel\"), and [Lucinda Williams](/wiki/Lucinda_Williams \"Lucinda Williams\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-chrysalis\\-records\\-back\\-to\\-chris\\-wright\\-and\\-blue\\-raincoat/\\|title\\=Warner sells Chrysalis Records back to Chris Wright and Blue Raincoat\\|date\\=June 1, 2016\\|publisher\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603213321/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-chrysalis\\-records\\-back\\-to\\-chris\\-wright\\-and\\-blue\\-raincoat\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/girl\\-power\\-inside\\-chrysalis\\-new\\-deal\\-for\\-everything\\-but\\-the\\-girl\\-s\\-catalogue/069191\\|title\\=Girl power: Inside Chrysalis' new deal for Everything But The Girl's catalogue\\|last\\=Garner\\|first\\=George\\|date\\=July 18, 2017\\|website\\=\\[\\[Music Week]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=September 24, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924144802/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/girl\\-power\\-inside\\-chrysalis\\-new\\-deal\\-for\\-everything\\-but\\-the\\-girl\\-s\\-catalogue/069191\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/now\\-warner\\-sells\\-records\\-by\\-athlete\\-steve\\-harley\\-and\\-more\\-to\\-chrysalis/\\|title\\=Now Warner sells records by Athlete, Steve Harley and more to Chrysalis – Music Business Worldwide\\|date\\=July 7, 2016\\|website\\=Musicweek.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=July 6, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706064051/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/now\\-warner\\-sells\\-records\\-by\\-athlete\\-steve\\-harley\\-and\\-more\\-to\\-chrysalis/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/chrysalis\\-acquires\\-parlophone\\-catalogues\\-under\\-divestment\\-deal/070316\\|title\\=Chrysalis acquires Parlophone catalogues under divestment deal\\|website\\=Musicweek.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 4, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204230956/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/chrysalis\\-acquires\\-parlophone\\-catalogues\\-under\\-divestment\\-deal/070316\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In September 2016, [Nettwerk](/wiki/Nettwerk \"Nettwerk\") acquired the rights to albums by [Guster](/wiki/Guster \"Guster\") and [Airbourne](/wiki/Airbourne_%28band%29 \"Airbourne (band)\") from Warner Music.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-artist\\-catalogues\\-nettwerk\\-divestment\\-process\\-picks\\-pace/\\|title\\=Warner sells assets to Nettwerk as divestment process picks up pace\\|date\\=September 28, 2016\\|publisher\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=March 15, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=March 16, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316204801/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-artist\\-catalogues\\-nettwerk\\-divestment\\-process\\-picks\\-pace/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In April 2017, Warner Music agreed to sell the independent distributor [Zebralution](/wiki/Zebralution \"Zebralution\") back to its founders.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\\-and\\-mobile/7744636/warner\\-music\\-sells\\-digital\\-distributor\\-zebralution\\|title\\=Warner Music Sells Digital Distributor Zebralution\\|publisher\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=April 3, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403214039/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\\-and\\-mobile/7744636/warner\\-music\\-sells\\-digital\\-distributor\\-zebralution\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On June 1, 2017, WMG divested additional artists, including the catalogues of [Hot Chip](/wiki/Hot_Chip \"Hot Chip\") and [Buzzcocks](/wiki/Buzzcocks \"Buzzcocks\") to [Domino Recording Company](/wiki/Domino_Recording_Company \"Domino Recording Company\"); [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits \"Tom Waits\") to [Anti\\-](/wiki/Anti-_%28record_label%29 \"Anti- (record label)\"); and [Howard Jones](/wiki/Howard_Jones_%28British_musician%29 \"Howard Jones (British musician)\"), [Dinosaur Jr.](/wiki/Dinosaur_Jr. \"Dinosaur Jr.\"), and [Kim Wilde](/wiki/Kim_Wilde \"Kim Wilde\") to [Cherry Red Records](/wiki/Cherry_Red_Records \"Cherry Red Records\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/cherry\\-red\\-set\\-to\\-capitalise\\-on\\-warner\\-divestment/068542\\|title\\=Cherry Red set to capitalise on Warner divestment\\|website\\=\\[\\[Music Week]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814220610/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/cherry\\-red\\-set\\-to\\-capitalise\\-on\\-warner\\-divestment/068542\\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Cosmos Music Group](/wiki/Cosmos_Music_Group \"Cosmos Music Group\") acquired the rights to [Per Gessle](/wiki/Per_Gessle \"Per Gessle\") and [Marie Fredriksson](/wiki/Marie_Fredriksson \"Marie Fredriksson\"), while [Neil Finn](/wiki/Neil_Finn \"Neil Finn\")'s catalogue moved to his Lester Records label.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-flurry\\-copyrights\\-indie\\-divestment\\-process\\-heads\\-towards\\-finish\\-line\\|title\\=Warner sells flurry of copyrights as indie divestment process heads towards finish line\\|date\\=June 1, 2017\\|publisher\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=June 6, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=June 6, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606191005/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-flurry\\-copyrights\\-indie\\-divestment\\-process\\-heads\\-towards\\-finish\\-line/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On July 6, 2017, [Because Music](/wiki/Because_Music \"Because Music\") acquired 10 French artists, most of [London Records](/wiki/London_Records \"London Records\")' back catalogue, and [The Beta Band](/wiki/The_Beta_Band \"The Beta Band\"), while [Concord Music](/wiki/Concord_Music \"Concord Music\") acquired albums by [Jewel](/wiki/Jewel_%28singer%29 \"Jewel (singer)\"), [Sérgio Mendes](/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_Mendes \"Sérgio Mendes\"), [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M. \"R.E.M.\"), the [Traveling Wilburys](/wiki/Traveling_Wilburys \"Traveling Wilburys\"), and several rock, blues, and jazz artists.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/confirms\\-acquisition\\-london\\-records\\-catalogue\\|title\\=Because confirms acquisition of London Records catalogue\\|date\\=July 6, 2017\\|publisher\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912091856/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/confirms\\-acquisition\\-london\\-records\\-catalogue/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lesechos.fr/tech\\-medias/medias/010175993947\\-bananarama\\-rejoint\\-le\\-label\\-de\\-christine\\-and\\-the\\-queen\\-2107284\\.php\\|title\\=Bananarama rejoint le label de Christine and The Queen\\|website\\=Lesechos.fr\\|date\\=August 10, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=October 17, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017044342/https://www.lesechos.fr/tech\\-medias/medias/010175993947\\-bananarama\\-rejoint\\-le\\-label\\-de\\-christine\\-and\\-the\\-queen\\-2107284\\.php\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/because\\-buys\\-beta\\-band\\-catalogue\\-other\\-deals\\-imminent\\-as\\-warner\\-divestment\\-deadline\\-day\\-looms/069966\\|title\\=Because buys Beta Band catalogue, other deals imminent as Warner divestment deadline day looms\\|website\\=\\[\\[Music Week]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 3, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203112016/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/because\\-buys\\-beta\\-band\\-catalogue\\-other\\-deals\\-imminent\\-as\\-warner\\-divestment\\-deadline\\-day\\-looms/069966\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/concord\\-buys\\-yet\\-multi\\-million\\-dollar\\-deal\\-warner\\|title\\=Concord buys yet again in multi\\-million dollar deal with Warner\\|date\\=July 6, 2017\\|publisher\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715141646/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/concord\\-buys\\-yet\\-multi\\-million\\-dollar\\-deal\\-warner/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In August 2017, [The Lemonheads](/wiki/The_Lemonheads \"The Lemonheads\") and [The Groundhogs](/wiki/The_Groundhogs \"The Groundhogs\") were transferred to [Fire Records](/wiki/Fire_Records_%28UK%29 \"Fire Records (UK)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-atlantics\\-the\\-lemonheads\\-catalogue\\-to\\-fire\\-records/\\|title\\=Warner sells Atlantic's The Lemonheads catalogue to Fire Records\\|date\\=August 14, 2017\\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175520/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-sells\\-atlantics\\-the\\-lemonheads\\-catalogue\\-to\\-fire\\-records/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In October 2017, [Strut Records](/wiki/Strut_Records \"Strut Records\") acquired albums by [Patrice Rushen](/wiki/Patrice_Rushen \"Patrice Rushen\") and [Miriam Makeba](/wiki/Miriam_Makeba \"Miriam Makeba\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/k7\\-music\\-picks\\-up\\-catalogues\\-in\\-parlophone\\-divestment/070196\\|title\\=!K7 Music picks up catalogues in Parlophone divestment\\|website\\=Musicweek.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=October 19, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019055203/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/k7\\-music\\-picks\\-up\\-catalogues\\-in\\-parlophone\\-divestment/070196\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In November 2017, [T.I.](/wiki/T.I. \"T.I.\")'s catalogue was sold to [Cinq Music Group](/wiki/Cinq_Music_Group \"Cinq Music Group\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/8031092/cinq\\-music\\-acquires\\-ti\\-catalog\\-plans\\-greatest\\-hits\\-album\\-exclusive\\|title\\=Cinq Music Acquires T.I. Catalog, Plans 'Paper Trail' Reissue: Exclusive\\|website\\=Billboard.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112018/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/8031092/cinq\\-music\\-acquires\\-ti\\-catalog\\-plans\\-greatest\\-hits\\-album\\-exclusive\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Woah Dad! (and later [Round Hill Music](/wiki/Round_Hill_Music \"Round Hill Music\")) acquired over 20 catalogues, including those of [Ziggy Marley](/wiki/Ziggy_Marley \"Ziggy Marley\"), [Estelle](/wiki/Estelle_%28musician%29 \"Estelle (musician)\"), and several Swedish artists. while [Believe Digital](/wiki/Believe_Digital \"Believe Digital\") acquired the rights to [EMF](/wiki/EMF_%28band%29 \"EMF (band)\") and several French artists.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gp.se/n%C3%B6je/musik/g%C3%B6teborgsbolaget\\-woah\\-dad\\-satsar\\-internationellt\\-1\\.4832023\\|title\\=Göteborgsbolaget Woah dad satsar internationellt\\|website\\=Gp.se\\|date\\=November 15, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=November 21, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121064954/http://www.gp.se/n%C3%B6je/musik/g%C3%B6teborgsbolaget\\-woah\\-dad\\-satsar\\-internationellt\\-1\\.4832023\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In April 2018, [RT Industries](/wiki/Razor_%26_Tie \"Razor & Tie\") acquired seven catalogues from WMG, including [Sugar Ray](/wiki/Sugar_Ray \"Sugar Ray\") and [Fat Joe](/wiki/Fat_Joe \"Fat Joe\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Rhian \\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/independent\\-label\\-rt\\-industries\\-launches\\-with\\-divestments\\-from\\-warner \\|title\\=Independent label RT Industries launches with divestments from Warner \\|publisher\\=Music Business Worldwide \\|date\\=April 17, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=September 4, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 9, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809111749/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/independent\\-label\\-rt\\-industries\\-launches\\-with\\-divestments\\-from\\-warner/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In May 2018, New State Music acquired the catalogues of [Paul Oakenfold](/wiki/Paul_Oakenfold \"Paul Oakenfold\") and [Dirty Vegas](/wiki/Dirty_Vegas \"Dirty Vegas\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.recordoftheday.com/news\\-and\\-press/proper\\-makes\\-trio\\-of\\-hires\\-signs\\-up\\-newstate \\|title\\=Proper makes trio of hires, signs up NewState \\|publisher\\=Recordoftheday.com \\|date\\=May 16, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=September 4, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 20, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920121138/https://www.recordoftheday.com/news\\-and\\-press/proper\\-makes\\-trio\\-of\\-hires\\-signs\\-up\\-newstate \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Other winning bidders included [The Echo Label](/wiki/The_Echo_Label \"The Echo Label\") ([Thomas Dolby](/wiki/Thomas_Dolby \"Thomas Dolby\"), [Sigue Sigue Sputnik](/wiki/Sigue_Sigue_Sputnik \"Sigue Sigue Sputnik\") and [Supergrass](/wiki/Supergrass \"Supergrass\")), [Nature Sounds](/wiki/Nature_Sounds \"Nature Sounds\") ([Roy Ayers](/wiki/Roy_Ayers \"Roy Ayers\")), The state51 Conspiracy ([Donovan](/wiki/Donovan \"Donovan\")), [PIAS Recordings](/wiki/PIAS_Recordings \"PIAS Recordings\") ([Failure](/wiki/Failure_%28band%29 \"Failure (band)\")), Evolution Music Group ([Mr. Big](/wiki/Mr._Big_%28American_band%29 \"Mr. Big (American band)\")), [Playground Music Scandinavia](/wiki/Playground_Music_Scandinavia \"Playground Music Scandinavia\") ([Olle Adolphson](/wiki/Olle_Adolphson \"Olle Adolphson\")), [Metal Blade Records](/wiki/Metal_Blade_Records \"Metal Blade Records\") ([King Diamond](/wiki/King_Diamond \"King Diamond\")), [Snapper Music](/wiki/Snapper_Music \"Snapper Music\") ([Mansun](/wiki/Mansun \"Mansun\")) and its sublabel [Kscope](/wiki/Kscope \"Kscope\") ([Porcupine Tree](/wiki/Porcupine_Tree \"Porcupine Tree\")), Phoenix Music International ([Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28singer%29 \"Lulu (singer)\")), [Kobalt Label Services](/wiki/Kobalt_Label_Services \"Kobalt Label Services\") ([HIM](/wiki/HIM_%28Finnish_band%29 \"HIM (Finnish band)\")), and [Tommy Boy Music](/wiki/Tommy_Boy_Music \"Tommy Boy Music\") (which reclaimed its pre\\-2002 catalogue and the rights to [Brand Nubian](/wiki/Brand_Nubian \"Brand Nubian\"), [Handsome Boy Modeling School](/wiki/Handsome_Boy_Modeling_School \"Handsome Boy Modeling School\")'s *[White People](/wiki/White_People_%28album%29 \"White People (album)\")*, [Grand Puba](/wiki/Grand_Puba \"Grand Puba\"), and [Club Nouveau](/wiki/Club_Nouveau \"Club Nouveau\")). All the labels had to complete their deals by September 30, 2017; though a few announcements came after that date.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/everything\\-must\\-go\\-warner\\-music\\-s\\-indie\\-divestment\\-will\\-end\\-september\\-30/069580\\|title\\=Everything must go: Warner Music's indie divestment 'will end September 30'\\|website\\=\\[\\[Music Week]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 2, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202022318/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/everything\\-must\\-go\\-warner\\-music\\-s\\-indie\\-divestment\\-will\\-end\\-september\\-30/069580\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### Expansion",
"In October 2012, WMG became one of the last major labels to sign with Google's music service. It was also one of the last labels to reach an agreement with Spotify.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/29/google\\-signs\\-deal\\-with\\-warner\\-music\\-group/\\|title\\=Google Signs Deal With Warner Music Group\\|last\\=Sisario\\|first\\=Ben\\|date\\=October 29, 2012\\|website\\=Media Decoder Blog\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=February 18, 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308162152/http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/29/google\\-signs\\-deal\\-with\\-warner\\-music\\-group/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In June 2013, WMG expanded into Russia by acquiring Gala Records, best known as the longtime distributor of [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://m.biobiochile.cl/notas/2013/06/18/warner\\-music\\-se\\-implanta\\-en\\-rusia\\-tras\\-comprar\\-el\\-sello\\-gala.shtml\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130620022204/http://m.biobiochile.cl/notas/2013/06/18/warner\\-music\\-se\\-implanta\\-en\\-rusia\\-tras\\-comprar\\-el\\-sello\\-gala.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=June 20, 2013\\|title\\=Warner Music se implanta en Rusia tras comprar el sello Gala\\|publisher\\=Radio Bío\\-Bío\\|date\\=June 18, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2013}} Later that year, Warner Music Russia agreed to locally distribute releases by [Disney Music Group](/wiki/Disney_Music_Group \"Disney Music Group\"){{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/disney\\-warner\\-music\\-russia\\-deal\\-659698 \\| work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\| first\\=Vladimir \\| last\\=Kozlov \\| title\\=Disney, Warner Music Strike Russia Distribution Deal \\| date\\=November 25, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=June 5, 2014 \\| archive\\-date\\=February 27, 2014 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227101148/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/disney\\-warner\\-music\\-russia\\-deal\\-659698 \\| url\\-status\\=live }} and [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\\-to\\-handle\\-cd\\-distribution\\-for\\-sony\\-in\\-russia\\|title\\=Warner to handle CD distribution for Sony in Russia\\|first\\=Chris\\|last\\=Cooke\\|website\\=\\[\\[Complete Music Update]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=October 1, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001074947/http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\\-to\\-handle\\-cd\\-distribution\\-for\\-sony\\-in\\-russia/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Later that year, WMG closed a deal with [Clear Channel Media](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Media_and_Entertainment \"Clear Channel Media and Entertainment\") that saw its artists paid for terrestrial radio play for the first time. Clear Channel would get preferential rates for streaming songs through its [iHeartRadio](/wiki/IHeartRadio \"IHeartRadio\") service and other online platforms. It was believed that the agreement would put pressure on other big labels, including Sony and Universal, to reach similar deals.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://nypost.com/2013/09/12/warner\\-artists\\-get\\-paid\\-for\\-radio\\-play\\-under\\-landmark\\-clear\\-channel\\-deal/\\|title\\=Warner artists get paid for radio play under landmark Clear Channel deal\\|last\\=Atkinson\\|first\\=Claire\\|date\\=September 12, 2013\\|work\\=New York Post\\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=September 16, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916204420/http://nypost.com/2013/09/12/warner\\-artists\\-get\\-paid\\-for\\-radio\\-play\\-under\\-landmark\\-clear\\-channel\\-deal/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2017, WMG formed a TV and film division, Warner Music Entertainment, led by former MGM executive Charlie Cohen. In March 2020, it hired Kate Shepherd, the former head of entertainment at Ridley Scott Creative Group.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Aswad \\|first1\\=Jem \\|last2\\=Davis \\|first2\\=Rebecca \\|title\\=Tencent Acquires $200 Million Stake in Warner Music \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2020/music/news/tencent\\-acquires\\-100\\-million\\-stake\\-in\\-warner\\-music\\-1234632894/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2020 \\|work\\=Variety \\|date\\=June 12, 2020 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708011536/https://variety.com/2020/music/news/tencent\\-acquires\\-100\\-million\\-stake\\-in\\-warner\\-music\\-1234632894/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This division paired with [Imagine Entertainment](/wiki/Imagine_Entertainment \"Imagine Entertainment\") on a [Nat Geo](/wiki/National_Geographic_%28American_TV_channel%29 \"National Geographic (American TV channel)\") limited series *[Genius](/wiki/Genius_%28American_TV_series%29 \"Genius (American TV series)\"): Aretha*, which led to a co\\-producing and co\\-financing agreement for a music slate in July 2020\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Littleton \\|first1\\=Cynthia \\|title\\=Imagine Sets Production and Financing Pact With Warner Music Group (EXCLUSIVE) \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/imagine\\-warner\\-music\\-aretha\\-production\\-financing\\-1234698427/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 7, 2020 \\|work\\=Variety \\|date\\=July 6, 2020 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=July 6, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706210648/https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/imagine\\-warner\\-music\\-aretha\\-production\\-financing\\-1234698427/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In February 2022, Warner announced acquisition of controlling interest in a [South India](/wiki/South_India \"South India\") based distribution label Divo Music.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wmg.com/news/warner\\-music\\-india\\-signs\\-deal\\-to\\-acquire\\-a\\-majority\\-stake\\-in\\-divo\\-the\\-largest\\-digital\\-media\\-and\\-music\\-company\\-in\\-south\\-india\\|title\\=Warner Music India Signs Deal to Acquire a Majority Stake in Divo, the Largest Digital Media and Music Company in South India\\|first\\=W. R. M.\\|last\\=Communications\\|date\\=February 8, 2023\\|website\\=Warner Music Group\\|access\\-date\\=May 23, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=March 22, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322232026/https://www.wmg.com/news/warner\\-music\\-india\\-signs\\-deal\\-to\\-acquire\\-a\\-majority\\-stake\\-in\\-divo\\-the\\-largest\\-digital\\-media\\-and\\-music\\-company\\-in\\-south\\-india\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### International labels",
"On November 14, 2013, it was determined that Warner Music's releases in the Middle East would be distributed by [Universal Music](/wiki/Universal_Music \"Universal Music\") as a result of the integration of [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\")'s branch in said region.[EMI Music Arabia](https://twitter.com/EMIMusicArabia/status/400857423516561408) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203055614/https://twitter.com/EMIMusicArabia/status/400857423516561408 \\|date\\=December 3, 2013 }} November 14, 2013\\. Retrieved on December 1, 2013\\. [Sony Music India](/wiki/Sony_Music_India \"Sony Music India\") would assume distribution of WMG in India, Sri Lanka, and rest of [SAARC](/wiki/SAARC \"SAARC\") countries except Bangladesh.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/sony\\-warner\\-ink\\-licensing\\-deal/article5447952\\.ece \\| location\\=Chennai, India \\| work\\=The Hindu \\| first\\=K. T. \\| last\\=Jagannathan \\| title\\=Sony, Warner ink licensing deal \\| date\\=December 11, 2013 \\| access\\-date\\=December 14, 2013 \\| archive\\-date\\=December 16, 2013 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216013805/http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/sony\\-warner\\-ink\\-licensing\\-deal/article5447952\\.ece \\| url\\-status\\=live }} In December 2013, Warner Music began operating the wholly owned South African subsidiary after acquiring the Gallo's stakes that it did not own.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\\-announces\\-launch\\-of\\-new\\-south\\-african\\-business/ \\|title\\=Warner announces launch of new South African business \\|publisher\\=Complete Music Update \\|date\\=December 6, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113092304/http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\\-announces\\-launch\\-of\\-new\\-south\\-african\\-business/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In April 2014, WMG announced that it had acquired Chinese record label [Gold Typhoon](/wiki/Gold_Typhoon \"Gold Typhoon\").{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/6070250/warner\\-acquires\\-gold\\-typhoon\\-group\\-to\\-grow\\-china\\-presence\\|title\\=Warner Acquires Gold Typhoon Group To Grow China Presence\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=May 1, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501231815/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/global/6070250/warner\\-acquires\\-gold\\-typhoon\\-group\\-to\\-grow\\-china\\-presence\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In April 2016, WMG agreed to distribute most of [BMG Rights Management](/wiki/BMG_Rights_Management \"BMG Rights Management\")'s catalogue worldwide through Warner's [ADA](/wiki/Alternative_Distribution_Alliance \"Alternative Distribution Alliance\") division, though a few frontline releases would remain distributed by other labels.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.allaccess.com/net\\-news/archive/story/152757/warner\\-music\\-group\\-lands\\-distribution\\-for\\-bmg\\-cata\\|title\\=Warner Music Group Lands Distribution For BMG Catalog\\|website\\=Allaccess.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210072136/https://www.allaccess.com/net\\-news/archive/story/152757/warner\\-music\\-group\\-lands\\-distribution\\-for\\-bmg\\-cata\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/bmg\\-moves\\-distribution\\-8000\\-albums\\-warners\\-ada/\\|title\\=BMG moves distribution of 8,000 albums to Warner's ADA\\|date\\=March 7, 2017\\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=March 13, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313000938/http://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/bmg\\-moves\\-distribution\\-8000\\-albums\\-warners\\-ada/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Around the end of May 2016, WMG acquired the Indonesian label PT Indo Semar Sakti.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\\-music\\-group\\-does\\-deals\\-with\\-times\\-music\\-and\\-pt\\-indo\\-semar\\-sakti/\\|title\\=Warner Music Group does deals with Times Music and PT Indo Semar Sakti\\|website\\=\\[\\[Complete Music Update]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 1, 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602104625/http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/warner\\-music\\-group\\-does\\-deals\\-with\\-times\\-music\\-and\\-pt\\-indo\\-semar\\-sakti/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Warner Music UK launched [The Firepit](/wiki/The_Firepit \"The Firepit\") in May 2016, a creative content division, innovation centre and recording studio located at their United Kingdom headquarters in London.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7385124/warner\\-music\\-uk\\-firepit\\|title\\=Warner Music U.K. Launches Creative Content Division The Firepit\\|website\\=Billboard.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=October 14, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014071016/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7385124/warner\\-music\\-uk\\-firepit\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On June 2, 2016, Warner Music acquired Swedish compilation label [X5 Music Group](/wiki/X5_Music_Group \"X5 Music Group\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/warner\\-music\\-group\\-acquires\\-x5\\-898923\\|title\\=Warner Music Group Acquires Digital Compilation Company X5\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\\|date\\=June 2, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=December 20, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 22, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222053120/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/warner\\-music\\-group\\-acquires\\-x5\\-898923\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In September 2017, one week after acquiring American rock label [Artery Recordings](/wiki/Artery_Recordings \"Artery Recordings\"), WMG acquired the Dutch EDM label [Spinnin' Records](/wiki/Spinnin%27_Records \"Spinnin' Records\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/wmg\\-acquires\\-spinnin\\-records/069715\\|title\\=WMG acquires Spinnin' Records\\|website\\=\\[\\[Music Week]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=January 8, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108173809/http://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/wmg\\-acquires\\-spinnin\\-records/069715\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In February 2018, Warner Music launched a division in the Middle East, based in Beirut, Lebanon. Warner Music Middle East will cover 17 markets across North Africa and the Middle East.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-launch\\-record\\-label\\-middle\\-east \\|title\\= Warner Music Group launches record company in the Middle East \\|publisher\\= Music Business Worldwide \\|date\\= February 1, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\= February 2, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\= December 29, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20181229174327/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-launch\\-record\\-label\\-middle\\-east/ \\|url\\-status\\= live }}",
"In January 2019, WMG signed a Turkish distribution deal with [Doğan Media Group](/wiki/Do%C4%9Fan_Media_Group \"Doğan Media Group\"), which will represent the record company for physical and digital releases.{{cite web \\|last\\=Stassen \\|first\\=Murray \\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-inks\\-wide\\-ranging\\-deal\\-with\\-istanbul\\-based\\-dogan\\-group \\|title\\=Warner Music inks wide\\-ranging deal with Istanbul\\-based Doğan Group \\|publisher\\=Music Business Worldwide \\|date\\=January 30, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=January 30, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 30, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130185104/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-inks\\-wide\\-ranging\\-deal\\-with\\-istanbul\\-based\\-dogan\\-group/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In May 2019, Warner Music Finland acquired the hip\\-hop label [Monsp Records](/wiki/Monsp_Records \"Monsp Records\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurenalvarez/2019/05/31/warner\\-music\\-finland\\-acquires\\-indie\\-hip\\-hop\\-label\\-monsp\\-records \\|title\\=Warner Music Finland Acquires Indie Hip\\-Hop Label Monsp Records \\|work\\=Forbes.com \\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 3, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603062001/https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurenalvarez/2019/05/31/warner\\-music\\-finland\\-acquires\\-indie\\-hip\\-hop\\-label\\-monsp\\-records/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In July 2019, Warner Music Slovakia acquired Forza Music, which owned the former state\\-owned label [Opus Records](/wiki/Opus_Records \"Opus Records\").{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8518809/warner\\-music\\-acquires\\-forza\\-music\\-slovakia\\|title\\=Warner Music Acquires Slovakia's Forza Music\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 9, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709192125/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8518809/warner\\-music\\-acquires\\-forza\\-music\\-slovakia\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In February 2021, WMG purchased a minority stake in the Saudi Arabian record label [Rotana Records](/wiki/Rotana_Records \"Rotana Records\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-invests\\-in\\-saudi\\-arabias\\-rotana\\-music \\|title\\=Warner Music Group buys minority stake in Saudi Arabia's Rotana Music \\|date\\=February 16, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=February 18, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 16, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216191739/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-invests\\-in\\-saudi\\-arabias\\-rotana\\-music/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Elektra Music Group and further investments",
"In July 2017, Warner Music acquired the concert discovery website [Songkick](/wiki/Songkick \"Songkick\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\\-and\\-mobile/7865999/warner\\-music\\-acquires\\-songkick\\-the\\-concert\\-discovery\\|title\\=Warner Music Acquires Songkick, the Concert Discovery App\\|website\\=Billboard.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=November 19, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119131053/http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/digital\\-and\\-mobile/7865999/warner\\-music\\-acquires\\-songkick\\-the\\-concert\\-discovery\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In May, news media reported that Warner Music led an investment round in [Hooch](/wiki/Hooch_%28application%29 \"Hooch (application)\"), a popular subscription\\-lifestyle application including blockchain\\-based payment technology.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://cheddar.com/videos/hooch\\-plans\\-to\\-launch\\-blockchain\\-powered\\-tap\\-coin \\| publisher \\= Cheddar TV \\| title \\= Hooch Plans to Launch Blockchain\\-Powered Tap Coin \\| access\\-date \\= June 6, 2018 \\| archive\\-date \\= June 18, 2018 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175449/https://cheddar.com/videos/hooch\\-plans\\-to\\-launch\\-blockchain\\-powered\\-tap\\-coin \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"Announced on June 18, 2018, but effective on October 1, 2018, Warner Music Group launched Elektra Music Group as a stand\\-alone staffed music company with the labels [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records \"Elektra Records\"), [Fueled By Ramen](/wiki/Fueled_By_Ramen \"Fueled By Ramen\"), [Low Country Sound](/wiki/Low_Country_Sound \"Low Country Sound\"), Black Cement, and [Roadrunner Records](/wiki/Roadrunner_Records \"Roadrunner Records\"). A handful of major artists would transfer from Atlantic. This returned the group back to the Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic (WEA) triad that had marked the original company organization for decades.{{cite news \\|last\\=Aswad \\|first\\=Jem \\|title\\=Warner to Launch Elektra Music Group as Stand\\-Alone Company \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\\-to\\-launch\\-elektra\\-music\\-group\\-as\\-stand\\-alone\\-company\\-1202849325/ \\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2018 \\|work\\=Variety \\|date\\=June 18, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618155901/https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\\-to\\-launch\\-elektra\\-music\\-group\\-as\\-stand\\-alone\\-company\\-1202849325/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On August 2, 2018, Warner Music announced that it acquired [Uproxx Media Group](/wiki/Uproxx \"Uproxx\") and its properties (except for BroBible, which will continue to publish independently) for an undisclosed sum, although Uproxx has raised around $43m (£33m) from previous investment, which provides some sense of the firm's valuation.{{cite news \\|last\\=Maytom \\|first\\=Tim \\|title\\=Uproxx Media Group Acquired by Warner Music Group \\|url\\=https://www.mobilemarketingmagazine.com/uproxx\\-media\\-group\\-acquires\\-by\\-warner\\-music\\-group \\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2018 \\|work\\=Mobile Marketing Magazine \\|date\\=August 3, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 4, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804140556/https://www.mobilemarketingmagazine.com/uproxx\\-media\\-group\\-acquires\\-by\\-warner\\-music\\-group \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In September 2018, WMG acquired German merchandise retailer [EMP Merchandising](/wiki/EMP_Merchandising \"EMP Merchandising\") from [Sycamore Partners](/wiki/Sycamore_Partners \"Sycamore Partners\") for $180 million.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\\-music\\-to\\-acquire\\-emp\\-merchandising\\-for\\-180\\-million\\-1202944001 \\|title\\=Warner Music to Acquire EMP Merchandising for $180 Million \\|work\\=Variety.com \\|date\\=September 17, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=September 17, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 17, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170108/https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/warner\\-music\\-to\\-acquire\\-emp\\-merchandising\\-for\\-180\\-million\\-1202944001/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In October 2018, Warner Music Group announced the launch of the WMG Boost seed venture fund.{{cite news \\|last\\=Bowenbank \\|first\\=Starr \\|title\\=Warner Music Announces WMG Boost, An Investment Fund for Start\\-Ups \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8478476/warner\\-music\\-wmg\\-boost\\-investment\\-fund\\-start\\-ups \\|access\\-date\\=October 8, 2018 \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|date\\=October 5, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 6, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006014046/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8478476/warner\\-music\\-wmg\\-boost\\-investment\\-fund\\-start\\-ups \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Several labels of Warner Music moved into the [Los Angeles Arts District](/wiki/Arts_District%2C_Los_Angeles \"Arts District, Los Angeles\") in 2019 where the company had purchased a former [Ford Motor Company](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") assembly plant.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/business/la\\-fi\\-arts\\-district\\-ford\\-factory\\-warner\\-music\\-20190407\\-story.html\\|title\\=Warner Music turns former Ford assembly plant into Arts District music factory\\|last\\=Vincent\\|first\\=Roger\\|date\\=April 7, 2019\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=April 8, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=April 8, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408002418/https://www.latimes.com/business/la\\-fi\\-arts\\-district\\-ford\\-factory\\-warner\\-music\\-20190407\\-story.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### 2020s",
"On March 9, 2020, WMG expanded to India, creating the Warner Music India unit based in [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\") and handling business in other countries for the [South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation](/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation \"South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation\"). Jay Mehta (former executive of [Sony Music India](/wiki/Sony_Music_India \"Sony Music India\")) would take change of the unit as the managing director in April.{{cite news\\|date\\=March 9, 2020\\|title\\=Warner Music Launches in India, With Former Sony Exec Jay Mehta at the Helm\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=Variety\\|url\\=https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/warner\\-music\\-india\\-launch\\-jay\\-mehta\\-1203527524/\\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=April 7, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407012012/https://variety.com/2020/biz/news/warner\\-music\\-india\\-launch\\-jay\\-mehta\\-1203527524/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Before the division's foundation, Warner's releases were distributed in the country by [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\")/[Virgin Records (India) Pvt.](/wiki/Virgin_Records \"Virgin Records\"), and by Sony Music India since EMI's breakup.",
"In August 2020, Warner Music acquired Tel Aviv\\- and New York\\-based IMGN Media in a deal worth approximately $100 million.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Warner Music acquires IMGN, a social media publishing platform, for under $100M\\|url\\=https://techcrunch.com/2020/08/14/warner\\-music\\-acquires\\-imgn\\-a\\-social\\-media\\-publishing\\-platform\\-for\\-under\\-100m/\\|access\\-date\\=September 17, 2020\\|website\\=TechCrunch\\|date\\=August 14, 2020 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In September 2020, WMG acquired the online hip\\-hop magazine [HipHopDX](/wiki/HipHopDX \"HipHopDX\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-acquires\\-hip\\-hop\\-media\\-platform\\-hiphopdx/\\|title\\=Warner Music Group acquires hip\\-hop media platform HipHopDX\\|date\\=September 15, 2020\\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=November 15, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117010801/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-acquires\\-hip\\-hop\\-media\\-platform\\-hiphopdx/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2021, WMG invested an eight figure sum into global multiplayer gaming platform [Roblox](/wiki/Roblox \"Roblox\"). This followed WMG artist Ava Max's live performance on the platform the previous year.{{Cite magazine\\|title\\=Roblox Raises $520M From Warner Music Group and Others\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/tech/9507991/roblox\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\-gaming\\-investment/\\|access\\-date\\=January 16, 2021\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=January 13, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113202756/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/tech/9507991/roblox\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\-gaming\\-investment/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Warner Music Group had planned an [IPO](/wiki/IPO \"IPO\") of current investors' stock in March 2020, but withdrew its IPO just before the March 2 kick off due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Franklin\\|first1\\=Joshua\\|date\\=March 2, 2020\\|title\\=Warner Music, Cole Haan delay IPOs amid coronavirus jitters \\-sources\\|language\\=en\\|work\\=CNBC\\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/02/reuters\\-america\\-warner\\-music\\-cole\\-haan\\-delay\\-ipos\\-amid\\-coronavirus\\-jitters\\-sources.html\\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404055051/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/02/reuters\\-america\\-warner\\-music\\-cole\\-haan\\-delay\\-ipos\\-amid\\-coronavirus\\-jitters\\-sources.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On June 3, 2020, it completed its IPO on [Nasdaq](/wiki/Nasdaq \"Nasdaq\"), raising almost $2 billion with a valuation of $12\\.75 billion, making WMG once again a publicly traded company after previously going private in 2011\\. On June 12, 2020, [Tencent](/wiki/Tencent \"Tencent\") announced that it had purchased 10\\.4% of Warner Music's Class A shares, or 1\\.6% of the company.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/tencent\\-music\\-buys\\-100m\\-stake\\-in\\-warner\\-music\\-group/\\|title\\=Tencent buys $200m\\+ stake in Warner Music Group (update)\\|date\\=June 12, 2020\\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|access\\-date\\=November 15, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=November 27, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127081423/https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/tencent\\-music\\-buys\\-100m\\-stake\\-in\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Tencent already owns 10% of shares of WMG's largest competitor, [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"), which it acquired from [Vivendi](/wiki/Vivendi \"Vivendi\") in March. Also, this makes [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\") the only major music company not directly owned in any percentage by a Chinese company (it is wholly owned by the Japanese conglomerate [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\")).{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=Ingham\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=July 13, 2020\\|title\\=What's Sony Planning in Music – and Will It Involve Tencent?\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/pro/features/sony\\-music\\-future\\-tencent\\-1027314/\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2021\\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308051941/https://www.rollingstone.com/pro/features/sony\\-music\\-future\\-tencent\\-1027314/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In December 2020, WMG signed a partnership deal with [TikTok](/wiki/TikTok \"TikTok\") to provide music to their platform for users to use for their content. The deal is expected to help their revenue grow.{{cite web \\|title\\=Warner Music Group: Modernized And Ready To Play In The New Streaming World \\|url\\=https://seekingalpha.com/article/4419318\\-warner\\-music\\-tuned\\-up\\-for\\-new\\-streaming\\-world \\|website\\=seekingalpha.com \\|date\\=April 15, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=April 15, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415224425/https://seekingalpha.com/article/4419318\\-warner\\-music\\-tuned\\-up\\-for\\-new\\-streaming\\-world \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|title\\=Warner Music signs with TikTok as more record companies jump on social media bandwagon \\|url\\=https://themusicnetwork.com/warner\\-music\\-tiktok\\-deal/ \\|website\\=themusicnetwork.com \\|date\\=January 7, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=January 7, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 29, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429070202/https://themusicnetwork.com/warner\\-music\\-tiktok\\-deal/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In January 2023, Stephen Cooper was succeeded by [Robert Kyncl](/wiki/Robert_Kyncl \"Robert Kyncl\") as CEO of WMG.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Marshall \\|first\\=Elizabeth Dilts \\|date\\=November 22, 2022 \\|title\\=Warner Music's Outgoing CEO Steve Cooper Sees 'New Golden Age of Music' Ahead \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/pro/wmg\\-earnings\\-call\\-ceo\\-steve\\-cooper\\-takeaways/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 11, 2023 \\|magazine\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In July 2023, Warner Music Group formed a partnership with [Canva](/wiki/Canva \"Canva\"), the graphic design platform, to add commercial music to [Canva](/wiki/Canva \"Canva\")'s asset library and enable its customers to insert music clips to their designs.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Canva inks deals with Warner and Merlin to let creators use songs in their content \\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/canva\\-inks\\-deals\\-with\\-warner\\-and\\-merlin\\-to\\-let\\-creators\\-use\\-songs\\-in\\-their\\-content/ \\|access\\-date\\=12 September 2023 \\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|date\\=June 29, 2023 }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Canva Inks Deals With Warner Music Group, Merlin to Let Users Incorporate Song Clips in Their Visual Designs \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2023/digital/news/canva\\-song\\-clips\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\-merlin\\-1235657782/ \\|access\\-date\\=12 September 2023 \\|website\\=Variety\\|date\\=June 29, 2023 }} Also in July 2023, WMG made a music\\-licensing deal with [TikTok](/wiki/TikTok \"TikTok\") which included licensing the Warner Recorded Music and Warner Chappell Music to [TikTok](/wiki/TikTok \"TikTok\"), TikTok Music and TikTok's Commercial Music Library.{{Cite web \\|title\\=TikTok, Warner Music Group to partner in music licensing deal \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/technology/tiktok\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\-partner\\-music\\-licensing\\-deal\\-2023\\-07\\-18/ \\|access\\-date\\=12 September 2023 \\|website\\=Reuters}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=TikTok and Warner Music Group sign 'first of its kind' multi\\-year licensing deal – including scope for 'additional and alternative economic models' \\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/tiktok\\-warner\\-music\\-group\\-sign\\-first\\-of\\-its\\-kind\\-multi\\-year\\-licensing\\-deal\\-including\\-scope\\-for\\-additional\\-and\\-alternative\\-economic\\-models/ \\|access\\-date\\=12 September 2023 \\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|date\\=July 18, 2023 }}",
"In September 2023, WMG opened a new creative hub in Berlin.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Warner Music Group launches new creative hub in Berlin \\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-group\\-launches\\-new\\-creative\\-hub\\-in\\-berlin/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2023 \\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|date\\=September 18, 2023 }} Later in October 2023, Warner Music Group launched a new creative hub in Amsterdam to house Benelux units and Spinnin' Records.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Warner Music opens new creative hub in Amsterdam to house Benelux units and Spinnin' Records \\|url\\=https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/warner\\-music\\-opens\\-new\\-creative\\-hub\\-in\\-amsterdam\\-to\\-house\\-benelux\\-units\\-and\\-spinnin\\-records/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2023 \\|website\\=Music Business Worldwide\\|date\\=October 23, 2023 }}",
""
] |
### 1950s and 1960s
The film studio [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros.") had no record label division at the time one of its contracted actors, [Tab Hunter](/wiki/Tab_Hunter "Tab Hunter"), scored a [No. 1 hit song](/wiki/Young_Love_%281956_song%29 "Young Love (1956 song)") in 1957 for [Dot Records](/wiki/Dot_Records "Dot Records"), a division of rival [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures "Paramount Pictures"). In order to prevent any repetition of its actors recording for rival companies, and to also capitalize on the music business, [Warner Bros. Records](/wiki/Warner_Bros._Records "Warner Bros. Records") was created in 1958; its original office was located above the film studio's machine shop on 3701 Warner Boulevard in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California "Burbank, California").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \|title\=FAQ \|publisher\=Warner Bros. Records \|access\-date\=February 20, 2011 \|archive\-date\=July 16, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716141442/http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\-hunter\-dead\-damn\-yankees\-star\-was\-86\-1057871\|title\=Tab Hunter, Star of 'Damn Yankees,' Dies at 86\|work\=The Hollywood Reporter\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=August 2, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802051944/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\-hunter\-dead\-damn\-yankees\-star\-was\-86\-1057871\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\_for\_posterity\_revolutions\_in\_so/\|title\=Recorded for Posterity: 'Revolutions in Sound: Warner Brothers Records, The First 50 Years'\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213112/https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\_for\_posterity\_revolutions\_in\_so/\|url\-status\=live}} In 1963, Warner purchased [Reprise Records](/wiki/Reprise_Records "Reprise Records"), which had been founded by [Frank Sinatra](/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra") three years earlier so that he could have more creative control over his recordings.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\-buys\-reprise\-records\-but\-sinatra\-retains\-onethird.html\|title\=Warner Buys Reprise Records, But Sinatra Retains One\-third\|last\=Schumach\|first\=Murray\|date\=August 8, 1963\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003645/https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\-buys\-reprise\-records\-but\-sinatra\-retains\-onethird.html\|url\-status\=live}} With the Reprise acquisition, Warner gained the services of [Mo Ostin](/wiki/Mo_Ostin "Mo Ostin"), who was mainly responsible for the success of Warner/Reprise.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\-bros\-ceo\-mo\-ostin\-prince\|title\=Former Warner Bros. CEO Mo Ostin Recalls His Long Relationship With Prince: 'He Was a Fearless Artist'\|last\=Aswad\|first\=Jem\|date\=April 26, 2016\|magazine\=Billboard\|access\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-date\=July 31, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731221805/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\-bros\-ceo\-mo\-ostin\-prince\|url\-status\=live}}
After Warner Bros. was sold to [Seven Arts Productions](/wiki/Seven_Arts_Productions "Seven Arts Productions") in 1967 (forming [Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts](/wiki/Warner_Bros.-Seven_Arts "Warner Bros.-Seven Arts")), it purchased [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records "Atlantic Records"), founded in 1947 and WMG's oldest label (until WMG completed its acquisition of Parlophone in 2013\), as well as its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records"). This acquisition brought [Neil Young](/wiki/Neil_Young "Neil Young") into the company fold, initially as a member of [Buffalo Springfield](/wiki/Buffalo_Springfield "Buffalo Springfield"). Young became one of Warner's longest\-established artists, recording both as a solo artist and with groups under the Warner\-owned Atlantic, Atco, and Reprise labels. Young also recorded five albums for [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records "Geffen Records") during that label's period of Warner distribution. The Geffen catalogue, now owned by [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group"), represents Young's only major recordings not under WMG ownership.
Atlantic, its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records"), and its affiliate [Stax Records](/wiki/Stax_Records "Stax Records") paved the way for Warner's rise to industry prominence. The purchase brought in Atlantic's lucrative back catalogue, which included classic recordings by [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles"), [the Drifters](/wiki/The_Drifters "The Drifters"), [the Coasters](/wiki/The_Coasters "The Coasters"), and many more. In the mid\-1960s, Atlantic/Stax released a string of landmark [soul music](/wiki/Soul_music "Soul music") recordings by artists including [Booker T \& the MGs](/wiki/Booker_T_%26_the_MGs "Booker T & the MGs"), [Sam \& Dave](/wiki/Sam_%26_Dave "Sam & Dave"), [Wilson Pickett](/wiki/Wilson_Pickett "Wilson Pickett"), [Otis Redding](/wiki/Otis_Redding "Otis Redding"), [Ben E. King](/wiki/Ben_E._King "Ben E. King"), and [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin "Aretha Franklin"). Ultimately, the sale led to Stax leaving Atlantic because Seven Arts Productions insisted on keeping the rights to Stax recordings. Atlantic moved decisively into rock and pop in the late 1960s and 1970s, signing major British and American acts including [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin"), [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 "Cream (band)"), [Crosby Stills \& Nash](/wiki/Crosby_Stills_%26_Nash "Crosby Stills & Nash"), [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 "Yes (band)"), [Emerson, Lake \& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer "Emerson, Lake & Palmer"), [Genesis](/wiki/Genesis_%28band%29 "Genesis (band)"), [Average White Band](/wiki/Average_White_Band "Average White Band"), [Dr. John](/wiki/Dr._John "Dr. John"), [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson "King Crimson"), [Bette Midler](/wiki/Bette_Midler "Bette Midler"), [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music "Roxy Music"), and [Foreigner](/wiki/Foreigner_%28band%29 "Foreigner (band)").
In 1969, two years after being purchased by Seven Arts, the Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts company was sold to the [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company "Kinney National Company"). In mid\-1972, Kinney Music of Canada, Ltd. was renamed [WEA Music of Canada, Ltd.](/wiki/Warner_Music_Canada "Warner Music Canada") (French: *WEA Musique du Canada, Ltée*) as the Canadian branch of the WEA (Warner, Elektra, Atlantic) company – a division of Warner Communications Inc. Founder and president Ken Middleton ran the Canadian company until his retirement in 1982\. The name remained until 1989, when in 1990, it became Warner Music Canada Ltd – a subsidiary of the US\-based Warner Music International. Warner Communications CEO [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 "Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)") led the group through its most successful period until his death in 1992\.
An earlier attempt by Warner Bros. Records to create an in\-house distribution arm in 1958 did not materialize. So in 1969, [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records "Elektra Records") boss [Jac Holzman](/wiki/Jac_Holzman "Jac Holzman") approached Atlantic's [Jerry Wexler](/wiki/Jerry_Wexler "Jerry Wexler") with the idea of setting up a joint distribution network for Warner, Elektra, and Atlantic. An experimental branch was established in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") as a possible prototype for an expanded operation.{{cite news\|title\=WEA at 25\|last\=Seay\|first\=David\|date\=August 31, 1996\|magazine\=Billboard\|page\=36}}
#### Atlantic exerts autonomy
It was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president [Ahmet Ertegun](/wiki/Ahmet_Ertegun "Ahmet Ertegun") viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as a rival. Maitland believed that, as vice\-president in charge of the Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts music division, he should have final say over all recording operations, and he further angered Ertegun by proposing that most of Atlantic's back\-office functions (such as marketing and distribution) be combined with the existing departments at Warner/Reprise. In retrospect Ertegun clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him, and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland.
Maitland had put off renegotiating the contracts of Joe Smith and Mo Ostin, the presidents of the Warner Bros. and Reprise labels, and this provided Ertegun with an effective means of undermining Maitland. When Wexler—now a major shareholder—found out about the contract issue he and Ertegun began pressuring [Eliot Hyman](/wiki/Eliot_Hyman "Eliot Hyman") to get Smith and Ostin under contract, ostensibly because they were worried that the two executives might move to rival labels—and in fact Ostin had received overtures from both the MGM and ABC labels.
In 1969, the wisdom of Hyman's investments was proved when [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company "Kinney National Company") purchased Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts for $400 million, more than eight times what Hyman had paid for Warner/Reprise and Atlantic combined. From the base of his family's funeral parlour business, Kinney president [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 "Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)") had rapidly built the Kinney company into a profitable conglomerate with interests that included [comic publishing](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics"), the [Ashley\-Famous](/wiki/Ashley-Famous "Ashley-Famous") talent agency, parking lots and cleaning services. Following the takeover, Warners' music group briefly adopted the 'umbrella' name Kinney Music, because U.S. anti\-trust laws at the time prevented the three labels from trading as one.
Ross was primarily focused on rebuilding the company's ailing movie division and was happy to defer to the advice of the managers of the company's record labels, since he knew that they were generating most of the group's profits. Ertegun's campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, beginning with its soon\-to\-be\-established Warner Bros. subsidiary in Australia, but when Warner executive Phil Rose arrived in Australia, he discovered that just one week earlier Atlantic had signed a new four\-year distribution deal with a rival local label, [Festival Records](/wiki/Festival_Records_%28Australia%29 "Festival Records (Australia)") (owned by [Rupert Murdoch](/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch "Rupert Murdoch")'s [News Limited](/wiki/News_Limited "News Limited")). Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive [Ted Ashley](/wiki/Ted_Ashley "Ted Ashley"), but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland.Goodman, 1997, p. 146
As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smith's contracts, a recommendation Ross was happy to accept. Ostin however had received overtures from other companies including [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records "MGM Records") and [ABC Records](/wiki/ABC_Records "ABC Records") and when he met with Ertegun in January 1970 and was offered Maitland's job, he was unwilling to re\-sign immediately. In response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitland's days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division.
Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantic's execs the Ertegun brothers (Ahmet and Neshui) and Wexler owned stock in Kinney.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\-tuned\-by\-stan\-cornyn\-maitland\-moves\-on\|title\=Stay Tuned By Stan Cornyn: Maitland Moves On\|work\=rhino.com\|access\-date\=February 2, 2015\|archive\-date\=February 2, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202200329/http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\-tuned\-by\-stan\-cornyn\-maitland\-moves\-on\|url\-status\=live}}
Ostin was understandably concerned that, if he accepted the position, the Warner Bros. staff would feel that he had stabbed Maitland in the back, but his attorney convinced him that Maitland's departure was inevitable, regardless of whether or not he accepted the post (succinctly advising him, "Don't be a schmuck"). On Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitland's house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros. Records, with Joe Smith as his executive vice\-president.Goodman, 1997, pp. 146–147 Ertegun nominally remained the head of Atlantic, but since both Ostin and Smith owed their new positions to him, Ertegun was now the *de facto* head of the Warner music division. Ertegun was given the formal title of executive vice\-president\-Music Group. Maitland moved to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records "MCA Records") later that year and successfully consolidated MCA's labels, which he couldn't do at Warner.
|
[
"### 1950s and 1960s",
"The film studio [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\") had no record label division at the time one of its contracted actors, [Tab Hunter](/wiki/Tab_Hunter \"Tab Hunter\"), scored a [No. 1 hit song](/wiki/Young_Love_%281956_song%29 \"Young Love (1956 song)\") in 1957 for [Dot Records](/wiki/Dot_Records \"Dot Records\"), a division of rival [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures \"Paramount Pictures\"). In order to prevent any repetition of its actors recording for rival companies, and to also capitalize on the music business, [Warner Bros. Records](/wiki/Warner_Bros._Records \"Warner Bros. Records\") was created in 1958; its original office was located above the film studio's machine shop on 3701 Warner Boulevard in [Burbank, California](/wiki/Burbank%2C_California \"Burbank, California\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \\|title\\=FAQ \\|publisher\\=Warner Bros. Records \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716141442/http://www.warnerbrosrecords.com/faq \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\\-hunter\\-dead\\-damn\\-yankees\\-star\\-was\\-86\\-1057871\\|title\\=Tab Hunter, Star of 'Damn Yankees,' Dies at 86\\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=August 2, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802051944/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tab\\-hunter\\-dead\\-damn\\-yankees\\-star\\-was\\-86\\-1057871\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\\_for\\_posterity\\_revolutions\\_in\\_so/\\|title\\=Recorded for Posterity: 'Revolutions in Sound: Warner Brothers Records, The First 50 Years'\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213112/https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2008/12/17/recorded\\_for\\_posterity\\_revolutions\\_in\\_so/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 1963, Warner purchased [Reprise Records](/wiki/Reprise_Records \"Reprise Records\"), which had been founded by [Frank Sinatra](/wiki/Frank_Sinatra \"Frank Sinatra\") three years earlier so that he could have more creative control over his recordings.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\\-buys\\-reprise\\-records\\-but\\-sinatra\\-retains\\-onethird.html\\|title\\=Warner Buys Reprise Records, But Sinatra Retains One\\-third\\|last\\=Schumach\\|first\\=Murray\\|date\\=August 8, 1963\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003645/https://www.nytimes.com/1963/08/08/archives/warner\\-buys\\-reprise\\-records\\-but\\-sinatra\\-retains\\-onethird.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} With the Reprise acquisition, Warner gained the services of [Mo Ostin](/wiki/Mo_Ostin \"Mo Ostin\"), who was mainly responsible for the success of Warner/Reprise.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\\-bros\\-ceo\\-mo\\-ostin\\-prince\\|title\\=Former Warner Bros. CEO Mo Ostin Recalls His Long Relationship With Prince: 'He Was a Fearless Artist'\\|last\\=Aswad\\|first\\=Jem\\|date\\=April 26, 2016\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=July 31, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731221805/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7341821/warner\\-bros\\-ceo\\-mo\\-ostin\\-prince\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"After Warner Bros. was sold to [Seven Arts Productions](/wiki/Seven_Arts_Productions \"Seven Arts Productions\") in 1967 (forming [Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts](/wiki/Warner_Bros.-Seven_Arts \"Warner Bros.-Seven Arts\")), it purchased [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records \"Atlantic Records\"), founded in 1947 and WMG's oldest label (until WMG completed its acquisition of Parlophone in 2013\\), as well as its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\"). This acquisition brought [Neil Young](/wiki/Neil_Young \"Neil Young\") into the company fold, initially as a member of [Buffalo Springfield](/wiki/Buffalo_Springfield \"Buffalo Springfield\"). Young became one of Warner's longest\\-established artists, recording both as a solo artist and with groups under the Warner\\-owned Atlantic, Atco, and Reprise labels. Young also recorded five albums for [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records \"Geffen Records\") during that label's period of Warner distribution. The Geffen catalogue, now owned by [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"), represents Young's only major recordings not under WMG ownership.",
"Atlantic, its subsidiary [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\"), and its affiliate [Stax Records](/wiki/Stax_Records \"Stax Records\") paved the way for Warner's rise to industry prominence. The purchase brought in Atlantic's lucrative back catalogue, which included classic recordings by [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles \"Ray Charles\"), [the Drifters](/wiki/The_Drifters \"The Drifters\"), [the Coasters](/wiki/The_Coasters \"The Coasters\"), and many more. In the mid\\-1960s, Atlantic/Stax released a string of landmark [soul music](/wiki/Soul_music \"Soul music\") recordings by artists including [Booker T \\& the MGs](/wiki/Booker_T_%26_the_MGs \"Booker T & the MGs\"), [Sam \\& Dave](/wiki/Sam_%26_Dave \"Sam & Dave\"), [Wilson Pickett](/wiki/Wilson_Pickett \"Wilson Pickett\"), [Otis Redding](/wiki/Otis_Redding \"Otis Redding\"), [Ben E. King](/wiki/Ben_E._King \"Ben E. King\"), and [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\"). Ultimately, the sale led to Stax leaving Atlantic because Seven Arts Productions insisted on keeping the rights to Stax recordings. Atlantic moved decisively into rock and pop in the late 1960s and 1970s, signing major British and American acts including [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\"), [Cream](/wiki/Cream_%28band%29 \"Cream (band)\"), [Crosby Stills \\& Nash](/wiki/Crosby_Stills_%26_Nash \"Crosby Stills & Nash\"), [Yes](/wiki/Yes_%28band%29 \"Yes (band)\"), [Emerson, Lake \\& Palmer](/wiki/Emerson%2C_Lake_%26_Palmer \"Emerson, Lake & Palmer\"), [Genesis](/wiki/Genesis_%28band%29 \"Genesis (band)\"), [Average White Band](/wiki/Average_White_Band \"Average White Band\"), [Dr. John](/wiki/Dr._John \"Dr. John\"), [King Crimson](/wiki/King_Crimson \"King Crimson\"), [Bette Midler](/wiki/Bette_Midler \"Bette Midler\"), [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music \"Roxy Music\"), and [Foreigner](/wiki/Foreigner_%28band%29 \"Foreigner (band)\").",
"In 1969, two years after being purchased by Seven Arts, the Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts company was sold to the [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company \"Kinney National Company\"). In mid\\-1972, Kinney Music of Canada, Ltd. was renamed [WEA Music of Canada, Ltd.](/wiki/Warner_Music_Canada \"Warner Music Canada\") (French: *WEA Musique du Canada, Ltée*) as the Canadian branch of the WEA (Warner, Elektra, Atlantic) company – a division of Warner Communications Inc. Founder and president Ken Middleton ran the Canadian company until his retirement in 1982\\. The name remained until 1989, when in 1990, it became Warner Music Canada Ltd – a subsidiary of the US\\-based Warner Music International. Warner Communications CEO [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 \"Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)\") led the group through its most successful period until his death in 1992\\.",
"An earlier attempt by Warner Bros. Records to create an in\\-house distribution arm in 1958 did not materialize. So in 1969, [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records \"Elektra Records\") boss [Jac Holzman](/wiki/Jac_Holzman \"Jac Holzman\") approached Atlantic's [Jerry Wexler](/wiki/Jerry_Wexler \"Jerry Wexler\") with the idea of setting up a joint distribution network for Warner, Elektra, and Atlantic. An experimental branch was established in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") as a possible prototype for an expanded operation.{{cite news\\|title\\=WEA at 25\\|last\\=Seay\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=August 31, 1996\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|page\\=36}}",
"#### Atlantic exerts autonomy",
"It was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president [Ahmet Ertegun](/wiki/Ahmet_Ertegun \"Ahmet Ertegun\") viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as a rival. Maitland believed that, as vice\\-president in charge of the Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts music division, he should have final say over all recording operations, and he further angered Ertegun by proposing that most of Atlantic's back\\-office functions (such as marketing and distribution) be combined with the existing departments at Warner/Reprise. In retrospect Ertegun clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him, and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland.",
"Maitland had put off renegotiating the contracts of Joe Smith and Mo Ostin, the presidents of the Warner Bros. and Reprise labels, and this provided Ertegun with an effective means of undermining Maitland. When Wexler—now a major shareholder—found out about the contract issue he and Ertegun began pressuring [Eliot Hyman](/wiki/Eliot_Hyman \"Eliot Hyman\") to get Smith and Ostin under contract, ostensibly because they were worried that the two executives might move to rival labels—and in fact Ostin had received overtures from both the MGM and ABC labels.",
"In 1969, the wisdom of Hyman's investments was proved when [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company \"Kinney National Company\") purchased Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts for $400 million, more than eight times what Hyman had paid for Warner/Reprise and Atlantic combined. From the base of his family's funeral parlour business, Kinney president [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 \"Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)\") had rapidly built the Kinney company into a profitable conglomerate with interests that included [comic publishing](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\"), the [Ashley\\-Famous](/wiki/Ashley-Famous \"Ashley-Famous\") talent agency, parking lots and cleaning services. Following the takeover, Warners' music group briefly adopted the 'umbrella' name Kinney Music, because U.S. anti\\-trust laws at the time prevented the three labels from trading as one.",
"Ross was primarily focused on rebuilding the company's ailing movie division and was happy to defer to the advice of the managers of the company's record labels, since he knew that they were generating most of the group's profits. Ertegun's campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, beginning with its soon\\-to\\-be\\-established Warner Bros. subsidiary in Australia, but when Warner executive Phil Rose arrived in Australia, he discovered that just one week earlier Atlantic had signed a new four\\-year distribution deal with a rival local label, [Festival Records](/wiki/Festival_Records_%28Australia%29 \"Festival Records (Australia)\") (owned by [Rupert Murdoch](/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch \"Rupert Murdoch\")'s [News Limited](/wiki/News_Limited \"News Limited\")). Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive [Ted Ashley](/wiki/Ted_Ashley \"Ted Ashley\"), but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland.Goodman, 1997, p. 146",
"As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smith's contracts, a recommendation Ross was happy to accept. Ostin however had received overtures from other companies including [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records \"MGM Records\") and [ABC Records](/wiki/ABC_Records \"ABC Records\") and when he met with Ertegun in January 1970 and was offered Maitland's job, he was unwilling to re\\-sign immediately. In response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitland's days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division.",
"Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantic's execs the Ertegun brothers (Ahmet and Neshui) and Wexler owned stock in Kinney.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\\-tuned\\-by\\-stan\\-cornyn\\-maitland\\-moves\\-on\\|title\\=Stay Tuned By Stan Cornyn: Maitland Moves On\\|work\\=rhino.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 2, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=February 2, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202200329/http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\\-tuned\\-by\\-stan\\-cornyn\\-maitland\\-moves\\-on\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Ostin was understandably concerned that, if he accepted the position, the Warner Bros. staff would feel that he had stabbed Maitland in the back, but his attorney convinced him that Maitland's departure was inevitable, regardless of whether or not he accepted the post (succinctly advising him, \"Don't be a schmuck\"). On Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitland's house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros. Records, with Joe Smith as his executive vice\\-president.Goodman, 1997, pp. 146–147 Ertegun nominally remained the head of Atlantic, but since both Ostin and Smith owed their new positions to him, Ertegun was now the *de facto* head of the Warner music division. Ertegun was given the formal title of executive vice\\-president\\-Music Group. Maitland moved to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records \"MCA Records\") later that year and successfully consolidated MCA's labels, which he couldn't do at Warner.",
""
] |
#### Atlantic exerts autonomy
It was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president [Ahmet Ertegun](/wiki/Ahmet_Ertegun "Ahmet Ertegun") viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as a rival. Maitland believed that, as vice\-president in charge of the Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts music division, he should have final say over all recording operations, and he further angered Ertegun by proposing that most of Atlantic's back\-office functions (such as marketing and distribution) be combined with the existing departments at Warner/Reprise. In retrospect Ertegun clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him, and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland.
Maitland had put off renegotiating the contracts of Joe Smith and Mo Ostin, the presidents of the Warner Bros. and Reprise labels, and this provided Ertegun with an effective means of undermining Maitland. When Wexler—now a major shareholder—found out about the contract issue he and Ertegun began pressuring [Eliot Hyman](/wiki/Eliot_Hyman "Eliot Hyman") to get Smith and Ostin under contract, ostensibly because they were worried that the two executives might move to rival labels—and in fact Ostin had received overtures from both the MGM and ABC labels.
In 1969, the wisdom of Hyman's investments was proved when [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company "Kinney National Company") purchased Warner Bros.\-Seven Arts for $400 million, more than eight times what Hyman had paid for Warner/Reprise and Atlantic combined. From the base of his family's funeral parlour business, Kinney president [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 "Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)") had rapidly built the Kinney company into a profitable conglomerate with interests that included [comic publishing](/wiki/DC_Comics "DC Comics"), the [Ashley\-Famous](/wiki/Ashley-Famous "Ashley-Famous") talent agency, parking lots and cleaning services. Following the takeover, Warners' music group briefly adopted the 'umbrella' name Kinney Music, because U.S. anti\-trust laws at the time prevented the three labels from trading as one.
Ross was primarily focused on rebuilding the company's ailing movie division and was happy to defer to the advice of the managers of the company's record labels, since he knew that they were generating most of the group's profits. Ertegun's campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, beginning with its soon\-to\-be\-established Warner Bros. subsidiary in Australia, but when Warner executive Phil Rose arrived in Australia, he discovered that just one week earlier Atlantic had signed a new four\-year distribution deal with a rival local label, [Festival Records](/wiki/Festival_Records_%28Australia%29 "Festival Records (Australia)") (owned by [Rupert Murdoch](/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch "Rupert Murdoch")'s [News Limited](/wiki/News_Limited "News Limited")). Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive [Ted Ashley](/wiki/Ted_Ashley "Ted Ashley"), but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland.Goodman, 1997, p. 146
As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smith's contracts, a recommendation Ross was happy to accept. Ostin however had received overtures from other companies including [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records "MGM Records") and [ABC Records](/wiki/ABC_Records "ABC Records") and when he met with Ertegun in January 1970 and was offered Maitland's job, he was unwilling to re\-sign immediately. In response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitland's days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division.
Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantic's execs the Ertegun brothers (Ahmet and Neshui) and Wexler owned stock in Kinney.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\-tuned\-by\-stan\-cornyn\-maitland\-moves\-on\|title\=Stay Tuned By Stan Cornyn: Maitland Moves On\|work\=rhino.com\|access\-date\=February 2, 2015\|archive\-date\=February 2, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202200329/http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\-tuned\-by\-stan\-cornyn\-maitland\-moves\-on\|url\-status\=live}}
Ostin was understandably concerned that, if he accepted the position, the Warner Bros. staff would feel that he had stabbed Maitland in the back, but his attorney convinced him that Maitland's departure was inevitable, regardless of whether or not he accepted the post (succinctly advising him, "Don't be a schmuck"). On Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitland's house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros. Records, with Joe Smith as his executive vice\-president.Goodman, 1997, pp. 146–147 Ertegun nominally remained the head of Atlantic, but since both Ostin and Smith owed their new positions to him, Ertegun was now the *de facto* head of the Warner music division. Ertegun was given the formal title of executive vice\-president\-Music Group. Maitland moved to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records "MCA Records") later that year and successfully consolidated MCA's labels, which he couldn't do at Warner.
|
[
"#### Atlantic exerts autonomy",
"It was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president [Ahmet Ertegun](/wiki/Ahmet_Ertegun \"Ahmet Ertegun\") viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as a rival. Maitland believed that, as vice\\-president in charge of the Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts music division, he should have final say over all recording operations, and he further angered Ertegun by proposing that most of Atlantic's back\\-office functions (such as marketing and distribution) be combined with the existing departments at Warner/Reprise. In retrospect Ertegun clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him, and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland.",
"Maitland had put off renegotiating the contracts of Joe Smith and Mo Ostin, the presidents of the Warner Bros. and Reprise labels, and this provided Ertegun with an effective means of undermining Maitland. When Wexler—now a major shareholder—found out about the contract issue he and Ertegun began pressuring [Eliot Hyman](/wiki/Eliot_Hyman \"Eliot Hyman\") to get Smith and Ostin under contract, ostensibly because they were worried that the two executives might move to rival labels—and in fact Ostin had received overtures from both the MGM and ABC labels.",
"In 1969, the wisdom of Hyman's investments was proved when [Kinney National Company](/wiki/Kinney_National_Company \"Kinney National Company\") purchased Warner Bros.\\-Seven Arts for $400 million, more than eight times what Hyman had paid for Warner/Reprise and Atlantic combined. From the base of his family's funeral parlour business, Kinney president [Steve Ross](/wiki/Steve_Ross_%28Time_Warner_CEO%29 \"Steve Ross (Time Warner CEO)\") had rapidly built the Kinney company into a profitable conglomerate with interests that included [comic publishing](/wiki/DC_Comics \"DC Comics\"), the [Ashley\\-Famous](/wiki/Ashley-Famous \"Ashley-Famous\") talent agency, parking lots and cleaning services. Following the takeover, Warners' music group briefly adopted the 'umbrella' name Kinney Music, because U.S. anti\\-trust laws at the time prevented the three labels from trading as one.",
"Ross was primarily focused on rebuilding the company's ailing movie division and was happy to defer to the advice of the managers of the company's record labels, since he knew that they were generating most of the group's profits. Ertegun's campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, beginning with its soon\\-to\\-be\\-established Warner Bros. subsidiary in Australia, but when Warner executive Phil Rose arrived in Australia, he discovered that just one week earlier Atlantic had signed a new four\\-year distribution deal with a rival local label, [Festival Records](/wiki/Festival_Records_%28Australia%29 \"Festival Records (Australia)\") (owned by [Rupert Murdoch](/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch \"Rupert Murdoch\")'s [News Limited](/wiki/News_Limited \"News Limited\")). Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive [Ted Ashley](/wiki/Ted_Ashley \"Ted Ashley\"), but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland.Goodman, 1997, p. 146",
"As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smith's contracts, a recommendation Ross was happy to accept. Ostin however had received overtures from other companies including [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records \"MGM Records\") and [ABC Records](/wiki/ABC_Records \"ABC Records\") and when he met with Ertegun in January 1970 and was offered Maitland's job, he was unwilling to re\\-sign immediately. In response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitland's days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division.",
"Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantic's execs the Ertegun brothers (Ahmet and Neshui) and Wexler owned stock in Kinney.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\\-tuned\\-by\\-stan\\-cornyn\\-maitland\\-moves\\-on\\|title\\=Stay Tuned By Stan Cornyn: Maitland Moves On\\|work\\=rhino.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 2, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=February 2, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202200329/http://www.rhino.com/article/stay\\-tuned\\-by\\-stan\\-cornyn\\-maitland\\-moves\\-on\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Ostin was understandably concerned that, if he accepted the position, the Warner Bros. staff would feel that he had stabbed Maitland in the back, but his attorney convinced him that Maitland's departure was inevitable, regardless of whether or not he accepted the post (succinctly advising him, \"Don't be a schmuck\"). On Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitland's house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros. Records, with Joe Smith as his executive vice\\-president.Goodman, 1997, pp. 146–147 Ertegun nominally remained the head of Atlantic, but since both Ostin and Smith owed their new positions to him, Ertegun was now the *de facto* head of the Warner music division. Ertegun was given the formal title of executive vice\\-president\\-Music Group. Maitland moved to [MCA Records](/wiki/MCA_Records \"MCA Records\") later that year and successfully consolidated MCA's labels, which he couldn't do at Warner.",
""
] |
### 1970s
During the 1970s, the Kinney group built up a commanding position in the music industry. In 1970, Kinney bought [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records "Elektra Records") and its sister label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records "Nonesuch Records") (founded by Jac Holzman in 1950\) for $10 million, bringing in leading rock acts, including [the Doors](/wiki/The_Doors "The Doors"), [Tim Buckley](/wiki/Tim_Buckley "Tim Buckley"), and [Love](/wiki/Love_%28band%29 "Love (band)"), and its historically significant folk archive, along with the successful budget Western classical\-music label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records "Nonesuch Records").
The purchase of Elektra\-Nonesuch brought a rich back catalogue of folk music as well as the renowned Nonesuch catalogue of classical and world music. Elektra founder Jac Holzman ran the label under Warners for two years, but by that time, he was by his own admission "burnt out" after twenty years in the business. Kinney president Steve Ross subsequently appointed Holzman as part of a seven\-person "[brain trust](/wiki/Brain_trust "Brain trust")" tasked with investigating opportunities presented by new technologies, a role Holzman was eager to accept.Goodman, 1997, p. 248 The same year, the group established its first overseas offices in Canada and Australia. By that time the "Seven Arts" moniker was dropped from the Warner Bros. name. Warner Bros. also founded the [Casablanca Records](/wiki/Casablanca_Records "Casablanca Records") subsidiary, headed by [Neil Bogart](/wiki/Neil_Bogart "Neil Bogart"); but several years later Casablanca became independent from Warner Bros.
#### Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic and worldwide distribution
{{Anchor\|Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic\|WEA}}
With the Elektra acquisition, the next step was forming an in\-house distribution arm for the co\-owned labels. By this time, Warner\-Reprise's frustrations with its current distributors had reached breaking point; Joe Smith (then executive vice\-president of Warner Bros.) recalled that the [Grateful Dead](/wiki/Grateful_Dead "Grateful Dead") were becoming a major act but the distributor was constantly out of stock of their albums. These circumstances facilitated the full establishment of the group's in\-house distribution arm, initially called .{{cite web\|url\=http://www.discogs.com/label/640338\-Kinney\-Record\-Group\-International\|title\=Kinney Record Group International\|website\=Discogs.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 10, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071820/https://www.discogs.com/label/640338\-Kinney\-Record\-Group\-International\|url\-status\=live}}Seay, 1996, p. 40 By late 1972, US anti\-trust laws had changed and the company was renamed **Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic**, WEA for short, which was renamed Warner Music in 1991 (the word "group" was added after the formation of [AOL Time Warner](/wiki/AOL_Time_Warner "AOL Time Warner") in 2001\).
WEA was an early champion of [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music "Heavy metal music") rock music. Several such bands, including three major British pioneers [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin"), [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath "Black Sabbath"), and [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple "Deep Purple"), were all signed to WEA's labels, at least in the United States. Among the earliest American metal acts to be signed to WEA were [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper"), [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose_%28band%29 "Montrose (band)"), and [Van Halen](/wiki/Van_Halen "Van Halen").
Up to this point the Kinney\-owned record companies had relied on licensing deals with overseas record labels to manufacture, distribute and promote its products in other countries; concurrent with the establishment of its new distribution arm, the company now began establishing subsidiaries in the other major markets, beginning with the creation of Warner Bros. Records Australia in 1970, soon followed by branch offices in the UK, Europe and Japan.{{cite web\|url\=http://ketupa.net/time3\.htm\|title\=Time Warner: Landmarks\|work\=ketupa.net\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217133642/http://ketupa.net/time3\.htm\|archive\-date\=February 17, 2011}} In July 1971, the new in\-house distribution company was incorporated as Warner\-Elektra\-Atlantic Distributing Corp. (WEA) and branch offices were established in eight major US cities; Joel Friedman a one\-time *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")* writer who had been the head of Warner's advertising/merchandising division in its early years, was appointed to head WEA's US domestic division, and Ahmet Ertegun's brother [Nesuhi](/wiki/Nesuhi_Ertegun "Nesuhi Ertegun") was appointed to oversee its international operations. Neshui Ertegun, originally a Turkish native like his brother, displayed a global perspective and independence from its U.S. counterpart by successfully promoting international acts in their target markets worldwide. Ertegun headed WEA International until his retirement in 1987\. A *de facto* committee of three senior marketing executives—Dave Glew from Atlantic, Ed Rosenblatt from Warner Bros. and Mel Posner from Elektra—oversaw the integration of each label's marketing and distribution through the new division, but each label continued to operate totally independently in [A\&R](/wiki/A%26R "A&R") matters and also applied their own expertise in marketing and advertising.{{cite news\|title\=Kinney Set Up Distrib Corp To Handle Labels in 8 Key Cities\|magazine\=Billboard\|date\=July 3, 1971\|page\=3}}
On July 1, 1971, following the pattern set by similar joint ventures in Canada and Australia, the Warner labels entered into a partnership with the British arm of [CBS Records](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment "Sony Music Entertainment") to press and distribute Warner\-Reprise product in the United Kingdom, although this was undertaken as a cooperative venture rather than a formally incorporated business partnership. The *Billboard* article that reported the new arrangement also noted that, despite their intense competition in the US market, CBS continued to press Warner\-Reprise recordings in the US. However the new UK arrangement was a major blow to Warner's previous British manufacturer [Pye Records](/wiki/Pye_Records "Pye Records"), for whom Warner\-Reprise had been their largest account. With the scheduled addition of the UK rights to the Atlantic catalogue, which would revert to Kinney in early 1972, *Billboard* predicted that the Warner\-CBS partnership would have a 25–30% share of the UK music market.{{cite news\|title\=Kinney\-CBS Enters Joint Distrib and Pressing Deal in England\|last\=Blevins\|first\=Brian\|date\=March 27, 1971\|magazine\=Billboard\|page\=54}}
In April 1971, thanks mainly to the influence of Ahmet Ertegun, the Kinney group announced a major coup with its acquisition of the worldwide rights to [the Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones "The Rolling Stones")' new label [Rolling Stones Records](/wiki/Rolling_Stones_Records "Rolling Stones Records"), following the expiration of the band's contract with [British Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") (then separate from the American label) and the acrimonious end to their business relationship with their former manager [Allen Klein](/wiki/Allen_Klein "Allen Klein"). Under the terms of the deal, Atlantic subsidiary [Atco](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records") would distribute the Stones' recordings in the US, with other territories mainly handled by Warner Bros. international divisions.{{cite news\|title\=Kinney Group Gets Rolling Stones Disks\|magazine\=Billboard\|date\=April 17, 1971\|page\=3}}
One of Kinney's wisest investments was [Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac "Fleetwood Mac"). The band signed with Reprise in the early 1970s after relocating to the US, and the label supported the group through numerous lineup changes and several lean years during which the band's records sold relatively poorly, although they remained a popular concert attraction. Ironically, after the group's transfer to Warner Bros. in 1975 and the recruitment of new members [Lindsey Buckingham](/wiki/Lindsey_Buckingham "Lindsey Buckingham") and [Stevie Nicks](/wiki/Stevie_Nicks "Stevie Nicks"), the group scored a major international hit with the single "Rhiannon" and consolidated with the best selling albums *[Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac_%281975_album%29 "Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)")*, *[Rumours](/wiki/Rumours_%28album%29 "Rumours (album)")* and *[Tusk](/wiki/Tusk_%28album%29 "Tusk (album)")*.
#### Warner Communications (1972–1990\)
Due to a financial scandal involving price fixing in its parking operations, Kinney National spun off its non\-entertainment assets in 1972 (as [National Kinney Corporation](/wiki/National_Kinney_Corporation "National Kinney Corporation")) and changed its name to [Warner Communications Inc.](/wiki/WarnerMedia%23Warner_Communications_%281972%E2%80%931990%29 "WarnerMedia#Warner Communications (1972–1990)"){{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\&q\=kinney\&pg\=PT290\|title\=Master of the Game: How Steve Ross Rode the Light Fantastic from Undertaker to Creator of the Largest Media Conglomerate in the World\|last\=Bruck\|first\=Connie.\|publisher\=Simon \& Schuster\|year\=2013\|isbn\=9781476737706\|location\=Riverside\|oclc\=1086102756\|access\-date\=October 23, 2020\|archive\-date\=March 9, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309201531/https://books.google.com/books?id\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\&q\=kinney\&pg\=PT290\|url\-status\=live}}
In 1972, the Warner group acquired another rich prize, [David Geffen](/wiki/David_Geffen "David Geffen")'s [Asylum Records](/wiki/Asylum_Records "Asylum Records"). The $7 million purchase brought in several acts that proved crucial to WEA's subsequent success, including [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt "Linda Ronstadt"), [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles "The Eagles"), [Jackson Browne](/wiki/Jackson_Browne "Jackson Browne"), [Joni Mitchell](/wiki/Joni_Mitchell "Joni Mitchell"), and later [Warren Zevon](/wiki/Warren_Zevon "Warren Zevon"). On the downside, however, it was rumored that Warner was soon concerned about its possible liability under the California State Labor Code because of Geffen's questionable status as both the manager of most of the Asylum acts and the head of the record label to which they were signed. The sale included the Asylum Records label and its recordings, as well as Geffen's lucrative music publishing assets and the interests in the royalties of some of the artists managed by Geffen and partner [Elliot Roberts](/wiki/Elliot_Roberts "Elliot Roberts"). Geffen accepted a five\-year contract with WCI and turned over his 75% share in the Geffen\-Roberts management company to Roberts and Warner paid Geffen and Roberts 121,952 common shares worth $4,750,000 at the time of the sale, plus $400,000 in cash and a further $1\.6 million in promissory notes convertible to common stock.Goodman, 1997, pp. 240–241
Although it seemed a lucrative deal at the time, Geffen soon had reason to regret it. Uncharacteristically, he had greatly underestimated the value of his assets—within Asylum's first year as a Warner subsidiary, albums by [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt "Linda Ronstadt") and [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles "The Eagles") alone had earned more than the entire value of the Asylum sale. Geffen's discomfort was compounded by the fact that, within six months of the sale, the value of his volatile Warner shares had plummeted from $4\.5 million to just $800,000\. He appealed to Steve Ross to intervene, and as part of a make\-good deal, Ross agreed to pay him the difference in the share value over five years. Acting on Jac Holzman's suggestion that Kinney should take Asylum from Atlantic and merge it with Elektra, Ross then appointed Geffen to run the new combined label.Goodman, 1997, pp. 249–250
In 1976, Warner gained a brief early lead in digital media when it purchased the [Atari](/wiki/Atari "Atari") computer company, and in 1981 it bought [The Franklin Mint](/wiki/The_Franklin_Mint "The Franklin Mint") company. WCI also blazed the trail in visual music with MTV, which it created and co\-owned in partnership with [American Express](/wiki/American_Express "American Express"). In 1984–85, Warner rapidly divested many of these recent acquisitions, including Atari, Franklin Mint, [Panavision](/wiki/Panavision "Panavision"), [MTV Networks](/wiki/MTV_Networks "MTV Networks") and a cosmetics business.
In 1977, Warner Bros. Music, led by president Ed Silvers, formed Pacific Records for their composers and distributed (appropriately) by [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records "Atlantic Records"). [Alan O'Day](/wiki/Alan_O%27Day "Alan O'Day") was the first artist signed to the label, and the first release was "[Undercover Angel](/wiki/Undercover_Angel_%28song%29 "Undercover Angel (song)")". The song, which he described as a "nocturnal novelette", was released in February 1977\. Within a few months it had become No. 1 in the country, and has sold approximately two million copies. It was also a hit in Australia, reaching No. 9 on the Australian Singles Chart. "Undercover Angel" also landed O'Day in an exclusive club as one of only a handful of writers/performers to pen a No. 1 hit for themselves and a No. 1 for another artist.{{cite web\|url\=http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\_files/19770702\.html\|title\=Cash Box Top 100 7/02/77\|website\=Tropicalglen.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020124149/http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\_files/19770702\.html\|archive\-date\=October 20, 2018\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.superseventies.com/1977\_4singles.html\|title\="Undercover Angel" – Alan O'Day\|website\=Superseventies.com\|access\-date\=December 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=December 10, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071916/https://www.superseventies.com/1977\_4singles.html\|url\-status\=live}}
New signings in the late 1970s placed WEA in a strong position for the 1980s. A deal with [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein "Seymour Stein")'s [Sire Records](/wiki/Sire_Records "Sire Records") label (which Warner Bros. Records later took over) brought in several major [punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock "Punk rock") and [new wave](/wiki/New_wave_music "New wave music") acts including [the Pretenders](/wiki/The_Pretenders "The Pretenders"), [the Ramones](/wiki/The_Ramones "The Ramones") and [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads "Talking Heads") and, most importantly, rising star [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna "Madonna"); Elektra signed [the Cars](/wiki/The_Cars "The Cars") and Warner Bros. signed [Prince](/wiki/Prince_%28musician%29 "Prince (musician)"), giving WEA several of the biggest\-selling acts of the decade.
WEA's labels also distributed a number of otherwise independent labels. For example, Warner Bros. distributed [Straight Records](/wiki/Straight_Records "Straight Records"), [DiscReet Records](/wiki/DiscReet_Records "DiscReet Records"), [Bizarre Records](/wiki/Bizarre_Records "Bizarre Records"), [Bearsville Records](/wiki/Bearsville_Records "Bearsville Records"), and [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records "Geffen Records") (the latter was sold to [MCA](/wiki/MCA_Inc. "MCA Inc.") in 1990\). Atlantic Records distributed [Swan Song Records](/wiki/Swan_Song_Records "Swan Song Records"). In 1975, WEA scored a major coup by signing a distribution agreement with [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records "Island Records"), which only covered the United States and select other countries. For the next 14 years (initially with Warner Bros. until 1982, then with Atlantic afterward), WEA would distribute such artists as [Bob Marley](/wiki/Bob_Marley "Bob Marley"), [U2](/wiki/U2 "U2"), [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 "Robert Palmer (singer)"), [Anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax_%28American_band%29 "Anthrax (American band)"), and [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits "Tom Waits"). This relationship ended when Island was sold to [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram "PolyGram") in 1989\.
|
[
"### 1970s",
"During the 1970s, the Kinney group built up a commanding position in the music industry. In 1970, Kinney bought [Elektra Records](/wiki/Elektra_Records \"Elektra Records\") and its sister label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records \"Nonesuch Records\") (founded by Jac Holzman in 1950\\) for $10 million, bringing in leading rock acts, including [the Doors](/wiki/The_Doors \"The Doors\"), [Tim Buckley](/wiki/Tim_Buckley \"Tim Buckley\"), and [Love](/wiki/Love_%28band%29 \"Love (band)\"), and its historically significant folk archive, along with the successful budget Western classical\\-music label [Nonesuch Records](/wiki/Nonesuch_Records \"Nonesuch Records\").",
"The purchase of Elektra\\-Nonesuch brought a rich back catalogue of folk music as well as the renowned Nonesuch catalogue of classical and world music. Elektra founder Jac Holzman ran the label under Warners for two years, but by that time, he was by his own admission \"burnt out\" after twenty years in the business. Kinney president Steve Ross subsequently appointed Holzman as part of a seven\\-person \"[brain trust](/wiki/Brain_trust \"Brain trust\")\" tasked with investigating opportunities presented by new technologies, a role Holzman was eager to accept.Goodman, 1997, p. 248 The same year, the group established its first overseas offices in Canada and Australia. By that time the \"Seven Arts\" moniker was dropped from the Warner Bros. name. Warner Bros. also founded the [Casablanca Records](/wiki/Casablanca_Records \"Casablanca Records\") subsidiary, headed by [Neil Bogart](/wiki/Neil_Bogart \"Neil Bogart\"); but several years later Casablanca became independent from Warner Bros.",
"#### Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic and worldwide distribution",
"{{Anchor\\|Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic\\|WEA}}\nWith the Elektra acquisition, the next step was forming an in\\-house distribution arm for the co\\-owned labels. By this time, Warner\\-Reprise's frustrations with its current distributors had reached breaking point; Joe Smith (then executive vice\\-president of Warner Bros.) recalled that the [Grateful Dead](/wiki/Grateful_Dead \"Grateful Dead\") were becoming a major act but the distributor was constantly out of stock of their albums. These circumstances facilitated the full establishment of the group's in\\-house distribution arm, initially called .{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.discogs.com/label/640338\\-Kinney\\-Record\\-Group\\-International\\|title\\=Kinney Record Group International\\|website\\=Discogs.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071820/https://www.discogs.com/label/640338\\-Kinney\\-Record\\-Group\\-International\\|url\\-status\\=live}}Seay, 1996, p. 40 By late 1972, US anti\\-trust laws had changed and the company was renamed **Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic**, WEA for short, which was renamed Warner Music in 1991 (the word \"group\" was added after the formation of [AOL Time Warner](/wiki/AOL_Time_Warner \"AOL Time Warner\") in 2001\\).",
"WEA was an early champion of [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music \"Heavy metal music\") rock music. Several such bands, including three major British pioneers [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\"), [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath \"Black Sabbath\"), and [Deep Purple](/wiki/Deep_Purple \"Deep Purple\"), were all signed to WEA's labels, at least in the United States. Among the earliest American metal acts to be signed to WEA were [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\"), [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose_%28band%29 \"Montrose (band)\"), and [Van Halen](/wiki/Van_Halen \"Van Halen\").",
"Up to this point the Kinney\\-owned record companies had relied on licensing deals with overseas record labels to manufacture, distribute and promote its products in other countries; concurrent with the establishment of its new distribution arm, the company now began establishing subsidiaries in the other major markets, beginning with the creation of Warner Bros. Records Australia in 1970, soon followed by branch offices in the UK, Europe and Japan.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ketupa.net/time3\\.htm\\|title\\=Time Warner: Landmarks\\|work\\=ketupa.net\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217133642/http://ketupa.net/time3\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=February 17, 2011}} In July 1971, the new in\\-house distribution company was incorporated as Warner\\-Elektra\\-Atlantic Distributing Corp. (WEA) and branch offices were established in eight major US cities; Joel Friedman a one\\-time *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* writer who had been the head of Warner's advertising/merchandising division in its early years, was appointed to head WEA's US domestic division, and Ahmet Ertegun's brother [Nesuhi](/wiki/Nesuhi_Ertegun \"Nesuhi Ertegun\") was appointed to oversee its international operations. Neshui Ertegun, originally a Turkish native like his brother, displayed a global perspective and independence from its U.S. counterpart by successfully promoting international acts in their target markets worldwide. Ertegun headed WEA International until his retirement in 1987\\. A *de facto* committee of three senior marketing executives—Dave Glew from Atlantic, Ed Rosenblatt from Warner Bros. and Mel Posner from Elektra—oversaw the integration of each label's marketing and distribution through the new division, but each label continued to operate totally independently in [A\\&R](/wiki/A%26R \"A&R\") matters and also applied their own expertise in marketing and advertising.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kinney Set Up Distrib Corp To Handle Labels in 8 Key Cities\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|date\\=July 3, 1971\\|page\\=3}}",
"On July 1, 1971, following the pattern set by similar joint ventures in Canada and Australia, the Warner labels entered into a partnership with the British arm of [CBS Records](/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment \"Sony Music Entertainment\") to press and distribute Warner\\-Reprise product in the United Kingdom, although this was undertaken as a cooperative venture rather than a formally incorporated business partnership. The *Billboard* article that reported the new arrangement also noted that, despite their intense competition in the US market, CBS continued to press Warner\\-Reprise recordings in the US. However the new UK arrangement was a major blow to Warner's previous British manufacturer [Pye Records](/wiki/Pye_Records \"Pye Records\"), for whom Warner\\-Reprise had been their largest account. With the scheduled addition of the UK rights to the Atlantic catalogue, which would revert to Kinney in early 1972, *Billboard* predicted that the Warner\\-CBS partnership would have a 25–30% share of the UK music market.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kinney\\-CBS Enters Joint Distrib and Pressing Deal in England\\|last\\=Blevins\\|first\\=Brian\\|date\\=March 27, 1971\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|page\\=54}}",
"In April 1971, thanks mainly to the influence of Ahmet Ertegun, the Kinney group announced a major coup with its acquisition of the worldwide rights to [the Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones \"The Rolling Stones\")' new label [Rolling Stones Records](/wiki/Rolling_Stones_Records \"Rolling Stones Records\"), following the expiration of the band's contract with [British Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") (then separate from the American label) and the acrimonious end to their business relationship with their former manager [Allen Klein](/wiki/Allen_Klein \"Allen Klein\"). Under the terms of the deal, Atlantic subsidiary [Atco](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\") would distribute the Stones' recordings in the US, with other territories mainly handled by Warner Bros. international divisions.{{cite news\\|title\\=Kinney Group Gets Rolling Stones Disks\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|date\\=April 17, 1971\\|page\\=3}}",
"One of Kinney's wisest investments was [Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac \"Fleetwood Mac\"). The band signed with Reprise in the early 1970s after relocating to the US, and the label supported the group through numerous lineup changes and several lean years during which the band's records sold relatively poorly, although they remained a popular concert attraction. Ironically, after the group's transfer to Warner Bros. in 1975 and the recruitment of new members [Lindsey Buckingham](/wiki/Lindsey_Buckingham \"Lindsey Buckingham\") and [Stevie Nicks](/wiki/Stevie_Nicks \"Stevie Nicks\"), the group scored a major international hit with the single \"Rhiannon\" and consolidated with the best selling albums *[Fleetwood Mac](/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac_%281975_album%29 \"Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)\")*, *[Rumours](/wiki/Rumours_%28album%29 \"Rumours (album)\")* and *[Tusk](/wiki/Tusk_%28album%29 \"Tusk (album)\")*.",
"#### Warner Communications (1972–1990\\)",
"Due to a financial scandal involving price fixing in its parking operations, Kinney National spun off its non\\-entertainment assets in 1972 (as [National Kinney Corporation](/wiki/National_Kinney_Corporation \"National Kinney Corporation\")) and changed its name to [Warner Communications Inc.](/wiki/WarnerMedia%23Warner_Communications_%281972%E2%80%931990%29 \"WarnerMedia#Warner Communications (1972–1990)\"){{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\\&q\\=kinney\\&pg\\=PT290\\|title\\=Master of the Game: How Steve Ross Rode the Light Fantastic from Undertaker to Creator of the Largest Media Conglomerate in the World\\|last\\=Bruck\\|first\\=Connie.\\|publisher\\=Simon \\& Schuster\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=9781476737706\\|location\\=Riverside\\|oclc\\=1086102756\\|access\\-date\\=October 23, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=March 9, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309201531/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=s5uQoR6o7U4C\\&q\\=kinney\\&pg\\=PT290\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 1972, the Warner group acquired another rich prize, [David Geffen](/wiki/David_Geffen \"David Geffen\")'s [Asylum Records](/wiki/Asylum_Records \"Asylum Records\"). The $7 million purchase brought in several acts that proved crucial to WEA's subsequent success, including [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt \"Linda Ronstadt\"), [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles \"The Eagles\"), [Jackson Browne](/wiki/Jackson_Browne \"Jackson Browne\"), [Joni Mitchell](/wiki/Joni_Mitchell \"Joni Mitchell\"), and later [Warren Zevon](/wiki/Warren_Zevon \"Warren Zevon\"). On the downside, however, it was rumored that Warner was soon concerned about its possible liability under the California State Labor Code because of Geffen's questionable status as both the manager of most of the Asylum acts and the head of the record label to which they were signed. The sale included the Asylum Records label and its recordings, as well as Geffen's lucrative music publishing assets and the interests in the royalties of some of the artists managed by Geffen and partner [Elliot Roberts](/wiki/Elliot_Roberts \"Elliot Roberts\"). Geffen accepted a five\\-year contract with WCI and turned over his 75% share in the Geffen\\-Roberts management company to Roberts and Warner paid Geffen and Roberts 121,952 common shares worth $4,750,000 at the time of the sale, plus $400,000 in cash and a further $1\\.6 million in promissory notes convertible to common stock.Goodman, 1997, pp. 240–241",
"Although it seemed a lucrative deal at the time, Geffen soon had reason to regret it. Uncharacteristically, he had greatly underestimated the value of his assets—within Asylum's first year as a Warner subsidiary, albums by [Linda Ronstadt](/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt \"Linda Ronstadt\") and [the Eagles](/wiki/The_Eagles \"The Eagles\") alone had earned more than the entire value of the Asylum sale. Geffen's discomfort was compounded by the fact that, within six months of the sale, the value of his volatile Warner shares had plummeted from $4\\.5 million to just $800,000\\. He appealed to Steve Ross to intervene, and as part of a make\\-good deal, Ross agreed to pay him the difference in the share value over five years. Acting on Jac Holzman's suggestion that Kinney should take Asylum from Atlantic and merge it with Elektra, Ross then appointed Geffen to run the new combined label.Goodman, 1997, pp. 249–250",
"In 1976, Warner gained a brief early lead in digital media when it purchased the [Atari](/wiki/Atari \"Atari\") computer company, and in 1981 it bought [The Franklin Mint](/wiki/The_Franklin_Mint \"The Franklin Mint\") company. WCI also blazed the trail in visual music with MTV, which it created and co\\-owned in partnership with [American Express](/wiki/American_Express \"American Express\"). In 1984–85, Warner rapidly divested many of these recent acquisitions, including Atari, Franklin Mint, [Panavision](/wiki/Panavision \"Panavision\"), [MTV Networks](/wiki/MTV_Networks \"MTV Networks\") and a cosmetics business.",
"In 1977, Warner Bros. Music, led by president Ed Silvers, formed Pacific Records for their composers and distributed (appropriately) by [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records \"Atlantic Records\"). [Alan O'Day](/wiki/Alan_O%27Day \"Alan O'Day\") was the first artist signed to the label, and the first release was \"[Undercover Angel](/wiki/Undercover_Angel_%28song%29 \"Undercover Angel (song)\")\". The song, which he described as a \"nocturnal novelette\", was released in February 1977\\. Within a few months it had become No. 1 in the country, and has sold approximately two million copies. It was also a hit in Australia, reaching No. 9 on the Australian Singles Chart. \"Undercover Angel\" also landed O'Day in an exclusive club as one of only a handful of writers/performers to pen a No. 1 hit for themselves and a No. 1 for another artist.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\\_files/19770702\\.html\\|title\\=Cash Box Top 100 7/02/77\\|website\\=Tropicalglen.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020124149/http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s\\_files/19770702\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=October 20, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.superseventies.com/1977\\_4singles.html\\|title\\=\"Undercover Angel\" – Alan O'Day\\|website\\=Superseventies.com\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=December 10, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071916/https://www.superseventies.com/1977\\_4singles.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"New signings in the late 1970s placed WEA in a strong position for the 1980s. A deal with [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein \"Seymour Stein\")'s [Sire Records](/wiki/Sire_Records \"Sire Records\") label (which Warner Bros. Records later took over) brought in several major [punk rock](/wiki/Punk_rock \"Punk rock\") and [new wave](/wiki/New_wave_music \"New wave music\") acts including [the Pretenders](/wiki/The_Pretenders \"The Pretenders\"), [the Ramones](/wiki/The_Ramones \"The Ramones\") and [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads \"Talking Heads\") and, most importantly, rising star [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna \"Madonna\"); Elektra signed [the Cars](/wiki/The_Cars \"The Cars\") and Warner Bros. signed [Prince](/wiki/Prince_%28musician%29 \"Prince (musician)\"), giving WEA several of the biggest\\-selling acts of the decade.",
"WEA's labels also distributed a number of otherwise independent labels. For example, Warner Bros. distributed [Straight Records](/wiki/Straight_Records \"Straight Records\"), [DiscReet Records](/wiki/DiscReet_Records \"DiscReet Records\"), [Bizarre Records](/wiki/Bizarre_Records \"Bizarre Records\"), [Bearsville Records](/wiki/Bearsville_Records \"Bearsville Records\"), and [Geffen Records](/wiki/Geffen_Records \"Geffen Records\") (the latter was sold to [MCA](/wiki/MCA_Inc. \"MCA Inc.\") in 1990\\). Atlantic Records distributed [Swan Song Records](/wiki/Swan_Song_Records \"Swan Song Records\"). In 1975, WEA scored a major coup by signing a distribution agreement with [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records \"Island Records\"), which only covered the United States and select other countries. For the next 14 years (initially with Warner Bros. until 1982, then with Atlantic afterward), WEA would distribute such artists as [Bob Marley](/wiki/Bob_Marley \"Bob Marley\"), [U2](/wiki/U2 \"U2\"), [Robert Palmer](/wiki/Robert_Palmer_%28singer%29 \"Robert Palmer (singer)\"), [Anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax_%28American_band%29 \"Anthrax (American band)\"), and [Tom Waits](/wiki/Tom_Waits \"Tom Waits\"). This relationship ended when Island was sold to [PolyGram](/wiki/PolyGram \"PolyGram\") in 1989\\.",
""
] |
### 1990s
Through the 1990s, Time Warner was the largest media company in the world, with assets in excess of US$20 billion and annual revenues in the billions of dollars; by 1991, Warner's music labels were generating sales valued at more than US$3 billion, with operating profits of $550 million, and by 1995, its music division dominated the US music industry with a 22% share of the domestic market.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\-creator\-of\-time\-warner\-steven\-j\-ross\-is\-dead\-at\-65\.html\|title\=The Creator of Time Warner, Steven J. Ross, Is Dead at 65\|last\=Cohen\|first\=Roger\|date\=December 21, 1992\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=February 22, 2010\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=May 9, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509131107/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\-creator\-of\-time\-warner\-steven\-j\-ross\-is\-dead\-at\-65\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1995\-05\-03\-fi\-61908\-story.html\|title\=Warner Music Chief Expected to Quit Today\|last\=Philips\|first\=Chuck\|date\=May 3, 1995\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=June 21, 2010\|archive\-date\=June 18, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618173658/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\-05\-03/business/fi\-61908\_1\_warner\-music\-group\|url\-status\=live}} Acquisitions and corporate changes within the Warner group of labels continued after the Time Warner merger—in 1990, WEA purchased French label [Carrere Records](/wiki/Carrere_Records "Carrere Records"), in 1992 it bought the leading French classical label [Erato](/wiki/Erato_Records "Erato Records"), and in 1993, it bought the Spanish [DRO Records](/wiki/DRO_Records "DRO Records"), Hungary's Magneoton label, the Swedish Telegram Records, Brazil's [Continental Records](/wiki/Continental_Records "Continental Records") and Finnish label Fazer Musiikki. WEA was renamed Warner Music in 1991\.
Atlantic launched two new subsidiary labels in the early 1990s: [East West Records](/wiki/East_West_Records "East West Records") and [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records "Interscope Records"). In 1995, East West absorbed Atco Records and was eventually folded into Elektra Records. In 1996, after causing much controversy, Interscope was purchased by [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Inc. "MCA Inc.").
During 1992, Warner Music faced one of the most serious public\-relations crises in its history when a major controversy erupted over the provocative Warner Bros. recording "[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 "Cop Killer (song)")" from the self\-titled album by [Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28band%29 "Body Count (band)"), a [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music "Heavy metal music")/[rap](/wiki/Rap "Rap") fusion band led by [Ice\-T](/wiki/Ice-T "Ice-T"). Unfortunately for Warner, the song (which mentioned the [Rodney King](/wiki/Rodney_King "Rodney King") case) was issued just before the controversial acquittal of the police charged with King's beating, which sparked the [1992 Los Angeles Riots](/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_Riots "1992 Los Angeles Riots") and the confluence of events put the song under the national spotlight. Complaints escalated over the summer—conservative police associations called for a boycott of Time Warner products, politicians including President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") denounced the label for releasing the song, Warner executives received death threats, Time Warner stockholders threatened to pull out of the company and the New Zealand police commissioner unsuccessfully tried to have the record banned there. Although Ice\-T later voluntarily reissued *Body Count* without "Cop Killer", the furor seriously rattled Warner Music and in January 1993 the label made an undisclosed deal releasing Ice\-T from his contract and returning the *[Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28album%29 "Body Count (album)")* master tapes to him.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\-t\-and\-warner\-are\-parting\-company.html\|title\=Ice\-T and Warner Are Parting Company\|last\=Rule\|first\=Sheila\|date\=January 29, 1993\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233827/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\-t\-and\-warner\-are\-parting\-company.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Also in 1992, the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records "Rhino Records") label signed a distribution agreement with Atlantic Records and Time Warner Entertainment bought a 50% stake in the Rhino Records label. The distribution agreement allowed Rhino to begin reissuing recordings from Atlantic's back catalogue.
In 1994, Canadian beverage giant [Seagram](/wiki/Seagram "Seagram") bought a 14\.5% stake in Time Warner, and the Warner publishing division — now called [Warner/Chappell Music](/wiki/Warner/Chappell_Music "Warner/Chappell Music") – acquired CPP/Belwin, becoming the world's largest owner of song copyrights and the world's largest publisher of printed music. In 1996, Time Warner Entertainment made another dramatic expansion of its media holdings, taking over the [Turner Broadcasting System](/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System "Turner Broadcasting System"), which by then included the Turner cable TV network, [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN") and the screen production houses [Castle Rock Entertainment](/wiki/Castle_Rock_Entertainment "Castle Rock Entertainment") and [New Line Cinema](/wiki/New_Line_Cinema "New Line Cinema"), acquisitions that brought huge profits into the Warner Group thanks to content assets like *[Seinfeld](/wiki/Seinfeld "Seinfeld")* and the highly successful *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_%28film_series%29 "The Lord of the Rings (film series)")* film trilogy.
By the early 1990s, senior Warner staff like Ostin and Waronker had remained in their positions for several decades—a highly unusual situation in the American music industry—but the death of Steve Ross destabilized the Time Warner hierarchy, and over the next few years the music group was increasingly disrupted by internal power struggles, leading to a string of major executive upheavals in 1994–95, which *The New York Times* described as "a virtual civil war".{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\-media\-business\-rifts\-shake\-and\-rattle\-warner\-music.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Rifts Shake and Rattle Warner Music\|last\=Hofmeister\|first\=Sallie\|date\=November 1, 1994\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 23, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823194048/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\-media\-business\-rifts\-shake\-and\-rattle\-warner\-music.html\|url\-status\=live}}
The central conflict was between Mo Ostin and Warner Music Group chairman Robert Morgado, who had joined the Warner group in the late 1980s. Because of his political background (he had been the chief\-of\-staff to former New York governor [Hugh L. Carey](/wiki/Hugh_L._Carey "Hugh L. Carey")) and his lack of music industry experience — especially compared to the widely revered Ostin—Morgado was viewed as an outsider at Warner. Nevertheless, he gained favour with Ross and Levin and was promoted in 1985 to oversee the Warner international music division after helping the company slash costs in its computer game sector.
Since his appointment as head of WBR, Ostin had always reported directly to Steve Ross and his successor [Gerald Levin](/wiki/Gerald_Levin "Gerald Levin"), but in late 1993, when Ostin's contract came up for renewal, Morgado asserted his authority, insisting that Ostin should now report directly to him. The tensions between them reached boiling point in July 1994 when Morgado appointed former Atlantic chief [Doug Morris](/wiki/Doug_Morris "Doug Morris") to head the Warner Music Group in the US, a decision that many saw as a deliberate move to hasten the departure of Ostin and Elektra head [Robert Krasnow](/wiki/Bob_Krasnow "Bob Krasnow"). Morgado's new structure was announced in August 1994 and Bob Krasnow resigned from Elektra the next day. Within days, after more than 30 years with the Warner music group and more than 20 years as president and chairman of Warner Bros. Records, Ostin announced he would not renew his current contract and would leave Warners when it expired on December 31, 1994\. There was more negative publicity the following month, when leading Elektra act [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica "Metallica") launched a lawsuit against the label, seeking a release from their contract and ownership of their master tapes, and claiming that Morgado had refused to honor a deal they had worked out with Krasnow before he quit.
Ostin's departure marked a seismic shift in the corporate culture at WBR and the news was greeted with dismay by industry insiders and the many artists whose careers he had helped to nurture. Lenny Waronker had agreed to take over as WBR chairman and CEO but in October 1994 he announced that he would not be taking up the position; he initially said that he would remain as President of WBR, but by this time there was already widespread speculation that he would leave, and he did so soon afterwards.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1994\-08\-16\-fi\-27820\-story.html\|title\=Company Town at Warner Bros. Records, Mo Ostin Loyal to the End\|last\=Phillips\|first\=Chuck\|date\=August 16, 1994\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=March 22, 2010\|archive\-date\=June 18, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618092055/http://articles.latimes.com/1994\-08\-16/business/fi\-27820\_1\_warner\-bros\|url\-status\=live}} The following year he re\-joined Ostin and son Michael as joint head of the newly launched [DreamWorks](/wiki/DreamWorks_Records "DreamWorks Records") label.{{cite web\|url\=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\=34768724\&privcapId\=25409512\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140328111004/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\=34768724\&privcapId\=25409512\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=March 28, 2014\|title\=Michael Ostin: Executive Profile \& Biography – Businessweek\|work\=Businessweek.com}}
Beginning in August 1994, Morgado alienated Morris by his clumsy handling of Warner's relationship with [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records "Interscope Records"), the successful label founded by [Ted Field](/wiki/Ted_Field "Ted Field") and [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine "Jimmy Iovine") and part\-owned by Warner. Morgado had resisted making a decision about increasing the Warner stake in Interscope, which encouraged other companies to make overtures to the label; in response, Morgado threatened to send cease\-and\-desist notices to executives at several record companies, demanding that they stop approaching Interscope with buyout offers, a move that reportedly infuriated Iovine.
By late 1994, Morris was gaining the upper hand over his rival and media reports claimed that Morris had moved to settle with Metallica, offering a deal that was reportedly even more generous than the one they had worked out with Krasnow. Morgado now faced a showdown with Morris, who felt he was not being allowed to run WMG as he saw fit. In October 1994, Morris and 11 other Warner executives "staged an unprecedented insurrection that nearly paralyzed the world's largest record company". This led to a climactic meeting between Morris and Gerald Levin in late October, at which Morris reportedly threatened to quit if he had to continue to report to Morgado.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\-media\-business\-warner\-music\-officials\-settle\-a\-power\-struggle.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Warner Music Officials Settle a Power Struggle\|last\=Hofmeister\|first\=Sallie\|date\=October 28, 1994\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233826/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\-media\-business\-warner\-music\-officials\-settle\-a\-power\-struggle.html\|url\-status\=live}}
Morgado gave in to the demand that Morris be granted autonomy to run the North American operations and he was forced to upgrade Morris's position from chief operating officer to Chief Executive of Warner Music Group (US); Morris promptly named [Danny Goldberg](/wiki/Danny_Goldberg "Danny Goldberg"), former president of Atlantic Records, to run WBR in defiance of Morgado, who had a different candidate in mind and Levin also reduced Morgado's power to oversee Warner's mail\-order record club division and its international operations.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\-media\-business\-time\-warner\-replaces\-chairman\-of\-music\-group\-with\-hbo\-chief.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Time Warner Replaces Chairman Of Music Group With HBO Chief\|last\=Landler\|first\=Mark\|date\=May 4, 1995\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233824/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\-media\-business\-time\-warner\-replaces\-chairman\-of\-music\-group\-with\-hbo\-chief.html\|url\-status\=live}} Morris then brought in [Sylvia Rhone](/wiki/Sylvia_Rhone "Sylvia Rhone") and [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein "Seymour Stein") to stabilize Elektra, settled the Metallica lawsuit and persuaded Levin to purchase an additional 25% of Interscope, although this initiative proved short\-lived.
The power struggle between Morgado and Morris reached a dramatic climax in May 1995 when Morgado was asked to resign by Gerald Levin, following a welter of complaints from executives at the three major Warner Music labels, who said that Morgado was undermining Morris's authority and damaging Warner's reputation among performers. Morgado was immediately replaced by [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office "Home Box Office") chairman [Michael J. Fuchs](/wiki/Michael_J._Fuchs "Michael J. Fuchs") but the corporate upheavals did not end there; in late June 1995 Fuchs abruptly dismissed Doug Morris, saying that Morris had been "leading a campaign to destabilize Warner Music in an effort to seize control of the company". As Morris's strongest ally, Danny Goldberg was also under threat; he was initially told that he could stay on as President of WBR as long as he refrained from office politics and concentrate on the day\-to\-day management of the label, but he resigned as President of Warner Bros. Records soon after to pursue "other interests", and was replaced by WBR vice\-chairman [Russ Thyret](/wiki/Russ_Thyret "Russ Thyret").
Despite early success with [Dr. Dre](/wiki/Dr._Dre "Dr. Dre") and [Snoop Dogg](/wiki/Snoop_Dogg "Snoop Dogg"), and Morris's decision to increase Warner's stake to 50%, by the mid\-1990s [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records "Interscope Records") was being seen as a liability for the Warner group. Time Warner's board and investors had already been bruised by the damaging 1992 "[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 "Cop Killer (song)")" controversy and now they were faced with renewed criticism about the [gangsta rap](/wiki/Gangsta_rap "Gangsta rap") genre, in which Interscope's associate imprint [Death Row Records](/wiki/Death_Row_Records "Death Row Records") was a key label. In mid\-1995, Time Warner refused to distribute the Interscope album *[Dogg Food](/wiki/Dogg_Food "Dogg Food")* by [Tha Dogg Pound](/wiki/Tha_Dogg_Pound "Tha Dogg Pound"), forcing the label to seek outside distribution, and late in the year TW sold its stake in Death Row back to co\-owners [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine "Jimmy Iovine") and Ted Field and soon after it sold off its share in Interscope to [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Music_Entertainment "MCA Music Entertainment").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\-warner\-to\-sell\-stake\-in\-rap\-label.html\|title\=Time Warner to Sell Stake in Rap Label\|last\=Landler\|first\=Mark\|date\=September 28, 1995\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\-warner\-to\-sell\-stake\-in\-rap\-label.html\|url\-status\=live}}
The upheaval at Warner was beneficial to its rivals, who picked up valuable executives who had left Warner. Goldberg moved over to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records "Mercury Records"); Morris joined [MCA Music Entertainment Group](/wiki/MCA_Records "MCA Records") and led its reorganization into [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group "Universal Music Group"), now the world's largest record company. In November 1995, Fuchs was himself sacked by Levin, leaving the company with a reported US$60 million "[golden parachute](/wiki/Golden_parachute "Golden parachute")", and Time Warner co\-chairmen [Robert A. Daly](/wiki/Robert_A._Daly "Robert A. Daly") and [Terry Semel](/wiki/Terry_Semel "Terry Semel") took over the running of the music division.{{cite web\|url\=http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\-j\-fuchs\|title\=Cityfile profile: Michael J. Fuchs\|website\=Cityfile.com\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928143809/http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\-j\-fuchs\|archive\-date\=September 28, 2011}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\-media\-business\-the\-music\-and\-the\-dissonance\-at\-time\-warner.html\|title\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS;The Music, and the Dissonance, at Time Warner\|last\=Landler\|first\=Mark\|date\=November 17, 1995\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 29, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=August 29, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\-media\-business\-the\-music\-and\-the\-dissonance\-at\-time\-warner.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1995\-11\-17\-fi\-4210\-story.html\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|first\=Chuck\|last\=Philips\|date\=November 17, 1995\|access\-date\=May 27, 2010\|title\=Company Town : SHAKE\-UP AT TIME WARNER : A Very Bizarre Year at Time Warner : Chronology: Industry waits to see if established and new artists defect to rivals in wake of executive turnover at music giant\|archive\-date\=July 7, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120707001753/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\-11\-17/business/fi\-4210\_1\_time\-warner/2\|url\-status\=live}}
In 1998, Seagram boss [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. "Edgar Bronfman Jr.") held talks aimed at merging Seagram's Universal Music, headed by Morris, with the venerable British recording company [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI"), but the discussions came to nothing; Bronfman then oversaw Universal's takeover by [Vivendi](/wiki/Vivendi "Vivendi"). WEA meanwhile continued to expand its publishing empire, buying a 90% stake in the Italian recording and music publishing group Nuova [Fonit Cetra](/wiki/Fonit_Cetra "Fonit Cetra").{{Cite web\| last1 \= Zecchinelli\| first1 \= Cecilia\| title \= RAI sells off Fonit Cetra\| work \= Variety\| access\-date \= April 5, 2020\| date \= July 27, 1998\| url \= https://variety.com/1998/music/news/rai\-sells\-off\-fonit\-cetra\-1117478829/}}{{Dead link\|date\=March 2022 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
Also in 1998, Time Warner Entertainment bought the remaining 50% of the Rhino Records label they did not own. The Rhino Records retail store in Los Angeles was not included. Rhino then began reissuing the back catalogues of the Warner/Reprise and Elektra/Asylum labels. In 1999, Rhino launched Rhino Handmade, which released limited\-edition reissues of lesser\-known but still\-significant recordings from the WEA labels.
|
[
"### 1990s",
"Through the 1990s, Time Warner was the largest media company in the world, with assets in excess of US$20 billion and annual revenues in the billions of dollars; by 1991, Warner's music labels were generating sales valued at more than US$3 billion, with operating profits of $550 million, and by 1995, its music division dominated the US music industry with a 22% share of the domestic market.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\\-creator\\-of\\-time\\-warner\\-steven\\-j\\-ross\\-is\\-dead\\-at\\-65\\.html\\|title\\=The Creator of Time Warner, Steven J. Ross, Is Dead at 65\\|last\\=Cohen\\|first\\=Roger\\|date\\=December 21, 1992\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=February 22, 2010\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=May 9, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509131107/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/21/obituaries/the\\-creator\\-of\\-time\\-warner\\-steven\\-j\\-ross\\-is\\-dead\\-at\\-65\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1995\\-05\\-03\\-fi\\-61908\\-story.html\\|title\\=Warner Music Chief Expected to Quit Today\\|last\\=Philips\\|first\\=Chuck\\|date\\=May 3, 1995\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=June 21, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618173658/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\\-05\\-03/business/fi\\-61908\\_1\\_warner\\-music\\-group\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Acquisitions and corporate changes within the Warner group of labels continued after the Time Warner merger—in 1990, WEA purchased French label [Carrere Records](/wiki/Carrere_Records \"Carrere Records\"), in 1992 it bought the leading French classical label [Erato](/wiki/Erato_Records \"Erato Records\"), and in 1993, it bought the Spanish [DRO Records](/wiki/DRO_Records \"DRO Records\"), Hungary's Magneoton label, the Swedish Telegram Records, Brazil's [Continental Records](/wiki/Continental_Records \"Continental Records\") and Finnish label Fazer Musiikki. WEA was renamed Warner Music in 1991\\.",
"Atlantic launched two new subsidiary labels in the early 1990s: [East West Records](/wiki/East_West_Records \"East West Records\") and [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records \"Interscope Records\"). In 1995, East West absorbed Atco Records and was eventually folded into Elektra Records. In 1996, after causing much controversy, Interscope was purchased by [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Inc. \"MCA Inc.\").",
"During 1992, Warner Music faced one of the most serious public\\-relations crises in its history when a major controversy erupted over the provocative Warner Bros. recording \"[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 \"Cop Killer (song)\")\" from the self\\-titled album by [Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28band%29 \"Body Count (band)\"), a [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music \"Heavy metal music\")/[rap](/wiki/Rap \"Rap\") fusion band led by [Ice\\-T](/wiki/Ice-T \"Ice-T\"). Unfortunately for Warner, the song (which mentioned the [Rodney King](/wiki/Rodney_King \"Rodney King\") case) was issued just before the controversial acquittal of the police charged with King's beating, which sparked the [1992 Los Angeles Riots](/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_Riots \"1992 Los Angeles Riots\") and the confluence of events put the song under the national spotlight. Complaints escalated over the summer—conservative police associations called for a boycott of Time Warner products, politicians including President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") denounced the label for releasing the song, Warner executives received death threats, Time Warner stockholders threatened to pull out of the company and the New Zealand police commissioner unsuccessfully tried to have the record banned there. Although Ice\\-T later voluntarily reissued *Body Count* without \"Cop Killer\", the furor seriously rattled Warner Music and in January 1993 the label made an undisclosed deal releasing Ice\\-T from his contract and returning the *[Body Count](/wiki/Body_Count_%28album%29 \"Body Count (album)\")* master tapes to him.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\\-t\\-and\\-warner\\-are\\-parting\\-company.html\\|title\\=Ice\\-T and Warner Are Parting Company\\|last\\=Rule\\|first\\=Sheila\\|date\\=January 29, 1993\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233827/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/29/arts/ice\\-t\\-and\\-warner\\-are\\-parting\\-company.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Also in 1992, the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records \"Rhino Records\") label signed a distribution agreement with Atlantic Records and Time Warner Entertainment bought a 50% stake in the Rhino Records label. The distribution agreement allowed Rhino to begin reissuing recordings from Atlantic's back catalogue.",
"In 1994, Canadian beverage giant [Seagram](/wiki/Seagram \"Seagram\") bought a 14\\.5% stake in Time Warner, and the Warner publishing division — now called [Warner/Chappell Music](/wiki/Warner/Chappell_Music \"Warner/Chappell Music\") – acquired CPP/Belwin, becoming the world's largest owner of song copyrights and the world's largest publisher of printed music. In 1996, Time Warner Entertainment made another dramatic expansion of its media holdings, taking over the [Turner Broadcasting System](/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System \"Turner Broadcasting System\"), which by then included the Turner cable TV network, [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\") and the screen production houses [Castle Rock Entertainment](/wiki/Castle_Rock_Entertainment \"Castle Rock Entertainment\") and [New Line Cinema](/wiki/New_Line_Cinema \"New Line Cinema\"), acquisitions that brought huge profits into the Warner Group thanks to content assets like *[Seinfeld](/wiki/Seinfeld \"Seinfeld\")* and the highly successful *[The Lord of the Rings](/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_%28film_series%29 \"The Lord of the Rings (film series)\")* film trilogy.",
"By the early 1990s, senior Warner staff like Ostin and Waronker had remained in their positions for several decades—a highly unusual situation in the American music industry—but the death of Steve Ross destabilized the Time Warner hierarchy, and over the next few years the music group was increasingly disrupted by internal power struggles, leading to a string of major executive upheavals in 1994–95, which *The New York Times* described as \"a virtual civil war\".{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-rifts\\-shake\\-and\\-rattle\\-warner\\-music.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Rifts Shake and Rattle Warner Music\\|last\\=Hofmeister\\|first\\=Sallie\\|date\\=November 1, 1994\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 23, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823194048/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/01/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-rifts\\-shake\\-and\\-rattle\\-warner\\-music.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The central conflict was between Mo Ostin and Warner Music Group chairman Robert Morgado, who had joined the Warner group in the late 1980s. Because of his political background (he had been the chief\\-of\\-staff to former New York governor [Hugh L. Carey](/wiki/Hugh_L._Carey \"Hugh L. Carey\")) and his lack of music industry experience — especially compared to the widely revered Ostin—Morgado was viewed as an outsider at Warner. Nevertheless, he gained favour with Ross and Levin and was promoted in 1985 to oversee the Warner international music division after helping the company slash costs in its computer game sector.",
"Since his appointment as head of WBR, Ostin had always reported directly to Steve Ross and his successor [Gerald Levin](/wiki/Gerald_Levin \"Gerald Levin\"), but in late 1993, when Ostin's contract came up for renewal, Morgado asserted his authority, insisting that Ostin should now report directly to him. The tensions between them reached boiling point in July 1994 when Morgado appointed former Atlantic chief [Doug Morris](/wiki/Doug_Morris \"Doug Morris\") to head the Warner Music Group in the US, a decision that many saw as a deliberate move to hasten the departure of Ostin and Elektra head [Robert Krasnow](/wiki/Bob_Krasnow \"Bob Krasnow\"). Morgado's new structure was announced in August 1994 and Bob Krasnow resigned from Elektra the next day. Within days, after more than 30 years with the Warner music group and more than 20 years as president and chairman of Warner Bros. Records, Ostin announced he would not renew his current contract and would leave Warners when it expired on December 31, 1994\\. There was more negative publicity the following month, when leading Elektra act [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica \"Metallica\") launched a lawsuit against the label, seeking a release from their contract and ownership of their master tapes, and claiming that Morgado had refused to honor a deal they had worked out with Krasnow before he quit.",
"Ostin's departure marked a seismic shift in the corporate culture at WBR and the news was greeted with dismay by industry insiders and the many artists whose careers he had helped to nurture. Lenny Waronker had agreed to take over as WBR chairman and CEO but in October 1994 he announced that he would not be taking up the position; he initially said that he would remain as President of WBR, but by this time there was already widespread speculation that he would leave, and he did so soon afterwards.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1994\\-08\\-16\\-fi\\-27820\\-story.html\\|title\\=Company Town at Warner Bros. Records, Mo Ostin Loyal to the End\\|last\\=Phillips\\|first\\=Chuck\\|date\\=August 16, 1994\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618092055/http://articles.latimes.com/1994\\-08\\-16/business/fi\\-27820\\_1\\_warner\\-bros\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The following year he re\\-joined Ostin and son Michael as joint head of the newly launched [DreamWorks](/wiki/DreamWorks_Records \"DreamWorks Records\") label.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\\=34768724\\&privcapId\\=25409512\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140328111004/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId\\=34768724\\&privcapId\\=25409512\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=March 28, 2014\\|title\\=Michael Ostin: Executive Profile \\& Biography – Businessweek\\|work\\=Businessweek.com}}",
"Beginning in August 1994, Morgado alienated Morris by his clumsy handling of Warner's relationship with [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records \"Interscope Records\"), the successful label founded by [Ted Field](/wiki/Ted_Field \"Ted Field\") and [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine \"Jimmy Iovine\") and part\\-owned by Warner. Morgado had resisted making a decision about increasing the Warner stake in Interscope, which encouraged other companies to make overtures to the label; in response, Morgado threatened to send cease\\-and\\-desist notices to executives at several record companies, demanding that they stop approaching Interscope with buyout offers, a move that reportedly infuriated Iovine.",
"By late 1994, Morris was gaining the upper hand over his rival and media reports claimed that Morris had moved to settle with Metallica, offering a deal that was reportedly even more generous than the one they had worked out with Krasnow. Morgado now faced a showdown with Morris, who felt he was not being allowed to run WMG as he saw fit. In October 1994, Morris and 11 other Warner executives \"staged an unprecedented insurrection that nearly paralyzed the world's largest record company\". This led to a climactic meeting between Morris and Gerald Levin in late October, at which Morris reportedly threatened to quit if he had to continue to report to Morgado.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-warner\\-music\\-officials\\-settle\\-a\\-power\\-struggle.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Warner Music Officials Settle a Power Struggle\\|last\\=Hofmeister\\|first\\=Sallie\\|date\\=October 28, 1994\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233826/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/28/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-warner\\-music\\-officials\\-settle\\-a\\-power\\-struggle.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Morgado gave in to the demand that Morris be granted autonomy to run the North American operations and he was forced to upgrade Morris's position from chief operating officer to Chief Executive of Warner Music Group (US); Morris promptly named [Danny Goldberg](/wiki/Danny_Goldberg \"Danny Goldberg\"), former president of Atlantic Records, to run WBR in defiance of Morgado, who had a different candidate in mind and Levin also reduced Morgado's power to oversee Warner's mail\\-order record club division and its international operations.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-time\\-warner\\-replaces\\-chairman\\-of\\-music\\-group\\-with\\-hbo\\-chief.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Time Warner Replaces Chairman Of Music Group With HBO Chief\\|last\\=Landler\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=May 4, 1995\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233824/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/04/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-time\\-warner\\-replaces\\-chairman\\-of\\-music\\-group\\-with\\-hbo\\-chief.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Morris then brought in [Sylvia Rhone](/wiki/Sylvia_Rhone \"Sylvia Rhone\") and [Seymour Stein](/wiki/Seymour_Stein \"Seymour Stein\") to stabilize Elektra, settled the Metallica lawsuit and persuaded Levin to purchase an additional 25% of Interscope, although this initiative proved short\\-lived.",
"The power struggle between Morgado and Morris reached a dramatic climax in May 1995 when Morgado was asked to resign by Gerald Levin, following a welter of complaints from executives at the three major Warner Music labels, who said that Morgado was undermining Morris's authority and damaging Warner's reputation among performers. Morgado was immediately replaced by [HBO](/wiki/Home_Box_Office \"Home Box Office\") chairman [Michael J. Fuchs](/wiki/Michael_J._Fuchs \"Michael J. Fuchs\") but the corporate upheavals did not end there; in late June 1995 Fuchs abruptly dismissed Doug Morris, saying that Morris had been \"leading a campaign to destabilize Warner Music in an effort to seize control of the company\". As Morris's strongest ally, Danny Goldberg was also under threat; he was initially told that he could stay on as President of WBR as long as he refrained from office politics and concentrate on the day\\-to\\-day management of the label, but he resigned as President of Warner Bros. Records soon after to pursue \"other interests\", and was replaced by WBR vice\\-chairman [Russ Thyret](/wiki/Russ_Thyret \"Russ Thyret\").",
"Despite early success with [Dr. Dre](/wiki/Dr._Dre \"Dr. Dre\") and [Snoop Dogg](/wiki/Snoop_Dogg \"Snoop Dogg\"), and Morris's decision to increase Warner's stake to 50%, by the mid\\-1990s [Interscope Records](/wiki/Interscope_Records \"Interscope Records\") was being seen as a liability for the Warner group. Time Warner's board and investors had already been bruised by the damaging 1992 \"[Cop Killer](/wiki/Cop_Killer_%28song%29 \"Cop Killer (song)\")\" controversy and now they were faced with renewed criticism about the [gangsta rap](/wiki/Gangsta_rap \"Gangsta rap\") genre, in which Interscope's associate imprint [Death Row Records](/wiki/Death_Row_Records \"Death Row Records\") was a key label. In mid\\-1995, Time Warner refused to distribute the Interscope album *[Dogg Food](/wiki/Dogg_Food \"Dogg Food\")* by [Tha Dogg Pound](/wiki/Tha_Dogg_Pound \"Tha Dogg Pound\"), forcing the label to seek outside distribution, and late in the year TW sold its stake in Death Row back to co\\-owners [Jimmy Iovine](/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine \"Jimmy Iovine\") and Ted Field and soon after it sold off its share in Interscope to [MCA Music Entertainment](/wiki/MCA_Music_Entertainment \"MCA Music Entertainment\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\\-warner\\-to\\-sell\\-stake\\-in\\-rap\\-label.html\\|title\\=Time Warner to Sell Stake in Rap Label\\|last\\=Landler\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=September 28, 1995\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/28/business/time\\-warner\\-to\\-sell\\-stake\\-in\\-rap\\-label.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The upheaval at Warner was beneficial to its rivals, who picked up valuable executives who had left Warner. Goldberg moved over to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records \"Mercury Records\"); Morris joined [MCA Music Entertainment Group](/wiki/MCA_Records \"MCA Records\") and led its reorganization into [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"), now the world's largest record company. In November 1995, Fuchs was himself sacked by Levin, leaving the company with a reported US$60 million \"[golden parachute](/wiki/Golden_parachute \"Golden parachute\")\", and Time Warner co\\-chairmen [Robert A. Daly](/wiki/Robert_A._Daly \"Robert A. Daly\") and [Terry Semel](/wiki/Terry_Semel \"Terry Semel\") took over the running of the music division.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\\-j\\-fuchs\\|title\\=Cityfile profile: Michael J. Fuchs\\|website\\=Cityfile.com\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928143809/http://cityfile.com/profiles/michael\\-j\\-fuchs\\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2011}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-the\\-music\\-and\\-the\\-dissonance\\-at\\-time\\-warner.html\\|title\\=THE MEDIA BUSINESS;The Music, and the Dissonance, at Time Warner\\|last\\=Landler\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=November 17, 1995\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829233825/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/17/business/the\\-media\\-business\\-the\\-music\\-and\\-the\\-dissonance\\-at\\-time\\-warner.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1995\\-11\\-17\\-fi\\-4210\\-story.html\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|first\\=Chuck\\|last\\=Philips\\|date\\=November 17, 1995\\|access\\-date\\=May 27, 2010\\|title\\=Company Town : SHAKE\\-UP AT TIME WARNER : A Very Bizarre Year at Time Warner : Chronology: Industry waits to see if established and new artists defect to rivals in wake of executive turnover at music giant\\|archive\\-date\\=July 7, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120707001753/http://articles.latimes.com/1995\\-11\\-17/business/fi\\-4210\\_1\\_time\\-warner/2\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 1998, Seagram boss [Edgar Bronfman Jr.](/wiki/Edgar_Bronfman_Jr. \"Edgar Bronfman Jr.\") held talks aimed at merging Seagram's Universal Music, headed by Morris, with the venerable British recording company [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\"), but the discussions came to nothing; Bronfman then oversaw Universal's takeover by [Vivendi](/wiki/Vivendi \"Vivendi\"). WEA meanwhile continued to expand its publishing empire, buying a 90% stake in the Italian recording and music publishing group Nuova [Fonit Cetra](/wiki/Fonit_Cetra \"Fonit Cetra\").{{Cite web\\| last1 \\= Zecchinelli\\| first1 \\= Cecilia\\| title \\= RAI sells off Fonit Cetra\\| work \\= Variety\\| access\\-date \\= April 5, 2020\\| date \\= July 27, 1998\\| url \\= https://variety.com/1998/music/news/rai\\-sells\\-off\\-fonit\\-cetra\\-1117478829/}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=March 2022 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"Also in 1998, Time Warner Entertainment bought the remaining 50% of the Rhino Records label they did not own. The Rhino Records retail store in Los Angeles was not included. Rhino then began reissuing the back catalogues of the Warner/Reprise and Elektra/Asylum labels. In 1999, Rhino launched Rhino Handmade, which released limited\\-edition reissues of lesser\\-known but still\\-significant recordings from the WEA labels.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early quintet
Jacob "Jake" Carey (bass) and Ezekiel "Zeke" Carey (second tenor) formed the group in Chicago after meeting cousins [baritone](/wiki/Baritone "Baritone") Paul Wilson and first tenor [Johnny Carter](/wiki/Johnny_Carter_%28singer%29 "Johnny Carter (singer)") at a [Hebrew Israelite](/wiki/Church_of_God_and_Saints_of_Christ "Church of God and Saints of Christ") congregation.{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Guinness Who's Who of Soul Music]]\|editor\=\[\[Colin Larkin (writer)\|Colin Larkin]]\|publisher\=\[\[Guinness Publishing]]\|date\=1993\|edition\=First\|isbn\=0\-85112\-733\-9\|pages\=87/8}} Earl Lewis (not [the Channels](/wiki/The_Channels "The Channels") lead) soon joined, and after a series of name changes ("The Swallows", "El Flamingos", "The Five Flamingos"), wound up being known as the Flamingos. Sollie McElroy soon replaced Lewis (who joined the Five Echoes). The Flamingos' first single (for [Chance Records](/wiki/Chance_Records "Chance Records")), "If I Can't Have You", was a moderate local success, as was the follow\-up "[That's My Desire](/wiki/That%27s_My_Desire_%281931_song%29 "That's My Desire (1931 song)")", but it was Johnny Carter's composition of "Golden Teardrops", with its complex vocal harmonies and Carter's soaring [falsetto](/wiki/Falsetto "Falsetto"), that cemented their reputation as a top regional act of the day.
The Flamingos left Chance Records sometime after their December 1953 session, and signed with DJ Al Benson's [Parrot Records](/wiki/Parrot_Records_%28blues_label%29 "Parrot Records (blues label)"). Sollie McElroy was on their first Parrot session, but left the group in December 1954, to be replaced by tenor Nate Nelson (who was on their second Parrot session; he's lead on "I'm Yours", released in January 1955\). In early 1955, the Flamingos signed with [Chess Records](/wiki/Chess_Records "Chess Records"), to record for their [Checker Records](/wiki/Checker_Records "Checker Records") [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary "Subsidiary"). At Chess/Checker, the Flamingos achieved their first national chart hit with "[I'll Be Home](/wiki/I%27ll_Be_Home "I'll Be Home")", which went to number 5 on *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")*{{'}}s [R\&B](/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs "Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs") chart.{{cite web\|url\=http://bsnpubs.com/chess/chesscheck.html\|title\=The Chess Story\|website\=Bsnpubs.com\|date\=January 22, 1998\|access\-date\=February 12, 2016}} [Pat Boone](/wiki/Pat_Boone "Pat Boone")'s cover version of the song, complete with revised lyrics ("My mind's made up" replacing "My time's about up"), was a hit on the pop charts.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bsnpubs.com/dot/dotstory.html\|title\=Dot Records Story, Part 1\|website\=Bsnpubs.com\|date\=November 10, 1999\|access\-date\=February 12, 2016}} The group also had moderate success for the label with other chestnuts like "A Kiss from Your Lips", "The Vow" and "Would I Be Crying". The Flamingos also appeared in the 1956 [Alan Freed](/wiki/Alan_Freed "Alan Freed") movie *[Rock, Rock, Rock](/wiki/Rock%2C_Rock%2C_Rock_%28film%29 "Rock, Rock, Rock (film)")*. Both Zeke Carey and Carter were drafted that year (Carter was drafted in September).
[thumb\|thumbtime\=1548\|start\=1548\|end\=1725\|upright\=1\.5\|The Flamingos performing "Would I Be Crying" in 1956\.](/wiki/File:Rock_Rock_Rock%281956%29.ogv "Rock Rock Rock(1956).ogv")
Nate Nelson, Jake Carey and Paul Wilson continued the group with new member [Tommy Hunt](/wiki/Tommy_Hunt "Tommy Hunt") (added in October 1956\). Another new member, tenor/lead, guitarist and [arranger](/wiki/Music_arranger "Music arranger"), [Terry "Buzzy" Johnson](/wiki/Terry_%22Buzzy%22_Johnson "Terry "), joined in late December 1958\. The group (Nate Nelson, Tommy Hunt, Paul Wilson, and Jake Carey) began recording for Decca Records in April 1957\. Their most notable single was Johnson's arrangement of "The Ladder of Love", but legal entanglements between Checker and Nate Nelson ruined any chance of commercial success. Zeke Carey returned to the Flamingos in 1958, making the group a [sextet](/wiki/Sextet "Sextet"). (When Johnny Carter was discharged from the service, he joined [the Dells](/wiki/The_Dells "The Dells"), performing with them for almost 50 years until his death in 2009\.)
Zeke and Jake Carey were not blood\-related, but were considered cousins, because Zeke was adopted by Jake's aunt and uncle.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.terryjohnsonsflamingos.com/History.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231171830/http://www.terryjohnsonsflamingos.com/History.htm\|archive\-date\=December 31, 2012\|title\=Terry Johnson of Flamingos\|access\-date\=May 16, 2021}}
### End Records
In 1958 the Flamingos began recording for [George Goldner](/wiki/George_Goldner "George Goldner")'s [End Records](/wiki/End_Records "End Records") in New York City, where they had several national hits. Almost immediately, the group had their first pop chart hit with "Lovers Never Say Goodbye", written by Terry Johnson, who shared lead chores on the song with Paul Wilson. The formula was a winner as Johnson and Wilson also led three of the 12 songs selected for their first album *Flamingo Serenade*{{snd}}[George Gershwin](/wiki/George_Gershwin "George Gershwin")'s "[Love Walked In](/wiki/Love_Walked_In "Love Walked In")", "[But Not for Me](/wiki/But_Not_for_Me_%28song%29 "But Not for Me (song)")" and "[Time Was](/wiki/Time_Was "Time Was")". The Flamingos had their biggest seller in 1959 with another old standard from that LP, on which Nate Nelson handled lead vocals. "[I Only Have Eyes for You](/wiki/I_Only_Have_Eyes_for_You "I Only Have Eyes for You")" (written in 1934 by composer Harry Warren and lyricist Al Dubin for the film [Dames](/wiki/Dames_%28film%29 "Dames (film)")) became their biggest seller, and has been featured in dozens of movies and TV shows. A long series of hits followed, including the Johnson\-penned "Mio Amore", [Doc Pomus](/wiki/Doc_Pomus "Doc Pomus")' composition "[Your Other Love](/wiki/Your_Other_Love "Your Other Love")", "[Nobody Loves Me Like You](/wiki/Nobody_Loves_Me_Like_You "Nobody Loves Me Like You")" (written for the group by [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke "Sam Cooke")), and "[I Was Such a Fool (To Fall in Love with You)](/wiki/I_Was_Such_a_Fool_%28To_Fall_in_Love_with_You%29 "I Was Such a Fool (To Fall in Love with You)")". LP cuts "Love Walked In" and "Time Was" were also issued as singles.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2008}} In the same year, they appeared in the Alan Freed movie, *Go, Johnny, Go*, singing a frenetic version of "Jump Children" (originally recorded for [Chance Records](/wiki/Chance_Records "Chance Records") in the early days). The group became known almost as much for their stage show and [choreography](/wiki/Choreography "Choreography") as for their harmonies. Groups including [the Temptations](/wiki/The_Temptations "The Temptations"){{Cite book\|first\=Todd\|last\=Decker\|title\=The Lives of an American Song\|year\=2014\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=S9mSBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT218\|page\=218\|isbn\=978\-0199389193\|publisher\=Ebook}} and [the Tavares](/wiki/Tavares_%28band%29 "Tavares (band)") later credited the group as major influences.
### Splintering of the group
The group began to come apart at the turn of the decade. Tommy Hunt left for a solo career in 1960\. Nate Nelson and Terry Johnson split to form the "Modern Flamingos" in 1961, and went on to record as the Starglows on [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records") in 1963\. (The Modern Flamingos name was used later; the group would include members of the defunct Del\-Knights in the late 1960s). New members were brought in, making the group Zeke Carey (tenor), Jake Carey (bass), Paul Wilson (baritone), Billy Clarke (tenor), [Eddie Williams](/wiki/Eddie_Williams_%28saxophonist%29 "Eddie Williams (saxophonist)") (tenor), Alan Fontaine (guitar), and Julien Vaught (saxophone).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929072322/http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\|title\=Julien Vaught\|website\=Julienvaught.com\|archive\-date\=September 29, 2007\|access\-date\=May 16, 2021}} Also [Johnny Carter](/wiki/Johnny_Carter_%28singer%29 "Johnny Carter (singer)") left in 1960 to join [the Dells](/wiki/The_Dells "The Dells"). Clarke and Williams took duties performing on most new lead vocals.
A sixth vocalist, Doug McClure, was added in 1962\. Shortly afterwards, Clarke and Williams left the group. Founding member Paul Wilson left in 1964, new member Sidney Hall joined in 1966, and Jacob Carey's son J.C. Carey joined in 1969\. They recorded several uptempo songs through the 1960s, peaking at number 26 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart") with "The Boogaloo Party".{{cite book\|first\=David\|last\=Roberts\|year\=2006\|title\=\[\[British Hit Singles \& Albums]]\|edition\=19th\|publisher\=Guinness World Records Limited\|location\=London\|isbn\=1\-904994\-10\-5\|page\=204}} Around that time, the Flamingos formed their own label, Ronze, and produced many of their own recordings.
The group continued recording into the 1970s. A new album was released in 1972 on Ronze, entitled *The Flamingos Today*. By this time, the group was the Careys, McClure, Fontaine, the returning Billy Clarke, and former [Limelite](/wiki/Shep_and_the_Limelites "Shep and the Limelites") Clarence Bassett, Jr.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bassettbranches.org/newsletters/2006/20060521/20060521\.shtml\|title\=Bassett Family Association Newsletter May 2006\|website\=Bassettbranches.org\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014}} New member Frank "Mingo" Ayers joined soon after.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\|title\=Flamingos\|website\=Rockabilly.nl\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718082825/http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\|archive\-date\=July 18, 2004}} More mildly successful recordings came in this decade, including the uptempo "Heavy Hips", and "Buffalo Soldier".
By 1980, the group was Jake Carey, Zeke Carey, Frank Ayers and Jerome Wilson.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bomsey\-autographs.com/cgi\-bin/sigList.pl\|title\=Edward N. Bomsey Autographs, Inc\|website\=Bomsey\-autographs.com\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912163014/http://www.bomsey\-autographs.com/cgi\-bin/sigList.pl\|archive\-date\=September 12, 2004}} Ayers left around this time, joining the [Del Vikings](/wiki/Del-Vikings "Del-Vikings"). In 1984, two new members joined: Bennie Cherry and Archie Satterfield.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm \|title\=About Touch of Silk\|website\=Touchofsilkvocalgroup.com\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209145113/http://touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm\|archive\-date\=December 9, 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} In 1988, the group was featured at the 1988 [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards "Grammy Awards"). Paul Wilson died on May 6, 1988\.{{Cite web \|title\=The Dead Rock Stars Club \- The 1980s \|url\=http://thedeadrockstarsclub.com/1980\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-12 \|website\=thedeadrockstarsclub.com}} By the early 1990s, the group was the Careys, Satterfield, Ron Reace and [Kenny Davis](/wiki/Kenny_Davis_%28musician%29 "Kenny Davis (musician)"). Later, it was the Careys, Reace, and King Raymond Green.{{cite AV media notes \|type\=CD jacket \|title\=Doo Wop 50 Live!}} Jake Carey died in 1997\. The group recorded a new album, *Unspoken Emotions*, under the Ronze label in 1999\. It featuring re\-recordings of "Ain't Nothing But A Party" and "I'll Be Home", led by Zeke Carey. The group appeared on the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service "Public Broadcasting Service") television special *[Doo Wop 50](/wiki/Doo_Wop_50 "Doo Wop 50")* that same year. The lineup was Zeke Carey, J.C. Carey, Ron Reace, King Raymond Green, and [Larry Jordan](/wiki/Larry_Jordan "Larry Jordan"). Zeke Carey died on December 24, 1999\.{{cite web\|url\=http://oldies.about.com/od/doowo1/p/flamingos.htm\|title\=Profile: The Flamingos\|first\=Robert\|last\=Fontenot\|website\=About.com\|access\-date\=November 13, 2013}} King Raymond Green and Ron Reace left around that time and were replaced by Earnest "Just Mike" Gilbert and former [Dynamic Superior](/wiki/The_Dynamic_Superiors "The Dynamic Superiors") George Spann. James Faison entered shortly thereafter. Tommy Hunt has flown in from England (where he has lived since 1970\) to perform with this group twice since 2001\.
The group split up in late 2005 due to money disputes.{{cite web\|url\=http://mccracken.itgo.com/docs/flamingos.html\|title\=Message\|publisher\=Mccracken.itgo.com\|date\=December 11, 2005\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014}} Spann, Jordan, Gilbert, and Faison grouped together to reform Spann's old group, The Dynamic Superiors.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\|title\=JSounds Productions \- Home\|date\=6 October 2007\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006151845/http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\|access\-date\=2 July 2021\|archive\-date\=2007\-10\-06}} J.C. Carey brought in new members, and toured with Tommy Hunt starting in April 2007\.
Terry Johnson is the owner of the "Flamingos" federal trademark and leads the current incarnation of the group. The current lineup is Johnson, Starling Newsome, Stan Prinston and musical director Theresa Trigg. The Flamingos featuring Terry Johnson appeared on two PBS specials: *Rock and Roll at Fifty* (in which they were the only group to have more than two songs featured){{cite AV media notes\|title\=Rock and Roll at Fifty\|type\=Liner notes\|date\=May 25, 2004\|asin\=B00023BJGY}} and *Doo Wop Cavalcade: The Definitive Anthology*. In 2013, the Flamingos released the Diamond Anniversary Tour CD. They continue to perform in concerts across the country.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.songkick.com/artists/95839\-flamingos/calendar\|title\=The Flamingos Full Tour Schedule 2021 \& 2022, Tour Dates \& Concerts\|website\=Songkick.com\|access\-date\=July 2, 2021}}
Doug McClure died on July 6, 2018\.{{Cite web \|title\=Douglas McClure Obituary (2018\) \- New Haven, CT \- Darien Times \|url\=https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/darientimes/name/douglas\-mcclure\-obituary?id\=9947849 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-26 \|website\=Legacy.com}}
### Pepsi lawsuit
J. C. Carey, Jr., Terry Johnson, Tommy Hunt and descendants of Nate Nelson and Paul Wilson sued [PepsiCo](/wiki/PepsiCo "PepsiCo") for having used "I Only Have Eyes For You" in a 1998 [television commercial](/wiki/Television_commercial "Television commercial"), allegedly without having consulted the group. The group was awarded $250,000\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.targetmarketnews.com/storyid01310601\.htm\|title\=The Flamingos wins settlement from Pepsi for unauthorized use of song\|website\=Targetmarketnews.com\|date\=January 30, 2006\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060216052329/http://www.targetmarketnews.com/storyid01310601\.htm\|archive\-date\=February 16, 2006}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early quintet",
"Jacob \"Jake\" Carey (bass) and Ezekiel \"Zeke\" Carey (second tenor) formed the group in Chicago after meeting cousins [baritone](/wiki/Baritone \"Baritone\") Paul Wilson and first tenor [Johnny Carter](/wiki/Johnny_Carter_%28singer%29 \"Johnny Carter (singer)\") at a [Hebrew Israelite](/wiki/Church_of_God_and_Saints_of_Christ \"Church of God and Saints of Christ\") congregation.{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Guinness Who's Who of Soul Music]]\\|editor\\=\\[\\[Colin Larkin (writer)\\|Colin Larkin]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Guinness Publishing]]\\|date\\=1993\\|edition\\=First\\|isbn\\=0\\-85112\\-733\\-9\\|pages\\=87/8}} Earl Lewis (not [the Channels](/wiki/The_Channels \"The Channels\") lead) soon joined, and after a series of name changes (\"The Swallows\", \"El Flamingos\", \"The Five Flamingos\"), wound up being known as the Flamingos. Sollie McElroy soon replaced Lewis (who joined the Five Echoes). The Flamingos' first single (for [Chance Records](/wiki/Chance_Records \"Chance Records\")), \"If I Can't Have You\", was a moderate local success, as was the follow\\-up \"[That's My Desire](/wiki/That%27s_My_Desire_%281931_song%29 \"That's My Desire (1931 song)\")\", but it was Johnny Carter's composition of \"Golden Teardrops\", with its complex vocal harmonies and Carter's soaring [falsetto](/wiki/Falsetto \"Falsetto\"), that cemented their reputation as a top regional act of the day.",
"The Flamingos left Chance Records sometime after their December 1953 session, and signed with DJ Al Benson's [Parrot Records](/wiki/Parrot_Records_%28blues_label%29 \"Parrot Records (blues label)\"). Sollie McElroy was on their first Parrot session, but left the group in December 1954, to be replaced by tenor Nate Nelson (who was on their second Parrot session; he's lead on \"I'm Yours\", released in January 1955\\). In early 1955, the Flamingos signed with [Chess Records](/wiki/Chess_Records \"Chess Records\"), to record for their [Checker Records](/wiki/Checker_Records \"Checker Records\") [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary \"Subsidiary\"). At Chess/Checker, the Flamingos achieved their first national chart hit with \"[I'll Be Home](/wiki/I%27ll_Be_Home \"I'll Be Home\")\", which went to number 5 on *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")*{{'}}s [R\\&B](/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs \"Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs\") chart.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bsnpubs.com/chess/chesscheck.html\\|title\\=The Chess Story\\|website\\=Bsnpubs.com\\|date\\=January 22, 1998\\|access\\-date\\=February 12, 2016}} [Pat Boone](/wiki/Pat_Boone \"Pat Boone\")'s cover version of the song, complete with revised lyrics (\"My mind's made up\" replacing \"My time's about up\"), was a hit on the pop charts.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bsnpubs.com/dot/dotstory.html\\|title\\=Dot Records Story, Part 1\\|website\\=Bsnpubs.com\\|date\\=November 10, 1999\\|access\\-date\\=February 12, 2016}} The group also had moderate success for the label with other chestnuts like \"A Kiss from Your Lips\", \"The Vow\" and \"Would I Be Crying\". The Flamingos also appeared in the 1956 [Alan Freed](/wiki/Alan_Freed \"Alan Freed\") movie *[Rock, Rock, Rock](/wiki/Rock%2C_Rock%2C_Rock_%28film%29 \"Rock, Rock, Rock (film)\")*. Both Zeke Carey and Carter were drafted that year (Carter was drafted in September).",
"[thumb\\|thumbtime\\=1548\\|start\\=1548\\|end\\=1725\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|The Flamingos performing \"Would I Be Crying\" in 1956\\.](/wiki/File:Rock_Rock_Rock%281956%29.ogv \"Rock Rock Rock(1956).ogv\")",
"Nate Nelson, Jake Carey and Paul Wilson continued the group with new member [Tommy Hunt](/wiki/Tommy_Hunt \"Tommy Hunt\") (added in October 1956\\). Another new member, tenor/lead, guitarist and [arranger](/wiki/Music_arranger \"Music arranger\"), [Terry \"Buzzy\" Johnson](/wiki/Terry_%22Buzzy%22_Johnson \"Terry \"), joined in late December 1958\\. The group (Nate Nelson, Tommy Hunt, Paul Wilson, and Jake Carey) began recording for Decca Records in April 1957\\. Their most notable single was Johnson's arrangement of \"The Ladder of Love\", but legal entanglements between Checker and Nate Nelson ruined any chance of commercial success. Zeke Carey returned to the Flamingos in 1958, making the group a [sextet](/wiki/Sextet \"Sextet\"). (When Johnny Carter was discharged from the service, he joined [the Dells](/wiki/The_Dells \"The Dells\"), performing with them for almost 50 years until his death in 2009\\.)",
"Zeke and Jake Carey were not blood\\-related, but were considered cousins, because Zeke was adopted by Jake's aunt and uncle.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.terryjohnsonsflamingos.com/History.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231171830/http://www.terryjohnsonsflamingos.com/History.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 31, 2012\\|title\\=Terry Johnson of Flamingos\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2021}}",
"### End Records",
"In 1958 the Flamingos began recording for [George Goldner](/wiki/George_Goldner \"George Goldner\")'s [End Records](/wiki/End_Records \"End Records\") in New York City, where they had several national hits. Almost immediately, the group had their first pop chart hit with \"Lovers Never Say Goodbye\", written by Terry Johnson, who shared lead chores on the song with Paul Wilson. The formula was a winner as Johnson and Wilson also led three of the 12 songs selected for their first album *Flamingo Serenade*{{snd}}[George Gershwin](/wiki/George_Gershwin \"George Gershwin\")'s \"[Love Walked In](/wiki/Love_Walked_In \"Love Walked In\")\", \"[But Not for Me](/wiki/But_Not_for_Me_%28song%29 \"But Not for Me (song)\")\" and \"[Time Was](/wiki/Time_Was \"Time Was\")\". The Flamingos had their biggest seller in 1959 with another old standard from that LP, on which Nate Nelson handled lead vocals. \"[I Only Have Eyes for You](/wiki/I_Only_Have_Eyes_for_You \"I Only Have Eyes for You\")\" (written in 1934 by composer Harry Warren and lyricist Al Dubin for the film [Dames](/wiki/Dames_%28film%29 \"Dames (film)\")) became their biggest seller, and has been featured in dozens of movies and TV shows. A long series of hits followed, including the Johnson\\-penned \"Mio Amore\", [Doc Pomus](/wiki/Doc_Pomus \"Doc Pomus\")' composition \"[Your Other Love](/wiki/Your_Other_Love \"Your Other Love\")\", \"[Nobody Loves Me Like You](/wiki/Nobody_Loves_Me_Like_You \"Nobody Loves Me Like You\")\" (written for the group by [Sam Cooke](/wiki/Sam_Cooke \"Sam Cooke\")), and \"[I Was Such a Fool (To Fall in Love with You)](/wiki/I_Was_Such_a_Fool_%28To_Fall_in_Love_with_You%29 \"I Was Such a Fool (To Fall in Love with You)\")\". LP cuts \"Love Walked In\" and \"Time Was\" were also issued as singles.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2008}} In the same year, they appeared in the Alan Freed movie, *Go, Johnny, Go*, singing a frenetic version of \"Jump Children\" (originally recorded for [Chance Records](/wiki/Chance_Records \"Chance Records\") in the early days). The group became known almost as much for their stage show and [choreography](/wiki/Choreography \"Choreography\") as for their harmonies. Groups including [the Temptations](/wiki/The_Temptations \"The Temptations\"){{Cite book\\|first\\=Todd\\|last\\=Decker\\|title\\=The Lives of an American Song\\|year\\=2014\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=S9mSBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT218\\|page\\=218\\|isbn\\=978\\-0199389193\\|publisher\\=Ebook}} and [the Tavares](/wiki/Tavares_%28band%29 \"Tavares (band)\") later credited the group as major influences.",
"### Splintering of the group",
"The group began to come apart at the turn of the decade. Tommy Hunt left for a solo career in 1960\\. Nate Nelson and Terry Johnson split to form the \"Modern Flamingos\" in 1961, and went on to record as the Starglows on [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\") in 1963\\. (The Modern Flamingos name was used later; the group would include members of the defunct Del\\-Knights in the late 1960s). New members were brought in, making the group Zeke Carey (tenor), Jake Carey (bass), Paul Wilson (baritone), Billy Clarke (tenor), [Eddie Williams](/wiki/Eddie_Williams_%28saxophonist%29 \"Eddie Williams (saxophonist)\") (tenor), Alan Fontaine (guitar), and Julien Vaught (saxophone).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929072322/http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\\|title\\=Julien Vaught\\|website\\=Julienvaught.com\\|archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2021}} Also [Johnny Carter](/wiki/Johnny_Carter_%28singer%29 \"Johnny Carter (singer)\") left in 1960 to join [the Dells](/wiki/The_Dells \"The Dells\"). Clarke and Williams took duties performing on most new lead vocals.",
"A sixth vocalist, Doug McClure, was added in 1962\\. Shortly afterwards, Clarke and Williams left the group. Founding member Paul Wilson left in 1964, new member Sidney Hall joined in 1966, and Jacob Carey's son J.C. Carey joined in 1969\\. They recorded several uptempo songs through the 1960s, peaking at number 26 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\") with \"The Boogaloo Party\".{{cite book\\|first\\=David\\|last\\=Roberts\\|year\\=2006\\|title\\=\\[\\[British Hit Singles \\& Albums]]\\|edition\\=19th\\|publisher\\=Guinness World Records Limited\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=1\\-904994\\-10\\-5\\|page\\=204}} Around that time, the Flamingos formed their own label, Ronze, and produced many of their own recordings.",
"The group continued recording into the 1970s. A new album was released in 1972 on Ronze, entitled *The Flamingos Today*. By this time, the group was the Careys, McClure, Fontaine, the returning Billy Clarke, and former [Limelite](/wiki/Shep_and_the_Limelites \"Shep and the Limelites\") Clarence Bassett, Jr.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bassettbranches.org/newsletters/2006/20060521/20060521\\.shtml\\|title\\=Bassett Family Association Newsletter May 2006\\|website\\=Bassettbranches.org\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014}} New member Frank \"Mingo\" Ayers joined soon after.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\\|title\\=Flamingos\\|website\\=Rockabilly.nl\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718082825/http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=July 18, 2004}} More mildly successful recordings came in this decade, including the uptempo \"Heavy Hips\", and \"Buffalo Soldier\".",
"By 1980, the group was Jake Carey, Zeke Carey, Frank Ayers and Jerome Wilson.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bomsey\\-autographs.com/cgi\\-bin/sigList.pl\\|title\\=Edward N. Bomsey Autographs, Inc\\|website\\=Bomsey\\-autographs.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912163014/http://www.bomsey\\-autographs.com/cgi\\-bin/sigList.pl\\|archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2004}} Ayers left around this time, joining the [Del Vikings](/wiki/Del-Vikings \"Del-Vikings\"). In 1984, two new members joined: Bennie Cherry and Archie Satterfield.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm \\|title\\=About Touch of Silk\\|website\\=Touchofsilkvocalgroup.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209145113/http://touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 9, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In 1988, the group was featured at the 1988 [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards \"Grammy Awards\"). Paul Wilson died on May 6, 1988\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Dead Rock Stars Club \\- The 1980s \\|url\\=http://thedeadrockstarsclub.com/1980\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-12 \\|website\\=thedeadrockstarsclub.com}} By the early 1990s, the group was the Careys, Satterfield, Ron Reace and [Kenny Davis](/wiki/Kenny_Davis_%28musician%29 \"Kenny Davis (musician)\"). Later, it was the Careys, Reace, and King Raymond Green.{{cite AV media notes \\|type\\=CD jacket \\|title\\=Doo Wop 50 Live!}} Jake Carey died in 1997\\. The group recorded a new album, *Unspoken Emotions*, under the Ronze label in 1999\\. It featuring re\\-recordings of \"Ain't Nothing But A Party\" and \"I'll Be Home\", led by Zeke Carey. The group appeared on the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\") television special *[Doo Wop 50](/wiki/Doo_Wop_50 \"Doo Wop 50\")* that same year. The lineup was Zeke Carey, J.C. Carey, Ron Reace, King Raymond Green, and [Larry Jordan](/wiki/Larry_Jordan \"Larry Jordan\"). Zeke Carey died on December 24, 1999\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://oldies.about.com/od/doowo1/p/flamingos.htm\\|title\\=Profile: The Flamingos\\|first\\=Robert\\|last\\=Fontenot\\|website\\=About.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 13, 2013}} King Raymond Green and Ron Reace left around that time and were replaced by Earnest \"Just Mike\" Gilbert and former [Dynamic Superior](/wiki/The_Dynamic_Superiors \"The Dynamic Superiors\") George Spann. James Faison entered shortly thereafter. Tommy Hunt has flown in from England (where he has lived since 1970\\) to perform with this group twice since 2001\\.",
"The group split up in late 2005 due to money disputes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mccracken.itgo.com/docs/flamingos.html\\|title\\=Message\\|publisher\\=Mccracken.itgo.com\\|date\\=December 11, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014}} Spann, Jordan, Gilbert, and Faison grouped together to reform Spann's old group, The Dynamic Superiors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\\|title\\=JSounds Productions \\- Home\\|date\\=6 October 2007\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006151845/http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-10\\-06}} J.C. Carey brought in new members, and toured with Tommy Hunt starting in April 2007\\.",
"Terry Johnson is the owner of the \"Flamingos\" federal trademark and leads the current incarnation of the group. The current lineup is Johnson, Starling Newsome, Stan Prinston and musical director Theresa Trigg. The Flamingos featuring Terry Johnson appeared on two PBS specials: *Rock and Roll at Fifty* (in which they were the only group to have more than two songs featured){{cite AV media notes\\|title\\=Rock and Roll at Fifty\\|type\\=Liner notes\\|date\\=May 25, 2004\\|asin\\=B00023BJGY}} and *Doo Wop Cavalcade: The Definitive Anthology*. In 2013, the Flamingos released the Diamond Anniversary Tour CD. They continue to perform in concerts across the country.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.songkick.com/artists/95839\\-flamingos/calendar\\|title\\=The Flamingos Full Tour Schedule 2021 \\& 2022, Tour Dates \\& Concerts\\|website\\=Songkick.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2021}}",
"Doug McClure died on July 6, 2018\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Douglas McClure Obituary (2018\\) \\- New Haven, CT \\- Darien Times \\|url\\=https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/darientimes/name/douglas\\-mcclure\\-obituary?id\\=9947849 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-26 \\|website\\=Legacy.com}}",
"### Pepsi lawsuit",
"J. C. Carey, Jr., Terry Johnson, Tommy Hunt and descendants of Nate Nelson and Paul Wilson sued [PepsiCo](/wiki/PepsiCo \"PepsiCo\") for having used \"I Only Have Eyes For You\" in a 1998 [television commercial](/wiki/Television_commercial \"Television commercial\"), allegedly without having consulted the group. The group was awarded $250,000\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.targetmarketnews.com/storyid01310601\\.htm\\|title\\=The Flamingos wins settlement from Pepsi for unauthorized use of song\\|website\\=Targetmarketnews.com\\|date\\=January 30, 2006\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060216052329/http://www.targetmarketnews.com/storyid01310601\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=February 16, 2006}}",
""
] |
### Splintering of the group
The group began to come apart at the turn of the decade. Tommy Hunt left for a solo career in 1960\. Nate Nelson and Terry Johnson split to form the "Modern Flamingos" in 1961, and went on to record as the Starglows on [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records "Atco Records") in 1963\. (The Modern Flamingos name was used later; the group would include members of the defunct Del\-Knights in the late 1960s). New members were brought in, making the group Zeke Carey (tenor), Jake Carey (bass), Paul Wilson (baritone), Billy Clarke (tenor), [Eddie Williams](/wiki/Eddie_Williams_%28saxophonist%29 "Eddie Williams (saxophonist)") (tenor), Alan Fontaine (guitar), and Julien Vaught (saxophone).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929072322/http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\|title\=Julien Vaught\|website\=Julienvaught.com\|archive\-date\=September 29, 2007\|access\-date\=May 16, 2021}} Also [Johnny Carter](/wiki/Johnny_Carter_%28singer%29 "Johnny Carter (singer)") left in 1960 to join [the Dells](/wiki/The_Dells "The Dells"). Clarke and Williams took duties performing on most new lead vocals.
A sixth vocalist, Doug McClure, was added in 1962\. Shortly afterwards, Clarke and Williams left the group. Founding member Paul Wilson left in 1964, new member Sidney Hall joined in 1966, and Jacob Carey's son J.C. Carey joined in 1969\. They recorded several uptempo songs through the 1960s, peaking at number 26 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart") with "The Boogaloo Party".{{cite book\|first\=David\|last\=Roberts\|year\=2006\|title\=\[\[British Hit Singles \& Albums]]\|edition\=19th\|publisher\=Guinness World Records Limited\|location\=London\|isbn\=1\-904994\-10\-5\|page\=204}} Around that time, the Flamingos formed their own label, Ronze, and produced many of their own recordings.
The group continued recording into the 1970s. A new album was released in 1972 on Ronze, entitled *The Flamingos Today*. By this time, the group was the Careys, McClure, Fontaine, the returning Billy Clarke, and former [Limelite](/wiki/Shep_and_the_Limelites "Shep and the Limelites") Clarence Bassett, Jr.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bassettbranches.org/newsletters/2006/20060521/20060521\.shtml\|title\=Bassett Family Association Newsletter May 2006\|website\=Bassettbranches.org\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014}} New member Frank "Mingo" Ayers joined soon after.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\|title\=Flamingos\|website\=Rockabilly.nl\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718082825/http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\|archive\-date\=July 18, 2004}} More mildly successful recordings came in this decade, including the uptempo "Heavy Hips", and "Buffalo Soldier".
By 1980, the group was Jake Carey, Zeke Carey, Frank Ayers and Jerome Wilson.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bomsey\-autographs.com/cgi\-bin/sigList.pl\|title\=Edward N. Bomsey Autographs, Inc\|website\=Bomsey\-autographs.com\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912163014/http://www.bomsey\-autographs.com/cgi\-bin/sigList.pl\|archive\-date\=September 12, 2004}} Ayers left around this time, joining the [Del Vikings](/wiki/Del-Vikings "Del-Vikings"). In 1984, two new members joined: Bennie Cherry and Archie Satterfield.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm \|title\=About Touch of Silk\|website\=Touchofsilkvocalgroup.com\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209145113/http://touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm\|archive\-date\=December 9, 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} In 1988, the group was featured at the 1988 [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards "Grammy Awards"). Paul Wilson died on May 6, 1988\.{{Cite web \|title\=The Dead Rock Stars Club \- The 1980s \|url\=http://thedeadrockstarsclub.com/1980\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-12 \|website\=thedeadrockstarsclub.com}} By the early 1990s, the group was the Careys, Satterfield, Ron Reace and [Kenny Davis](/wiki/Kenny_Davis_%28musician%29 "Kenny Davis (musician)"). Later, it was the Careys, Reace, and King Raymond Green.{{cite AV media notes \|type\=CD jacket \|title\=Doo Wop 50 Live!}} Jake Carey died in 1997\. The group recorded a new album, *Unspoken Emotions*, under the Ronze label in 1999\. It featuring re\-recordings of "Ain't Nothing But A Party" and "I'll Be Home", led by Zeke Carey. The group appeared on the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service "Public Broadcasting Service") television special *[Doo Wop 50](/wiki/Doo_Wop_50 "Doo Wop 50")* that same year. The lineup was Zeke Carey, J.C. Carey, Ron Reace, King Raymond Green, and [Larry Jordan](/wiki/Larry_Jordan "Larry Jordan"). Zeke Carey died on December 24, 1999\.{{cite web\|url\=http://oldies.about.com/od/doowo1/p/flamingos.htm\|title\=Profile: The Flamingos\|first\=Robert\|last\=Fontenot\|website\=About.com\|access\-date\=November 13, 2013}} King Raymond Green and Ron Reace left around that time and were replaced by Earnest "Just Mike" Gilbert and former [Dynamic Superior](/wiki/The_Dynamic_Superiors "The Dynamic Superiors") George Spann. James Faison entered shortly thereafter. Tommy Hunt has flown in from England (where he has lived since 1970\) to perform with this group twice since 2001\.
The group split up in late 2005 due to money disputes.{{cite web\|url\=http://mccracken.itgo.com/docs/flamingos.html\|title\=Message\|publisher\=Mccracken.itgo.com\|date\=December 11, 2005\|access\-date\=March 2, 2014}} Spann, Jordan, Gilbert, and Faison grouped together to reform Spann's old group, The Dynamic Superiors.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\|title\=JSounds Productions \- Home\|date\=6 October 2007\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006151845/http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\|access\-date\=2 July 2021\|archive\-date\=2007\-10\-06}} J.C. Carey brought in new members, and toured with Tommy Hunt starting in April 2007\.
Terry Johnson is the owner of the "Flamingos" federal trademark and leads the current incarnation of the group. The current lineup is Johnson, Starling Newsome, Stan Prinston and musical director Theresa Trigg. The Flamingos featuring Terry Johnson appeared on two PBS specials: *Rock and Roll at Fifty* (in which they were the only group to have more than two songs featured){{cite AV media notes\|title\=Rock and Roll at Fifty\|type\=Liner notes\|date\=May 25, 2004\|asin\=B00023BJGY}} and *Doo Wop Cavalcade: The Definitive Anthology*. In 2013, the Flamingos released the Diamond Anniversary Tour CD. They continue to perform in concerts across the country.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.songkick.com/artists/95839\-flamingos/calendar\|title\=The Flamingos Full Tour Schedule 2021 \& 2022, Tour Dates \& Concerts\|website\=Songkick.com\|access\-date\=July 2, 2021}}
Doug McClure died on July 6, 2018\.{{Cite web \|title\=Douglas McClure Obituary (2018\) \- New Haven, CT \- Darien Times \|url\=https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/darientimes/name/douglas\-mcclure\-obituary?id\=9947849 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-26 \|website\=Legacy.com}}
|
[
"### Splintering of the group",
"The group began to come apart at the turn of the decade. Tommy Hunt left for a solo career in 1960\\. Nate Nelson and Terry Johnson split to form the \"Modern Flamingos\" in 1961, and went on to record as the Starglows on [Atco Records](/wiki/Atco_Records \"Atco Records\") in 1963\\. (The Modern Flamingos name was used later; the group would include members of the defunct Del\\-Knights in the late 1960s). New members were brought in, making the group Zeke Carey (tenor), Jake Carey (bass), Paul Wilson (baritone), Billy Clarke (tenor), [Eddie Williams](/wiki/Eddie_Williams_%28saxophonist%29 \"Eddie Williams (saxophonist)\") (tenor), Alan Fontaine (guitar), and Julien Vaught (saxophone).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929072322/http://www.julienandellavaught.com/\\|title\\=Julien Vaught\\|website\\=Julienvaught.com\\|archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2021}} Also [Johnny Carter](/wiki/Johnny_Carter_%28singer%29 \"Johnny Carter (singer)\") left in 1960 to join [the Dells](/wiki/The_Dells \"The Dells\"). Clarke and Williams took duties performing on most new lead vocals.",
"A sixth vocalist, Doug McClure, was added in 1962\\. Shortly afterwards, Clarke and Williams left the group. Founding member Paul Wilson left in 1964, new member Sidney Hall joined in 1966, and Jacob Carey's son J.C. Carey joined in 1969\\. They recorded several uptempo songs through the 1960s, peaking at number 26 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\") with \"The Boogaloo Party\".{{cite book\\|first\\=David\\|last\\=Roberts\\|year\\=2006\\|title\\=\\[\\[British Hit Singles \\& Albums]]\\|edition\\=19th\\|publisher\\=Guinness World Records Limited\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=1\\-904994\\-10\\-5\\|page\\=204}} Around that time, the Flamingos formed their own label, Ronze, and produced many of their own recordings.",
"The group continued recording into the 1970s. A new album was released in 1972 on Ronze, entitled *The Flamingos Today*. By this time, the group was the Careys, McClure, Fontaine, the returning Billy Clarke, and former [Limelite](/wiki/Shep_and_the_Limelites \"Shep and the Limelites\") Clarence Bassett, Jr.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bassettbranches.org/newsletters/2006/20060521/20060521\\.shtml\\|title\\=Bassett Family Association Newsletter May 2006\\|website\\=Bassettbranches.org\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014}} New member Frank \"Mingo\" Ayers joined soon after.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\\|title\\=Flamingos\\|website\\=Rockabilly.nl\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718082825/http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/flamingos.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=July 18, 2004}} More mildly successful recordings came in this decade, including the uptempo \"Heavy Hips\", and \"Buffalo Soldier\".",
"By 1980, the group was Jake Carey, Zeke Carey, Frank Ayers and Jerome Wilson.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bomsey\\-autographs.com/cgi\\-bin/sigList.pl\\|title\\=Edward N. Bomsey Autographs, Inc\\|website\\=Bomsey\\-autographs.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912163014/http://www.bomsey\\-autographs.com/cgi\\-bin/sigList.pl\\|archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2004}} Ayers left around this time, joining the [Del Vikings](/wiki/Del-Vikings \"Del-Vikings\"). In 1984, two new members joined: Bennie Cherry and Archie Satterfield.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm \\|title\\=About Touch of Silk\\|website\\=Touchofsilkvocalgroup.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209145113/http://touchofsilkvocalgroup.com/About.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=December 9, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In 1988, the group was featured at the 1988 [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Awards \"Grammy Awards\"). Paul Wilson died on May 6, 1988\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Dead Rock Stars Club \\- The 1980s \\|url\\=http://thedeadrockstarsclub.com/1980\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-12 \\|website\\=thedeadrockstarsclub.com}} By the early 1990s, the group was the Careys, Satterfield, Ron Reace and [Kenny Davis](/wiki/Kenny_Davis_%28musician%29 \"Kenny Davis (musician)\"). Later, it was the Careys, Reace, and King Raymond Green.{{cite AV media notes \\|type\\=CD jacket \\|title\\=Doo Wop 50 Live!}} Jake Carey died in 1997\\. The group recorded a new album, *Unspoken Emotions*, under the Ronze label in 1999\\. It featuring re\\-recordings of \"Ain't Nothing But A Party\" and \"I'll Be Home\", led by Zeke Carey. The group appeared on the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\") television special *[Doo Wop 50](/wiki/Doo_Wop_50 \"Doo Wop 50\")* that same year. The lineup was Zeke Carey, J.C. Carey, Ron Reace, King Raymond Green, and [Larry Jordan](/wiki/Larry_Jordan \"Larry Jordan\"). Zeke Carey died on December 24, 1999\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://oldies.about.com/od/doowo1/p/flamingos.htm\\|title\\=Profile: The Flamingos\\|first\\=Robert\\|last\\=Fontenot\\|website\\=About.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 13, 2013}} King Raymond Green and Ron Reace left around that time and were replaced by Earnest \"Just Mike\" Gilbert and former [Dynamic Superior](/wiki/The_Dynamic_Superiors \"The Dynamic Superiors\") George Spann. James Faison entered shortly thereafter. Tommy Hunt has flown in from England (where he has lived since 1970\\) to perform with this group twice since 2001\\.",
"The group split up in late 2005 due to money disputes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mccracken.itgo.com/docs/flamingos.html\\|title\\=Message\\|publisher\\=Mccracken.itgo.com\\|date\\=December 11, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=March 2, 2014}} Spann, Jordan, Gilbert, and Faison grouped together to reform Spann's old group, The Dynamic Superiors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\\|title\\=JSounds Productions \\- Home\\|date\\=6 October 2007\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006151845/http://www.jsoundsproductions.com/home.html\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-10\\-06}} J.C. Carey brought in new members, and toured with Tommy Hunt starting in April 2007\\.",
"Terry Johnson is the owner of the \"Flamingos\" federal trademark and leads the current incarnation of the group. The current lineup is Johnson, Starling Newsome, Stan Prinston and musical director Theresa Trigg. The Flamingos featuring Terry Johnson appeared on two PBS specials: *Rock and Roll at Fifty* (in which they were the only group to have more than two songs featured){{cite AV media notes\\|title\\=Rock and Roll at Fifty\\|type\\=Liner notes\\|date\\=May 25, 2004\\|asin\\=B00023BJGY}} and *Doo Wop Cavalcade: The Definitive Anthology*. In 2013, the Flamingos released the Diamond Anniversary Tour CD. They continue to perform in concerts across the country.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.songkick.com/artists/95839\\-flamingos/calendar\\|title\\=The Flamingos Full Tour Schedule 2021 \\& 2022, Tour Dates \\& Concerts\\|website\\=Songkick.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2021}}",
"Doug McClure died on July 6, 2018\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Douglas McClure Obituary (2018\\) \\- New Haven, CT \\- Darien Times \\|url\\=https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/darientimes/name/douglas\\-mcclure\\-obituary?id\\=9947849 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-26 \\|website\\=Legacy.com}}",
""
] |
Germany
-------
### Empire, Weimar Republic, Third Reich, Federal Republic
In a number of German armed forces of the 19th century before German unification in 1871 there was the following graduation: [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant "Oberleutnant") (*Premierlieutenant*) and [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant "Leutnant") (*Secondelieutenant*); without the rank *Unterleutnant*.
However, until 1898 there was the rank *Unterleutnant zur See* in the [Imperial German Navy](/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy "Imperial German Navy"). This rank was equivalent to the *Secondelieutenant* of the [Imperial German Army](/wiki/German_Army_%28German_Empire%29 "German Army (German Empire)") (de: deutsches Heer).
In the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr "Reichswehr"), [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht"), and [Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr "Bundeswehr") there was never a rank *Unterleutnant*.
### German Democratic Republic
#### National People´s Army
| \+ |
[left\|30px](/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg "Flag of East Germany.svg") **Unterleutnant**
| [65px](/wiki/File:GDR_Army_OF1%D1%81_Unterleutnant.gif "GDR Army OF1с Unterleutnant.gif") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See.png "OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See.png") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See_VM%2C_%C3%84rmelstreifen.png "OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See VM, Ärmelstreifen.png")Engineer corps / Volksmarine | |
Rank insignia | [NPA officer rank](/wiki/Ranks_of_the_National_People%27s_Army%23Commissioned_officers "Ranks of the National People's Army#Commissioned officers") |
Introduction | 1956 |
Rank group | [Commissioned officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 "Officer (armed forces)") |
Army / Air Force | *Unterleutnant* |
Navy | [Unterleutnant zur See](/wiki/Unterleutnant_zur_See "Unterleutnant zur See") |
Depending on the former Soviet military doctrine as well as to the other armed forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact "Warsaw Pact") the so\-called GDR armed organizations, the *Unterleutnant* was the lowest officer rank.
In the NPA and in the GDR border troops the lieutenant officer sub\-rank group consisted of *Unterleutnant*, [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant "Leutnant"), and [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant "Oberleutnant").
This officer rank could be assigned to military appointments as follows: officer of the operations service, [political officer](/wiki/Political_commissar "Political commissar"), officer of the technical service, supply, procurement, and [military justice](/wiki/Military_justice "Military justice") service.
The graduation to that particular OF1c officer rank was normally possible depending on the education and training, accomplished. The promotion to the following *Leutnant* OF1b\-rank was achievable after two years of service, to [Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann_%28officer%29 "Hauptmann (officer)") after three more years.Dictionary to the German military history, 1st edition (Liz.5, P189/84, LSV:0547, B\-Nr. 746 635 0\), military publishing house of the GDR (VEB) – Berlin, 1985, Volume 1, page 476, definition: *Unterleutnant*.
After successful passing of the officer course (normally three years) on a NPA officers school, officer students (de: Offiziersschüler) normally graduated to the rank *Unterleutnant*. The best school\-leavers of the appropriate course could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant*. By establishing of the Officers High schools and diploma course of study the final examination all graduates promoted to the rank Leutnant.
The equivalent rank of the *Volksmarine* was initially *Unterleutnant zur See*. Later the designation was changed to *Unterleutnant*. However, in individual linguistic usage the traditionally wording *Unterleutnant zur See* was used continuously.
#### Education
Since then the status of NPA persons in uniform with the rank *Unterleutnant* changed from professional soldier to longer\-service volunteer (de: „Offizier auf Zeit“ – OaZ). The minimum service time was three years, and the so\-called [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur "Abitur") (en: final examination, qualifying for university entrance) was mandatory. In 1982 the minimum service time was raised to four years. Normally the one year lasting military education and study had to be accomplished on an officer's high school. By passing the final examination, the aspirant could be promoted to the *Unterleutnat* OF1c\-rank. This was followed by the first line officer assignment in one of the NPA services or branches of service. An *Unterleutnant* could usually be appointed to platoon leader. Pertaining to special abilities, knowledge, or qualification – special assignment could be possible as well.
Under certain circumstances, e.g. successful completion of a reserve officer's training course during high school study, suitable graduates could be appointed to *Unterleutnant of the Reserve* (de: *Unterleutnant der Reserve*).
In some cases particular able [Stabsfeldwebel](/wiki/Stabsfeldwebel "Stabsfeldwebel") or [Fähnrich (NPA)](/wiki/F%C3%A4hnrich_%28NPA%29 "Fähnrich (NPA)") could be appointed to *Unterleutnant*.
| junior rank
[Stabsoberfähnrich](/wiki/Stabsoberf%C3%A4hnrich "Stabsoberfähnrich")
[30px](/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_NVA_%28East_Germany%29.svg "Coat of arms of NVA (East Germany).svg")
**National People's Army rank**
**Unterleutnant**
(Unterleutnant zur See)
senior rank
[Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant "Leutnant")
| |
#### Volkspolizei
In the GDR [Volkspolizei](/wiki/Volkspolizei "Volkspolizei") *Unterleutnant* (official "Unterleutnant der VP") was the lowest commissioned officer rank as well. Normally officer students, graduated from officer's training course, could be promoted to that rank. However, the best graduate of the particular year could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant of the VP*.
Members of the GDR Ministry of Interior, graduated from the Ministry of Interior Officers high school "Artur Becker", another high school facility or university, were normally promoted to *Leutnant of the VP*. Depending on the course of study, duration, and academic or university degree, achieved, promotion to higher ranks could be possible.
|
[
"Germany\n-------",
"### Empire, Weimar Republic, Third Reich, Federal Republic",
"In a number of German armed forces of the 19th century before German unification in 1871 there was the following graduation: [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant \"Oberleutnant\") (*Premierlieutenant*) and [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant \"Leutnant\") (*Secondelieutenant*); without the rank *Unterleutnant*.",
"However, until 1898 there was the rank *Unterleutnant zur See* in the [Imperial German Navy](/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy \"Imperial German Navy\"). This rank was equivalent to the *Secondelieutenant* of the [Imperial German Army](/wiki/German_Army_%28German_Empire%29 \"German Army (German Empire)\") (de: deutsches Heer).",
"In the [Reichswehr](/wiki/Reichswehr \"Reichswehr\"), [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\"), and [Bundeswehr](/wiki/Bundeswehr \"Bundeswehr\") there was never a rank *Unterleutnant*.",
"### German Democratic Republic",
"#### National People´s Army",
"",
"| \\+ |",
"[left\\|30px](/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg \"Flag of East Germany.svg\") **Unterleutnant**",
"",
"| [65px](/wiki/File:GDR_Army_OF1%D1%81_Unterleutnant.gif \"GDR Army OF1с Unterleutnant.gif\") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See.png \"OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See.png\") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See_VM%2C_%C3%84rmelstreifen.png \"OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See VM, Ärmelstreifen.png\")Engineer corps / Volksmarine | |",
"Rank insignia | [NPA officer rank](/wiki/Ranks_of_the_National_People%27s_Army%23Commissioned_officers \"Ranks of the National People's Army#Commissioned officers\") |\n Introduction | 1956 |\n Rank group | [Commissioned officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 \"Officer (armed forces)\") |\n Army / Air Force | *Unterleutnant* |\n Navy | [Unterleutnant zur See](/wiki/Unterleutnant_zur_See \"Unterleutnant zur See\") |\nDepending on the former Soviet military doctrine as well as to the other armed forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact \"Warsaw Pact\") the so\\-called GDR armed organizations, the *Unterleutnant* was the lowest officer rank.",
"In the NPA and in the GDR border troops the lieutenant officer sub\\-rank group consisted of *Unterleutnant*, [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant \"Leutnant\"), and [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant \"Oberleutnant\").",
"This officer rank could be assigned to military appointments as follows: officer of the operations service, [political officer](/wiki/Political_commissar \"Political commissar\"), officer of the technical service, supply, procurement, and [military justice](/wiki/Military_justice \"Military justice\") service.",
"The graduation to that particular OF1c officer rank was normally possible depending on the education and training, accomplished. The promotion to the following *Leutnant* OF1b\\-rank was achievable after two years of service, to [Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann_%28officer%29 \"Hauptmann (officer)\") after three more years.Dictionary to the German military history, 1st edition (Liz.5, P189/84, LSV:0547, B\\-Nr. 746 635 0\\), military publishing house of the GDR (VEB) – Berlin, 1985, Volume 1, page 476, definition: *Unterleutnant*.",
"After successful passing of the officer course (normally three years) on a NPA officers school, officer students (de: Offiziersschüler) normally graduated to the rank *Unterleutnant*. The best school\\-leavers of the appropriate course could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant*. By establishing of the Officers High schools and diploma course of study the final examination all graduates promoted to the rank Leutnant.",
"The equivalent rank of the *Volksmarine* was initially *Unterleutnant zur See*. Later the designation was changed to *Unterleutnant*. However, in individual linguistic usage the traditionally wording *Unterleutnant zur See* was used continuously.",
"#### Education",
"Since then the status of NPA persons in uniform with the rank *Unterleutnant* changed from professional soldier to longer\\-service volunteer (de: „Offizier auf Zeit“ – OaZ). The minimum service time was three years, and the so\\-called [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur \"Abitur\") (en: final examination, qualifying for university entrance) was mandatory. In 1982 the minimum service time was raised to four years. Normally the one year lasting military education and study had to be accomplished on an officer's high school. By passing the final examination, the aspirant could be promoted to the *Unterleutnat* OF1c\\-rank. This was followed by the first line officer assignment in one of the NPA services or branches of service. An *Unterleutnant* could usually be appointed to platoon leader. Pertaining to special abilities, knowledge, or qualification – special assignment could be possible as well.",
"Under certain circumstances, e.g. successful completion of a reserve officer's training course during high school study, suitable graduates could be appointed to *Unterleutnant of the Reserve* (de: *Unterleutnant der Reserve*).",
"In some cases particular able [Stabsfeldwebel](/wiki/Stabsfeldwebel \"Stabsfeldwebel\") or [Fähnrich (NPA)](/wiki/F%C3%A4hnrich_%28NPA%29 \"Fähnrich (NPA)\") could be appointed to *Unterleutnant*.",
"",
"| junior rank \n[Stabsoberfähnrich](/wiki/Stabsoberf%C3%A4hnrich \"Stabsoberfähnrich\")",
"[30px](/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_NVA_%28East_Germany%29.svg \"Coat of arms of NVA (East Germany).svg\") \n**National People's Army rank** \n**Unterleutnant** \n(Unterleutnant zur See)",
"senior rank \n[Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant \"Leutnant\")",
"| |",
"#### Volkspolizei",
"In the GDR [Volkspolizei](/wiki/Volkspolizei \"Volkspolizei\") *Unterleutnant* (official \"Unterleutnant der VP\") was the lowest commissioned officer rank as well. Normally officer students, graduated from officer's training course, could be promoted to that rank. However, the best graduate of the particular year could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant of the VP*.",
"Members of the GDR Ministry of Interior, graduated from the Ministry of Interior Officers high school \"Artur Becker\", another high school facility or university, were normally promoted to *Leutnant of the VP*. Depending on the course of study, duration, and academic or university degree, achieved, promotion to higher ranks could be possible.",
""
] |
### German Democratic Republic
#### National People´s Army
| \+ |
[left\|30px](/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg "Flag of East Germany.svg") **Unterleutnant**
| [65px](/wiki/File:GDR_Army_OF1%D1%81_Unterleutnant.gif "GDR Army OF1с Unterleutnant.gif") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See.png "OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See.png") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See_VM%2C_%C3%84rmelstreifen.png "OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See VM, Ärmelstreifen.png")Engineer corps / Volksmarine | |
Rank insignia | [NPA officer rank](/wiki/Ranks_of_the_National_People%27s_Army%23Commissioned_officers "Ranks of the National People's Army#Commissioned officers") |
Introduction | 1956 |
Rank group | [Commissioned officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 "Officer (armed forces)") |
Army / Air Force | *Unterleutnant* |
Navy | [Unterleutnant zur See](/wiki/Unterleutnant_zur_See "Unterleutnant zur See") |
Depending on the former Soviet military doctrine as well as to the other armed forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact "Warsaw Pact") the so\-called GDR armed organizations, the *Unterleutnant* was the lowest officer rank.
In the NPA and in the GDR border troops the lieutenant officer sub\-rank group consisted of *Unterleutnant*, [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant "Leutnant"), and [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant "Oberleutnant").
This officer rank could be assigned to military appointments as follows: officer of the operations service, [political officer](/wiki/Political_commissar "Political commissar"), officer of the technical service, supply, procurement, and [military justice](/wiki/Military_justice "Military justice") service.
The graduation to that particular OF1c officer rank was normally possible depending on the education and training, accomplished. The promotion to the following *Leutnant* OF1b\-rank was achievable after two years of service, to [Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann_%28officer%29 "Hauptmann (officer)") after three more years.Dictionary to the German military history, 1st edition (Liz.5, P189/84, LSV:0547, B\-Nr. 746 635 0\), military publishing house of the GDR (VEB) – Berlin, 1985, Volume 1, page 476, definition: *Unterleutnant*.
After successful passing of the officer course (normally three years) on a NPA officers school, officer students (de: Offiziersschüler) normally graduated to the rank *Unterleutnant*. The best school\-leavers of the appropriate course could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant*. By establishing of the Officers High schools and diploma course of study the final examination all graduates promoted to the rank Leutnant.
The equivalent rank of the *Volksmarine* was initially *Unterleutnant zur See*. Later the designation was changed to *Unterleutnant*. However, in individual linguistic usage the traditionally wording *Unterleutnant zur See* was used continuously.
#### Education
Since then the status of NPA persons in uniform with the rank *Unterleutnant* changed from professional soldier to longer\-service volunteer (de: „Offizier auf Zeit“ – OaZ). The minimum service time was three years, and the so\-called [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur "Abitur") (en: final examination, qualifying for university entrance) was mandatory. In 1982 the minimum service time was raised to four years. Normally the one year lasting military education and study had to be accomplished on an officer's high school. By passing the final examination, the aspirant could be promoted to the *Unterleutnat* OF1c\-rank. This was followed by the first line officer assignment in one of the NPA services or branches of service. An *Unterleutnant* could usually be appointed to platoon leader. Pertaining to special abilities, knowledge, or qualification – special assignment could be possible as well.
Under certain circumstances, e.g. successful completion of a reserve officer's training course during high school study, suitable graduates could be appointed to *Unterleutnant of the Reserve* (de: *Unterleutnant der Reserve*).
In some cases particular able [Stabsfeldwebel](/wiki/Stabsfeldwebel "Stabsfeldwebel") or [Fähnrich (NPA)](/wiki/F%C3%A4hnrich_%28NPA%29 "Fähnrich (NPA)") could be appointed to *Unterleutnant*.
| junior rank
[Stabsoberfähnrich](/wiki/Stabsoberf%C3%A4hnrich "Stabsoberfähnrich")
[30px](/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_NVA_%28East_Germany%29.svg "Coat of arms of NVA (East Germany).svg")
**National People's Army rank**
**Unterleutnant**
(Unterleutnant zur See)
senior rank
[Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant "Leutnant")
| |
#### Volkspolizei
In the GDR [Volkspolizei](/wiki/Volkspolizei "Volkspolizei") *Unterleutnant* (official "Unterleutnant der VP") was the lowest commissioned officer rank as well. Normally officer students, graduated from officer's training course, could be promoted to that rank. However, the best graduate of the particular year could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant of the VP*.
Members of the GDR Ministry of Interior, graduated from the Ministry of Interior Officers high school "Artur Becker", another high school facility or university, were normally promoted to *Leutnant of the VP*. Depending on the course of study, duration, and academic or university degree, achieved, promotion to higher ranks could be possible.
|
[
"### German Democratic Republic",
"#### National People´s Army",
"",
"| \\+ |",
"[left\\|30px](/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg \"Flag of East Germany.svg\") **Unterleutnant**",
"",
"| [65px](/wiki/File:GDR_Army_OF1%D1%81_Unterleutnant.gif \"GDR Army OF1с Unterleutnant.gif\") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See.png \"OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See.png\") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See_VM%2C_%C3%84rmelstreifen.png \"OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See VM, Ärmelstreifen.png\")Engineer corps / Volksmarine | |",
"Rank insignia | [NPA officer rank](/wiki/Ranks_of_the_National_People%27s_Army%23Commissioned_officers \"Ranks of the National People's Army#Commissioned officers\") |\n Introduction | 1956 |\n Rank group | [Commissioned officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 \"Officer (armed forces)\") |\n Army / Air Force | *Unterleutnant* |\n Navy | [Unterleutnant zur See](/wiki/Unterleutnant_zur_See \"Unterleutnant zur See\") |\nDepending on the former Soviet military doctrine as well as to the other armed forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact \"Warsaw Pact\") the so\\-called GDR armed organizations, the *Unterleutnant* was the lowest officer rank.",
"In the NPA and in the GDR border troops the lieutenant officer sub\\-rank group consisted of *Unterleutnant*, [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant \"Leutnant\"), and [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant \"Oberleutnant\").",
"This officer rank could be assigned to military appointments as follows: officer of the operations service, [political officer](/wiki/Political_commissar \"Political commissar\"), officer of the technical service, supply, procurement, and [military justice](/wiki/Military_justice \"Military justice\") service.",
"The graduation to that particular OF1c officer rank was normally possible depending on the education and training, accomplished. The promotion to the following *Leutnant* OF1b\\-rank was achievable after two years of service, to [Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann_%28officer%29 \"Hauptmann (officer)\") after three more years.Dictionary to the German military history, 1st edition (Liz.5, P189/84, LSV:0547, B\\-Nr. 746 635 0\\), military publishing house of the GDR (VEB) – Berlin, 1985, Volume 1, page 476, definition: *Unterleutnant*.",
"After successful passing of the officer course (normally three years) on a NPA officers school, officer students (de: Offiziersschüler) normally graduated to the rank *Unterleutnant*. The best school\\-leavers of the appropriate course could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant*. By establishing of the Officers High schools and diploma course of study the final examination all graduates promoted to the rank Leutnant.",
"The equivalent rank of the *Volksmarine* was initially *Unterleutnant zur See*. Later the designation was changed to *Unterleutnant*. However, in individual linguistic usage the traditionally wording *Unterleutnant zur See* was used continuously.",
"#### Education",
"Since then the status of NPA persons in uniform with the rank *Unterleutnant* changed from professional soldier to longer\\-service volunteer (de: „Offizier auf Zeit“ – OaZ). The minimum service time was three years, and the so\\-called [Abitur](/wiki/Abitur \"Abitur\") (en: final examination, qualifying for university entrance) was mandatory. In 1982 the minimum service time was raised to four years. Normally the one year lasting military education and study had to be accomplished on an officer's high school. By passing the final examination, the aspirant could be promoted to the *Unterleutnat* OF1c\\-rank. This was followed by the first line officer assignment in one of the NPA services or branches of service. An *Unterleutnant* could usually be appointed to platoon leader. Pertaining to special abilities, knowledge, or qualification – special assignment could be possible as well.",
"Under certain circumstances, e.g. successful completion of a reserve officer's training course during high school study, suitable graduates could be appointed to *Unterleutnant of the Reserve* (de: *Unterleutnant der Reserve*).",
"In some cases particular able [Stabsfeldwebel](/wiki/Stabsfeldwebel \"Stabsfeldwebel\") or [Fähnrich (NPA)](/wiki/F%C3%A4hnrich_%28NPA%29 \"Fähnrich (NPA)\") could be appointed to *Unterleutnant*.",
"",
"| junior rank \n[Stabsoberfähnrich](/wiki/Stabsoberf%C3%A4hnrich \"Stabsoberfähnrich\")",
"[30px](/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_NVA_%28East_Germany%29.svg \"Coat of arms of NVA (East Germany).svg\") \n**National People's Army rank** \n**Unterleutnant** \n(Unterleutnant zur See)",
"senior rank \n[Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant \"Leutnant\")",
"| |",
"#### Volkspolizei",
"In the GDR [Volkspolizei](/wiki/Volkspolizei \"Volkspolizei\") *Unterleutnant* (official \"Unterleutnant der VP\") was the lowest commissioned officer rank as well. Normally officer students, graduated from officer's training course, could be promoted to that rank. However, the best graduate of the particular year could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant of the VP*.",
"Members of the GDR Ministry of Interior, graduated from the Ministry of Interior Officers high school \"Artur Becker\", another high school facility or university, were normally promoted to *Leutnant of the VP*. Depending on the course of study, duration, and academic or university degree, achieved, promotion to higher ranks could be possible.",
""
] |
#### National People´s Army
| \+ |
[left\|30px](/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg "Flag of East Germany.svg") **Unterleutnant**
| [65px](/wiki/File:GDR_Army_OF1%D1%81_Unterleutnant.gif "GDR Army OF1с Unterleutnant.gif") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See.png "OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See.png") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See_VM%2C_%C3%84rmelstreifen.png "OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See VM, Ärmelstreifen.png")Engineer corps / Volksmarine | |
Rank insignia | [NPA officer rank](/wiki/Ranks_of_the_National_People%27s_Army%23Commissioned_officers "Ranks of the National People's Army#Commissioned officers") |
Introduction | 1956 |
Rank group | [Commissioned officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 "Officer (armed forces)") |
Army / Air Force | *Unterleutnant* |
Navy | [Unterleutnant zur See](/wiki/Unterleutnant_zur_See "Unterleutnant zur See") |
Depending on the former Soviet military doctrine as well as to the other armed forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact "Warsaw Pact") the so\-called GDR armed organizations, the *Unterleutnant* was the lowest officer rank.
In the NPA and in the GDR border troops the lieutenant officer sub\-rank group consisted of *Unterleutnant*, [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant "Leutnant"), and [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant "Oberleutnant").
This officer rank could be assigned to military appointments as follows: officer of the operations service, [political officer](/wiki/Political_commissar "Political commissar"), officer of the technical service, supply, procurement, and [military justice](/wiki/Military_justice "Military justice") service.
The graduation to that particular OF1c officer rank was normally possible depending on the education and training, accomplished. The promotion to the following *Leutnant* OF1b\-rank was achievable after two years of service, to [Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann_%28officer%29 "Hauptmann (officer)") after three more years.Dictionary to the German military history, 1st edition (Liz.5, P189/84, LSV:0547, B\-Nr. 746 635 0\), military publishing house of the GDR (VEB) – Berlin, 1985, Volume 1, page 476, definition: *Unterleutnant*.
After successful passing of the officer course (normally three years) on a NPA officers school, officer students (de: Offiziersschüler) normally graduated to the rank *Unterleutnant*. The best school\-leavers of the appropriate course could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant*. By establishing of the Officers High schools and diploma course of study the final examination all graduates promoted to the rank Leutnant.
The equivalent rank of the *Volksmarine* was initially *Unterleutnant zur See*. Later the designation was changed to *Unterleutnant*. However, in individual linguistic usage the traditionally wording *Unterleutnant zur See* was used continuously.
|
[
"#### National People´s Army",
"",
"| \\+ |",
"[left\\|30px](/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg \"Flag of East Germany.svg\") **Unterleutnant**",
"",
"| [65px](/wiki/File:GDR_Army_OF1%D1%81_Unterleutnant.gif \"GDR Army OF1с Unterleutnant.gif\") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See.png \"OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See.png\") [60px](/wiki/File:OF-1a_Unterleutnant_zur_See_VM%2C_%C3%84rmelstreifen.png \"OF-1a Unterleutnant zur See VM, Ärmelstreifen.png\")Engineer corps / Volksmarine | |",
"Rank insignia | [NPA officer rank](/wiki/Ranks_of_the_National_People%27s_Army%23Commissioned_officers \"Ranks of the National People's Army#Commissioned officers\") |\n Introduction | 1956 |\n Rank group | [Commissioned officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 \"Officer (armed forces)\") |\n Army / Air Force | *Unterleutnant* |\n Navy | [Unterleutnant zur See](/wiki/Unterleutnant_zur_See \"Unterleutnant zur See\") |\nDepending on the former Soviet military doctrine as well as to the other armed forces of the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact \"Warsaw Pact\") the so\\-called GDR armed organizations, the *Unterleutnant* was the lowest officer rank.",
"In the NPA and in the GDR border troops the lieutenant officer sub\\-rank group consisted of *Unterleutnant*, [Leutnant](/wiki/Leutnant \"Leutnant\"), and [Oberleutnant](/wiki/Oberleutnant \"Oberleutnant\").",
"This officer rank could be assigned to military appointments as follows: officer of the operations service, [political officer](/wiki/Political_commissar \"Political commissar\"), officer of the technical service, supply, procurement, and [military justice](/wiki/Military_justice \"Military justice\") service.",
"The graduation to that particular OF1c officer rank was normally possible depending on the education and training, accomplished. The promotion to the following *Leutnant* OF1b\\-rank was achievable after two years of service, to [Hauptmann](/wiki/Hauptmann_%28officer%29 \"Hauptmann (officer)\") after three more years.Dictionary to the German military history, 1st edition (Liz.5, P189/84, LSV:0547, B\\-Nr. 746 635 0\\), military publishing house of the GDR (VEB) – Berlin, 1985, Volume 1, page 476, definition: *Unterleutnant*.",
"After successful passing of the officer course (normally three years) on a NPA officers school, officer students (de: Offiziersschüler) normally graduated to the rank *Unterleutnant*. The best school\\-leavers of the appropriate course could be promoted to the next higher rank, *Leutnant*. By establishing of the Officers High schools and diploma course of study the final examination all graduates promoted to the rank Leutnant.",
"The equivalent rank of the *Volksmarine* was initially *Unterleutnant zur See*. Later the designation was changed to *Unterleutnant*. However, in individual linguistic usage the traditionally wording *Unterleutnant zur See* was used continuously.",
""
] |
Team records
------------
### Overall record
| Matches | Won | Lost | Tied | NR | Win % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 802 | 402 | 360 | 9 | 31 | 50\.1 |
| *Last Updated: 29 September 2024 {{cite web \|title\=Records / ODI matches / Team records / Results summary \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/wi/content/records/283878\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo \|access\-date\=28 June 2024}}* | | | | | |
### Team wins, losses, draws and ties
{{As of\|2024\|09}}, England has played 802 ODI matches [resulting](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29 "Result (cricket)") in 402 victories, 360 defeats, 9 ties and 31 no results for an overall winning percentage of 50\.1
|Opponent
[Matches](/wiki/One_Day_International "One Day International")
[Won](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Win_and_loss "Result (cricket)#Win and loss")
[Lost](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Win_and_loss "Result (cricket)#Win and loss")
[Tied](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Tie "Result (cricket)#Tie")
[No Result](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23No_result "Result (cricket)#No result")
[% Won](/wiki/Winning_percentage "Winning percentage")
First
Last
| |
| **[Full Members](/wiki/List_of_International_Cricket_Council_members%23Full_members "List of International Cricket Council members#Full members")** | | | | | | | | |
|{{cr\|Afghanistan\|2013}}
3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 66\.7 | 2015 | 2023 |
| {{cr\|Australia}} | 161 | 65 | 91 | 2 | 3 | 40\.4 | 1971 | 2024 |
|{{cr\|Bangladesh}}
25 | 20 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 80\.0 | 2000 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|India}}
107 | 44 | 58 | 2 | 3 | 41\.1 | 1974 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|Ireland}}
15 | 11 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 73\.3 | 2006 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|New Zealand}}
96 | 44 | 45 | 3 | 4 | 45\.8 | 1973 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|Pakistan}}
92 | 57 | 32 | 0 | 3 | 62\.0 | 1974 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|South Africa}}
70 | 30 | 34 | 1 | 5 | 42\.9 | 1992 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|Sri Lanka}}
79 | 38 | 37 | 1 | 3 | 48\.1 | 1982 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|West Indies}}
105 | 53 | 46 | 0 | 6 | 50\.5 | 1973 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|Zimbabwe}}
30 | 21 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 70\.0 | 1992 | 2004 |
| **[Associate Members](/wiki/List_of_International_Cricket_Council_members%23Associate_members "List of International Cricket Council members#Associate members")** | | | | | | | | |
|{{cr\|Canada}}
2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\.0 | 1979 | 2007 |
|{{cr\|East Africa}}
1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\.0 | 1975 | 1975 |
|{{cr\|Kenya}}
2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\.0 | 1999 | 2007 |
|{{cr\|Namibia}}
1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\.0 | 2003 | 2003 |
|{{cr\|Netherlands}}
7 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\.0 | 1996 | 2023 |
|{{cr\|Scotland}}
5 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 60\.0 | 2008 | 2018 |
|{{cr\|UAE}}
1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\.0 | 1996 | 1996 |
|
|**Total**
**801** | **402** | **359** | **9** | **31** | **50\.2** | **1971** | **2024** |
| {{small\|''Statistics are correct as of 27 September 2024\.''}}{{cite web \|title\=Records / England / ODI matches / Result summary \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results\_summary.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=28 June 2024}} | | | | | | | | |
### Team scoring records
#### Most runs in an innings
The highest innings total scored in ODIs came in the match between [England](/wiki/England_cricket_team "England cricket team") and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands_national_cricket_team "Netherlands national cricket team") in [June 2022](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_Netherlands_in_2022 "English cricket team in the Netherlands in 2022"). Playing in the first ODI at [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground "VRA Cricket Ground") in [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen "Amstelveen"), the touring side posted a total of 498/4\.{{cite web \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/211599\.html \|title\=Records – ODIs – Team Records Highest Innings \|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=1st ODI, England tour of Netherlands at Amstelveen, Jun 17 2022\| url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england\-in\-netherlands\-2022\-1281442/netherlands\-vs\-england\-1st\-odi\-1281444/full\-scorecard \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=17 June 2022}}
| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
1 |
{{sort\|1\|498/4}} ♠ |
{{cr\|NED}} |
[VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground "VRA Cricket Ground"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen "Amstelveen"), Netherlands |
{{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2022\|June\|17}} |
[Scorecard](https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england-in-netherlands-2022-1281442/netherlands-vs-england-1st-odi-1281444/full-scorecard) || 2 | {{sort\|2\|481/6}} | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|June\|19}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1119539.html) |
| 3 | {{sort\|3\|444/3}} | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2016\|August\|30}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/913657.html) |
| 4 | {{sort\|4\|418/6}} | {{cr\|WIN}} | [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 "National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada "St. George's, Grenada"), Grenada | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|February\|27}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1158069.html) |
| 5 | {{sort\|5\|408/9}} | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|June\|9}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743943.html) |
| Last updated: 17 June 2022{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Highest innings totals \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest\_innings\_totals.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |
#### Fewest runs in an innings
The lowest innings total scored in ODIs has been scored twice. [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team "Zimbabwe national cricket team") were dismissed for 35 by [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_national_cricket_team "Sri Lanka national cricket team") during the third ODI in [Sri Lanka's tour of Zimbabwe in April 2004](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_cricket_team_in_Zimbabwe_in_2004 "Sri Lankan cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2004") and [USA](/wiki/United_States_national_cricket_team "United States national cricket team") were dismissed for same score by [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal_national_cricket_team "Nepal national cricket team") in the sixth ODI of the [2020 ICC Cricket World League 2 in Nepal in February 2020](/wiki/2020_Nepal_Tri-Nation_Series "2020 Nepal Tri-Nation Series").{{cite news \|title\=3rd ODI, Sri Lanka tour of Zimbabwe at Harare, Apr 25 2004 \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64890\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}{{cite news \|title\=30th Match, ICC Men's Cricket World Cup League 2 at Kirtipur, Feb 12 2020 \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1215127\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} The lowest score in ODI history for England is 86 scored against Australia in the [2001 NatWest Series](/wiki/2001_NatWest_Series "2001 NatWest Series").{{cite web \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283987\.html \|title\=Records – ODIs – Team Records – Lowest Totals \|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|86}} | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2001\|June\|14}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/66278.html) |
| 2 | {{sort\|1\|88}} | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium "Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla "Dambulla"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|November\|18}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64846.html) |
| 3 | {{sort\|3\|89}} | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Wellington_Regional_Stadium "Wellington Regional Stadium"), [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2002\|February\|16}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64748.html) |
| 4 | {{sort\|4\|93}} | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground "Headingley Cricket Ground"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1975\|June\|18}} {{double\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65047.html) |
| 5 | {{sort\|5\|94}} | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1979\|February\|7}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64171.html) |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Lowest innings totals \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest\_innings\_totals.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |
#### Most runs conceded an innings
The twentieth match of the [2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2023_ICC_Men%27s_Cricket_World_Cup "2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup") against [South Africa national cricket team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team "South Africa national cricket team") saw England concede their highest innings total of 399/7\.{{cite web \|title\=2nd ODI (D/N), Match 20 of the ICC Men's Cricket World Cup at the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai, India\| url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743945\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|399/7}} | {{cr\|SA}} | [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium "Wankhede Stadium"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2023\|October\|21}} | [Scorecard](https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-cricket-world-cup-2023-24-1367856/england-vs-south-africa-20th-match-1384411/full-scorecard) |
| 2 | {{sort\|1\|398/5}} | {{cr\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|June\|12}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743945.html) |
| 3 | {{sort\|2\|389}} | {{cr\|WIN}} | [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 "National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada "St. George's, Grenada"), Grenada | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|February\|27}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1158069.html) |
| 4 | {{sort\|3\|387/5}} | {{cr\|IND}} | [Madhavrao Scindia Cricket Ground](/wiki/Madhavrao_Scindia_Cricket_Ground "Madhavrao Scindia Cricket Ground"), [Rajkot](/wiki/Rajkot "Rajkot"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|November\|14}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/361043.html) |
| 5 | {{sort\|4\|381/6}} | {{cr\|IND}} | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium "Barabati Stadium"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack "Cuttack"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2017\|January\|19}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1034821.html) |
|
| Last updated: 28 June 2024{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Highest innings totals conceded \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest\_innings\_totals.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=opposition \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=28 June 2024}} | | | | | |
#### Fewest runs conceded in an innings
The lowest score conceded by England for a full inning is 45 scored by Canada in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup "1979 Cricket World Cup").
| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 45 | {{cr\|CAN}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1979\|June\|13}} {{double\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65056.html) |
| 2 | 67 | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2014\|May\|28}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/667893.html) |
| 3 | 70 | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1977\|June\|4}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64959.html) |
| 4 | 74 | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1992\|March\|1}} {{double\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65130.html) |
| 5 | 83 | {{cr\|RSA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|August\|26}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/296915.html) |
| [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2022\|July\|22}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1276911.html) |
| Last updated: 30 January 2023{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Lowest Full innings totals \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest\_innings\_totals.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=opposition \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |
#### Most runs aggregate in a match
The highest match aggregate scored in ODIs came in the match between [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team "South Africa national cricket team") and [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team "Australia national cricket team") in the fifth ODI of [March 2006 series](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team_in_South_Africa_in_2005-06 "Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2005-06") at [Wanderers Stadium](/wiki/Wanderers_Stadium "Wanderers Stadium"), [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg "Johannesburg") when South Africa scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/4\.{{cite web \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284003\.html \|title\=Records – ODIs – Team Records Highest Match Aggregates \|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} The [second ODI on tour of West Indies](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_2019 "English cricket team in the West Indies in 2019") against [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_national_cricket_team "West Indies national cricket team") in [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 "National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada "St. George's, Grenada") saw a total of 807 runs being scored.{{cite web \|title\=26th match, ICC Cricket World Cup at Nottingham, Jun 20 2019\| url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1144508\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Aggregate | Scores | Venue | Date | Scorecard |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|807/16}} | {{cr\|ENG}} (418/6\) v {{cr\|WIN}} (389\) | [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 "National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada "St. George's, Grenada"), Grenada | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|February\|27}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1158069.html) |
| 2 | {{sort\|2\|764/14}} | {{cr\|ENG}} (498/4\) v {{cr\|NED}} (266\) | [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground "VRA Cricket Ground"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen "Amstelveen"), Netherlands | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2022\|June\|17}} | [Scorecard](https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england-in-netherlands-2022-1281442/netherlands-vs-england-1st-odi-1281444/full-scorecard) |
| 3 | {{sort\|2\|763/14}} | {{cr\|NZ}} (398/5\) v {{cr\|ENG}} (365/9\) | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|June\|12}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743945.html) |
| 4 | {{sort\|3\|747/14}} | {{cr\|IND}} (381/6\) v {{cr\|ENG}} (366/8\) | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium "Barabati Stadium"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack "Cuttack"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2017\|January\|19}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1034821.html) |
| 5 | {{sort\|4\|736/15}} | {{cr\|SCO}} (371/5\) v {{cr\|ENG}} (365\) | [Grange CC Ground](/wiki/The_Grange_Club "The Grange Club"), [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"), Scotland | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|June\|10}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1124639.html) |
| Last updated: 22 June 2022{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Highest match aggregates \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest\_match\_aggregates.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |
#### Fewest runs aggregate in a match
The lowest match aggregate in ODIs is 71 when [USA](/wiki/United_States_national_cricket_team "United States national cricket team") were dismissed for 35 by [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal_national_cricket_team "Nepal national cricket team") in the sixth ODI of the [2020 ICC Cricket World League 2 in Nepal in February 2020](/wiki/2020_Nepal_Tri-Nation_Series "2020 Nepal Tri-Nation Series"). The lowest match aggregate in ODI history for England is 91 scored at the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup "1979 Cricket World Cup") against Canada.{{cite web \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284009\.html \|title\=Records – ODIs – Team Records – Lowest Match Aggregates \|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Aggregate | Scores | Venue | Date | Scorecard |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|91/12}} | {{cr\|CAN}} (45\) v {{cr\|ENG}} (46/2\) | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1979\|June\|13}} {{double\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65056.html) |
| 2 | {{sort\|2\|140/10}} | {{cr\|SRI}} (67\) v {{cr\|ENG}} (73/0\) | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2014\|May\|28}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/667893.html) |
| 3 | {{sort\|2\|165/11}} | {{cr\|ENG}} (81/9\) v {{cr\|PAK}} (84/2\) | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1974\|September\|3}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64954.html) |
| 4 | {{sort\|4\|168/10}} | {{cr\|RSA}} (83\) v {{cr\|ENG}} (85/0\) | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|August\|26}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/296915.html) |
| 5 | {{sort\|5\|177/10}} | {{cr\|ENG}} (88/7\) v {{cr\|NZ}} (89/3\) | [WACA](/wiki/WACA_Ground "WACA Ground"), [Perth](/wiki/Perth "Perth"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1983\|February\|5}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65351.html) |
| {{cr\|ENG}} (88\) v {{cr\|SRI}} (89/0\) | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium "Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla "Dambulla"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|November\|18}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64846.html) |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Lowest match aggregates \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest\_match\_aggregates.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |
### Result records
An ODI match is [won](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29 "Result (cricket)") when one side has scored more [runs](/wiki/Run_%28cricket%29 "Run (cricket)") than the total runs scored by the opposing side during their [innings](/wiki/Innings "Innings"). If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by [wickets](/wiki/Wicket%23Dismissing_a_batsman "Wicket#Dismissing a batsman"), indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.{{cite web \|title\=Law 16 – The Result \|url\=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\-result \|publisher\=\[\[Marylebone Cricket Club]] \|access\-date\=29 December 2018 \|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229231840/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\-result\|archive\-date\=29 December 2018}}
#### Greatest win margins (by runs)
The greatest winning margin by runs in ODIs was New Zealand's victory over Ireland by 290 runs in the only ODI of the [2008 England tour](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team_in_England_in_2008%23New_Zealand_v_Ireland "New Zealand cricket team in England in 2008#New Zealand v Ireland"). The largest victory recorded by England was during the aforementioned match against Australia in June 2018 when they won by 242 runs.{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by runs) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283902\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=3rd ODI (D/N), Australia tour of England at Nottingham, Jun 19 2018\| url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1119539\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Margin | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 242 runs | 482 | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|June\|19}} |
| 2 | 232 runs | 499 | {{Cr\|NED}} | [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground "VRA Cricket Ground"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen "Amstelveen"), Netherlands | 17 June 2022 |
| 3 | 210 runs | 409 | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|June\|9}} |
| 4 | 202 runs | 335 | {{cr\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1975\|June\|7}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 5 | 198 runs | 364 | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1992\|August\|20}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 18 June 2022{{cite web \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|title\=England Records – ODI – Largest Victories \|access\-date\=1 July 2020 \|publisher\= ESPNcricinfo}} | | | | | |
#### Greatest win margins (by balls remaining)
The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup "1979 Cricket World Cup").{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by balls remaining) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283271\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
1 |
277 ♠ |
8 wickets |
{{cr\|CAN}} |
[Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England |
{{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1979\|June\|13}} {{double\-dagger}} || 2 | 227 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2014\|May\|28}} |
| 3 | 215 | 9 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground "Headingley Cricket Ground"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1983\|June\|20}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 10 wickets | {{cr\|RSA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|August\|26}} |
| 5 | 193 | 6 wickets | {{cr\|ZIM}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground "Bristol County Ground"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|July\|6}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |
#### Greatest win margins (by wickets)
A total of 55 matches have ended with chasing team winning by 10 wickets with West Indies winning by such margins a record 10 times.{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by wickets) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283279\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} England have won a match by such margin on 6 occasions, including chasing a score of 255 against [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_national_cricket_team "Sri Lanka national cricket team") in June 2016, which is the third highest score chased without losing a wicket, behind South Africa and Australia.
| Rank | Margin (wickets) | Target | Opposition | Ground | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 10 | 255 | {{cr\|SL}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground") | 24 June 2016 |
| 191 | {{cr\|BAN}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval") | 16 June 2005 |
| 171 | {{cr\|SL}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge") | 6 July 2011 |
| 170 | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Riverside Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground "Riverside Ground") | 15 July 2000 |
| 84 | {{cr\|SA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge") | 26 August 2008 |
| 68 | {{cr\|SL}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_%28cricket_ground%29 "Old Trafford (cricket ground)") | 28 May 2014 |
| Last updated: 1 August 2020\.[Largest winning margins](http://stats.espncricinfo.com/england/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=2;id=1;type=team) | | | | | |
#### Highest successful run chases
South Africa holds the record for the highest successful run chase which they achieved when they scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/9\.{{cite web \|title\=Highest Successful Chase \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\_fielding\_first\=2;class\=2;filter\=advanced;orderby\=team\_score;result\=1;size\=10;template\=results;type\=team;view\=innings \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\= 1 July 2020}} England's highest winning total while chasing is 364/4 in a run chase against West Indies at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown during the [2019 ODI series in West Indies](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_2018-19 "English cricket team in the West Indies in 2018-19"). They have also made the higher scores in defeats.
| Rank | Score | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|364/4}} | 361 | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|February\|20}} |
| 2 | {{sort\|2\|359/4}} | 359 | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground "Bristol County Ground"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|May\|19}} |
| 3 | {{sort\|3\|350/3}} | 350 | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|June\|17}} |
| 4 | {{sort\|4\|341/7}} | 341 | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|May\|17}} |
| 5 | {{sort\|5\|337/4}} | 337 | {{cr\|IND}} | [Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium](/wiki/Maharashtra_Cricket_Association_Stadium "Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium"), [Pune](/wiki/Pune "Pune"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2021\|March\|26}} |
|
| Last updated: 27 March 2021{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Highest successful run chases \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\_fielding\_first\=2;class\=2;filter\=advanced;orderby\=team\_score;result\=1;size\=10;team\=1;template\=results;type\=team;view\=innings \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |
#### Narrowest win margins (by runs)
The narrowest run margin victory is by 1 run which has been achieved in 31 ODI's with Australia winning such games a record 6 times.{{cite web \|title\= Reocrds – ODIs – Smallest victory (by runs)\| url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283920\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} England's has achieved a victory by 1 run on two occasions, once via revised target.
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|1 run}} | {{cr\|IND}} | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium "Barabati Stadium"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack "Cuttack"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1984\|December\|27}} |
| {{cr\|WIN}} | [Providence Stadium](/wiki/Providence_Stadium "Providence Stadium"), [Providence](/wiki/Providence%2C_Guyana "Providence, Guyana"), West Indies | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2009\|March\|20}} |
| 3 | {{sort\|2\|2 runs}} | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1979\|November\|28}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [Arun Jaitley Stadium](/wiki/Arun_Jaitley_Stadium "Arun Jaitley Stadium"), [New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi "New Delhi"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2002\|January\|31}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 "Rose Bowl (cricket ground)"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2017\|May\|27}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Smallest victories \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |
#### Narrowest win margins (by balls remaining)
The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has achieved a victory by this margin on three occasions.{{cite news \|title\=Winning on the last ball of the match \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283930\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 0 | 3 wickets | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Zafar Ali Stadium](/wiki/Zafar_Ali_Stadium "Zafar Ali Stadium"), [Sahiwal](/wiki/Sahiwal "Sahiwal"), Pakistan | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1977\|December\|23}} |
| 5 wickets | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Queen's Park Oval](/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_Oval "Queen's Park Oval"), [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain "Port of Spain"), Trinidad \& Tobago | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1986\|March\|4}} |
| 4 wickets | {{cr\|IND}} | [Sawai Mansingh Stadium](/wiki/Sawai_Mansingh_Stadium "Sawai Mansingh Stadium"), [Jaipur](/wiki/Jaipur "Jaipur"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1993\|January\|18}} |
| 4 | 1 | 3 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1987\|January\|22}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1992\|March\|12}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval "Bellerive Oval"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|January\|16}} |
| 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|April\|21}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |
#### Narrowest win margins (by wickets)
The narrowest margin of victory by wickets is 1 wicket which has settled 55 such ODIs. Both West Indies and New Zealand have recorded such victory on eight occasions. England has won the match by a margin of one wicket on seven occasions.{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Smallest margin of victory (by wickets) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283253\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground "Headingley Cricket Ground"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1973\|September\|5}} |
| {{cr\|PAK}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1987\|May\|25}} |
| {{cr\|WIN}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1991\|May\|23}} |
| {{cr\|ZIM}} | [Queens Sports Club](/wiki/Queens_Sports_Club "Queens Sports Club"), [Bulawayo](/wiki/Bulawayo "Bulawayo"), Zimbabwe | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2000\|February\|18}} |
| {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|April\|21}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2010\|June\|27}} |
| {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|June\|24}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |
#### Greatest loss margins (by runs)
England's biggest defeat by runs was against South Africa at the [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium "Wankhede Stadium") during the [2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2023_ICC_Men%27s_Cricket_World_Cup "2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup").
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 229 runs | {{cr\|SA}} | [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium "Wankhede Stadium"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2023\|October\|21}} |
| 2 | 221 runs | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2022\|November\|22}} |
| 3 | 219 runs | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium](/wiki/Ranasinghe_Premadasa_Stadium "Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|October\|23}} |
| 4 | 165 runs | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium "Arnos Vale Stadium"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown "Kingstown"), Saint Vincent \& the Grenadines | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1994\|March\|2}} |
| {{cr\|PAK}} | [National Stadium](/wiki/National_Stadium%2C_Karachi "National Stadium, Karachi"), [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi "Karachi"), Pakistan | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2005\|December\|15}} |
| Last updated: 21 October 2023{{cite web \|title\=Records – England – Largest defeats \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=opposition \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |
#### Greatest loss margins (by balls remaining)
The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup "1979 Cricket World Cup"). The largest defeat suffered by England was against [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_national_cricket_team "West Indies national cricket team") in West Indies when they lost by 7 wickets with 227 balls remaining.
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 227 | 7 wickets | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Darren_Sammy_National_Cricket_Stadium "Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium"), [Gros Islet](/wiki/Gros_Islet "Gros Islet"), Saint Lucia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|March\|2}} |
| 2 | 226 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|January\|23}} |
| 8 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Wellington_Regional_Stadium "Wellington Regional Stadium"), [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|February\|20}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 4 | 217 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium "Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla "Dambulla"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|November\|18}} |
| 5 | 196 | 7 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [County Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground "Riverside Ground"), [Chester\-le\-Street](/wiki/Chester-le-Street "Chester-le-Street"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2004\|June\|29}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |
#### Greatest loss margins (by wickets)
England have lost an ODI match by a margin of 10 wickets on five occasions with most recent being during the [Quarter\-final](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Quarter-finals "2011 Cricket World Cup knockout stage#Quarter-finals") of the [2011 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup "2011 Cricket World Cup") against Sri Lanka in March 2001 at Colombo (SSC).
| Rank | Margins | Opposition | Most recent venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground "Sinhalese Sports Club Ground"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2001\|March\|27}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|January\|23}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium "Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla "Dambulla"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|November\|18}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Seddon Park](/wiki/Seddon_Park "Seddon Park"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_New_Zealand "Hamilton, New Zealand"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|February\|12}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground "Sinhalese Sports Club Ground"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2011\|March\|26}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval_Cricket_Ground "The Oval Cricket Ground"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2022\|July\|12}} |
|
| Last updated: 12 July 2022 | | | | |
#### Narrowest loss margins (by runs)
The narrowest loss of England in terms of runs is by 1 run suffered against South Africa at Cape Town during the [2000 ODI Series](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_South_Africa_in_1999-2000 "English cricket team in South Africa in 1999-2000").
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1 run | {{cr\|RSA}} | [Sahara Park Newlands](/wiki/Newlands_Cricket_Ground "Newlands Cricket Ground"), [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town"), South Africa | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2000\|January\|26}} |
| 2 | 2 runs | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1980\|January\|20}} |
| [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium "Arnos Vale Stadium"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown "Kingstown"), Saint Vincent \& the Grenadines | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1981\|February\|4}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1981\|June\|6}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1983\|January\|13}} |
| {{cr\|PAK}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2001\|June\|12}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Sir Vivian Richards Stadium](/wiki/Sir_Vivian_Richards_Stadium "Sir Vivian Richards Stadium"), [Antigua](/wiki/Antigua "Antigua"), Antigua \& Barbuda | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|April\|4}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Smallest defeats \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=opposition \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 September 2019}} | | | | |
#### Narrowest loss margins (by balls remaining)
The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has suffered loss by this margin two times.
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 0 | 2 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sharjah Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Sharjah_Cricket_Stadium "Sharjah Cricket Stadium"), [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 "Sharjah (city)"), United Arab Emirates | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1985\|March\|24}} |
| 3 wickets | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Sabina Park](/wiki/Sabina_Park "Sabina Park"), [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica "Kingston, Jamaica"), Jamaica | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1990\|March\|3}} |
| 1 wicket | {{cr\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|June\|25}} |
| 4 | 1 | 2 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1983\|June\|15}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 4 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground "Headingley Cricket Ground"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1990\|May\|23}} |
| 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1998\|April\|1}} |
| 3 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval "Bellerive Oval"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|January\|23}} |
| 7 wickets | {{cr\|IRE}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 "Rose Bowl (cricket ground)"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2020\|August\|4}} |
|
| Last updated: 4 August 2020 | | | | | |
#### Narrowest loss margins (by wickets)
England has suffered defeat by 1 wicket five times.
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1998\|April\|1}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1999\|January\|23}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|June\|25}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Brisbane Cricket Ground](/wiki/The_Gabba "The Gabba"), [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2014\|January\|17}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [New Wanderers Stadium](/wiki/New_Wanderers_Stadium "New Wanderers Stadium"), [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg "Johannesburg"), South Africa | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2016\|February\|12}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |
#### Tied matches
A [tie](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Tie "Result (cricket)#Tie") can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings.
There have been 37 [ties](/wiki/List_of_tied_One_Day_Internationals "List of tied One Day Internationals") in ODIs history with England involved in 9 such games.
Ties are no longer possible in ODIs as if scores are level at the end of the second batting team's innings, the game is decided by a 'super\-over' (played ad infinitum).
This happened at the end of England's 2019 tie with New Zealand (which happened to be the World Cup final). England won after a tied super\-over by virtue of a better boundary count in the 50\-over game (this method is no longer used to decide games where a super\-over is played after a tie at 50 overs).
| Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1989\|May\|27}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park "McLean Park"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand "Napier, New Zealand"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1997\|February\|26}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [Goodyear Park](/wiki/OUTsurance_Oval "OUTsurance Oval"), [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein "Bloemfontein"), South Africa | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2005\|February\|2}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2005\|July\|2}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park "McLean Park"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand "Napier, New Zealand"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|February\|20}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [M. Chinnaswamy Stadium](/wiki/M._Chinnaswamy_Stadium "M. Chinnaswamy Stadium"), [Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore "Bangalore"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2011\|February\|27}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2011\|September\|11}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2016\|June\|21}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|July\|14}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 3 December 2017 | | |
|
[
"Team records\n------------",
"### Overall record",
"",
"| Matches | Won | Lost | Tied | NR | Win % |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 802 | 402 | 360 | 9 | 31 | 50\\.1 |\n| *Last Updated: 29 September 2024 {{cite web \\|title\\=Records / ODI matches / Team records / Results summary \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/wi/content/records/283878\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2024}}* | | | | | |",
"### Team wins, losses, draws and ties",
"{{As of\\|2024\\|09}}, England has played 802 ODI matches [resulting](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29 \"Result (cricket)\") in 402 victories, 360 defeats, 9 ties and 31 no results for an overall winning percentage of 50\\.1",
"",
"|Opponent",
"[Matches](/wiki/One_Day_International \"One Day International\")",
"[Won](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Win_and_loss \"Result (cricket)#Win and loss\")",
"[Lost](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Win_and_loss \"Result (cricket)#Win and loss\")",
"[Tied](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Tie \"Result (cricket)#Tie\")",
"[No Result](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23No_result \"Result (cricket)#No result\")",
"[% Won](/wiki/Winning_percentage \"Winning percentage\")",
"First",
"Last",
"| |\n| **[Full Members](/wiki/List_of_International_Cricket_Council_members%23Full_members \"List of International Cricket Council members#Full members\")** | | | | | | | | |\n|{{cr\\|Afghanistan\\|2013}}",
"3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 66\\.7 | 2015 | 2023 |\n| {{cr\\|Australia}} | 161 | 65 | 91 | 2 | 3 | 40\\.4 | 1971 | 2024 |\n|{{cr\\|Bangladesh}}",
"25 | 20 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 80\\.0 | 2000 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|India}}",
"107 | 44 | 58 | 2 | 3 | 41\\.1 | 1974 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|Ireland}}",
"15 | 11 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 73\\.3 | 2006 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|New Zealand}}",
"96 | 44 | 45 | 3 | 4 | 45\\.8 | 1973 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|Pakistan}}",
"92 | 57 | 32 | 0 | 3 | 62\\.0 | 1974 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|South Africa}}",
"70 | 30 | 34 | 1 | 5 | 42\\.9 | 1992 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|Sri Lanka}}",
"79 | 38 | 37 | 1 | 3 | 48\\.1 | 1982 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|West Indies}}",
"105 | 53 | 46 | 0 | 6 | 50\\.5 | 1973 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|Zimbabwe}}",
"30 | 21 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 70\\.0 | 1992 | 2004 |\n| **[Associate Members](/wiki/List_of_International_Cricket_Council_members%23Associate_members \"List of International Cricket Council members#Associate members\")** | | | | | | | | |\n|{{cr\\|Canada}}",
"2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\\.0 | 1979 | 2007 |\n|{{cr\\|East Africa}}",
"1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\\.0 | 1975 | 1975 |\n|{{cr\\|Kenya}}",
"2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\\.0 | 1999 | 2007 |\n|{{cr\\|Namibia}}",
"1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\\.0 | 2003 | 2003 |\n|{{cr\\|Netherlands}}",
"7 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\\.0 | 1996 | 2023 |\n|{{cr\\|Scotland}}",
"5 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 60\\.0 | 2008 | 2018 |\n|{{cr\\|UAE}}",
"1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100\\.0 | 1996 | 1996 |\n|\n|**Total**",
"**801** | **402** | **359** | **9** | **31** | **50\\.2** | **1971** | **2024** |\n| {{small\\|''Statistics are correct as of 27 September 2024\\.''}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Records / England / ODI matches / Result summary \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results\\_summary.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2024}} | | | | | | | | |",
"### Team scoring records",
"#### Most runs in an innings",
"The highest innings total scored in ODIs came in the match between [England](/wiki/England_cricket_team \"England cricket team\") and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands_national_cricket_team \"Netherlands national cricket team\") in [June 2022](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_Netherlands_in_2022 \"English cricket team in the Netherlands in 2022\"). Playing in the first ODI at [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground \"VRA Cricket Ground\") in [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen \"Amstelveen\"), the touring side posted a total of 498/4\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/211599\\.html \\|title\\=Records – ODIs – Team Records Highest Innings \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=1st ODI, England tour of Netherlands at Amstelveen, Jun 17 2022\\| url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england\\-in\\-netherlands\\-2022\\-1281442/netherlands\\-vs\\-england\\-1st\\-odi\\-1281444/full\\-scorecard \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2022}}",
"",
"| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"1 |\n {{sort\\|1\\|498/4}} ♠ |\n {{cr\\|NED}} |\n [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground \"VRA Cricket Ground\"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen \"Amstelveen\"), Netherlands |\n {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2022\\|June\\|17}} |\n [Scorecard](https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england-in-netherlands-2022-1281442/netherlands-vs-england-1st-odi-1281444/full-scorecard) || 2 | {{sort\\|2\\|481/6}} | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|June\\|19}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1119539.html) |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|3\\|444/3}} | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2016\\|August\\|30}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/913657.html) |\n| 4 | {{sort\\|4\\|418/6}} | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 \"National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)\"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada \"St. George's, Grenada\"), Grenada | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|February\\|27}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1158069.html) |\n| 5 | {{sort\\|5\\|408/9}} | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|June\\|9}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743943.html) |\n| Last updated: 17 June 2022{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Highest innings totals \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest\\_innings\\_totals.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |",
"#### Fewest runs in an innings",
"The lowest innings total scored in ODIs has been scored twice. [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team \"Zimbabwe national cricket team\") were dismissed for 35 by [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_national_cricket_team \"Sri Lanka national cricket team\") during the third ODI in [Sri Lanka's tour of Zimbabwe in April 2004](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_cricket_team_in_Zimbabwe_in_2004 \"Sri Lankan cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2004\") and [USA](/wiki/United_States_national_cricket_team \"United States national cricket team\") were dismissed for same score by [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal_national_cricket_team \"Nepal national cricket team\") in the sixth ODI of the [2020 ICC Cricket World League 2 in Nepal in February 2020](/wiki/2020_Nepal_Tri-Nation_Series \"2020 Nepal Tri-Nation Series\").{{cite news \\|title\\=3rd ODI, Sri Lanka tour of Zimbabwe at Harare, Apr 25 2004 \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64890\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}{{cite news \\|title\\=30th Match, ICC Men's Cricket World Cup League 2 at Kirtipur, Feb 12 2020 \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1215127\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} The lowest score in ODI history for England is 86 scored against Australia in the [2001 NatWest Series](/wiki/2001_NatWest_Series \"2001 NatWest Series\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283987\\.html \\|title\\=Records – ODIs – Team Records – Lowest Totals \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|86}} | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2001\\|June\\|14}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/66278.html) |\n| 2 | {{sort\\|1\\|88}} | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium \"Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium\"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla \"Dambulla\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|November\\|18}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64846.html) |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|3\\|89}} | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Wellington_Regional_Stadium \"Wellington Regional Stadium\"), [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2002\\|February\\|16}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64748.html) |\n| 4 | {{sort\\|4\\|93}} | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground \"Headingley Cricket Ground\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1975\\|June\\|18}} {{double\\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65047.html) |\n| 5 | {{sort\\|5\\|94}} | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1979\\|February\\|7}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64171.html) |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Lowest innings totals \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest\\_innings\\_totals.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |",
"#### Most runs conceded an innings",
"The twentieth match of the [2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2023_ICC_Men%27s_Cricket_World_Cup \"2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup\") against [South Africa national cricket team](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team \"South Africa national cricket team\") saw England concede their highest innings total of 399/7\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=2nd ODI (D/N), Match 20 of the ICC Men's Cricket World Cup at the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai, India\\| url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743945\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|399/7}} | {{cr\\|SA}} | [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium \"Wankhede Stadium\"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2023\\|October\\|21}} | [Scorecard](https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-cricket-world-cup-2023-24-1367856/england-vs-south-africa-20th-match-1384411/full-scorecard) |\n| 2 | {{sort\\|1\\|398/5}} | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|June\\|12}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743945.html) |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|2\\|389}} | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 \"National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)\"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada \"St. George's, Grenada\"), Grenada | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|February\\|27}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1158069.html) |\n| 4 | {{sort\\|3\\|387/5}} | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Madhavrao Scindia Cricket Ground](/wiki/Madhavrao_Scindia_Cricket_Ground \"Madhavrao Scindia Cricket Ground\"), [Rajkot](/wiki/Rajkot \"Rajkot\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|November\\|14}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/361043.html) |\n| 5 | {{sort\\|4\\|381/6}} | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium \"Barabati Stadium\"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack \"Cuttack\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2017\\|January\\|19}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1034821.html) |\n|\n| Last updated: 28 June 2024{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Highest innings totals conceded \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest\\_innings\\_totals.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=opposition \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2024}} | | | | | |",
"#### Fewest runs conceded in an innings",
"The lowest score conceded by England for a full inning is 45 scored by Canada in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup \"1979 Cricket World Cup\").",
"",
"| Rank | Score | Opposition | Venue | Date | Scorecard |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 45 | {{cr\\|CAN}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1979\\|June\\|13}} {{double\\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65056.html) |\n| 2 | 67 | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2014\\|May\\|28}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/667893.html) |\n| 3 | 70 | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1977\\|June\\|4}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64959.html) |\n| 4 | 74 | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1992\\|March\\|1}} {{double\\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65130.html) |\n| 5 | 83 | {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|August\\|26}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/296915.html) |\n| [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2022\\|July\\|22}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1276911.html) |\n| Last updated: 30 January 2023{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Lowest Full innings totals \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest\\_innings\\_totals.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=opposition \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |",
"#### Most runs aggregate in a match",
"The highest match aggregate scored in ODIs came in the match between [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_cricket_team \"South Africa national cricket team\") and [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_cricket_team \"Australia national cricket team\") in the fifth ODI of [March 2006 series](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team_in_South_Africa_in_2005-06 \"Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2005-06\") at [Wanderers Stadium](/wiki/Wanderers_Stadium \"Wanderers Stadium\"), [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg \"Johannesburg\") when South Africa scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/4\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284003\\.html \\|title\\=Records – ODIs – Team Records Highest Match Aggregates \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} The [second ODI on tour of West Indies](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_2019 \"English cricket team in the West Indies in 2019\") against [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_national_cricket_team \"West Indies national cricket team\") in [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 \"National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)\"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada \"St. George's, Grenada\") saw a total of 807 runs being scored.{{cite web \\|title\\=26th match, ICC Cricket World Cup at Nottingham, Jun 20 2019\\| url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1144508\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Aggregate | Scores | Venue | Date | Scorecard |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|807/16}} | {{cr\\|ENG}} (418/6\\) v {{cr\\|WIN}} (389\\) | [National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/National_Cricket_Stadium_%28Grenada%29 \"National Cricket Stadium (Grenada)\"), [St. George's](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada \"St. George's, Grenada\"), Grenada | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|February\\|27}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1158069.html) |\n| 2 | {{sort\\|2\\|764/14}} | {{cr\\|ENG}} (498/4\\) v {{cr\\|NED}} (266\\) | [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground \"VRA Cricket Ground\"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen \"Amstelveen\"), Netherlands | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2022\\|June\\|17}} | [Scorecard](https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england-in-netherlands-2022-1281442/netherlands-vs-england-1st-odi-1281444/full-scorecard) |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|2\\|763/14}} | {{cr\\|NZ}} (398/5\\) v {{cr\\|ENG}} (365/9\\) | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|June\\|12}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/743945.html) |\n| 4 | {{sort\\|3\\|747/14}} | {{cr\\|IND}} (381/6\\) v {{cr\\|ENG}} (366/8\\) | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium \"Barabati Stadium\"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack \"Cuttack\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2017\\|January\\|19}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1034821.html) |\n| 5 | {{sort\\|4\\|736/15}} | {{cr\\|SCO}} (371/5\\) v {{cr\\|ENG}} (365\\) | [Grange CC Ground](/wiki/The_Grange_Club \"The Grange Club\"), [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), Scotland | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|June\\|10}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1124639.html) |\n| Last updated: 22 June 2022{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Highest match aggregates \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest\\_match\\_aggregates.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |",
"#### Fewest runs aggregate in a match",
"The lowest match aggregate in ODIs is 71 when [USA](/wiki/United_States_national_cricket_team \"United States national cricket team\") were dismissed for 35 by [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal_national_cricket_team \"Nepal national cricket team\") in the sixth ODI of the [2020 ICC Cricket World League 2 in Nepal in February 2020](/wiki/2020_Nepal_Tri-Nation_Series \"2020 Nepal Tri-Nation Series\"). The lowest match aggregate in ODI history for England is 91 scored at the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup \"1979 Cricket World Cup\") against Canada.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284009\\.html \\|title\\=Records – ODIs – Team Records – Lowest Match Aggregates \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Aggregate | Scores | Venue | Date | Scorecard |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|91/12}} | {{cr\\|CAN}} (45\\) v {{cr\\|ENG}} (46/2\\) | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1979\\|June\\|13}} {{double\\-dagger}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65056.html) |\n| 2 | {{sort\\|2\\|140/10}} | {{cr\\|SRI}} (67\\) v {{cr\\|ENG}} (73/0\\) | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2014\\|May\\|28}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/667893.html) |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|2\\|165/11}} | {{cr\\|ENG}} (81/9\\) v {{cr\\|PAK}} (84/2\\) | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1974\\|September\\|3}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64954.html) |\n| 4 | {{sort\\|4\\|168/10}} | {{cr\\|RSA}} (83\\) v {{cr\\|ENG}} (85/0\\) | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|August\\|26}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/296915.html) |\n| 5 | {{sort\\|5\\|177/10}} | {{cr\\|ENG}} (88/7\\) v {{cr\\|NZ}} (89/3\\) | [WACA](/wiki/WACA_Ground \"WACA Ground\"), [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1983\\|February\\|5}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65351.html) |\n| {{cr\\|ENG}} (88\\) v {{cr\\|SRI}} (89/0\\) | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium \"Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium\"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla \"Dambulla\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|November\\|18}} | [Scorecard](https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64846.html) |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Lowest match aggregates \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest\\_match\\_aggregates.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |",
"### Result records",
"An ODI match is [won](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29 \"Result (cricket)\") when one side has scored more [runs](/wiki/Run_%28cricket%29 \"Run (cricket)\") than the total runs scored by the opposing side during their [innings](/wiki/Innings \"Innings\"). If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by [wickets](/wiki/Wicket%23Dismissing_a_batsman \"Wicket#Dismissing a batsman\"), indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.{{cite web \\|title\\=Law 16 – The Result \\|url\\=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\\-result \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Marylebone Cricket Club]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 December 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229231840/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\\-result\\|archive\\-date\\=29 December 2018}}",
"#### Greatest win margins (by runs)",
"The greatest winning margin by runs in ODIs was New Zealand's victory over Ireland by 290 runs in the only ODI of the [2008 England tour](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team_in_England_in_2008%23New_Zealand_v_Ireland \"New Zealand cricket team in England in 2008#New Zealand v Ireland\"). The largest victory recorded by England was during the aforementioned match against Australia in June 2018 when they won by 242 runs.{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by runs) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283902\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=3rd ODI (D/N), Australia tour of England at Nottingham, Jun 19 2018\\| url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1119539\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 242 runs | 482 | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|June\\|19}} |\n| 2 | 232 runs | 499 | {{Cr\\|NED}} | [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground \"VRA Cricket Ground\"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen \"Amstelveen\"), Netherlands | 17 June 2022 |\n| 3 | 210 runs | 409 | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|June\\|9}} |\n| 4 | 202 runs | 335 | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1975\\|June\\|7}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 5 | 198 runs | 364 | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1992\\|August\\|20}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 18 June 2022{{cite web \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|title\\=England Records – ODI – Largest Victories \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020 \\|publisher\\= ESPNcricinfo}} | | | | | |",
"#### Greatest win margins (by balls remaining)",
"The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup \"1979 Cricket World Cup\").{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by balls remaining) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283271\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"1 |\n 277 ♠ |\n 8 wickets |\n {{cr\\|CAN}} |\n [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England |\n {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1979\\|June\\|13}} {{double\\-dagger}} || 2 | 227 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2014\\|May\\|28}} |\n| 3 | 215 | 9 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground \"Headingley Cricket Ground\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1983\\|June\\|20}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 10 wickets | {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|August\\|26}} |\n| 5 | 193 | 6 wickets | {{cr\\|ZIM}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground \"Bristol County Ground\"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|July\\|6}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Greatest win margins (by wickets)",
"A total of 55 matches have ended with chasing team winning by 10 wickets with West Indies winning by such margins a record 10 times.{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by wickets) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283279\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} England have won a match by such margin on 6 occasions, including chasing a score of 255 against [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_national_cricket_team \"Sri Lanka national cricket team\") in June 2016, which is the third highest score chased without losing a wicket, behind South Africa and Australia.",
"",
"| Rank | Margin (wickets) | Target | Opposition | Ground | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 10 | 255 | {{cr\\|SL}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\") | 24 June 2016 |\n| 191 | {{cr\\|BAN}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\") | 16 June 2005 |\n| 171 | {{cr\\|SL}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\") | 6 July 2011 |\n| 170 | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Riverside Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground \"Riverside Ground\") | 15 July 2000 |\n| 84 | {{cr\\|SA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\") | 26 August 2008 |\n| 68 | {{cr\\|SL}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Old Trafford (cricket ground)\") | 28 May 2014 |\n| Last updated: 1 August 2020\\.[Largest winning margins](http://stats.espncricinfo.com/england/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=2;id=1;type=team) | | | | | |",
"#### Highest successful run chases",
"South Africa holds the record for the highest successful run chase which they achieved when they scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/9\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Highest Successful Chase \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\\_fielding\\_first\\=2;class\\=2;filter\\=advanced;orderby\\=team\\_score;result\\=1;size\\=10;template\\=results;type\\=team;view\\=innings \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\= 1 July 2020}} England's highest winning total while chasing is 364/4 in a run chase against West Indies at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown during the [2019 ODI series in West Indies](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_2018-19 \"English cricket team in the West Indies in 2018-19\"). They have also made the higher scores in defeats.",
"",
"| Rank | Score | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|364/4}} | 361 | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|February\\|20}} |\n| 2 | {{sort\\|2\\|359/4}} | 359 | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground \"Bristol County Ground\"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|May\\|19}} |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|3\\|350/3}} | 350 | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|June\\|17}} |\n| 4 | {{sort\\|4\\|341/7}} | 341 | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|May\\|17}} |\n| 5 | {{sort\\|5\\|337/4}} | 337 | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium](/wiki/Maharashtra_Cricket_Association_Stadium \"Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium\"), [Pune](/wiki/Pune \"Pune\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2021\\|March\\|26}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 27 March 2021{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Highest successful run chases \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\\_fielding\\_first\\=2;class\\=2;filter\\=advanced;orderby\\=team\\_score;result\\=1;size\\=10;team\\=1;template\\=results;type\\=team;view\\=innings \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest win margins (by runs)",
"The narrowest run margin victory is by 1 run which has been achieved in 31 ODI's with Australia winning such games a record 6 times.{{cite web \\|title\\= Reocrds – ODIs – Smallest victory (by runs)\\| url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283920\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} England's has achieved a victory by 1 run on two occasions, once via revised target.",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|1 run}} | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium \"Barabati Stadium\"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack \"Cuttack\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1984\\|December\\|27}} |\n| {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Providence Stadium](/wiki/Providence_Stadium \"Providence Stadium\"), [Providence](/wiki/Providence%2C_Guyana \"Providence, Guyana\"), West Indies | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2009\\|March\\|20}} |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|2\\|2 runs}} | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1979\\|November\\|28}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [Arun Jaitley Stadium](/wiki/Arun_Jaitley_Stadium \"Arun Jaitley Stadium\"), [New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi \"New Delhi\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2002\\|January\\|31}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Rose Bowl (cricket ground)\"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2017\\|May\\|27}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Smallest victories \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest win margins (by balls remaining)",
"The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has achieved a victory by this margin on three occasions.{{cite news \\|title\\=Winning on the last ball of the match \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283930\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 0 | 3 wickets | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Zafar Ali Stadium](/wiki/Zafar_Ali_Stadium \"Zafar Ali Stadium\"), [Sahiwal](/wiki/Sahiwal \"Sahiwal\"), Pakistan | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1977\\|December\\|23}} |\n| 5 wickets | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Queen's Park Oval](/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_Oval \"Queen's Park Oval\"), [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain \"Port of Spain\"), Trinidad \\& Tobago | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1986\\|March\\|4}} |\n| 4 wickets | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Sawai Mansingh Stadium](/wiki/Sawai_Mansingh_Stadium \"Sawai Mansingh Stadium\"), [Jaipur](/wiki/Jaipur \"Jaipur\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1993\\|January\\|18}} |\n| 4 | 1 | 3 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1987\\|January\\|22}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1992\\|March\\|12}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval \"Bellerive Oval\"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|January\\|16}} |\n| 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|April\\|21}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest win margins (by wickets)",
"The narrowest margin of victory by wickets is 1 wicket which has settled 55 such ODIs. Both West Indies and New Zealand have recorded such victory on eight occasions. England has won the match by a margin of one wicket on seven occasions.{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Smallest margin of victory (by wickets) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283253\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground \"Headingley Cricket Ground\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1973\\|September\\|5}} |\n| {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1987\\|May\\|25}} |\n| {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1991\\|May\\|23}} |\n| {{cr\\|ZIM}} | [Queens Sports Club](/wiki/Queens_Sports_Club \"Queens Sports Club\"), [Bulawayo](/wiki/Bulawayo \"Bulawayo\"), Zimbabwe | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2000\\|February\\|18}} |\n| {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|April\\|21}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2010\\|June\\|27}} |\n| {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|June\\|24}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |",
"#### Greatest loss margins (by runs)",
"England's biggest defeat by runs was against South Africa at the [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium \"Wankhede Stadium\") during the [2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2023_ICC_Men%27s_Cricket_World_Cup \"2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup\").",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 229 runs | {{cr\\|SA}} | [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium \"Wankhede Stadium\"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2023\\|October\\|21}} |\n| 2 | 221 runs | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2022\\|November\\|22}} |\n| 3 | 219 runs | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium](/wiki/Ranasinghe_Premadasa_Stadium \"Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium\"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|October\\|23}} |\n| 4 | 165 runs | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium \"Arnos Vale Stadium\"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown \"Kingstown\"), Saint Vincent \\& the Grenadines | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1994\\|March\\|2}} |\n| {{cr\\|PAK}} | [National Stadium](/wiki/National_Stadium%2C_Karachi \"National Stadium, Karachi\"), [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi \"Karachi\"), Pakistan | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2005\\|December\\|15}} |\n| Last updated: 21 October 2023{{cite web \\|title\\=Records – England – Largest defeats \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=opposition \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |",
"#### Greatest loss margins (by balls remaining)",
"The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup \"1979 Cricket World Cup\"). The largest defeat suffered by England was against [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_national_cricket_team \"West Indies national cricket team\") in West Indies when they lost by 7 wickets with 227 balls remaining.",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 227 | 7 wickets | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Darren_Sammy_National_Cricket_Stadium \"Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium\"), [Gros Islet](/wiki/Gros_Islet \"Gros Islet\"), Saint Lucia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|March\\|2}} |\n| 2 | 226 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|January\\|23}} |\n| 8 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Wellington_Regional_Stadium \"Wellington Regional Stadium\"), [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|February\\|20}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 4 | 217 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium \"Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium\"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla \"Dambulla\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|November\\|18}} |\n| 5 | 196 | 7 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [County Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground \"Riverside Ground\"), [Chester\\-le\\-Street](/wiki/Chester-le-Street \"Chester-le-Street\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2004\\|June\\|29}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Greatest loss margins (by wickets)",
"England have lost an ODI match by a margin of 10 wickets on five occasions with most recent being during the [Quarter\\-final](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Quarter-finals \"2011 Cricket World Cup knockout stage#Quarter-finals\") of the [2011 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup \"2011 Cricket World Cup\") against Sri Lanka in March 2001 at Colombo (SSC).",
"",
"| Rank | Margins | Opposition | Most recent venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground \"Sinhalese Sports Club Ground\"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2001\\|March\\|27}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|January\\|23}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium \"Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium\"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla \"Dambulla\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|November\\|18}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Seddon Park](/wiki/Seddon_Park \"Seddon Park\"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_New_Zealand \"Hamilton, New Zealand\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|February\\|12}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground \"Sinhalese Sports Club Ground\"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|March\\|26}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval_Cricket_Ground \"The Oval Cricket Ground\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2022\\|July\\|12}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 12 July 2022 | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest loss margins (by runs)",
"The narrowest loss of England in terms of runs is by 1 run suffered against South Africa at Cape Town during the [2000 ODI Series](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_South_Africa_in_1999-2000 \"English cricket team in South Africa in 1999-2000\").",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 1 run | {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Sahara Park Newlands](/wiki/Newlands_Cricket_Ground \"Newlands Cricket Ground\"), [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\"), South Africa | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2000\\|January\\|26}} |\n| 2 | 2 runs | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1980\\|January\\|20}} |\n| [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium \"Arnos Vale Stadium\"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown \"Kingstown\"), Saint Vincent \\& the Grenadines | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1981\\|February\\|4}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1981\\|June\\|6}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1983\\|January\\|13}} |\n| {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2001\\|June\\|12}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Sir Vivian Richards Stadium](/wiki/Sir_Vivian_Richards_Stadium \"Sir Vivian Richards Stadium\"), [Antigua](/wiki/Antigua \"Antigua\"), Antigua \\& Barbuda | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|April\\|4}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Smallest defeats \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=opposition \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 September 2019}} | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest loss margins (by balls remaining)",
"The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has suffered loss by this margin two times.",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 0 | 2 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sharjah Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Sharjah_Cricket_Stadium \"Sharjah Cricket Stadium\"), [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 \"Sharjah (city)\"), United Arab Emirates | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1985\\|March\\|24}} |\n| 3 wickets | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Sabina Park](/wiki/Sabina_Park \"Sabina Park\"), [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica \"Kingston, Jamaica\"), Jamaica | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1990\\|March\\|3}} |\n| 1 wicket | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|June\\|25}} |\n| 4 | 1 | 2 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1983\\|June\\|15}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 4 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground \"Headingley Cricket Ground\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1990\\|May\\|23}} |\n| 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1998\\|April\\|1}} |\n| 3 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval \"Bellerive Oval\"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|January\\|23}} |\n| 7 wickets | {{cr\\|IRE}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Rose Bowl (cricket ground)\"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2020\\|August\\|4}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 4 August 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest loss margins (by wickets)",
"England has suffered defeat by 1 wicket five times.",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1998\\|April\\|1}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1999\\|January\\|23}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|June\\|25}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Brisbane Cricket Ground](/wiki/The_Gabba \"The Gabba\"), [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2014\\|January\\|17}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [New Wanderers Stadium](/wiki/New_Wanderers_Stadium \"New Wanderers Stadium\"), [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg \"Johannesburg\"), South Africa | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2016\\|February\\|12}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |",
"#### Tied matches",
"A [tie](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Tie \"Result (cricket)#Tie\") can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings. \nThere have been 37 [ties](/wiki/List_of_tied_One_Day_Internationals \"List of tied One Day Internationals\") in ODIs history with England involved in 9 such games.",
"Ties are no longer possible in ODIs as if scores are level at the end of the second batting team's innings, the game is decided by a 'super\\-over' (played ad infinitum).",
"This happened at the end of England's 2019 tie with New Zealand (which happened to be the World Cup final). England won after a tied super\\-over by virtue of a better boundary count in the 50\\-over game (this method is no longer used to decide games where a super\\-over is played after a tie at 50 overs).",
"",
"| Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1989\\|May\\|27}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park \"McLean Park\"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand \"Napier, New Zealand\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1997\\|February\\|26}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Goodyear Park](/wiki/OUTsurance_Oval \"OUTsurance Oval\"), [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein \"Bloemfontein\"), South Africa | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2005\\|February\\|2}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2005\\|July\\|2}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park \"McLean Park\"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand \"Napier, New Zealand\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|February\\|20}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [M. Chinnaswamy Stadium](/wiki/M._Chinnaswamy_Stadium \"M. Chinnaswamy Stadium\"), [Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore \"Bangalore\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|February\\|27}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|September\\|11}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2016\\|June\\|21}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|July\\|14}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 3 December 2017 | | |",
""
] |
### Result records
An ODI match is [won](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29 "Result (cricket)") when one side has scored more [runs](/wiki/Run_%28cricket%29 "Run (cricket)") than the total runs scored by the opposing side during their [innings](/wiki/Innings "Innings"). If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by [wickets](/wiki/Wicket%23Dismissing_a_batsman "Wicket#Dismissing a batsman"), indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.{{cite web \|title\=Law 16 – The Result \|url\=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\-result \|publisher\=\[\[Marylebone Cricket Club]] \|access\-date\=29 December 2018 \|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229231840/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\-result\|archive\-date\=29 December 2018}}
#### Greatest win margins (by runs)
The greatest winning margin by runs in ODIs was New Zealand's victory over Ireland by 290 runs in the only ODI of the [2008 England tour](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team_in_England_in_2008%23New_Zealand_v_Ireland "New Zealand cricket team in England in 2008#New Zealand v Ireland"). The largest victory recorded by England was during the aforementioned match against Australia in June 2018 when they won by 242 runs.{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by runs) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283902\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=3rd ODI (D/N), Australia tour of England at Nottingham, Jun 19 2018\| url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1119539\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Margin | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 242 runs | 482 | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|June\|19}} |
| 2 | 232 runs | 499 | {{Cr\|NED}} | [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground "VRA Cricket Ground"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen "Amstelveen"), Netherlands | 17 June 2022 |
| 3 | 210 runs | 409 | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|June\|9}} |
| 4 | 202 runs | 335 | {{cr\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1975\|June\|7}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 5 | 198 runs | 364 | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1992\|August\|20}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 18 June 2022{{cite web \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|title\=England Records – ODI – Largest Victories \|access\-date\=1 July 2020 \|publisher\= ESPNcricinfo}} | | | | | |
#### Greatest win margins (by balls remaining)
The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup "1979 Cricket World Cup").{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by balls remaining) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283271\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
1 |
277 ♠ |
8 wickets |
{{cr\|CAN}} |
[Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England |
{{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1979\|June\|13}} {{double\-dagger}} || 2 | 227 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2014\|May\|28}} |
| 3 | 215 | 9 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground "Headingley Cricket Ground"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1983\|June\|20}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 10 wickets | {{cr\|RSA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|August\|26}} |
| 5 | 193 | 6 wickets | {{cr\|ZIM}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground "Bristol County Ground"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|July\|6}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |
#### Greatest win margins (by wickets)
A total of 55 matches have ended with chasing team winning by 10 wickets with West Indies winning by such margins a record 10 times.{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by wickets) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283279\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} England have won a match by such margin on 6 occasions, including chasing a score of 255 against [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_national_cricket_team "Sri Lanka national cricket team") in June 2016, which is the third highest score chased without losing a wicket, behind South Africa and Australia.
| Rank | Margin (wickets) | Target | Opposition | Ground | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 10 | 255 | {{cr\|SL}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground") | 24 June 2016 |
| 191 | {{cr\|BAN}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval") | 16 June 2005 |
| 171 | {{cr\|SL}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge") | 6 July 2011 |
| 170 | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Riverside Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground "Riverside Ground") | 15 July 2000 |
| 84 | {{cr\|SA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge") | 26 August 2008 |
| 68 | {{cr\|SL}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_%28cricket_ground%29 "Old Trafford (cricket ground)") | 28 May 2014 |
| Last updated: 1 August 2020\.[Largest winning margins](http://stats.espncricinfo.com/england/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=2;id=1;type=team) | | | | | |
#### Highest successful run chases
South Africa holds the record for the highest successful run chase which they achieved when they scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/9\.{{cite web \|title\=Highest Successful Chase \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\_fielding\_first\=2;class\=2;filter\=advanced;orderby\=team\_score;result\=1;size\=10;template\=results;type\=team;view\=innings \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\= 1 July 2020}} England's highest winning total while chasing is 364/4 in a run chase against West Indies at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown during the [2019 ODI series in West Indies](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_2018-19 "English cricket team in the West Indies in 2018-19"). They have also made the higher scores in defeats.
| Rank | Score | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|364/4}} | 361 | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|February\|20}} |
| 2 | {{sort\|2\|359/4}} | 359 | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground "Bristol County Ground"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol "Bristol"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|May\|19}} |
| 3 | {{sort\|3\|350/3}} | 350 | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|June\|17}} |
| 4 | {{sort\|4\|341/7}} | 341 | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|May\|17}} |
| 5 | {{sort\|5\|337/4}} | 337 | {{cr\|IND}} | [Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium](/wiki/Maharashtra_Cricket_Association_Stadium "Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium"), [Pune](/wiki/Pune "Pune"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2021\|March\|26}} |
|
| Last updated: 27 March 2021{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Highest successful run chases \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\_fielding\_first\=2;class\=2;filter\=advanced;orderby\=team\_score;result\=1;size\=10;team\=1;template\=results;type\=team;view\=innings \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |
#### Narrowest win margins (by runs)
The narrowest run margin victory is by 1 run which has been achieved in 31 ODI's with Australia winning such games a record 6 times.{{cite web \|title\= Reocrds – ODIs – Smallest victory (by runs)\| url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283920\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} England's has achieved a victory by 1 run on two occasions, once via revised target.
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{sort\|1\|1 run}} | {{cr\|IND}} | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium "Barabati Stadium"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack "Cuttack"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1984\|December\|27}} |
| {{cr\|WIN}} | [Providence Stadium](/wiki/Providence_Stadium "Providence Stadium"), [Providence](/wiki/Providence%2C_Guyana "Providence, Guyana"), West Indies | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2009\|March\|20}} |
| 3 | {{sort\|2\|2 runs}} | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1979\|November\|28}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [Arun Jaitley Stadium](/wiki/Arun_Jaitley_Stadium "Arun Jaitley Stadium"), [New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi "New Delhi"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2002\|January\|31}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 "Rose Bowl (cricket ground)"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2017\|May\|27}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Smallest victories \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=team \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |
#### Narrowest win margins (by balls remaining)
The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has achieved a victory by this margin on three occasions.{{cite news \|title\=Winning on the last ball of the match \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283930\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 0 | 3 wickets | {{cr\|PAK}} | [Zafar Ali Stadium](/wiki/Zafar_Ali_Stadium "Zafar Ali Stadium"), [Sahiwal](/wiki/Sahiwal "Sahiwal"), Pakistan | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1977\|December\|23}} |
| 5 wickets | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Queen's Park Oval](/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_Oval "Queen's Park Oval"), [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain "Port of Spain"), Trinidad \& Tobago | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1986\|March\|4}} |
| 4 wickets | {{cr\|IND}} | [Sawai Mansingh Stadium](/wiki/Sawai_Mansingh_Stadium "Sawai Mansingh Stadium"), [Jaipur](/wiki/Jaipur "Jaipur"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1993\|January\|18}} |
| 4 | 1 | 3 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1987\|January\|22}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1992\|March\|12}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval "Bellerive Oval"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|January\|16}} |
| 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|April\|21}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |
#### Narrowest win margins (by wickets)
The narrowest margin of victory by wickets is 1 wicket which has settled 55 such ODIs. Both West Indies and New Zealand have recorded such victory on eight occasions. England has won the match by a margin of one wicket on seven occasions.{{cite news \|title\=ODI Records – Smallest margin of victory (by wickets) \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283253\.html \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}}
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground "Headingley Cricket Ground"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1973\|September\|5}} |
| {{cr\|PAK}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1987\|May\|25}} |
| {{cr\|WIN}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1991\|May\|23}} |
| {{cr\|ZIM}} | [Queens Sports Club](/wiki/Queens_Sports_Club "Queens Sports Club"), [Bulawayo](/wiki/Bulawayo "Bulawayo"), Zimbabwe | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2000\|February\|18}} |
| {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|April\|21}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground "Old Trafford Cricket Ground"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2010\|June\|27}} |
| {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|June\|24}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |
#### Greatest loss margins (by runs)
England's biggest defeat by runs was against South Africa at the [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium "Wankhede Stadium") during the [2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2023_ICC_Men%27s_Cricket_World_Cup "2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup").
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 229 runs | {{cr\|SA}} | [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium "Wankhede Stadium"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2023\|October\|21}} |
| 2 | 221 runs | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2022\|November\|22}} |
| 3 | 219 runs | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium](/wiki/Ranasinghe_Premadasa_Stadium "Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2018\|October\|23}} |
| 4 | 165 runs | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium "Arnos Vale Stadium"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown "Kingstown"), Saint Vincent \& the Grenadines | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1994\|March\|2}} |
| {{cr\|PAK}} | [National Stadium](/wiki/National_Stadium%2C_Karachi "National Stadium, Karachi"), [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi "Karachi"), Pakistan | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2005\|December\|15}} |
| Last updated: 21 October 2023{{cite web \|title\=Records – England – Largest defeats \|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=opposition \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |
#### Greatest loss margins (by balls remaining)
The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup "1979 Cricket World Cup"). The largest defeat suffered by England was against [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_national_cricket_team "West Indies national cricket team") in West Indies when they lost by 7 wickets with 227 balls remaining.
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 227 | 7 wickets | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Darren_Sammy_National_Cricket_Stadium "Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium"), [Gros Islet](/wiki/Gros_Islet "Gros Islet"), Saint Lucia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|March\|2}} |
| 2 | 226 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|January\|23}} |
| 8 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Wellington_Regional_Stadium "Wellington Regional Stadium"), [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|February\|20}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 4 | 217 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium "Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla "Dambulla"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|November\|18}} |
| 5 | 196 | 7 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [County Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground "Riverside Ground"), [Chester\-le\-Street](/wiki/Chester-le-Street "Chester-le-Street"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2004\|June\|29}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |
#### Greatest loss margins (by wickets)
England have lost an ODI match by a margin of 10 wickets on five occasions with most recent being during the [Quarter\-final](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Quarter-finals "2011 Cricket World Cup knockout stage#Quarter-finals") of the [2011 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup "2011 Cricket World Cup") against Sri Lanka in March 2001 at Colombo (SSC).
| Rank | Margins | Opposition | Most recent venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 10 wickets | {{cr\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground "Sinhalese Sports Club Ground"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2001\|March\|27}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|January\|23}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium "Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla "Dambulla"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2003\|November\|18}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Seddon Park](/wiki/Seddon_Park "Seddon Park"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_New_Zealand "Hamilton, New Zealand"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|February\|12}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground "Sinhalese Sports Club Ground"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo "Colombo"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2011\|March\|26}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval_Cricket_Ground "The Oval Cricket Ground"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2022\|July\|12}} |
|
| Last updated: 12 July 2022 | | | | |
#### Narrowest loss margins (by runs)
The narrowest loss of England in terms of runs is by 1 run suffered against South Africa at Cape Town during the [2000 ODI Series](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_South_Africa_in_1999-2000 "English cricket team in South Africa in 1999-2000").
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1 run | {{cr\|RSA}} | [Sahara Park Newlands](/wiki/Newlands_Cricket_Ground "Newlands Cricket Ground"), [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town"), South Africa | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2000\|January\|26}} |
| 2 | 2 runs | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1980\|January\|20}} |
| [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium "Arnos Vale Stadium"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown "Kingstown"), Saint Vincent \& the Grenadines | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1981\|February\|4}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1981\|June\|6}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground "Melbourne Cricket Ground"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1983\|January\|13}} |
| {{cr\|PAK}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2001\|June\|12}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Sir Vivian Richards Stadium](/wiki/Sir_Vivian_Richards_Stadium "Sir Vivian Richards Stadium"), [Antigua](/wiki/Antigua "Antigua"), Antigua \& Barbuda | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2007\|April\|4}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \|title\=England ODI Records – Smallest defeats \|url\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\_margins.html?class\=2;id\=1;type\=opposition \|publisher\=ESPNcricinfo\|access\-date\=1 September 2019}} | | | | |
#### Narrowest loss margins (by balls remaining)
The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has suffered loss by this margin two times.
| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 0 | 2 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Sharjah Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Sharjah_Cricket_Stadium "Sharjah Cricket Stadium"), [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 "Sharjah (city)"), United Arab Emirates | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1985\|March\|24}} |
| 3 wickets | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Sabina Park](/wiki/Sabina_Park "Sabina Park"), [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica "Kingston, Jamaica"), Jamaica | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1990\|March\|3}} |
| 1 wicket | {{cr\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|June\|25}} |
| 4 | 1 | 2 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground "Edgbaston Cricket Ground"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1983\|June\|15}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| 4 wickets | {{cr\|NZ}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground "Headingley Cricket Ground"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds "Leeds"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1990\|May\|23}} |
| 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1998\|April\|1}} |
| 3 wickets | {{cr\|AUS}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval "Bellerive Oval"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2015\|January\|23}} |
| 7 wickets | {{cr\|IRE}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 "Rose Bowl (cricket ground)"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton "Southampton"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2020\|August\|4}} |
|
| Last updated: 4 August 2020 | | | | | |
#### Narrowest loss margins (by wickets)
England has suffered defeat by 1 wicket five times.
| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval "Kensington Oval"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown "Bridgetown"), Barbados | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1998\|April\|1}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval "Adelaide Oval"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1999\|January\|23}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|June\|25}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Brisbane Cricket Ground](/wiki/The_Gabba "The Gabba"), [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane"), Australia | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2014\|January\|17}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [New Wanderers Stadium](/wiki/New_Wanderers_Stadium "New Wanderers Stadium"), [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg "Johannesburg"), South Africa | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2016\|February\|12}} |
|
| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |
#### Tied matches
A [tie](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Tie "Result (cricket)#Tie") can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings.
There have been 37 [ties](/wiki/List_of_tied_One_Day_Internationals "List of tied One Day Internationals") in ODIs history with England involved in 9 such games.
Ties are no longer possible in ODIs as if scores are level at the end of the second batting team's innings, the game is decided by a 'super\-over' (played ad infinitum).
This happened at the end of England's 2019 tie with New Zealand (which happened to be the World Cup final). England won after a tied super\-over by virtue of a better boundary count in the 50\-over game (this method is no longer used to decide games where a super\-over is played after a tie at 50 overs).
| Opposition | Venue | Date |
| --- | --- | --- |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1989\|May\|27}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park "McLean Park"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand "Napier, New Zealand"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|1997\|February\|26}} |
| {{cr\|RSA}} | [Goodyear Park](/wiki/OUTsurance_Oval "OUTsurance Oval"), [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein "Bloemfontein"), South Africa | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2005\|February\|2}} |
| {{cr\|AUS}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2005\|July\|2}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park "McLean Park"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand "Napier, New Zealand"), New Zealand | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2008\|February\|20}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [M. Chinnaswamy Stadium](/wiki/M._Chinnaswamy_Stadium "M. Chinnaswamy Stadium"), [Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore "Bangalore"), India | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2011\|February\|27}} {{double\-dagger}} |
| {{cr\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2011\|September\|11}} |
| {{cr\|SRI}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham "Nottingham"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2016\|June\|21}} |
| {{cr\|NZ}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), England | {{dts\|nowrap\=off\|format\=dmy\|2019\|July\|14}} {{double\-dagger}} |
|
| Last updated: 3 December 2017 | | |
|
[
"### Result records",
"An ODI match is [won](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29 \"Result (cricket)\") when one side has scored more [runs](/wiki/Run_%28cricket%29 \"Run (cricket)\") than the total runs scored by the opposing side during their [innings](/wiki/Innings \"Innings\"). If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by [wickets](/wiki/Wicket%23Dismissing_a_batsman \"Wicket#Dismissing a batsman\"), indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.{{cite web \\|title\\=Law 16 – The Result \\|url\\=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\\-result \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Marylebone Cricket Club]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 December 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229231840/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the\\-result\\|archive\\-date\\=29 December 2018}}",
"#### Greatest win margins (by runs)",
"The greatest winning margin by runs in ODIs was New Zealand's victory over Ireland by 290 runs in the only ODI of the [2008 England tour](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team_in_England_in_2008%23New_Zealand_v_Ireland \"New Zealand cricket team in England in 2008#New Zealand v Ireland\"). The largest victory recorded by England was during the aforementioned match against Australia in June 2018 when they won by 242 runs.{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by runs) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283902\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=3rd ODI (D/N), Australia tour of England at Nottingham, Jun 19 2018\\| url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1119539\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 242 runs | 482 | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|June\\|19}} |\n| 2 | 232 runs | 499 | {{Cr\\|NED}} | [VRA Cricket Ground](/wiki/VRA_Cricket_Ground \"VRA Cricket Ground\"), [Amstelveen](/wiki/Amstelveen \"Amstelveen\"), Netherlands | 17 June 2022 |\n| 3 | 210 runs | 409 | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|June\\|9}} |\n| 4 | 202 runs | 335 | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1975\\|June\\|7}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 5 | 198 runs | 364 | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1992\\|August\\|20}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 18 June 2022{{cite web \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|title\\=England Records – ODI – Largest Victories \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020 \\|publisher\\= ESPNcricinfo}} | | | | | |",
"#### Greatest win margins (by balls remaining)",
"The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup \"1979 Cricket World Cup\").{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by balls remaining) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283271\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |",
"1 |\n 277 ♠ |\n 8 wickets |\n {{cr\\|CAN}} |\n [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England |\n {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1979\\|June\\|13}} {{double\\-dagger}} || 2 | 227 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2014\\|May\\|28}} |\n| 3 | 215 | 9 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground \"Headingley Cricket Ground\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1983\\|June\\|20}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 10 wickets | {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|August\\|26}} |\n| 5 | 193 | 6 wickets | {{cr\\|ZIM}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground \"Bristol County Ground\"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|July\\|6}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Greatest win margins (by wickets)",
"A total of 55 matches have ended with chasing team winning by 10 wickets with West Indies winning by such margins a record 10 times.{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Largest margin of victory (by wickets) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283279\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} England have won a match by such margin on 6 occasions, including chasing a score of 255 against [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_national_cricket_team \"Sri Lanka national cricket team\") in June 2016, which is the third highest score chased without losing a wicket, behind South Africa and Australia.",
"",
"| Rank | Margin (wickets) | Target | Opposition | Ground | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 10 | 255 | {{cr\\|SL}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\") | 24 June 2016 |\n| 191 | {{cr\\|BAN}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\") | 16 June 2005 |\n| 171 | {{cr\\|SL}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\") | 6 July 2011 |\n| 170 | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Riverside Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground \"Riverside Ground\") | 15 July 2000 |\n| 84 | {{cr\\|SA}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\") | 26 August 2008 |\n| 68 | {{cr\\|SL}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Old Trafford (cricket ground)\") | 28 May 2014 |\n| Last updated: 1 August 2020\\.[Largest winning margins](http://stats.espncricinfo.com/england/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=2;id=1;type=team) | | | | | |",
"#### Highest successful run chases",
"South Africa holds the record for the highest successful run chase which they achieved when they scored 438/9 in response to Australia's 434/9\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Highest Successful Chase \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\\_fielding\\_first\\=2;class\\=2;filter\\=advanced;orderby\\=team\\_score;result\\=1;size\\=10;template\\=results;type\\=team;view\\=innings \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\= 1 July 2020}} England's highest winning total while chasing is 364/4 in a run chase against West Indies at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown during the [2019 ODI series in West Indies](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_the_West_Indies_in_2018-19 \"English cricket team in the West Indies in 2018-19\"). They have also made the higher scores in defeats.",
"",
"| Rank | Score | Target | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|364/4}} | 361 | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|February\\|20}} |\n| 2 | {{sort\\|2\\|359/4}} | 359 | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Bristol County Ground](/wiki/Bristol_County_Ground \"Bristol County Ground\"), [Bristol](/wiki/Bristol \"Bristol\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|May\\|19}} |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|3\\|350/3}} | 350 | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|June\\|17}} |\n| 4 | {{sort\\|4\\|341/7}} | 341 | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|May\\|17}} |\n| 5 | {{sort\\|5\\|337/4}} | 337 | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium](/wiki/Maharashtra_Cricket_Association_Stadium \"Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium\"), [Pune](/wiki/Pune \"Pune\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2021\\|March\\|26}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 27 March 2021{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Highest successful run chases \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting\\_fielding\\_first\\=2;class\\=2;filter\\=advanced;orderby\\=team\\_score;result\\=1;size\\=10;team\\=1;template\\=results;type\\=team;view\\=innings \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest win margins (by runs)",
"The narrowest run margin victory is by 1 run which has been achieved in 31 ODI's with Australia winning such games a record 6 times.{{cite web \\|title\\= Reocrds – ODIs – Smallest victory (by runs)\\| url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283920\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} England's has achieved a victory by 1 run on two occasions, once via revised target.",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{sort\\|1\\|1 run}} | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Barabati Stadium](/wiki/Barabati_Stadium \"Barabati Stadium\"), [Cuttack](/wiki/Cuttack \"Cuttack\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1984\\|December\\|27}} |\n| {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Providence Stadium](/wiki/Providence_Stadium \"Providence Stadium\"), [Providence](/wiki/Providence%2C_Guyana \"Providence, Guyana\"), West Indies | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2009\\|March\\|20}} |\n| 3 | {{sort\\|2\\|2 runs}} | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1979\\|November\\|28}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [Arun Jaitley Stadium](/wiki/Arun_Jaitley_Stadium \"Arun Jaitley Stadium\"), [New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi \"New Delhi\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2002\\|January\\|31}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Rose Bowl (cricket ground)\"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2017\\|May\\|27}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Smallest victories \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=team \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest win margins (by balls remaining)",
"The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has achieved a victory by this margin on three occasions.{{cite news \\|title\\=Winning on the last ball of the match \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283930\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 0 | 3 wickets | {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Zafar Ali Stadium](/wiki/Zafar_Ali_Stadium \"Zafar Ali Stadium\"), [Sahiwal](/wiki/Sahiwal \"Sahiwal\"), Pakistan | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1977\\|December\\|23}} |\n| 5 wickets | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Queen's Park Oval](/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_Oval \"Queen's Park Oval\"), [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain \"Port of Spain\"), Trinidad \\& Tobago | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1986\\|March\\|4}} |\n| 4 wickets | {{cr\\|IND}} | [Sawai Mansingh Stadium](/wiki/Sawai_Mansingh_Stadium \"Sawai Mansingh Stadium\"), [Jaipur](/wiki/Jaipur \"Jaipur\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1993\\|January\\|18}} |\n| 4 | 1 | 3 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1987\\|January\\|22}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1992\\|March\\|12}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval \"Bellerive Oval\"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|January\\|16}} |\n| 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|April\\|21}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest win margins (by wickets)",
"The narrowest margin of victory by wickets is 1 wicket which has settled 55 such ODIs. Both West Indies and New Zealand have recorded such victory on eight occasions. England has won the match by a margin of one wicket on seven occasions.{{cite news \\|title\\=ODI Records – Smallest margin of victory (by wickets) \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283253\\.html \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}}",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground \"Headingley Cricket Ground\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1973\\|September\\|5}} |\n| {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1987\\|May\\|25}} |\n| {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1991\\|May\\|23}} |\n| {{cr\\|ZIM}} | [Queens Sports Club](/wiki/Queens_Sports_Club \"Queens Sports Club\"), [Bulawayo](/wiki/Bulawayo \"Bulawayo\"), Zimbabwe | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2000\\|February\\|18}} |\n| {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|April\\|21}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_Cricket_Ground \"Old Trafford Cricket Ground\"), [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2010\\|June\\|27}} |\n| {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|June\\|24}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |",
"#### Greatest loss margins (by runs)",
"England's biggest defeat by runs was against South Africa at the [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium \"Wankhede Stadium\") during the [2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2023_ICC_Men%27s_Cricket_World_Cup \"2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup\").",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 229 runs | {{cr\\|SA}} | [Wankhede Stadium](/wiki/Wankhede_Stadium \"Wankhede Stadium\"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2023\\|October\\|21}} |\n| 2 | 221 runs | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2022\\|November\\|22}} |\n| 3 | 219 runs | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium](/wiki/Ranasinghe_Premadasa_Stadium \"Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium\"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2018\\|October\\|23}} |\n| 4 | 165 runs | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium \"Arnos Vale Stadium\"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown \"Kingstown\"), Saint Vincent \\& the Grenadines | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1994\\|March\\|2}} |\n| {{cr\\|PAK}} | [National Stadium](/wiki/National_Stadium%2C_Karachi \"National Stadium, Karachi\"), [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi \"Karachi\"), Pakistan | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2005\\|December\\|15}} |\n| Last updated: 21 October 2023{{cite web \\|title\\=Records – England – Largest defeats \\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=opposition \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2020}} | | | | |",
"#### Greatest loss margins (by balls remaining)",
"The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs was England's victory over Canada by 8 wickets with 277 balls remaining in the [1979 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/1979_Cricket_World_Cup \"1979 Cricket World Cup\"). The largest defeat suffered by England was against [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_national_cricket_team \"West Indies national cricket team\") in West Indies when they lost by 7 wickets with 227 balls remaining.",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 227 | 7 wickets | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Darren_Sammy_National_Cricket_Stadium \"Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium\"), [Gros Islet](/wiki/Gros_Islet \"Gros Islet\"), Saint Lucia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|March\\|2}} |\n| 2 | 226 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|January\\|23}} |\n| 8 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Wellington_Regional_Stadium \"Wellington Regional Stadium\"), [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|February\\|20}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 4 | 217 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium \"Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium\"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla \"Dambulla\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|November\\|18}} |\n| 5 | 196 | 7 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [County Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground \"Riverside Ground\"), [Chester\\-le\\-Street](/wiki/Chester-le-Street \"Chester-le-Street\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2004\\|June\\|29}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Greatest loss margins (by wickets)",
"England have lost an ODI match by a margin of 10 wickets on five occasions with most recent being during the [Quarter\\-final](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Quarter-finals \"2011 Cricket World Cup knockout stage#Quarter-finals\") of the [2011 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2011_Cricket_World_Cup \"2011 Cricket World Cup\") against Sri Lanka in March 2001 at Colombo (SSC).",
"",
"| Rank | Margins | Opposition | Most recent venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 10 wickets | {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground \"Sinhalese Sports Club Ground\"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2001\\|March\\|27}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|January\\|23}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium](/wiki/Rangiri_Dambulla_International_Stadium \"Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium\"), [Dambulla](/wiki/Dambulla \"Dambulla\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2003\\|November\\|18}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Seddon Park](/wiki/Seddon_Park \"Seddon Park\"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_New_Zealand \"Hamilton, New Zealand\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|February\\|12}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Sinhalese Sports Club Ground](/wiki/Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Ground \"Sinhalese Sports Club Ground\"), [Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"), Sri Lanka | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|March\\|26}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval_Cricket_Ground \"The Oval Cricket Ground\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2022\\|July\\|12}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 12 July 2022 | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest loss margins (by runs)",
"The narrowest loss of England in terms of runs is by 1 run suffered against South Africa at Cape Town during the [2000 ODI Series](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_South_Africa_in_1999-2000 \"English cricket team in South Africa in 1999-2000\").",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 1 run | {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Sahara Park Newlands](/wiki/Newlands_Cricket_Ground \"Newlands Cricket Ground\"), [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\"), South Africa | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2000\\|January\\|26}} |\n| 2 | 2 runs | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1980\\|January\\|20}} |\n| [Arnos Vale Stadium](/wiki/Arnos_Vale_Stadium \"Arnos Vale Stadium\"), [Kingstown](/wiki/Kingstown \"Kingstown\"), Saint Vincent \\& the Grenadines | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1981\\|February\\|4}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1981\\|June\\|6}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Melbourne Cricket Ground](/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground \"Melbourne Cricket Ground\"), [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1983\\|January\\|13}} |\n| {{cr\\|PAK}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2001\\|June\\|12}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Sir Vivian Richards Stadium](/wiki/Sir_Vivian_Richards_Stadium \"Sir Vivian Richards Stadium\"), [Antigua](/wiki/Antigua \"Antigua\"), Antigua \\& Barbuda | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|April\\|4}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020{{cite news \\|title\\=England ODI Records – Smallest defeats \\|url\\=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest\\_margins.html?class\\=2;id\\=1;type\\=opposition \\|publisher\\=ESPNcricinfo\\|access\\-date\\=1 September 2019}} | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest loss margins (by balls remaining)",
"The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in ODIs is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 36 times with both South Africa winning seven times. England has suffered loss by this margin two times.",
"",
"| Rank | Balls remaining | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 0 | 2 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Sharjah Cricket Stadium](/wiki/Sharjah_Cricket_Stadium \"Sharjah Cricket Stadium\"), [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah_%28city%29 \"Sharjah (city)\"), United Arab Emirates | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1985\\|March\\|24}} |\n| 3 wickets | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Sabina Park](/wiki/Sabina_Park \"Sabina Park\"), [Kingston](/wiki/Kingston%2C_Jamaica \"Kingston, Jamaica\"), Jamaica | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1990\\|March\\|3}} |\n| 1 wicket | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|June\\|25}} |\n| 4 | 1 | 2 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Edgbaston](/wiki/Edgbaston_Cricket_Ground \"Edgbaston Cricket Ground\"), [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1983\\|June\\|15}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| 4 wickets | {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Headingley](/wiki/Headingley_Cricket_Ground \"Headingley Cricket Ground\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1990\\|May\\|23}} |\n| 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1998\\|April\\|1}} |\n| 3 wickets | {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Bellerive Oval](/wiki/Bellerive_Oval \"Bellerive Oval\"), [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2015\\|January\\|23}} |\n| 7 wickets | {{cr\\|IRE}} | [Rose Bowl](/wiki/Rose_Bowl_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Rose Bowl (cricket ground)\"), [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2020\\|August\\|4}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 4 August 2020 | | | | | |",
"#### Narrowest loss margins (by wickets)",
"England has suffered defeat by 1 wicket five times.",
"",
"| Rank | Margin | Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 1 wicket | {{cr\\|WIN}} | [Kensington Oval](/wiki/Kensington_Oval \"Kensington Oval\"), [Bridgetown](/wiki/Bridgetown \"Bridgetown\"), Barbados | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1998\\|April\\|1}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Adelaide Oval](/wiki/Adelaide_Oval \"Adelaide Oval\"), [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1999\\|January\\|23}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|June\\|25}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Brisbane Cricket Ground](/wiki/The_Gabba \"The Gabba\"), [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), Australia | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2014\\|January\\|17}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [New Wanderers Stadium](/wiki/New_Wanderers_Stadium \"New Wanderers Stadium\"), [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg \"Johannesburg\"), South Africa | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2016\\|February\\|12}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 1 July 2020 | | | | |",
"#### Tied matches",
"A [tie](/wiki/Result_%28cricket%29%23Tie \"Result (cricket)#Tie\") can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings. \nThere have been 37 [ties](/wiki/List_of_tied_One_Day_Internationals \"List of tied One Day Internationals\") in ODIs history with England involved in 9 such games.",
"Ties are no longer possible in ODIs as if scores are level at the end of the second batting team's innings, the game is decided by a 'super\\-over' (played ad infinitum).",
"This happened at the end of England's 2019 tie with New Zealand (which happened to be the World Cup final). England won after a tied super\\-over by virtue of a better boundary count in the 50\\-over game (this method is no longer used to decide games where a super\\-over is played after a tie at 50 overs).",
"",
"| Opposition | Venue | Date |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1989\\|May\\|27}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park \"McLean Park\"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand \"Napier, New Zealand\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|1997\\|February\\|26}} |\n| {{cr\\|RSA}} | [Goodyear Park](/wiki/OUTsurance_Oval \"OUTsurance Oval\"), [Bloemfontein](/wiki/Bloemfontein \"Bloemfontein\"), South Africa | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2005\\|February\\|2}} |\n| {{cr\\|AUS}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2005\\|July\\|2}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [McLean Park](/wiki/McLean_Park \"McLean Park\"), [Napier](/wiki/Napier%2C_New_Zealand \"Napier, New Zealand\"), New Zealand | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2008\\|February\\|20}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [M. Chinnaswamy Stadium](/wiki/M._Chinnaswamy_Stadium \"M. Chinnaswamy Stadium\"), [Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore \"Bangalore\"), India | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|February\\|27}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n| {{cr\\|IND}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|September\\|11}} |\n| {{cr\\|SRI}} | [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), [Nottingham](/wiki/Nottingham \"Nottingham\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2016\\|June\\|21}} |\n| {{cr\\|NZ}} | [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), England | {{dts\\|nowrap\\=off\\|format\\=dmy\\|2019\\|July\\|14}} {{double\\-dagger}} |\n|\n| Last updated: 3 December 2017 | | |",
""
] |
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