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Both Zarankiewicz and Kazimierz Urbanik saw Turán speak about the brick factory problem in different talks in Poland in 1952,
and independently published attempted solutions of the problem, with equivalent formulas for the number of crossings.
As both of them showed, it is always possible to draw the comple... | Turán's brick factory problem | Wikipedia | 458 | 22039971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tur%C3%A1n%27s%20brick%20factory%20problem | Mathematics | Graph theory | null |
For each fixed choice of , the truth of the conjecture for all can be verified by testing only a finite number of choices of .
More generally, it has been proven that every complete bipartite graph requires a number of crossings that is (for sufficiently large graphs) at least 83% of the number given by the Zarankiewi... | Turán's brick factory problem | Wikipedia | 184 | 22039971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tur%C3%A1n%27s%20brick%20factory%20problem | Mathematics | Graph theory | null |
Tilikum ( – 6 January 2017), nicknamed Tilly, was a captive male orca who spent most of his life at SeaWorld Orlando in Florida. He was captured in Iceland in 1983; about a year later, he was transferred to Sealand of the Pacific near Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. He was subsequently transferred in 1992 to SeaWor... | Tilikum (orca) | Wikipedia | 447 | 26382213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilikum%20%28orca%29 | Biology and health sciences | Individual animals | Animals |
First death
Keltie Lee Byrne (December 6, 1970February 20, 1991) was a 20-year-old Canadian student, animal trainer, and competitive swimmer. She had been working with orcas Tilikum, Nootka IV, and Haida II at Sealand of the Pacific to earn extra money. On February 20, 1991, Byrne was working a shift when she slipped ... | Tilikum (orca) | Wikipedia | 451 | 26382213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilikum%20%28orca%29 | Biology and health sciences | Individual animals | Animals |
Steve Huxter, head of animal training at Sealand at the time, said, "They never had a plaything in the pool that was so interactive. They just got incredibly excited and stimulated." No official motive of the three whales has ever been established, as the case was over twenty years old by the time it resurfaced in rela... | Tilikum (orca) | Wikipedia | 446 | 26382213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilikum%20%28orca%29 | Biology and health sciences | Individual animals | Animals |
The 2013 documentary Blackfish was the first media to explore Dukes's death extensively. The lack of early coverage of his death later became noted for the way that the media and investigators handle the deaths of homeless and mentally ill individuals, particularly the lack of dignity ascribed to such cases. The Dolphi... | Tilikum (orca) | Wikipedia | 455 | 26382213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilikum%20%28orca%29 | Biology and health sciences | Individual animals | Animals |
Return to performing
Tilikum returned to performing on March 30, 2011. High-pressure water hoses were used to massage him, rather than hands, and removable guardrails were used on the platforms, as OSHA restricted close contact between orcas and trainers, and reinforced workplace safety precautions after Brancheau's d... | Tilikum (orca) | Wikipedia | 482 | 26382213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilikum%20%28orca%29 | Biology and health sciences | Individual animals | Animals |
In 1999, Tilikum began training for artificial insemination. In early 2000, Kasatka who resided at SeaWorld San Diego was artificially inseminated using his sperm. She gave birth to Tilikum's son, Nakai, on September 1, 2001. On May 3, 2002, another female in San Diego, named Takara, bore Tilikum's calf through artific... | Tilikum (orca) | Wikipedia | 490 | 26382213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilikum%20%28orca%29 | Biology and health sciences | Individual animals | Animals |
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs that are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and other psychological conditions.
SSRIs increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by limiting its reabsorption (re... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 335 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
There has been controversy regarding the efficacy of SSRIs in treating depression depending on its severity and duration.
Two meta-analyses published in 2008 (Kirsch) and 2010 (Fournier) found that in mild and moderate depression, the effect of SSRIs is small or none compared to placebo, while in very severe depressio... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 408 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
In 2018, a systematic review and network meta-analysis comparing the efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs showed escitalopram to be one of the most effective. They showed that "In terms of efficacy, all antidepressants were more effective than placebo, with odds ratios (ORs) ranging between 2.13 (95% c... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 159 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
The use of SSRIs in children with depression remains controversial. A 2021 Cochrane review concluded that, for children and adolescents, SSRIs "may reduce depression symptoms in a small and unimportant way compared with placebo." However, it also noted significant methodological limitations that make drawing definitive... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 417 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Generalized anxiety disorder
SSRIs are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) that has failed to respond to conservative measures such as education and self-help activities. GAD is a common disorder of which the central feature... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 452 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Eating disorders
Antidepressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self-help programs in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other anti-depressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short-term tri... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 484 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
The mechanism by which SSRIs may cause sexual side effects is not well understood . The range of possible mechanisms includes (1) nonspecific neurological effects (e.g., sedation) that globally impair behavior including sexual function; (2) specific effects on brain systems mediating sexual function; (3) specific effec... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 398 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
The reported symptoms of PSSD include reduced sexual desire or arousal, erectile dysfunction in males or loss of vaginal lubrication in females, persistent premature ejaculation (even in patients without a previous history of the condition), difficulty having an orgasm or loss of pleasurable sensation associated with o... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 510 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Reports of PSSD have occurred with almost every SSRI (dapoxetine is an exception). In 2019, the Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended that packaging leaflets of selected SSRIs and SNRIs should be amended to include information regarding a possible risk of persist... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 488 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Cardiac
SSRIs do not appear to affect the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in those without a previous diagnosis of CHD. A large cohort study suggested no substantial increase in the risk of cardiac malformations attributable to SSRI usage during the first trimester of pregnancy. A number of large studies of people... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 457 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Fracture risk
Evidence from longitudinal, cross-sectional, and prospective cohort studies suggests an association between SSRI usage at therapeutic doses and a decrease in bone mineral density, as well as increased fracture risk, a relationship that appears to persist even with adjuvant bisphosphonate therapy. However,... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 453 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Children and adolescents
Meta analyses of short duration randomized clinical trials have found that SSRI use is related to a higher risk of suicidal behavior in children and adolescents. For instance, a 2004 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) analysis of clinical trials on children with major depressive disorder f... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 430 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Adults
It is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidal behavior in adults.
A 2005 meta-analysis of drug company data found no evidence that SSRIs increased the risk of suicide; however, important protective or hazardous effects could not be excluded.
A 2005 review observed that suicide attempts are increased ... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 468 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outc... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 422 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Persistent pulmonary hypertension
Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) is a serious and life-threatening, but very rare, lung condition that occurs soon after birth of the newborn. Newborn babies with PPHN have high pressure in their lung blood vessels and are not able to get enough oxygen into their bloodstream. A... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 476 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Linezolid
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) including moclobemide, phenelzine, tranylcypromine, selegiline and methylene blue
Lithium
Sibutramine
MDMA (ecstasy)
Dextromethorphan
Tramadol
5-HTP
Pethidine/meperidine
St. John's wort
Yohimbe
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)
Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake ... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 403 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Another important interaction of certain SSRIs involves paroxetine, a potent inhibitor of CYP2D6, and tamoxifen, an agent used commonly in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. Tamoxifen is a prodrug that is metabolised by the hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme system, especially CYP2D6, to its active metabolites.... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 496 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Serotonin reuptake inhibition
In the brain, messages are passed from a nerve cell to another via a chemical synapse, a small gap between the cells. The presynaptic cell that sends the information releases neurotransmitters including serotonin into that gap. The neurotransmitters are then recognized by receptors on the ... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 509 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Sigma receptor ligands
In addition to their actions as reuptake inhibitors of serotonin, some SSRIs are also, coincidentally, ligands of the sigma receptors. Fluvoxamine is an agonist of the σ1 receptor, while sertraline is an antagonist of the σ1 receptor, and paroxetine does not significantly interact with the σ1 re... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 366 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
SSRIs were originally invented with the goal of increasing levels of available serotonin in the extracellular spaces. However, the delayed response between when patients first begin SSRI treatment to when they see effects has led scientists to believe that other molecules are involved in the efficacy of these drugs. To... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 408 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
In addition to affecting cytokine production, there is evidence that treatment with SSRIs has effects on the proliferation and viability of immune system cells involved in both innate and adaptive immunity. Evidence shows that SSRIs can inhibit proliferation in T-cells, which are important cells for adaptive immunity a... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 421 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
There appears to be no significant difference in effectiveness between SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants, which were the most commonly used class of antidepressants before the development of SSRIs. However, SSRIs have the important advantage that their toxic dose is high, and, therefore, they are much more difficult ... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 395 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Related drugs
Although described as SNRIs, duloxetine (Cymbalta), venlafaxine (Effexor), and desvenlafaxine (Pristiq) are in fact relatively selective as serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs). They are about at least 10-fold selective for inhibition of serotonin reuptake over norepinephrine reuptake. The selectivity rat... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 465 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
A study examining publication of results from FDA-evaluated antidepressants concluded that those with favorable results were much more likely to be published than those with negative results. Furthermore, an investigation of 185 meta-analyses on antidepressants found that 79% of them had authors affiliated in some way ... | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor | Wikipedia | 183 | 26383679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20serotonin%20reuptake%20inhibitor | Biology and health sciences | Psychiatric drugs | Health |
Dental avulsion is the complete displacement of a tooth from its socket in alveolar bone owing to trauma, such as can be caused by a fall, road traffic accident, assault, sports, or occupational injury. Typically, a tooth is held in place by the periodontal ligament, which becomes torn when the tooth is knocked out.
A... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 480 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Dental avulsion is a true dental emergency in which prompt management affects the prognosis of the tooth. Replantation of the tooth within 15 minutes is associated with the best prognosis as periodontal ligament (PDL) cells are still viable. Total extra-oral dry time of more than 60 minutes, regardless of storage medi... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 309 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Although dentists advise that the best treatment for an avulsed tooth is immediate replantation, for a variety of reasons this can be difficult for the layperson. The teeth are often covered with debris. This debris must be washed off with a physiological solution and not scrubbed. Often multiple teeth are knocked-out ... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 488 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Re-implantation
Prior to the beginning of the procedure, a local anesthetic should be administered to both the palatal/lingual tissues to minimize discomfort. Gentle irrigation with a saline solution, should be performed as this removes any clots within the socket, which could prevent the proper re-positioning of the ... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 445 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Prevention of cell crushing
When teeth are knocked out, they end up on an artificial surface: the floor, the ground or material such as carpeting. If the surface is hard, the tooth root cells will be traumatized. Since the cells remaining on the tooth root are very delicate, additional trauma to the PDL cells must be a... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 392 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Maintenance of normal cell metabolism
Normally metabolizing tooth root cells have an internal cell pressure (osmolality) of 280–300 mOs and a pH of 7.2. When there is an uninterrupted blood supply, all of the metabolites (calcium, phosphate, potassium) and glucose that the cells require are provided. When the tooth is ... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 463 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
In cases where immediate replantation is not feasible, selecting an appropriate storage medium to preserve the viability of the periodontal ligament (PDL) cells becomes paramount. These cells are essential for the successful reintegration of the tooth into its socket, aiding the healing process and preventing resorptio... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 500 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Saline solution and pure water are discouraged due to their lack of essential nutrients and hypotonic nature, respectively, which can lead to decreased viability of PDL cells. Other alternatives like coconut water, egg white, and various probiotic solutions have shown mixed effectiveness. However, ongoing research cont... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 488 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
The results of replanting permanent incisor teeth can be divided into short, medium and long-term survival of the tooth. If the tooth is replanted it acts in the short term to maintain space, maintain bone and provide good to excellent aesthetics. If unfavorable healing has occurred, the tooth can last into the medium ... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 356 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
History
The first reported cases of knocked-out teeth being replanted was by Pare in 1593. In 1706, Pierre Fauchard also reported replanting knocked out teeth. Wigoper in 1933 used a cast gold splint to hold reimplanted teeth in place. In 1959, Lenstrup and Skieller declared that the success rate of replanted knocked o... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 450 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Archaeology
In ancient times, ritual dental avulsion was widespread among different cultures around the world. For example, it was common during the Early Holocene (from around 11,500 BP up to 5,000 BP) in North Africa and was occasionally observed in the Natufian culture (14,000 to 11,500 BP).
Such tooth avulsion was... | Dental avulsion | Wikipedia | 127 | 32039834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental%20avulsion | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Cannabaceae is a small family of flowering plants, known as the hemp family. As now circumscribed, the family includes about 170 species grouped in about 11 genera, including Cannabis (hemp), Humulus (hops) and Celtis (hackberries). Celtis is by far the largest genus, containing about 100 species.
Cannabaceae is a mem... | Cannabaceae | Wikipedia | 464 | 24997037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabaceae | Biology and health sciences | Rosales | Plants |
Classification
Classification systems developed prior to the 1990s, such as those of Cronquist (1981) and Dahlgren (1989), typically recognized the order Urticales, which included the families Cannabaceae, Cecropiaceae, Celtidaceae, Moraceae, Ulmaceae and Urticaceae, as then circumscribed. Molecular data from 1990s on... | Cannabaceae | Wikipedia | 454 | 24997037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabaceae | Biology and health sciences | Rosales | Plants |
Some plants in the genus Cannabis are cultivated as hemp for the production of fiber, as a source of cheap oil, for their nutritious seeds, or their edible leaves. Others are cultivated for medical or recreational use as dried flowers, extracts, or infused food products. Induced parthenocarpy in pistilate flowers, and ... | Cannabaceae | Wikipedia | 158 | 24997037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabaceae | Biology and health sciences | Rosales | Plants |
Vitamin D is a group of structurally related, fat-soluble compounds responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, along with numerous other biological functions. In humans, the most important compounds within this group are vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) and vitamin D2 (ergocalcif... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 501 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
The discovery of the vitamin in 1922 was due to effort to identify the dietary deficiency in children with rickets. Adolf Windaus received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928 for his work on the constitution of sterols and their connection with vitamins.” Present day, government food fortification programs in some cou... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 451 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Activation of VDR in the intestine, bone, kidney, and parathyroid gland cells plays a crucial role in maintaining calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood, a process that is assisted by parathyroid hormone and calcitonin, thereby supporting bone health. VDR also regulates cell proliferation and differentiation. Addit... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 194 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Serum 25(OH)D concentration is used as a biomarker for vitamin D deficiency. Units of measurement are either ng/mL or nmol/L, with oneng/mL equal to 2.5nmol/L. There is not a consensus on defining vitamin D deficiency, insufficiency, sufficiency, or optimal for all aspects of health. According to the US Institute of Me... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 391 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Causes
Causes of insufficient vitamin D synthesis in the skin include insufficient exposure to UVB light from sunlight due to living in high latitudes (farther distance from the equator with resultant shorter daylight hours in winter). Serum concentration by the end of winter can be lower by one-third to half that at t... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 454 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
There are many disease states, medical treatments and medications that put people at risk for vitamin D deficiency. Chronic diseases that increase risk include kidney and liver failure, Crohn’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease and malabsorption syndromes such as cystic fibrosis, and hyper- or hypo-parathyroidism. Ob... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 410 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Dark skin as deficiency risk
Melanin, specifically the sub-type eumelanin, is a biomolecule consisting of linked molecules of oxidized amino acid tyrosine. It is produced by cells called melanocytes in a process called melanogenesis. In skin, melanin is located in the bottom layer (the stratum basale) of the skin's epi... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 334 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
To use one country as an example, in the United States, vitamin D deficiency is particularly common among non-white Hispanic and African-American populations. However, despite having on-average 25(OH)D serum contentrations below the 50 nmol/L amount considered sufficient, African Americans have higher bone mineral dens... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 479 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Vitamin D toxicity, or hypervitaminosis D, is the toxic state of an excess of vitamin D. It is rare, having occurred historically during a time of unregulated fortification of foods, especially those provided to infants, or in more recently, with consumption of high-dose vitamin D dietary supplements following inapprop... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 490 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
In 2011, the U.S. National Academy of Medicine revised tolerable upper intake levels (UL) to protect against vitamin D toxicity. Before the revision the UL for ages 9+ years was 50 μg/d (2000 IU/d). Per the revision: "UL is defined as "the highest average daily intake of a nutrient that is likely to pose no risk of adv... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 488 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Special cases
Idiopathic infantile hypercalcemia is caused by a mutation of the CYP24A1 gene, leading to a reduction in the degradation of vitamin D. Infants who have such a mutation have an increased sensitivity to vitamin D and in case of additional intake a risk of hypercalcaemia. The disorder can continue into adul... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 328 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Mortality, all-causes
Vitamin D3 supplementation has been tentatively found to lead to a reduced risk of death in the elderly, but the effect has not been deemed pronounced, or certain enough, to make taking supplements recommendable. Other forms (vitamin D2, alfacalcidol, and calcitriol) do not appear to have any ben... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 405 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Characteristics of osteomalacia are softening of the bones, leading to bending of the spine, bone fragility, and increased risk for fractures. Osteomalacia is usually present when 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels are less than about 10ng/mL. Osteomalacia progress to osteoporosis, a condition of reduced bone mineral density w... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 493 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Autoimmune diseases
Low plasma vitamin D concentrations have been reported for autoimmune thyroid diseases, lupus, myasthenia gravis, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. For multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis, intervention trials using vitamin D supplementation did not demonstrate therapeutic effect... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 503 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Diabetes
A meta-analysis reported that vitamin D supplementation significantly reduced the risk of type 2 diabetes for non-obese people with prediabetes. Another meta-analysis reported that vitamin D supplementation significantly improved glycemic control [homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)], hem... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 435 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Sexual dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction can be a consequence of vitamin D deficiency. Mechanisms may include regulation of vascular stiffness, the production of vasodilating nitric oxide, and the regulation of vessel permeability. However, the clinical trial literature does not yet contain sufficient evidence that supp... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 506 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Canada: Health Canada
"Adequate calcium and regular exercise may help to achieve strong bones in children and adolescents and may reduce the risk of osteoporosis in older adults. An adequate intake of vitamin D is also necessary."
Japan: Foods with Nutrient Function Claims (FNFC)
"Vitamin D is a nutrient which promo... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 412 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
United States
The dietary reference intake for vitamin D issued in 2011 by the Institute of Medicine (IoM) (renamed National Academy of Medicine in 2015), superseded previous recommendations which were expressed in terms of adequate intake. The recommendations were formed assuming the individual has no skin synthesis ... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 481 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
The EFSA reviewed safe levels of intake in 2012, setting the tolerable upper limit for adults at 100μg/day (4000IU), a similar conclusion as the IOM.
The Swedish National Food Agency recommends a daily intake of 10μg (400IU) of vitamin D3 for children and adults up to 75 years, and 20μg (800IU) for adults 75 and older... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 313 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Fortification
In the early 1930s, the United States and countries in northern Europe began to fortify milk with vitamin D in an effort to eradicate rickets. This, plus medical advice to expose infants to sunlight, effectively ended the high prevalence of rickets. The proven health benefit of vitamin D led to fortifica... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 284 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Vitamin D3 is produced photochemically from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin of most vertebrate animals, including humans. The skin consists of two primary layers: the inner layer called the dermis, and the outer, thinner epidermis. Vitamin D is produced in the keratinocytes of two innermost strata of the epidermis, th... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 397 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Evolution
For at least 1.2 billion years, eukaryotes - a classification of life forms that includes single-cell species, fungi, plants and animals, but not bacteria - have been able to synthesize 7-dehydrocholesterol. When this molecule is exposed to UVB light from the sun it absorbs the energy in the process of being... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 504 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Human evolution
During the long period between one and three million years ago, hominids, including ancestors of homo sapiens, underwent several evolutionary changes. A long-term climate shift toward drier conditions promoted life-changes from sedentary forest-dwelling with a primarily plant-based diet toward upright w... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 483 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Industrial synthesis
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is produced industrially by exposing 7-dehydrocholesterol to UVB and UVC light, followed by purification. The 7-dehydrocholesterol is sourced as an extraction from lanolin, a waxy skin secretion in sheep's wool. Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) is produced in a similar way ... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 459 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
The bioactivity of calcitriol is terminated by hydroxylation at position 24 by vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase, coded for by gene CYP24A1, forming calcitetrol. Further metabolism yields calcitroic acid, a inactive water-soluble compound that is excreted in bile.
VitaminD2 (ergocalciferol) and vitaminD3 (cholecalciferol) sha... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 459 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Some effects of vitamin D occur too rapidly to be explained by its influence on gene transcription. For example, calcitriol triggers rapid calcium uptake (within 1-10 minutes) by a variety of cells. These non-genomic actions may involve membrane-bound receptors like PDIA3.
Genes regulated by the vitamin D receptor in... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 376 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Vitamin D also plays a role in immune function, influencing genes such as CAMP (Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptide), which is involved in innate immune responses; CD14, which participates in innate immune responses; and HLA class II genes, which are important for adaptive immune function. Cytokines such as IL2 and IL12... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 443 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
Vitamin D was identified and named in 1922. In 1914, American researchers Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis had discovered a substance in cod liver oil which later was named "vitamin A". Edward Mellanby, a British researcher, observed that dogs that were fed cod liver oil did not develop rickets, and (wrongly) conclu... | Vitamin D | Wikipedia | 370 | 24998247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20D | Biology and health sciences | Vitamins | Health |
In engineering, debugging is the process of finding the root cause, workarounds and possible fixes for bugs.
For software, debugging tactics can involve interactive debugging, control flow analysis, log file analysis, monitoring at the application or system level, memory dumps, and profiling. Many programming language... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 435 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Scope
As software and electronic systems have become generally more complex, the various common debugging techniques have expanded with more methods to detect anomalies, assess impact, and schedule software patches or full updates to a system. The words "anomaly" and "discrepancy" can be used, as being more neutral ter... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 455 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Generally, high-level programming languages, such as Java, make debugging easier, because they have features such as exception handling and type checking that make real sources of erratic behaviour easier to spot. In programming languages such as C or assembly, bugs may cause silent problems such as memory corruption, ... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 459 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
After the bug is reproduced, the input of the program may need to be simplified to make it easier to debug. For example, a bug in a compiler can make it crash when parsing a large source file. However, after simplification of the test case, only few lines from the original source file can be sufficient to reproduce the... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 219 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Techniques
Interactive debugging uses debugger tools which allow a program's execution to be processed one step at a time and to be paused to inspect or alter its state. Subroutines or function calls may typically be executed at full speed and paused again upon return to their caller, or themselves single stepped, or ... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 512 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Post-mortem debugging is debugging of the program after it has already crashed. Related techniques often include various tracing techniques like examining log files, outputting a call stack on the crash, and analysis of memory dump (or core dump) of the crashed process. The dump of the process could be obtained automat... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 453 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Automatic bug fixing
Debugging for embedded systems
In contrast to the general purpose computer software design environment, a primary characteristic of embedded environments is the sheer number of different platforms available to the developers (CPU architectures, vendors, operating systems, and their variants). Embe... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 348 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Anti-debugging
Anti-debugging is "the implementation of one or more techniques within computer code that hinders attempts at reverse engineering or debugging a target process". It is actively used by recognized publishers in copy-protection schemas, but is also used by malware to complicate its detection and eliminatio... | Debugging | Wikipedia | 251 | 24998792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugging | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Heat stroke or heatstroke, also known as sun-stroke, is a severe heat illness that results in a body temperature greater than , along with red skin, headache, dizziness, and confusion. Sweating is generally present in exertional heatstroke, but not in classic heatstroke. The start of heat stroke can be sudden or gradua... | Heat stroke | Wikipedia | 419 | 24999087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20stroke | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Early symptoms of heat stroke include behavioral changes, confusion, delirium, dizziness, weakness, agitation, combativeness, slurred speech, nausea, and vomiting. In some individuals with exertional heatstroke, seizures and sphincter incontinence have also been reported. Additionally, in exertional heat stroke, the af... | Heat stroke | Wikipedia | 477 | 24999087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20stroke | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
When the outside temperature is , the temperature inside a car parked in direct sunlight can quickly exceed . Young children or elderly adults left alone in a vehicle are at particular risk of succumbing to heat stroke. "Heat stroke in children and in the elderly can occur within minutes, even if a car window is opened... | Heat stroke | Wikipedia | 420 | 24999087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20stroke | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Diagnosis
Heat stroke is a clinical diagnosis, based on signs and symptoms. It is diagnosed based on an elevated core body temperature (usually above 40 degrees Celsius), a history of heat exposure or physical exertion, and neurologic dysfunction. However, high body temperature does not necessarily indicate that heat s... | Heat stroke | Wikipedia | 491 | 24999087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20stroke | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
In hot weather, people need to drink plenty of cool liquids and mineral salts to replace fluids lost from sweating. Thirst is not a reliable sign that a person needs fluids. A better indicator is the color of urine. A dark yellow color may indicate dehydration.
Some measures that can help protect workers from heat str... | Heat stroke | Wikipedia | 462 | 24999087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20stroke | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Dantrolene, a muscle relaxant used to treat other forms of hyperthermia, is not an effective treatment for heat stroke. Antipyretics such as aspirin and acetaminophen are also not recommended as a means to lower body temperature in the treatment of heat stroke and their use may lead to worsening liver damage.
A cardio... | Heat stroke | Wikipedia | 497 | 24999087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20stroke | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
During the 2003 European heatwave more than 70,000 people died of heat related illnesses, and during the 2022 European heatwave, 61,672 people died from heat related illnesses.
Society and culture
In Slavic mythology, there is a personification of sunstroke, Poludnitsa (lady midday), a feminine demon clad in white tha... | Heat stroke | Wikipedia | 215 | 24999087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20stroke | Biology and health sciences | Types | Health |
Pungency () refers to the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a lower degree of pungency that are "agreeably stimulating to the palate". Exa... | Pungency | Wikipedia | 460 | 25003876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pungency | Biology and health sciences | Sensory nervous system | Biology |
Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as "hot" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts o... | Pungency | Wikipedia | 409 | 25003876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pungency | Biology and health sciences | Sensory nervous system | Biology |
Unlike most other mammals, however, many humans favor pungent and spicy food (including traditionally spicy regional cuisines). Multiple reasons for that have been proposed. The thrill-seeking theory suggests that some people are attracted to spicy taste due to intense sensations or thrills. According to the antimicrob... | Pungency | Wikipedia | 108 | 25003876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pungency | Biology and health sciences | Sensory nervous system | Biology |
Pterois is a genus of venomous marine fish, commonly known as the lionfish, native to the Indo-Pacific. It is characterized by conspicuous warning coloration with red or black bands and ostentatious dorsal fins tipped with venomous spines. Pterois radiata, Pterois volitans, and Pterois miles are the most commonly studi... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 478 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Ecology and behavior
Pterois species can live from 5 to 15 years and have complex courtship and mating behaviors. Females frequently release two mucus-filled egg clusters, which can contain as many as 15,000 eggs. In total, they can lay up about 2 million eggs per year.
All species are aposematic; they have conspicuo... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 474 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Interaction with humans
Lionfish are known for their venomous fin rays, which makes them hazardous to other marine animals, as well as humans. Pterois venom produced negative inotropic and chronotropic effects when tested in both frog and clam hearts and has a depressive effect on rabbit blood pressure. These results a... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 478 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Western tropical Atlantic
Two of the 12 species of Pterois, the red lionfish (P. volitans) and the common lionfish (P. miles), have established themselves as significant invasive species off the East Coast of the United States and in the Caribbean. About 93% of the invasive population in the Western Atlantic is P. voli... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 430 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Adult lionfish specimens are now found along the United States East Coast from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to Florida, and along the Gulf Coast to Texas. They are also found off Bermuda, the Bahamas, and throughout the Caribbean, including the Turks and Caicos, Haiti, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, the Cayman Islands... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 386 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
The lionfish invasion is considered to be one of the most serious recent threats to Caribbean and Florida coral reef ecosystems. To help address the pervasive problem, in 2015, the NOAA partnered with the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute to set up a lionfish portal to provide scientifically accurate information o... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 478 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Since lionfish thrive so well in the Atlantic and the Caribbean due to nutrient-rich waters and lack of predators, the species has spread tremendously. A single lionfish, located on a reef, reduced young juvenile reef fish populations by 79%.
Control and eradication efforts
Red lionfish are an invasive species, yet ... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 455 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Conservation groups and community organizations in the Eastern United States have organized hunting expeditions for Pterois such as the Environment Education Foundation's 'lionfish derby' held annually in Florida. Divemasters from Cozumel to the Honduran Bay Islands and at Reef Conservation International which operates... | Lionfish | Wikipedia | 457 | 39152786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfish | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
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