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Section: Rationale behind the agreement > Nuclear non-proliferation. The proposed civil nuclear agreement implicitly recognizes India's "de facto" status even without signing the NPT. The Bush administration justifies a nuclear pact with India arguing that it is important in helping to advance the non-proliferation fra... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Rationale behind the agreement > Nuclear non-proliferation | 321 | 1,538 | null |
Section: Rationale behind the agreement > Economic considerations. In India, the proponents of the agreement cite economic considerations as one of the topmost factors in their support of the agreement. For example, Indian scholar Rejaul Karim Laskar argues, "the most important significance of the deal for India (is) r... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Rationale behind the agreement > Economic considerations | 263 | 1,294 | null |
Section: Rationale behind the agreement > Nuclear technology. Dr. Siegfried S. Hecker, PhD., former Director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory, observed while testifying before a U.S. Senate Committee in 2008 that the United States might benefit from access to Indian nuclear technology: "I found that whereas sancti... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Rationale behind the agreement > Nuclear technology | 164 | 862 | null |
Section: Rationale behind the agreement > Strategic. Since the end of the Cold War, The Pentagon, along with certain U.S. ambassadors such as Robert Blackwill, has requested increased strategic ties with India and a de-hyphenization of Pakistan with India, i.e. having separate policies toward India and Pakistan rather ... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Rationale behind the agreement > Strategic | 225 | 1,097 | null |
Section: Passing of Agreement. On March 2, 2006, in New Delhi, George W. Bush and Manmohan Singh signed a Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, following an initiation during the July 2005 summit in Washington between the two leaders over civilian nuclear cooperation. Heavily endorsed by the White House, the agreement i... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Passing of Agreement | 177 | 869 | null |
Section: Hyde Act Passage in the U.S.. On December 18, 2006, President George W. Bush signed the Hyde Act into law. The Act was passed by an overwhelming 359–68 in the United States House of Representatives on July 26 and by 85–12 in the United States Senate on November 16 in a strong show of bipartisan support. The Ho... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Hyde Act Passage in the U.S. | 314 | 1,445 | null |
Section: Political opposition in India. The Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement was met with stiff opposition by some political parties and activists in India. Although many mainstream political parties including the Congress supported the deal along with regional parties like Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and Rashtriya Jan... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Political opposition in India | 267 | 1,413 | null |
As details were revealed about serious inconsistencies between what the Indian parliament was told about the deal, and the facts about the agreement that were presented by the Bush administration to the US Congress, opposition grew in India against the deal. In particular, portions of the agreement dealing with guarant... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Political opposition in India | 350 | 1,779 | null |
As professor Brahma Chellaney, an expert in strategic affairs and one of the authors of the Indian Nuclear Doctrine, explained: While the Hyde Act's bar on Indian testing is explicit, the one in the NSG waiver is implicit, yet unmistakable. The NSG waiver is overtly anchored in NSG Guidelines Paragraph 16, which deals ... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Political opposition in India | 206 | 937 | null |
Section: Indian parliament vote. On July 9, 2008, India formally submitted the safeguards agreement to the IAEA. This development came after the Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh returned from the 34th G8 summit meeting in Hokkaido, Japan, where he met with U.S. President George W. Bush. On June 19, 2008, news med... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Indian parliament vote | 324 | 1,636 | null |
Section: NSG waiver > Versions of U.S. draft exemption. In August 2008 U.S. draft exemption would have granted India a waiver based on the "steps that India has taken voluntarily as a contributing partner in the non-proliferation regime". Based on these steps, and without further conditions, the draft waiver would have... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Versions of U.S. draft exemption | 188 | 909 | null |
Section: NSG waiver > Initial support and opposition. The deal had initial support from the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Russia, and Germany. After some initial opposition, there were reports of Australia, Switzerland, and Canada expressing their support for the deal. Selig S. Harrison, a former So... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Initial support and opposition | 348 | 1,698 | null |
New Zealand said it would like to see a few conditions written in to the waiver: the exemption ceasing if India conducts nuclear tests, India signing the International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA) additional protocol, and placing limits on the scope of the technology that can be given to India and which could relate t... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Initial support and opposition | 269 | 1,296 | null |
Section: NSG waiver > Reactions following the waiver. After India was granted the waiver on September 6, the United Kingdom said that the NSG's decision would make a "significant contribution" to global energy and climate security. U.S. National Security Council spokesman Gordon Johndroe said, "this is a historic achie... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Reactions following the waiver | 321 | 1,618 | null |
German Foreign Ministry spokesman Jens Ploetner called India a "special case" and added, "Does this agreement send an approving message to Iran? No, it absolutely does not." Initially, there were reports of the People's Republic of China analyzing the extent of the opposition against the waiver at the NSG and then reve... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Reactions following the waiver | 303 | 1,568 | null |
The Hindu reported that though China had expressed its desire to include more stern language in the final draft, they had informed India about their intention to back the agreement. In an interview to the Hindustan Times, Chinese Assistant Foreign Minister Hu Zhengyue said that "China understands India's needs for civi... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Reactions following the waiver | 216 | 1,046 | null |
Section: NSG waiver > Reactions following the waiver > Indian reactions. Indian PM Manmohan Singh visited Washington, D.C., on September 26, 2008, to celebrate the conclusion of the agreement with U.S. President George W. Bush. He also visited France to convey his appreciation for the country's stance. India's External... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Reactions following the waiver > Indian reactions | 349 | 1,638 | null |
He argued that the convergence of strategic interests between the two nations forced such a remarkable gesture from the US, overturning its decades-long stand on non-proliferation, and that it would be unwise on India's part to spurn such an overture. He also argued that not recognizing new geo-political realities woul... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Reactions following the waiver > Indian reactions | 328 | 1,498 | null |
Section: NSG waiver > Other reactions over the issue. More than 150 non-proliferation activists and anti-nuclear organizations called for tightening the initial NSG agreement to prevent harming the current global non-proliferation regime. Among the steps called for were: ceasing cooperation if India conducts nuclear te... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Other reactions over the issue | 337 | 1,782 | null |
Ali Ashgar Soltanieh, the Iranian Deputy Director General for International and Political Affairs, has complained the agreement may undermine the credibility, integrity and universality of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Pakistan argues the safeguards agreement "threatens to increase the chances of a nuclear arms ... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - NSG waiver > Other reactions over the issue | 306 | 1,476 | null |
Section: Consideration by U.S. Congress. The Bush administration told Congress in January 2008 that the United States may cease all cooperation with India if India detonates a nuclear explosive device. The administration further said it was not its intention to assist India in the design, construction, or operation of ... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Consideration by U.S. Congress | 298 | 1,529 | null |
Section: Consideration by U.S. Congress > Passage in Congress. On September 28, 2008, the US House of Representatives voted 298–117 to approve the Indo-US nuclear deal. On October 1, 2008, the US Senate voted 86–13 to approve the Indo-US nuclear deal. The Arms Control Association said the agreement fails to make clear ... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Consideration by U.S. Congress > Passage in Congress | 211 | 1,003 | null |
Section: Formal signing of the deal. There was speculation the Indo-US deal would be signed on October 4, 2008, when U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice was in India. The deal was to be signed by Indian External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. The two leaders were to... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Formal signing of the deal | 336 | 1,599 | null |
Section: Chronology. July 18, 2005: President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh first announce their intention to enter into a nuclear agreement in Washington, D.C. March 1, 2006: Bush visits India for the first time. March 3, 2006: Bush and Singh issue a joint statement on their growing strategic partne... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Chronology | 336 | 1,702 | null |
Aug 17, 2007: The CPI(M) General Secretary Prakash Karat says the 'honeymoon (with government) may be over but the marriage can go on'. Sept 4, 2007: In India, the UPA-Left committee to discuss nuclear deal set up. Feb 25, 2008: Left parties in India say the ruling party would have to choose between the deal and its go... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Chronology | 348 | 1,623 | null |
July 14, 2008: The IAEA says it will meet on August 1 to consider the India-specific safeguards agreement. July 18, 2008: Foreign Secretary Shivshankar Menon briefs the IAEA Board of Governors and some NSG countries in Vienna on the safeguards agreement. July 22, 2008: Government is willing to look at "possible amendme... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Chronology | 341 | 1,574 | null |
Sept 12, 2008: US remains silent over the controversy in India triggered by President Bush's assertions that nuclear fuel supply assurances to New Delhi under the deal were only political commitments and not legally binding. Sept 13, 2008: The State Department issues a fact sheet on the nuclear deal saying the initiati... | Wikipedia - India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement - Chronology | 345 | 1,680 | null |
Section: History. In 1982, the Government of India initiated the Plasma Physics Programme (PPP) for research on magnetically confined high-temperature plasmas. In 1986, the PPP evolved into the autonomous Institute for Plasma Research under the Department of Science and Technology. With the commissioning of ADITYA in 1... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - History | 156 | 762 | null |
Section: Remote campuses > Facilitation Centre for Industrial Plasma Technologies. The Facilitation Centre for Industrial Plasma Technologies (FCIPT) works in industrial plasma technologies. The centre was set up in 1997 to promote, foster, develop, demonstrate, and transfer industrially relevant plasma-based technolog... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - Remote campuses > Facilitation Centre for Industrial Plasma Technologies | 330 | 1,550 | null |
Other infrastructure include electronics and instrumentation lab, process demonstration systems, etc. FCIPT developed technologies related to waste remediation and recovery of energy from waste, surface hardening, and heat treatment technologies such as plasma nitriding and plasma nitrocarburising, plasma-assisted meta... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - Remote campuses > Facilitation Centre for Industrial Plasma Technologies | 152 | 770 | null |
Section: Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > History. The government of Assam established the Centre of Plasma Physics in 1991. The centre started functioning in April 1991 in a rented house located at Saptaswahid Pathi. The first chairman of the Governing Council was ... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > History | 346 | 1,771 | null |
The scientists work in close collaboration with national and international institutes like the Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar; Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad; Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay; Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar; Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Calcutta, Kyushu Univer... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > History | 242 | 1,214 | null |
Section: Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > Campus. The institute's campus is at Nazirakhat, Sonapur, about 32 km from Guwahati, the headquarters of the Kamrup(M) district of Assam. Nazirakhat is a rural area surrounded by peace-loving people of diverse caste, religio... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > Campus | 158 | 657 | null |
Section: Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > Collaboration. The Centre collaborates with the following institutes and universities: The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay; Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore; Institute for Plasma Research, Gandinagar... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > Collaboration | 162 | 752 | null |
Section: Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > Recognition. S. Sen, Associate Professor, was awarded EPSRC Professorship Award (1998), UK; JSPS Professorship Award (1999), Japan; Junior Membership Award (1999), Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Cambridge,... | Wikipedia - Institute for Plasma Research - Remote campuses > Center of Plasma Physics – Institute for Plasma Research (CPP-IPR) > Recognition | 225 | 1,000 | null |
Article: KAMINI. KAMINI (Kalpakkam Mini reactor) is a research reactor at the Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research in Kalpakkam, India. It achieved criticality on October 29, 1996. It was designed and built jointly by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR). it ... | Wikipedia - KAMINI - Summary | 197 | 869 | null |
Article: Nuclear Fuel Complex. The Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) was established in 1971 as a major industrial unit of India's Department of Atomic Energy, as a nuclear plant also specializing in supply of nuclear fuel bundles and reactor core components. It is a unique facility where natural and enriched uranium fuel, zi... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Fuel Complex - Summary | 317 | 1,563 | null |
Article: Opposition to the India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement in India. The India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement was met with stiff opposition by some political parties and activists in India. Although many mainstream political parties including the Indian National Congress support the deal along with r... | Wikipedia - Opposition to the India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement in India - Summary | 206 | 1,088 | null |
Section: Political opposition > Left Front. The primary opposition to the nuclear deal in India, however, comes from the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))and its parliamentary allies (Communist Party of India, Revolutionary Socialist Party (India), All India Forward Bloc) November 17 the left parties had prov... | Wikipedia - Opposition to the India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement in India - Political opposition > Left Front | 236 | 1,180 | null |
Article: Nuclear Fatwa Under International Law (book). Nuclear Fatwa Under International Law (Persian: فتوای هستهای از منظر حقوق بینالملل) is a Juridical book written by Jaber Seyvanizad, and was published by the American publication "Supreme Century" in 2017. The chief subject of "Nuclear Fatwa Under International L... | Wikipedia - Nuclear Fatwa Under International Law (book) - Summary | 226 | 969 | null |
Article: Operation Opera. Operation Opera (Hebrew: מִבְצָע אוֹפֵּרָה), also known as Operation Babylon, was a surprise airstrike conducted by the Israeli Air Force on 7 June 1981, which destroyed an unfinished Iraqi nuclear reactor located 17 kilometres (11 miles) southeast of Baghdad, Iraq. The Israeli operation came ... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Summary | 348 | 1,765 | null |
The attack took place about three weeks before the 1981 Israeli legislative elections for the Knesset. At the time of its occurrence, the attack was met with sharp international criticism, including in the United States, and Israel was rebuked by the United Nations Security Council and General Assembly in two separate ... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Summary | 182 | 956 | null |
Section: Iraq's nuclear program. Iraq had established a nuclear program sometime in the 1960s, and in the mid-1970s looked to expand it through the acquisition of a nuclear reactor. After failing to convince the French Government to sell them a gas cooled graphite moderated plutonium-producing reactor and reprocessing ... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Iraq's nuclear program | 339 | 1,537 | null |
On 14 June 1980, Mossad agents assassinated Yahya El Mashad, an Egyptian nuclear scientist who headed the Iraqi nuclear program, in a hotel in Paris. In July 1980, Iraq received from France a shipment of approximately 12.5 kilograms of highly enriched uranium fuel to be used in the reactor. The shipment was the first o... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Iraq's nuclear program | 327 | 1,628 | null |
Elsewhere Wilson has stated that contrary to claims that the bombing of the Iraqi Osirak reactor delayed Iraq's nuclear bomb program, the Iraqi nuclear program before 1981 was peaceful, and the Osirak reactor was not only unsuited to making bombs but was under intensive safeguards. In an interview in 2012, Wilson again... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Iraq's nuclear program | 307 | 1,571 | null |
Section: Strategy and diplomacy. In Israel, discussions on which strategy to adopt in response to the Iraqi reactor development were taking place as early as Yitzhak Rabin's first term in office (1974–1977). Reportedly, planning and training for the operation began during this time. After Menachem Begin became Prime Mi... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Strategy and diplomacy | 324 | 1,719 | null |
In April 1979, Mossad agents in France allegedly planted a bomb that destroyed the reactor's first set of core structures while they were awaiting shipment to Iraq. In June 1980, Mossad agents are said to have assassinated Yehia El Mashad, an Egyptian atomic scientist working on the Iraqi nuclear program. Shortly after... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Strategy and diplomacy | 277 | 1,489 | null |
Section: Strategy and diplomacy > Iranian attack. In an air attack codenamed Operation Scorch Sword, Iran attacked and damaged the site on 30 September 1980, with two F-4 Phantoms, shortly after the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War. At the onset of the war, Yehoshua Sagi, director of the Israeli Military Intelligence Dire... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Strategy and diplomacy > Iranian attack | 333 | 1,613 | null |
Section: Strategy and diplomacy > Operational planning. The distance between Israeli military bases and the reactor site was significant—over 1,600 km (990 mi; 860 nmi). The Israeli planes would have to violate Jordanian and/or Saudi airspace in a covert flight over foreign territory, making mid-air refueling unfeasibl... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Strategy and diplomacy > Operational planning | 330 | 1,608 | null |
Yehoshua Saguy argued for continued efforts in trying to find a non-military solution as it would take the Iraqis five to ten years to produce the material necessary for a nuclear weapon. In the end, Begin chose to order the attack based on a worst-case estimate where a weapon could be created in one to two years time.... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Strategy and diplomacy > Operational planning | 339 | 1,784 | null |
Section: Strategy and diplomacy > Preliminary Israeli/Iranian actions. After the approval for Operation Opera, the Israelis began to plan their mission against Osirak. The basic procedure for the airstrike had been formulated as early as 1979. However, the Israelis needed photographic intelligence about the layout of t... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Strategy and diplomacy > Preliminary Israeli/Iranian actions | 342 | 1,698 | null |
While the Iraqis were aware of the blind area, they did not remedy the problem because they did not expect a war with Saudi Arabia. The Iraqi Air Force was a potential threat to the Israelis (as the MiG-21 interception showed) and it somewhat deterred Israel from attacking yet. However, Israel had an advantage in that ... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Strategy and diplomacy > Preliminary Israeli/Iranian actions | 243 | 1,194 | null |
Section: Attack. Yehuda Zvi Blum, in a speech to the United Nations Security Council following the attack, claimed that the operation was launched on a Sunday afternoon under the assumption that workers present on the site, including foreign experts employed at the reactor, would have left. Notwithstanding this precaut... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Attack | 328 | 1,460 | null |
While flying over Saudi Arabia, they pretended to be Jordanians, using Jordanian radio signals and formations. The Israeli planes were so heavily loaded that the external fuel tanks that had been mounted on the planes were exhausted in-flight. The tanks were jettisoned over the Saudi desert. King Hussein of Jordan, vac... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Attack | 349 | 1,528 | null |
Section: International political reactions. International response at the United Nations took two paths. The United Nations Security Council issued a unanimous and almost immediate response on 19 June 1981, following eight meetings and statements from Iraq and the International Atomic Energy Agency. Security Council Re... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - International political reactions | 308 | 1,710 | null |
Debate prior to passage of the UN resolution reflected member states' differing positions on issues such as nuclear proliferation in the region and the appropriateness and justifiability of Israel's actions. The Iraqi representative stated that "the motives behind the Israeli attack were to cover up Israel's possession... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - International political reactions | 342 | 1,858 | null |
The attack was strongly criticized around the world, including in the United States. Privately, President Reagan wrote in his journal on the day of the attack, "I swear I believe Armageddon is near," adding of Begin's decision, "He should have told us & the French, we could have done something to remove the threat." Jo... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - International political reactions | 216 | 973 | null |
Section: International political reactions > Aftermath. Ten Iraqi soldiers and one French civilian were killed in the attack. The civilian killed was engineer Damien Chaussepied, variously described as 24 or 25 years old, who was an employee of Air Liquide and the French governmental agency CEA. In 1981, Israel agreed ... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - International political reactions > Aftermath | 337 | 1,665 | null |
The attack took place approximately three weeks before the Israeli legislative election of 1981. Opposition leader Shimon Peres criticized the operation as a political ploy, which did not go over well with the electorate. Dan Perry writes that "the Osirak bombing—and Peres's poor political judgement in criticizing it—w... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - International political reactions > Aftermath | 326 | 1,579 | null |
Section: Assessment. Israel claims that the attack impeded Iraq's nuclear ambitions by at least ten years. In an interview in 2005, Bill Clinton expressed support for the attack: "everybody talks about what the Israelis did at Osiraq, in 1981, which, I think, in retrospect, was a really good thing. You know, it kept Sa... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Assessment | 330 | 1,453 | null |
Charles R. H. Tripp, in an interview for the 25th anniversary of the attack, described the bombing of Osirak as a variation of Israeli military doctrine beginning with the premiership of David Ben-Gurion, "advocating devastating pre-emptive strikes on Arab enemies." Tripp asserted, "the Osirak attack is an illegal way ... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Assessment | 322 | 1,520 | null |
But the bombing set back Israel more than Iraq. It further harmed Israel's international reputation, later worsened by the ill-fated 1982 invasion of Lebanon, while making Iraq appear a victim of Israeli aggression. By contrast, Iraqi researchers have stated that the Iraqi nuclear program simply went underground, diver... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Assessment | 342 | 1,608 | null |
Similarly, the Iraqi nuclear scientist Imad Khadduri wrote in 2003 that the bombing of Osirak convinced the Iraqi leadership to initiate a full-fledged nuclear weapons program. United States Secretary of Defense William Perry stated in 1997 that Iraq refocused its nuclear weapons effort on producing highly enriched ura... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Assessment | 261 | 1,259 | null |
Betts wrote that "there is no evidence that Israel's destruction of Osirak delayed Iraq's nuclear weapons program. The attack may actually have accelerated it." Dan Reiter has repeatedly said that the attack was a dangerous failure: the bombed reactor had nothing to do with weapons research, while "the attack may have ... | Wikipedia - Operation Opera - Assessment | 327 | 1,649 | null |
Article: Operation Scorch Sword. Operation Scorch Sword (Persian: عَمَلیاتِ شمشیرِ سوزان) was an Iranian airstrike on Iraq's Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Centre in 1980. Conducted eight days after the beginning of the Iraqi invasion of Iran, it was a surprise attack against the under-construction Osirak nuclear reactor, w... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Summary | 333 | 1,607 | null |
Section: Iraqi nuclear program. Iraq had established a nuclear program sometime in the 1960s, and in the mid-1970s looked to expand it through the acquisition of a nuclear reactor. After failing to convince the French government to sell them a plutonium-producing reactor and reprocessing plant, and likewise failing to ... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Iraqi nuclear program | 337 | 1,583 | null |
Section: Iraqi nuclear program > Nuclear weapons development. Iraq and France claimed that the Iraqi reactor was intended for peaceful scientific research. Agreements between France and Iraq excluded military use. In a 2003 speech, Richard Wilson, a professor of physics at Harvard University who visually inspected the ... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Iraqi nuclear program > Nuclear weapons development | 314 | 1,550 | null |
Iraq was a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, placing its reactors under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. In October 1981, the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists published excerpts from the testimony of Roger Richter, a former IAEA inspector who described the weaknesses of the agency... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Iraqi nuclear program > Nuclear weapons development | 247 | 1,323 | null |
Section: Preparations > Fallout of the Islamic Revolution. Iran and Israel, for years prior to the Islamic Revolution, had been monitoring the Osirak nuclear reactor and other potential sites of concern in Iraq. After the Islamic Revolution, the new Islamic Republic heightened surveillance of the reactor (to the point ... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Preparations > Fallout of the Islamic Revolution | 153 | 790 | null |
Section: Preparations > Iraqi invasion of Iran. When the Iran–Iraq War broke out, the Iranians became increasingly concerned that the Iraqis were developing nuclear weapons to use against them. Before the war, Iran had a contingency plan to attack the plant. However, course of action was met with difficulties in the af... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Preparations > Iraqi invasion of Iran | 213 | 1,064 | null |
Section: Preparations > Iraqi invasion of Iran > Planning. The IRIAF (under Javad Fakoori) began to plan out an entirely new plan to attack Osirak. The Iranians had little intelligence about the plant, and there was even a risk that it was already being fuelled, increasing the possibility of radioactive fallout. In a j... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Preparations > Iraqi invasion of Iran > Planning | 347 | 1,625 | null |
Section: Execution. As September 30 dawned, four F-4 Phantoms of the 33rd Tactical Fighter Squadron, took off from the Nojeh TAB 3, at Kaboodar Ahang, near Hamadan. Flying on a southwesterly course, the formation first approached the Iraqi border in order to meet a Boeing 707-3J9C tanker, escorted by a pair of F-14 Tom... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Execution | 335 | 1,400 | null |
Section: Aftermath > Israel's Operation Opera (1981). The French intelligence services later on, falsely reported that the September 30 attack on Tuwaitha was carried out by "two unidentified Israeli Phantoms" or aircraft with Iranian markings flown by Israel. Israel emphatically denied all such allegations, pointing t... | Wikipedia - Operation Scorch Sword - Aftermath > Israel's Operation Opera (1981) | 322 | 1,572 | null |
Section: Career. He was tipped to be the Iraqi Prime Minister during the 2004 discussions, a position which he refused to take it and stated "I have always concentrated on serving the people and providing them with their basic needs, rather than party politics." A senior member of the State of Law alliance, he was prev... | Wikipedia - Hussain al-Shahristani - Career | 305 | 1,582 | null |
Section: Imprisonment. Former government officials, including Khidir Hamza his successor, have claimed Hussain al-Shahristani was imprisoned for his refusal to cooperate with Saddam's WMD program and his intentions to build nuclear weapons. He was imprisoned personally by Saddam Hussein and was threatened directly by h... | Wikipedia - Hussain al-Shahristani - Imprisonment | 349 | 1,756 | null |
Section: History. The Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center was the main nuclear site in Iraq that was involved with handling nuclear material. It was started in 1967 when three main nuclear facilities and waste location were put in operation. These were the IRT 2000 research reactor, the radioisotope production building an... | Wikipedia - Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center - History | 317 | 1,575 | null |
The IAEA was aware of such a vault but the reactor floor was shielded and the vault contained the mechanisms for raising the control rods which requires access for maintenance. According to the Director of the IAEA, the shielding would block the neutrons needed to turn U-238 into Pu-239 and the reactor would not be abl... | Wikipedia - Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center - History | 347 | 1,777 | null |
Section: Research Achievements. Research conducted at the complex produced novel results necessary to establish a self-sufficient nuclear program. The IRT-5000 was used as an extremely limited breeder reactor using 3 Iraqi manufactured natural uranium rods and a 10% enriched rod and reprocessed with the permission of t... | Wikipedia - Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center - Research Achievements | 273 | 1,331 | null |
Section: Present status. The 18 facilities and radwaste locations on this site and included within the decommissioning project are as follows: Radiochemistry Laboratory IRT 5000 Reactor Italian Radioisotope Production (Isotope Production No 2) Russian Radioisotope Production (Isotope Production No 1) LAMA Tamuz 2 React... | Wikipedia - Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center - Present status | 159 | 811 | null |
Section: Nuclear power reactors > History. Historically, the topic of constructing nuclear power plants in Israel has occasionally been brought up for discussion among Israeli government circles. On 26 August 1958, then Israeli Finance Minister Levi Eshkol announced the government's intention to build a nuclear power p... | Wikipedia - Nuclear power in Israel - Nuclear power reactors > History | 192 | 1,013 | null |
Section: Nuclear power abrogative referendums. The nuclear power referendums concerned three issues: abolishing the statutes by which the Inter-ministries Committee for the Economical Programming (CIPE) could decide about the locations for nuclear plants, when the Regions did not do so within the time stipulated by Law... | Wikipedia - 1987 Italian referendums - Nuclear power abrogative referendums | 224 | 1,126 | null |
Section: Justice abrogative referendums. The justice referendums concerned two issues: abolishing the law excluding any type of civil responsibility of judges in event of judicial errors; abolishing the special parliamentary board of inquiry which excluded any investigation over ministers by ordinary courts. Debate abo... | Wikipedia - 1987 Italian referendums - Justice abrogative referendums | 233 | 1,244 | null |
Article: 2011 Italian referendums. A nationwide abrogative referendum was held in Italy on 12 and 13 June 2011, on four questions concerning the repeal of recent laws regarding the privatisation of water services (two questions), a return to the nuclear energy which had been phased out after the 1987 referendum, and cr... | Wikipedia - 2011 Italian referendums - Summary | 350 | 1,511 | null |
Section: Position of main political parties > High offices of the Republic. The President of the Republic Giorgio Napolitano declared he would take part to the referendums, without revealing his intentions regarding the votes. The President of the Senate of the Republic Renato Schifani underlined the importance of the ... | Wikipedia - 2011 Italian referendums - Position of main political parties > High offices of the Republic | 172 | 827 | null |
Article: Italian nuclear weapons program. The Italian nuclear weapons program was an effort by Italy to develop nuclear weapons in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Italian scientists such as Enrico Fermi and Edoardo Amaldi had been at the forefront of the development of the technology behind nuclear weapons, but the cou... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Summary | 177 | 928 | null |
Section: Background. Italian physicists, such as the Via Panisperna boys led by Enrico Fermi, had been at the forefront of the development of nuclear physics. Indeed, some, like Fermi, took part in the Manhattan Project and the creation of the first nuclear weapon during the Second World War. At the end of the war, the... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Background | 198 | 1,051 | null |
Section: Initial US deployments. The first nuclear weapons deployed on Italian soil were two battalions MGR-1 Honest John and MGM-5 Corporal missiles in September 1955, In time of war, they were to be used to slow the advance of enemy forces attacking across the Austrian and Yugoslavian borders, providing the Italian A... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Initial US deployments | 336 | 1,714 | null |
This time missiles were operated by an Italian brigade, the 36ª Aerobrigata, and the Americans provided the warheads under a dual key arrangement (Italian: doppia chiave), which led the Italian government to believe it had greater control over the deterrent, and thus more power in NATO. The new missiles could be used "... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Initial US deployments | 175 | 876 | null |
Section: Multilateral Force. In the meantime, Italy explored working develop a European nuclear force within the NATO, the Multilateral Force (MLF). MLF was a concept promoted by the United States to place all NATO nuclear weapons not operated by their own services under joint control by American and European forces, w... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Multilateral Force | 332 | 1,717 | null |
Section: Italy's domestic program > Alfa. In 1971, the Italian Navy began an indigenous program to develop ballistic missiles called Alfa. Officially the project was termed as a development effort for a study on efficient solid-propellant rockets for civil and military applications. It was planned as a two-stage rocket... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Italy's domestic program > Alfa | 340 | 1,499 | null |
Section: Popular attitudes to nuclear weapons. In the 1950s, the Italian population was generally considered ignorant on matters of the high politics of the recently emerged Atomic Age. While there was a strong awareness of the risk of nuclear war and a desire for disarmament, this was not widely articulated and public... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Popular attitudes to nuclear weapons | 266 | 1,442 | null |
Section: Nuclear weapons in Italy since 1975. Since ratifying the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and halting its own program, Italy has continued to host nuclear weapons on its soil. The country remained part of the NATO nuclear sharing program and has been used by the United States Army for their d... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Nuclear weapons in Italy since 1975 | 332 | 1,678 | null |
During the 1980s, however, there was an increasing popular movement against nuclear weaponry. At the same time as the Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp was being set up in Berkshire, England, 60,000 people marched from Perugia to Assisi against nuclear war on 27 September. The following month, between 200,000 and 300,... | Wikipedia - Italian nuclear weapons program - Nuclear weapons in Italy since 1975 | 333 | 1,528 | null |
Article: Toxic waste dumping by the 'Ndrangheta. The 'Ndrangheta, a criminal organization from Calabria, Italy, has been involved in radioactive waste dumping since the 1980s. Ships with toxic and radioactive waste were sunk off the Italian coast. In addition, vessels were allegedly sent to Somalia and other developing... | Wikipedia - Toxic waste dumping by the 'Ndrangheta - Summary | 236 | 1,277 | null |
Section: Waste dumping off Italian coast. The 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia-type syndicate, has been accused by pentito Francesco Fonti, a former member of 'Ndrangheta, of sinking at least 30 ships loaded with toxic waste, much of it radioactive. In 2005, Fonti revealed the conspiracy in the news magazine L'espresso. H... | Wikipedia - Toxic waste dumping by the 'Ndrangheta - Waste dumping off Italian coast | 348 | 1,687 | null |
Shipments to Somalia continued into the 1990s, while the 'Ndrangheta clan also blew up shiploads of waste, including radioactive hospital waste, sending it to the bottom of the sea off the Calabrian coast. Fonti personally sank three ships and identified a wreck located 28 kilometres off the coast of Cetraro, in Calabr... | Wikipedia - Toxic waste dumping by the 'Ndrangheta - Waste dumping off Italian coast | 245 | 1,148 | null |
Section: Alleged delivery of toxic waste to Somalia. Both Fonti and environmental group Legambiente claimed vessels were sent to Somalia and other developing countries such as Kenya and Zaire with toxic cargoes, which were either sunk with the ship or buried on land. Legambiente alleges that local rebel groups were giv... | Wikipedia - Toxic waste dumping by the 'Ndrangheta - Alleged delivery of toxic waste to Somalia | 310 | 1,585 | null |
Article: Japanese nuclear weapons program. During World War II, Japan had several programs exploring the use of nuclear fission for military technology, including nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Like the similar wartime programs in Nazi Germany, it was relatively small, suffered from an array of problems brought ... | Wikipedia - Japanese nuclear weapons program - Summary | 197 | 1,070 | null |
Section: Background. In 1934, Tohoku University professor Hikosaka Tadayoshi's "atomic physics theory" was released. Hikosaka pointed out the huge energy contained by nuclei and the possibility that both nuclear power generation and weapons could be created. In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Str... | Wikipedia - Japanese nuclear weapons program - Background | 164 | 860 | null |
Section: World War II. The leading figure in the Japanese atomic program was Yoshio Nishina, a close associate of Niels Bohr and a contemporary of Albert Einstein. Nishina had co-authored the Klein–Nishina formula. Nishina had established his own Nuclear Research Laboratory to study high-energy physics in 1931 at RIKEN... | Wikipedia - Japanese nuclear weapons program - World War II | 328 | 1,546 | null |
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