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Section: History. One of the earliest instances of the application of scientific principles in sports context occurred in 1671 when English mathematician Isaac Newton wrote a letter to German theologian and natural philosopher Henry Oldenburg regarding a tennis ball’s flight mechanics. In the following centuries, Germa... | Wikipedia - Sports engineering - History | 339 | 1,813 | null |
Section: Education. Sports engineering in the United States is often part of universities' undergraduate mechanical engineering programs, rather than as stand-alone bachelor's degree programs. On the graduate level, research labs often use an interdisciplinary approach to sports engineering such as in the MIT Sports La... | Wikipedia - Sports engineering - Education | 260 | 1,553 | null |
Section: Education > Curriculum > Computational modeling. Computational modeling is commonly employed across many engineering disciplines and is often applied to sports. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can be used in sports engineering education to model flow in both air and water systems. Sports engineers can use c... | Wikipedia - Sports engineering - Education > Curriculum > Computational modeling | 170 | 948 | null |
Section: Education > Study programs in sports engineering. Undergraduate and graduate level programs in sports engineering are more common in Europe as opposed to the United States. The list below highlights offerings currently available in the field of sports engineering. Aalborg University (Denmark) Centre for Sports... | Wikipedia - Sports engineering - Education > Study programs in sports engineering | 204 | 1,054 | null |
Article: Structural engineering. Structural engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering in which structural engineers are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made structures. Structural engineers also must understand and calculate the stability, strength, rigidity a... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Summary | 195 | 1,210 | null |
Section: History. Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C. when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - History | 340 | 1,781 | null |
Section: History > Timeline. 1452–1519 Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions. 1638: Galileo Galilei published the book Two New Sciences in which he examined the failure of simple structures. 1660: Hooke's law by Robert Hooke. 1687: Isaac Newton published Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which contains h... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - History > Timeline | 310 | 1,354 | null |
Section: History > Structural failure. The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the Pétion-Ville school collapse, in which Rev. Fortin Augustin " constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer a... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - History > Structural failure | 198 | 1,122 | null |
Section: Theory. Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics, materials science, and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads. To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires detailed know... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Theory | 169 | 967 | null |
Section: Profession. Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design an... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Profession | 336 | 2,015 | null |
Section: Specializations > Building structures. Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the load... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Specializations > Building structures | 268 | 1,563 | null |
Section: Specializations > Civil engineering structures. Civil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the built environment. It includes: The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer. In the design of structures such as these, structural sa... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Specializations > Civil engineering structures | 244 | 1,367 | null |
Section: Specializations > Nanoscale structures. A nanostructure is an object of intermediate size between molecular and microscopic (micrometer-sized) structures. In describing nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale. Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Specializations > Nanoscale structures | 213 | 910 | null |
Section: Specializations > Structural engineering for medical science. Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium) is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of medical conditions. There are several basic types: diagnostic equipment includes medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis; equi... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Specializations > Structural engineering for medical science | 175 | 936 | null |
Section: Structural elements > Columns. Columns are elements that carry only axial force (compression) or both axial force and bending (which is technically called a beam-column but practically, just a column). The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the element and the buckling capacity. The buckling c... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Structural elements > Columns | 192 | 936 | null |
Section: Structural elements > Beams. A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element. Beams and columns are called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural modeling. canti... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Structural elements > Beams | 201 | 1,044 | null |
Section: Structural elements > Trusses. A truss is a structure comprising members and connection points or nodes. When members are connected at nodes and forces are applied at nodes members can act in tension or compression. Members acting in compression are referred to as compression members or struts while members ac... | Wikipedia - Structural engineering - Structural elements > Trusses | 151 | 800 | null |
Article: Surface engineering. Surface engineering is the sub-discipline of materials science which deals with the surface of solid matter. It has applications to chemistry, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering (particularly in relation to semiconductor manufacturing). Solids are composed of a bulk materia... | Wikipedia - Surface engineering - Summary | 216 | 1,247 | null |
Section: Applications. Surface engineering techniques are being used in the automotive, aerospace, missile, power, electronic, biomedical, textile, petroleum, petrochemical, chemical, steel, cement, machine tools and construction industries including road surfacing. Surface engineering techniques can be used to develop... | Wikipedia - Surface engineering - Applications | 301 | 1,502 | null |
In recent years, there has been a paradigm shift in surface engineering from age-old electroplating to processes such as vapor phase deposition, diffusion, thermal spray & welding using heat sources, such as, laser,plasma,solar beam.microwave;friction.pulsed combustion. ion, electron pulsed arc, spark, friction and ind... | Wikipedia - Surface engineering - Applications | 166 | 823 | null |
Section: Environmental benefits. The application of surface engineering to components leads to improved lifetime (e.g., by corrosion resistance) and improved efficiency (e.g., by reducing friction) which directly reduces the emissions corresponding to those components. Applying innovative surface engineering technologi... | Wikipedia - Surface engineering - Environmental benefits | 189 | 927 | null |
Section: Surface engineering. Surface engineering is the sub-discipline of materials science which deals with the surface of solid matter. It has applications to chemistry, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering (particularly in relation to semiconductor manufacturing). Solids are composed of a bulk materia... | Wikipedia - Surface modification - Surface engineering | 173 | 982 | null |
Section: Surface engineering > Applications and Future of Surface Engineering. Surface engineering techniques are being used in the automotive, aerospace, missile, power, electronic, biomedical, textile, petroleum, petrochemical, chemical, steel, power, cement, machine tools, construction industries. Surface engineerin... | Wikipedia - Surface modification - Surface engineering > Applications and Future of Surface Engineering | 319 | 1,618 | null |
Section: Aspects of engineering disciplines. Every engineering discipline is engaged in sustainable design, employing numerous initiatives, especially life cycle analysis (LCA), pollution prevention, Design for the Environment (DfE), Design for Disassembly (DfD), and Design for Recycling (DfR). These are replacing or a... | Wikipedia - Sustainable engineering - Aspects of engineering disciplines | 349 | 1,665 | null |
The most intractable problems are often those that are small but very expensive and difficult to treat, i.e. less feasible. Of course, as with all paradigm shifts, expectations must be managed from both a technical and an operational perspective. Historically, sustainability considerations have been approached by engin... | Wikipedia - Sustainable engineering - Aspects of engineering disciplines | 329 | 1,884 | null |
Those decisions have led to health risks to the inhabitants. It is easy in retrospect to criticize these decisions, but many were made for noble reasons, such as fire prevention and durability of materials. However, it does illustrate that seemingly small impacts when viewed through the prism of time can be amplified e... | Wikipedia - Sustainable engineering - Aspects of engineering disciplines | 322 | 1,700 | null |
Section: Accomplishments from 1992 to 2002. The World Engineering Partnership for Sustainable Development (WEPSD) was formed and they are responsible for the following areas: redesign engineering responsibilities and ethic to sustainable development, analyze and develop a long-term plan, find solution by exchanging inf... | Wikipedia - Sustainable engineering - Accomplishments from 1992 to 2002 | 246 | 1,478 | null |
Section: Sustainable housing. In 2013, the average annual electricity consumption for a U.S. residential utility customer was 10,908 kilowatt hours (kWh), an average of 909 kWh per month. Louisiana had the highest annual consumption at 15,270 kWh, and Hawaii had the lowest at 6,176 kWh. Residential sector itself uses 1... | Wikipedia - Sustainable engineering - Sustainable housing | 346 | 1,877 | null |
Section: Sustainable housing > Savings. Water Conservation: A newly constructed home can implement products with the WaterSense label at no additional costs and achieve a water savings of 20% when including the water heater savings and the water itself. Energy Conservation: Energy conservation is highly intensive when ... | Wikipedia - Sustainable engineering - Sustainable housing > Savings | 278 | 1,359 | null |
Article: Systems engineering. Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering and engineering management that focuses on how to design, integrate, and manage complex systems over their life cycles. At its core, systems engineering utilizes systems thinking principles to organize this body of knowledge.... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Summary | 311 | 1,925 | null |
Section: History. The term systems engineering can be traced back to Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1940s. The need to identify and manipulate the properties of a system as a whole, which in complex engineering projects may greatly differ from the sum of the parts' properties, motivated various industries, especial... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - History | 317 | 1,782 | null |
Section: Concept > Evolution to a broader scope. The use of the term "systems engineer" has evolved over time to embrace a wider, more holistic concept of "systems" and of engineering processes. This evolution of the definition has been a subject of ongoing controversy, and the term continues to apply to both the narro... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Concept > Evolution to a broader scope | 291 | 1,552 | null |
Section: Concept > Holistic view. Systems engineering focuses on analyzing and eliciting customer needs and required functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete problem, the system lifecycle. This incl... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Concept > Holistic view | 204 | 1,182 | null |
Section: Concept > Managing complexity. The need for systems engineering arose with the increase in complexity of systems and projects, in turn exponentially increasing the possibility of component friction, and therefore the unreliability of the design. When speaking in this context, complexity incorporates not only e... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Concept > Managing complexity | 277 | 1,645 | null |
Section: Concept > Scope. The principles of systems engineering – holism, emergent behavior, boundary, et al. – can be applied to any system, complex or otherwise, provided systems thinking is employed at all levels. Besides defense and aerospace, many information and technology-based companies, software development fi... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Concept > Scope | 349 | 1,960 | null |
Section: Education. Education in systems engineering is often seen as an extension to the regular engineering courses, reflecting the industry attitude that engineering students need a foundational background in one of the traditional engineering disciplines (e.g. aerospace engineering, civil engineering, electrical en... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Education | 326 | 1,906 | null |
Section: Systems engineering topics > System. There are many definitions of what a system is in the field of systems engineering. Below are a few authoritative definitions: ANSI/EIA-632-1999: "An aggregation of end products and enabling products to achieve a given purpose." DAU Systems Engineering Fundamentals: "an int... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Systems engineering topics > System | 347 | 1,744 | null |
Section: Systems engineering topics > Using models. Models play important and diverse roles in systems engineering. A model can be defined in several ways, including: An abstraction of reality designed to answer specific questions about the real world An imitation, analog, or representation of a real-world process or s... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Systems engineering topics > Using models | 334 | 1,892 | null |
Section: Systems engineering topics > Modeling formalisms and graphical representations. Initially, when the primary purpose of a systems engineer is to comprehend a complex problem, graphic representations of a system are used to communicate a system's functional and data requirements. Common graphical representations... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Systems engineering topics > Modeling formalisms and graphical representations | 336 | 1,809 | null |
Section: Related fields and sub-fields > Cognitive systems engineering. Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a specific approach to the description and analysis of human-machine systems or sociotechnical systems. The three main themes of CSE are how humans cope with complexity, how work is accomplished by the use of ... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Related fields and sub-fields > Cognitive systems engineering | 155 | 833 | null |
Section: Related fields and sub-fields > Performance engineering. Performance engineering is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for performance throughout its life. Performance is usually defined as the speed with which a certain operation is executed or the capability of executing a number... | Wikipedia - Systems engineering - Related fields and sub-fields > Performance engineering | 157 | 919 | null |
Section: Theory. The planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to elements of urban planning, and involve technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel usually involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring the estimation of trip generation, tri... | Wikipedia - Transportation engineering - Theory | 331 | 1,958 | null |
Before any planning occurs an engineer must take what is known as an inventory of the area or, if it is appropriate, the previous system in place. This inventory or database must include information on population, land use, economic activity, transportation facilities and services, travel patterns and volumes, laws and... | Wikipedia - Transportation engineering - Theory | 187 | 1,109 | null |
Section: Specializations > Railroad engineering. Railway engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of railroads and mass transit systems that use a fixed guideway (such as light rail or monorails). Typical tasks include: Determine horizontal and vertical alignment of the railways Determine station locati... | Wikipedia - Transportation engineering - Specializations > Railroad engineering | 156 | 880 | null |
Section: Specializations > Airport engineering. Airport engineers design and construct airports. Airport engineers must account for the impacts and demands of aircraft in their design of airport facilities. These engineers must use the analysis of predominant wind direction to determine runway orientation, determine th... | Wikipedia - Transportation engineering - Specializations > Airport engineering | 164 | 964 | null |
Article: Vacuum engineering. Vacuum engineering is the field of engineering that deals with the practical use of vacuum in industrial and scientific applications. Vacuum may improve the productivity and performance of processes otherwise carried out at normal air pressure, or may make possible processes that could not ... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - Summary | 265 | 1,544 | null |
Section: Design and mechanism. Vacuum systems usually consist of gauges, vapor jet and pumps, vapor traps and valves along with other extensional piping. A vessel that is operating under vacuum system may be any of these types such as processing tank, steam simulator, particle accelerator, or any other type of space th... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - Design and mechanism | 343 | 1,818 | null |
Section: Technology. Vacuum engineering uses techniques and equipment that vary depending on the level of vacuum used. Pressure slightly reduced from atmospheric pressure may be used to control airflow in ventilation systems, or in material handling systems. Lower-pressure vacuums may be used in vacuum evaporation in p... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - Technology | 302 | 1,546 | null |
Pumps are more like "compressors" since they gather the rarefied gases in the vacuum vessel and push them into a much higher pressure, smaller volume, exhaust. A chain of two or more different kinds of vacuum pumps may be used in a vacuum system, with one "roughing" pump removing most of the mass of air from the system... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - Technology | 165 | 827 | null |
Section: Applications. Vacuum technology is a method used to evacuate air from a closed volume by creating a pressure differential from the closed volume to some vent, the ultimate vent being the open atmosphere. When using an industrial vacuum system, a vacuum pump or generator creates this pressure differential. A va... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - Applications | 334 | 1,792 | null |
Vacuum will be used in this process to attempt to create a perfect vacuum. A type of vacuum such as partial vacuum can be caused by the usage of positive displacement type pumps. A positive displacement pump is able to transfer gas load from the entrance to the exit port, but due to its design limitation, it can only a... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - Applications | 153 | 792 | null |
Section: Materials. Materials for use in vacuum systems must be carefully evaluated. Many materials have a degree of porosity, while unimportant at ordinary pressures, would continually admit minute amounts of air into a vacuum system if incorrectly used. Some items, such as rubber and plastic, give off gases into a va... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - Materials | 321 | 1,590 | null |
Section: History. The word “Vacuum” is originated from the Latin word “vacua”, which is translated to the word “empty”. Physicists use vacuum to describe a partially empty space, where air or some other gases are being removed from one container. The idea of vacuum relating to the empty space has been speculated as ear... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - History | 333 | 1,632 | null |
This was a big discovery for scientist and was shared among others. French scientist and philosopher Blaise Pascal used the idea that was discovered to look into further research of vacuum. Pascal discoveries were similar to Torricelli's research as Pascal used similar methods to pull vacuum using mercury. It was until... | Wikipedia - Vacuum engineering - History | 248 | 1,226 | null |
Article: Wind engineering. Wind engineering is a subset of mechanical engineering, structural engineering, meteorology, and applied physics that analyzes the effects of wind in the natural and the built environment and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. In the field of en... | Wikipedia - Wind engineering - Summary | 266 | 1,525 | null |
Section: Wind loads on buildings. The design of buildings must account for wind loads, and these are affected by wind shear. For engineering purposes, a power law wind-speed profile may be defined as: v z = v g ⋅ ( z z g ) 1 α , 0 < z < z g {\displaystyle \ v_{z}=v_{g}\cdot \left({\frac {z}{z_{g}}}\right)^{\frac {1}{\a... | Wikipedia - Wind engineering - Wind loads on buildings | 284 | 1,018 | null |
Section: Wind comfort. The advent of high-rise tower blocks led to concerns regarding the wind nuisance caused by these buildings to pedestrians in their vicinity. A number of wind comfort and wind danger criteria were developed from 1971, based on different pedestrian activities, such as: Sitting for a long period of ... | Wikipedia - Wind engineering - Wind comfort | 348 | 1,860 | null |
Section: Wind turbines. Wind turbines are affected by wind shear. Vertical wind-speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel, and this, in turn, affects the turbine operation. The wind gradient can create a large bending moment in ... | Wikipedia - Wind engineering - Wind turbines | 305 | 1,069 | null |
Section: History > In Education. Auburn University's Samuel Ginn College of Engineering was the first in the United States to offer a formalized undergraduate degree in such a field. The program was initiated by Samuel Ginn, an Auburn Alumni, in 2001. Auburn University's college of engineering divides their wireless en... | Wikipedia - Wireless engineering - History > In Education | 168 | 945 | null |
Article: Aircraft flight mechanics. Aircraft flight mechanics are relevant to fixed wing (gliders, aeroplanes) and rotary wing (helicopters) aircraft. An aeroplane (airplane in US usage), is defined in ICAO Document 9110 as, "a power-driven heavier than air aircraft, deriving its lift chiefly from aerodynamic reactions... | Wikipedia - Aircraft flight mechanics - Summary | 174 | 879 | null |
Section: Straight and level flight of aircraft. In flight a powered aircraft can be considered as being acted on by four forces: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Thrust is the force generated by the engine (whether that engine be a jet engine, a propeller, or -- in exotic cases such as the X-15 -- a rocket) and acts in ... | Wikipedia - Aircraft flight mechanics - Straight and level flight of aircraft | 346 | 1,763 | null |
Section: Aircraft control and movement. There are three primary ways for an aircraft to change its orientation relative to the passing air. Pitch (movement of the nose up or down, rotation around the transversal axis), roll (rotation around the longitudinal axis, that is, the axis which runs along the length of the air... | Wikipedia - Aircraft flight mechanics - Aircraft control and movement | 185 | 924 | null |
Section: Aircraft control surfaces. Yaw is induced by a moveable rudder-fin. The movement of the rudder changes the size and orientation of the force the vertical surface produces. Since the force is created at a distance behind the centre of gravity, this sideways force causes a yawing moment then a yawing motion. On ... | Wikipedia - Aircraft flight mechanics - Aircraft control surfaces | 340 | 1,696 | null |
This seemingly simple innovation was one of the key technologies that made supersonic flight possible. In early attempts, as pilots exceeded the critical Mach number, a strange phenomenon made their control surfaces useless, and their aircraft uncontrollable. It was determined that as an aircraft approaches the speed o... | Wikipedia - Aircraft flight mechanics - Aircraft control surfaces | 320 | 1,636 | null |
A combination tri-surface aircraft uses both a canard and an aft tail (in addition to the main wing) to achieve advantages of both configurations. A further design of tailplane is the V-tail, so named because that instead of the standard inverted T or T-tail, there are two fins angled away from each other in a V. The c... | Wikipedia - Aircraft flight mechanics - Aircraft control surfaces | 283 | 1,322 | null |
Section: Causes. When a propeller aircraft is flying at cruise speed in level flight, the propeller disc is perpendicular to the relative airflow through the propeller. Each of the propeller blades contacts the air at the same angle and speed, and thus the thrust produced is evenly distributed across the propeller. How... | Wikipedia - P-factor - Causes | 333 | 1,638 | null |
Section: Effects > Single engine propeller aircraft. If using a clockwise turning propeller (as viewed by the pilot) the aircraft has a tendency to yaw to the left when climbing and right when descending. This must be countered with opposite rudder. The clockwise-turning propeller is by far the most common. The yaw is ... | Wikipedia - P-factor - Effects > Single engine propeller aircraft | 313 | 1,553 | null |
Section: Effects > Multi engine propeller aircraft. For multi-engine aircraft with counter-rotating propellers, the P-factors of both engines will cancel out. However, if both engines rotate in the same direction, or if one engine fails, P-factor will cause a yaw. As with single-engine aircraft, this effect is greatest... | Wikipedia - P-factor - Effects > Multi engine propeller aircraft | 320 | 1,585 | null |
Section: Helicopters. P-factor is extremely significant for helicopters in forward flight, because the propeller disc is almost horizontal. The forward-going blade has a higher airspeed than the backward-going blade, so it produces more lift, known as dissymmetry of lift. Helicopters can control each blade's angle of a... | Wikipedia - P-factor - Helicopters | 204 | 990 | null |
Section: Technical description. In the TAI process, sound energy is applied to excite the fan blade. If a discontinuity exists in the metal, the excitation will cause each side of the contacting discontinuity to move, resulting in frictional heating. The frictional heating is detected on the surface of the fan blade by... | Wikipedia - Thermal acoustic imaging - Technical description | 248 | 1,251 | null |
Section: History. In 2005, when TAI was initiated, P&W, following standard NDT industry practice, categorized the TAI as a new and emerging technology that allowed TAI to be performed without establishing a formal training program and certification requirements. In 2018, P&W continued to categorize TAI as a new and eme... | Wikipedia - Thermal acoustic imaging - History | 345 | 1,762 | null |
Subsequent x-ray inspection of both revealed peening shot in the cavity in the area where the previous TAI indication had been reported. P&W also reported that between December 2004 and the time of the UA1175 incident in 2018, cracks had been detected in five PW4000 112-inch fan blades. One was identified visually and ... | Wikipedia - Thermal acoustic imaging - History | 237 | 1,186 | null |
Article: Zero-lift axis. A cambered aerofoil generates no lift when it is moving parallel to an axis called the zero-lift axis (or the zero-lift line.) When the angle of attack on an aerofoil is measured relative to the zero-lift axis it is true to say the lift coefficient is zero when the angle of attack is zero. For ... | Wikipedia - Zero-lift axis - Summary | 169 | 737 | null |
Article: Zero-lift drag coefficient. In aerodynamics, the zero-lift drag coefficient C D , 0 {\displaystyle C_{D,0}} is a dimensionless parameter which relates an aircraft's zero-lift drag force to its size, speed, and flying altitude. Mathematically, zero-lift drag coefficient is defined as C D , 0 = C D − C D , i {\d... | Wikipedia - Zero-lift drag coefficient - Summary | 291 | 1,077 | null |
Compare a C D , 0 {\displaystyle C_{D,0}} value of 0.0161 for the streamlined P-51 Mustang of World War II which compares very favorably even with the best modern aircraft. The drag at zero-lift can be more easily conceptualized as the drag area ( f {\displaystyle f} ) which is simply the product of zero-lift drag coef... | Wikipedia - Zero-lift drag coefficient - Summary | 293 | 1,133 | null |
Section: Estimating zero-lift drag. As noted earlier, C D , 0 = C D − C D , i {\displaystyle C_{D,0}=C_{D}-C_{D,i}} . The total drag coefficient can be estimated as: C D = 550 η P 1 2 ρ 0 [ σ S ( 1.47 V ) 3 ] {\displaystyle C_{D}={\frac {550\eta P}{{\frac {1}{2}}\rho _{0}[\sigma S(1.47V)^{3}]}}} , where η {\displaystyl... | Wikipedia - Zero-lift drag coefficient - Estimating zero-lift drag | 326 | 856 | null |
Substituting 0.002378 for ρ 0 {\displaystyle \rho _{0}} , the equation is simplified to: C D = 1.456 × 10 5 ( η P σ S V 3 ) {\displaystyle C_{D}=1.456\times 10^{5}({\frac {\eta P}{\sigma SV^{3}}})} . The induced drag coefficient can be estimated as: C D , i = C L 2 π A R ϵ {\displaystyle C_{D,i}={\frac {C_{L}^{2}}{\pi ... | Wikipedia - Zero-lift drag coefficient - Estimating zero-lift drag | 331 | 762 | null |
Article: 4-poster. A 4-poster or four poster is an automotive test system specifically designed for the testing of vehicles. These test systems consist of 4 hydraulic actuators on top of which the wheels of the vehicle are placed. Movements of the actuators simulate the road surface and forces exerted by the road on th... | Wikipedia - 4-poster - Summary | 225 | 1,100 | null |
Section: Uses. The 7 post shaker is used for many vehicles in different driving conditions. Earlier versions were the 5 post shaker and the 4 post shaker. The 4 post shaker is commonly used by vehicle manufacturers to investigate squeaks and rattles. This technology was first used in Formula 1 in the late 1990s, and is... | Wikipedia - 7 post shaker - Uses | 234 | 1,142 | null |
Section: Operation. The 7 post shaker places forces on a vehicle and records the forces that the vehicle puts back into the system. The 7 post applies lift, downforce, road irregularity forces and load transfer due to braking, acceleration and cornering. The vehicle suspension and drivetrain components respond to these... | Wikipedia - 7 post shaker - Operation | 333 | 1,569 | null |
These forces are small on road cars where speeds are not normally greater than 140 kilometres per hour (90 mph), but are significant on a race car where speeds can exceed 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph). The very basic parameters that need to be initialized are the vertical input forces to the vehicle from the road s... | Wikipedia - 7 post shaker - Operation | 343 | 1,675 | null |
This is more difficult to test because the sampling frequency has to be at least five times as high as the highest frequency. In this case the incoming frequency is 100 Hz, so the sampling frequency must be at least 500 Hz. In vibration analysis, as in all engineering problems, the output data must be looked at in a me... | Wikipedia - 7 post shaker - Operation | 260 | 1,257 | null |
Section: General specifications. The AMC 20 is a carrier-tube axle, which is where the axle tubes press into the housing, and the cover is bolted to the rear. They have an 8+7⁄8-inch (230 mm) ring gear and use a 29 spline axle shaft. The differential cover is round with twelve bolts, making it one of the easiest axles ... | Wikipedia - AMC 20 - General specifications | 254 | 995 | null |
Section: How to calculate. A conceptually simple implementation incorporates a fully redundant measurement. A fault in the primary measurement can be detected by comparing the primary and diagnostic measurements, and signaling a fault if the difference is outside the expected operating range. If the two measurements ar... | Wikipedia - ASIL accuracy - How to calculate | 263 | 1,269 | null |
Article: Automobile drag coefficient. The drag coefficient is a common measure in automotive design as it pertains to aerodynamics. Drag is a force that acts parallel to and in the same direction as the airflow. The drag coefficient of an automobile measures the way the automobile passes through the surrounding air. Wh... | Wikipedia - Automobile drag coefficient - Summary | 154 | 861 | null |
Section: The importance of drag reduction. The reduction of drag in road vehicles has led to increases in the top speed of the vehicle and the vehicle's fuel efficiency, as well as many other performance characteristics, such as handling and acceleration. The two main factors that impact drag are the frontal area of th... | Wikipedia - Automobile drag coefficient - The importance of drag reduction | 218 | 1,127 | null |
Section: Drag area. While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The product of drag coefficient and area – drag area – is represented as CdA (or CxA), a multiplication of Cd value by area. The term drag a... | Wikipedia - Automobile drag coefficient - Drag area | 333 | 1,335 | null |
This allows direct estimation of the drag force at a given speed for any vehicle for which only the drag area is known and therefore easier comparison. As drag area CdA is the fundamental value that determines power required for a given cruise speed it is a critical parameter for fuel consumption at a steady speed. Thi... | Wikipedia - Automobile drag coefficient - Drag area | 325 | 1,169 | null |
Section: Example drag coefficients. The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle. Various other chara... | Wikipedia - Automobile drag coefficient - Example drag coefficients | 212 | 998 | null |
Section: Strategies for reducing drag > Spoilers. A rear spoiler usually comes standard in most sports vehicles and resembles the shape of a raised wing in the rear of the vehicle. The main purpose of a rear spoiler in a vehicle's design is to counteract lift, thereby increasing stability at higher speeds. In order to ... | Wikipedia - Automotive aerodynamics - Strategies for reducing drag > Spoilers | 172 | 896 | null |
Section: Strategies for reducing drag > Mirrors. Side mirrors both increase the frontal area of the vehicle and increase the coefficient of drag since they protrude from the side of the vehicle. In order to decrease the impact that side mirrors have on the drag of the vehicle the side mirrors can be replaced with small... | Wikipedia - Automotive aerodynamics - Strategies for reducing drag > Mirrors | 201 | 1,053 | null |
Section: Strategies for reducing drag > Partial grille blocks. The front grille of a vehicle is used to direct air through the radiator. In a streamlined design the air flows around the vehicle rather than through; however, the grille of a vehicle redirects airflow from around the vehicle to through the vehicle, which ... | Wikipedia - Automotive aerodynamics - Strategies for reducing drag > Partial grille blocks | 208 | 1,066 | null |
Section: Disciplines > Automobile engineering. Automobile engineering is a branch study of engineering which teaches manufacturing, designing, mechanical mechanisms as well as operations of automobiles. It is an introduction to vehicle engineering which deals with motorcycles, cars, buses, trucks, etc. It includes bran... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - Disciplines > Automobile engineering | 326 | 1,699 | null |
This feedback is generated by components either rubbing, vibrating, or rotating. NVH response can be classified in various ways: powertrain NVH, road noise, wind noise, component noise, and squeak and rattle. Note, there are both good and bad NVH qualities. The NVH engineer works to either eliminate bad NVH or change t... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - Disciplines > Automobile engineering | 344 | 1,569 | null |
Shift quality: Shift quality is the driver's perception of the vehicle to an automatic transmission shift event. This is influenced by the powertrain (Internal combustion engine, transmission), and the vehicle (driveline, suspension, engine and powertrain mounts, etc.) Shift feel is both a tactile (felt) and audible (h... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - Disciplines > Automobile engineering | 319 | 1,553 | null |
Any new part in the design must support the development and manufacturing schedule of the model. Design for manufacturability (DFM): DFM refers to designing vehicular components in such a way that they are not only feasible to manufacture, but also such that they are cost-efficient to produce while resulting in accepta... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - Disciplines > Automobile engineering | 330 | 1,794 | null |
Section: Job functions > Development engineer. A development engineer has the responsibility for coordinating delivery of the engineering attributes of a complete automobile (bus, car, truck, van, SUV, motorcycle etc.) as dictated by the automobile manufacturer, governmental regulations, and the customer who buys the p... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - Job functions > Development engineer | 325 | 1,672 | null |
The engine size however, is not the only contributing factor to fuel economy and automobile performance. Different values come into play. Other attributes that involve trade-offs include: automobile weight, aerodynamic drag, transmission gearing, emission control devices, handling/roadholding, ride quality, and tires. ... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - Job functions > Development engineer | 169 | 959 | null |
Section: Job functions > Manufacturing engineer. Manufacturing engineers are responsible for ensuring proper production of the automotive components or complete vehicles. While the development engineers are responsible for the function of the vehicle, manufacturing engineers are responsible for the safe and effective p... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - Job functions > Manufacturing engineer | 201 | 1,218 | null |
Section: The modern automotive product engineering process > The V-approach. One way to effectively deal with the inherent multi-physics and the control systems development that is involved when including intelligent systems, is to adopt the V-Model approach to systems development, as has been widely used in the automo... | Wikipedia - Automotive engineering - The modern automotive product engineering process > The V-approach | 182 | 976 | null |
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