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Brittle fracture Strength Fracture > Strength Fracture strength, also known as breaking strength, is the stress at which a specimen fails via fracture. This is usually determined for a given specimen by a tensile test, which charts the stress–strain curve (see image). The final recorded point is the fracture strength. Ductile materials have a fracture strength lower than the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), whereas in brittle materials the fracture strength is equivalent to the UTS. |
Learning pathway Summary Learning_pathway Learning pathway is the chosen route taken by a learner through a range of (commonly) e-learning activities, which allows them to build knowledge progressively. With learning pathways, the control of choice moves away from the tutor to the learner. "The sequence of intermediate steps from preconceptions to target model form what Scott (1991) and Niedderer and Goldberg (1995) have called a learning pathway. For any particular topic, such a pathway would provide both a theory of instruction and a guideline for teachers and curriculum developers". |
Zero Waste Software recycling Zero_Waste > Recycling > Software recycling A clear example of the difference between zero waste and recycling is discussed in Getting to Zero Waste, in the software industry. Zero waste design can be applied to intellectual property where the effort to code functionality into software objects is developed by design as opposed to copying code snippets multiple times when needed. The application of zero waste is straightforward as it conserves human effort. Also, software storage mediums have transitioned from consumable diskettes to internal drives which are vastly superior and have a minimal cost per megabyte of storage. This is a physical example where zero waste correctly identifies and avoids wasteful behavior. |
Nesfatin-1 Metabolism Nesfatin-1 > Metabolism In agreement with decreasing PEPCK gene expression, central nesfatin-1 also resulted in a reduced PEPCK enzyme activity, further confirming that it affected PEPCK rather than G-6-Pase.The part of the glucose entering the liver is phosphorylated by glucokinase and then dephosphorylated by G-6-Pase. This futile cycle between glucokinase and G-6-Pase is named glucose cycling, and it accounts for the difference between the total flux through G-6-Pase and glucose production. G-6-Pase catalyzes the last step in both gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, and PEPCK is responsible only for gluconeogenesis. |
Diffractive optics Coherence Diffraction_pattern > Coherence The description of diffraction relies on the interference of waves emanating from the same source taking different paths to the same point on a screen. In this description, the difference in phase between waves that took different paths is only dependent on the effective path length. This does not take into account the fact that waves that arrive at the screen at the same time were emitted by the source at different times. The initial phase with which the source emits waves can change over time in an unpredictable way. |
HTTP handler Summary HTTP_handler Unlike ASP.NET Web Forms, they have no HTML-markup file, no events and other supporting. All they have is a code-file (written in any .NET-compatible language) that writes some data to the server HTTP response. HTTP handlers are similar to ISAPI extensions.An HTTP module is an assembly that is called on every request that is made to your application. |
C12H15N3O2 Summary C12H15N3O2 The molecular formula C12H15N3O2 (molar mass: 233.266 g/mol) may refer to: Pardoprunox Phenylpiracetam hydrazide |
Kepler-11d Summary Kepler-11d Kepler-11d is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sun-like star Kepler-11. It is named for the telescope that discovered it, a NASA spacecraft named Kepler that is designed to detect Earth-like planets by measuring small dips in the brightness of their host stars as the planets cross in front. This process, known as the transit method, was used to note the presence of six planets in orbit around Kepler-11, of which Kepler-11d is the third from its star. Kepler-11d orbits Kepler-11 well within the orbit of Mercury approximately every 23 days. |
Economic prosperity Unified growth theory Environmental_impact_of_economic_development > Growth theories > Unified growth theory Unified growth theory was developed by Oded Galor and his co-authors to address the inability of endogenous growth theory to explain key empirical regularities in the growth processes of individual economies and the world economy as a whole. Unlike endogenous growth theory that focuses entirely on the modern growth regime and is therefore unable to explain the roots of inequality across nations, unified growth theory captures in a single framework the fundamental phases of the process of development in the course of human history: (i) the Malthusian epoch that was prevalent over most of human history, (ii) the escape from the Malthusian trap, (iii) the emergence of human capital as a central element in the growth process, (iv) the onset of the fertility decline, (v) the origins of the modern era of sustained economic growth, and (vi) the roots of divergence in income per capita across nations in the past two centuries. The theory suggests that during most of human existence, technological progress was offset by population growth, and living standards were near subsistence across time and space. |
Coulomb damping Theory Coulomb_damping > Theory A system being acted upon by Coulomb damping is nonlinear because the frictional force always opposes the direction of motion of the system as stated earlier. And because there is friction present, the amplitude of the motion decreases or decays with time. Under the influence of Coulomb damping, the amplitude decays linearly with a slope of ± 2 μ m g ω n / ( k π ) {\displaystyle \pm 2\mu mg\omega _{\rm {n}}/(k\pi )} where ωn is the natural frequency. |
Transistor model Models for device design Transistor_models > Models for device design It also refers to details inside the structure, such as the doping profiles after completion of device processing. With this information about what the device looks like, the device simulator models the physical processes taking place in the device to determine its electrical behavior in a variety of circumstances: DC current–voltage behavior, transient behavior (both large-signal and small-signal), dependence on device layout (long and narrow versus short and wide, or interdigitated versus rectangular, or isolated versus proximate to other devices). These simulations tell the device designer whether the device process will produce devices with the electrical behavior needed by the circuit designer, and is used to inform the process designer about any necessary process improvements. |
Waterman polyhedron Summary Waterman_polyhedron Others are just a collection of faces formed from irregular convex polygons. The most popular Waterman polyhedra are those with centers at the point (0,0,0) and built out of hundreds of polygons. Such polyhedra resemble spheres. |
Computational economics Machine learning in computational economics Computational_economics > Applications > Machine learning in computational economics There are notable advantages and disadvantages of utilizing machine learning tools in economic research. In economics, a model is selected and analyzed at once. The economic research would select a model based on principle, then test/analyze the model with data, followed by cross-validation with other models. |
Thermodynamic operation Bibliography for citations Thermodynamic_operation > Bibliography for citations Generalized Thermodynamics, M.I.T Press, Cambridge MA. Uffink, J. (2001). |
Computer simulations of fluids Spectral element method Computational_Fluid_Dynamics > Methodology > Discretization methods > Spectral element method Spectral element method is a finite element type method. It requires the mathematical problem (the partial differential equation) to be cast in a weak formulation. This is typically done by multiplying the differential equation by an arbitrary test function and integrating over the whole domain. Purely mathematically, the test functions are completely arbitrary - they belong to an infinite-dimensional function space. |
Binary antilogarithm Graph of the logarithm function Colog > Analytic properties > Graph of the logarithm function As discussed above, the function logb is the inverse to the exponential function x ↦ b x {\displaystyle x\mapsto b^{x}} . Therefore, their graphs correspond to each other upon exchanging the x- and the y-coordinates (or upon reflection at the diagonal line x = y), as shown at the right: a point (t, u = bt) on the graph of f yields a point (u, t = logb u) on the graph of the logarithm and vice versa. As a consequence, logb (x) diverges to infinity (gets bigger than any given number) if x grows to infinity, provided that b is greater than one. |
Descriptor (chemistry) sn Descriptor_(chemistry) > Configuration descriptors > sn The notation sn stands for stereospecific numbering, and indicates a particular way of numbering the carbon atoms in a molecule based on glycerol. |
Mass balance Example Mass_balance > Differential mass balances > Ideal tank reactor/continuously stirred tank reactor > Example Thus we get Note that there is no reaction and hence no reaction rate or rate law involved, and yet d C A d t ≠ 0 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {dC_{\rm {A}}}{dt}}\neq 0} . We can thus draw the conclusion that reaction rate can not be defined in a general manner using d C d t {\displaystyle {\tfrac {dC}{dt}}} . One must first write down a mass balance before a link between d C d t {\displaystyle {\tfrac {dC}{dt}}} and the reaction rate can be found. Many textbooks, however, define reaction rate as without mentioning that this definition implicitly assumes that the system is closed, has a constant volume and that there is only one reaction. |
Molecular Graphics Space-filling models Molecular_Graphics > Types > Space-filling models In the space-filling model, atoms are drawn as solid spheres to suggest the space they occupy, in proportion to their van der Waals radii. Atoms that share a bond overlap with each other. |
Macrocytic anemia Association with rapid red cell turnover and reticulocytosis Macrocytic_anemia > Causes > Non-Megaloblastic anemias > Association with rapid red cell turnover and reticulocytosis Mild macrocytosis is a common finding associated with rapid blood restoration or production, since in general, "fresh" or newly produced red cells (reticulocytes) are larger than the mean (average) size, due to slow shrinkage of normal cells over a normal red cell circulating lifetime. Thus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), in which red cells are rapidly produced in response to low oxygen levels in the blood, often produces mild macrocytosis. The macrocytosis associated with COPD is also attributed to excess cell water secondary to carbon dioxide retention. Also, rapid blood replacement from the marrow after a traumatic blood loss, or rapid red blood cell turnover from rapid hemolysis (G6PD deficiency), also often produces mild macrocytosis in the associated anemia. |
Duality (electricity and magnetism) Summary Duality_(electricity_and_magnetism) Electrostriction is the dual of magnetostriction. Piezoelectricity is the dual of piezomagnetism. Ferroelectricity is the dual of ferromagnetism. An electrostatic motor is the dual of a magnetic motor; Electrets are the dual of permanent magnets; The Faraday effect is the dual of the Kerr effect; The Aharonov–Casher effect is the dual to the Aharonov–Bohm effect; The hypothetical magnetic monopole is the dual of electric charge. |
Angiotensin converting enzyme Disease relevance Angiotensin-Converting_Enzyme > Disease relevance ACE inhibitors are widely used as pharmaceutical drugs in the treatment of conditions such as high blood pressure, heart failure, diabetic nephropathy, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. ACE inhibitors inhibit ACE competitively. That results in the decreased formation of angiotensin II and decreased metabolism of bradykinin, which leads to systematic dilation of the arteries and veins and a decrease in arterial blood pressure. In addition, inhibiting angiotensin II formation diminishes angiotensin II-mediated aldosterone secretion from the adrenal cortex, leading to a decrease in water and sodium reabsorption and a reduction in extracellular volume.ACE's effect on Alzheimer's disease is still highly debated. |
Measurement systems analysis ASTM Procedures Measurement_systems_analysis > ASTM Procedures The ASTM has several procedures for evaluating measurement systems and test methods, including: ASTM E2782 - Standard Guide for Measurement Systems Analysis ASTM D4356 - Standard Practice for Establishing Consistent Test Method Tolerances ASTM E691 - Standard Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine the Precision of a Test Method ASTM E1169 - Standard Guide for Conducting Ruggedness Tests ASTM E1488 - Standard Guide for Statistical Procedures to Use in Developing and Applying Test Methods |
Autonomous robots Research and education mobile robots Autonomous_foraging > Types of robots > Research and education mobile robots Research and education mobile robots are mainly used during a prototyping phase in the process of building full scale robots. They are a scaled down versions of bigger robots with the same types of sensors, kinematics and software stack (e.g. ROS). They are often extendable and provide comfortable programming interface and development tools. Next to full scale robot prototyping they are also used for education, especially at university level, where more and more labs about programming autonomous vehicles are being introduced. Some of the popular research and education robots are: TurtleBot ROSbot 2.0 |
Atrial septal defect Decompression sickness Atrial_septal_defect > Presentation > Complications > Decompression sickness ASDs, and particularly PFOs, are a predisposing venous blood carrying inert gases, such as helium or nitrogen does not pass through the lungs. The only way to release the excess inert gases from the body is to pass the blood carrying the inert gases through the lungs to be exhaled. If some of the inert gas-laden blood passes through the PFO, it avoids the lungs and the inert gas is more likely to form large bubbles in the arterial blood stream causing decompression sickness. |
Generalized conic Specialization and generalization of Maxwell's approach Generalized_conic > Specialization and generalization of Maxwell's approach . , An} has the same constant value. This formulation of the concept of a generalized conic has been further generalised in several different ways. |
Exactly solved model General dynamical systems Exactly_solvable_model > General dynamical systems An extension of the notion of integrability is also applicable to discrete systems such as lattices. This definition can be adapted to describe evolution equations that either are systems of differential equations or finite difference equations. The distinction between integrable and nonintegrable dynamical systems has the qualitative implication of regular motion vs. chaotic motion and hence is an intrinsic property, not just a matter of whether a system can be explicitly integrated in an exact form. |
Fourier component Linearity Table_of_Fourier_transforms > Properties of the Fourier transform > Basic properties > Linearity For any complex numbers a and b, if h(x) = a f (x) + b g(x), then ĥ(ξ) = a f̂(ξ) + b ĝ(ξ). |
Numerical tower In Lisp Numerical_tower > In Lisp Principally, the numerical tower is designed to codify the set theoretic properties of numbers in an easy-to-implement language facility: every integer is a rational with an implicit denominator of 1, and all reals are complex with an implicit imaginary part of 0. Practically, the implementation may save time and space by ignoring these properties unless they become arithmetically relevant, and also may correspondingly improve the efficiency of its representation when reducing numerical values to their canonical representation by eliminating negligible components of a number. The most generic type, number, is somewhat confusingly named: it exists to capture all mathematical values whose type is more general than complex, but which are still usable with standard mathematical operations, as defined by Scheme. Thus it captures, for example, positive and negative infinity (+inf.0 and -inf.0, the significand here meaning approximation up to cardinality), since those are mathematical objects to which at least some numerical operations may validly apply (e.g. one can add to or multiply by infinity, yielding infinity; or compare cardinality against infinity, with infinity always being greater than any finite value). |
Critical Path Institute C-Path Programs Critical_Path_Institute > C-Path Programs The Patient-Reported Outcome (PRO) Consortium develops, evaluates, and qualifies PRO instruments (e.g., questionnaires) for use in clinical trials designed to assess the safety and effectiveness of medical products. The Critical Path to TB Drug Regimens (CPTR) aims to accelerate the development of new, safe, and highly effective tuberculosis treatment regimens with shortened durations of therapy. The Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) Consortium evaluates the evidence supporting total kidney volume (TKV) as a biomarker for assessing the progression of autosomal dominant PKD. |
Method of continued fractions Summary Method_of_continued_fractions The approximations are constructed within Krylov subspace constructed from vector | ϕ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\phi \rangle } with action of the operator A = G 0 V {\displaystyle A=G_{0}V} . The method can thus be understood as resummation of (in general divergent) Born series by Padé approximants. It is also closely related to Schwinger variational principle. In general the method requires similar amount of numerical work as calculation of terms of Born series, but it provides much faster convergence of the results. |
Electronic ballasts Current limiting Electronic_ballasts > Current limiting An electrical ballast is a device that limits the current through an electrical load. These are most often used when a load (such as an arc discharge) has its terminal voltage decline when current through the load increases. If such a device were connected to a constant-voltage power supply, it would draw an increasing amount of current until it is destroyed or causes the power supply to fail. |
LDU decomposition Solving linear equations LU_factorization > Applications > Solving linear equations The cost of solving a system of linear equations is approximately 2 3 n 3 {\textstyle {\frac {2}{3}}n^{3}} floating-point operations if the matrix A {\textstyle A} has size n {\textstyle n} . This makes it twice as fast as algorithms based on QR decomposition, which costs about 4 3 n 3 {\textstyle {\frac {4}{3}}n^{3}} floating-point operations when Householder reflections are used. For this reason, LU decomposition is usually preferred. |
Uncertain data Summary Uncertain_data There are three main models of uncertain data in databases. In attribute uncertainty, each uncertain attribute in a tuple is subject to its own independent probability distribution. For example, if readings are taken of temperature and wind speed, each would be described by its own probability distribution, as knowing the reading for one measurement would not provide any information about the other. |
MAPK/ERK pathway Regulation of cell cycle entry and proliferation ERK_pathway > Regulation of cell cycle entry and proliferation In most cells, some form of sustained ERK activity is required for cells to activate genes that induce cell cycle entry and suppress negative regulators of the cell cycle. Two such important targets include Cyclin D complexes with Cdk4 and Cdk6 (Cdk4/6) which are both phosphorylated by ERK. The transition from G1 to S phase is coordinated by the activity of Cyclin D-Cdk4/6, which increases during late G1 phase as cells prepare to enter S-phase in response to mitogens. |
Kernel density estimation Example Kernel_density_estimation > Example Kernel density estimates are closely related to histograms, but can be endowed with properties such as smoothness or continuity by using a suitable kernel. The diagram below based on these 6 data points illustrates this relationship: For the histogram, first, the horizontal axis is divided into sub-intervals or bins which cover the range of the data: In this case, six bins each of width 2. Whenever a data point falls inside this interval, a box of height 1/12 is placed there. If more than one data point falls inside the same bin, the boxes are stacked on top of each other. |
Invariant ring Summary Ring_of_invariants In algebra, the fixed-point subring R f {\displaystyle R^{f}} of an automorphism f of a ring R is the subring of the fixed points of f, that is, R f = { r ∈ R ∣ f ( r ) = r } . {\displaystyle R^{f}=\{r\in R\mid f(r)=r\}.} More generally, if G is a group acting on R, then the subring of R R G = { r ∈ R ∣ g ⋅ r = r , g ∈ G } {\displaystyle R^{G}=\{r\in R\mid g\cdot r=r,\,g\in G\}} is called the fixed subring or, more traditionally, the ring of invariants under G. If S is a set of automorphisms of R, the elements of R that are fixed by the elements of S form the ring of invariants under the group generated by S. In particular, the fixed-point subring of an automorphism f is the ring of invariants of the cyclic group generated by f. In Galois theory, when R is a field and G is a group of field automorphisms, the fixed ring is a subfield called the fixed field of the automorphism group; see Fundamental theorem of Galois theory. Along with a module of covariants, the ring of invariants is a central object of study in invariant theory. |
Neuroscience of rhythm Respiration Neuroscience_of_rhythm > Autonomic rhythms > Respiration Ventilation requires periodic movements of the respiratory muscles. These muscles are controlled by a rhythm generating network in the brain stem. These neurons comprise the ventral respiratory group (VRG). Although this process is not fully understood, it is believed to be governed by a CPG and there have been several models proposed. |
Cumulative frequency analysis Discontinuous distributions Cumulative_frequency_analysis > Fitting of probability distributions > Discontinuous distributions Sometimes it is possible to fit one type of probability distribution to the lower part of the data range and another type to the higher part, separated by a breakpoint, whereby the overall fit is improved. The figure gives an example of a useful introduction of such a discontinuous distribution for rainfall data in northern Peru, where the climate is subject to the behavior Pacific Ocean current El Niño. When the Niño extends to the south of Ecuador and enters the ocean along the coast of Peru, the climate in Northern Peru becomes tropical and wet. When the Niño does not reach Peru, the climate is semi-arid. For this reason, the higher rainfalls follow a different frequency distribution than the lower rainfalls. |
Biological computing Network-based biocomputers Biological_computer > Scientific background > Network-based biocomputers In networks-based biocomputation, self-propelled biological agents, such as molecular motor proteins or bacteria, explore a microscopic network that encodes a mathematical problem of interest. The paths of the agents through the network and/or their final positions represent potential solutions to the problem. For instance, in the system described by Nicolau et al., mobile molecular motor filaments are detected at the "exits" of a network encoding the NP-complete problem SUBSET SUM. All exits visited by filaments represent correct solutions to the algorithm. |
Optical spectroscopy Other types Spectroscopy > Other types Baryon spectroscopy and meson spectroscopy are types of hadron spectroscopy. Hyperspectral imaging is a method to create a complete picture of the environment or various objects, each pixel containing a full visible, visible near infrared, near infrared, or infrared spectrum. Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy uses the changes in current due to inelastic electron-vibration interaction at specific energies that can also measure optically forbidden transitions. |
Industrial enzymes Affinity Industrial_enzymes > Enzymes as a unit of operation > Immobilization > Affinity Immobilization using affinity relies on the specificity of an enzyme to couple an affinity ligand to an enzyme to form a covalently bound enzyme-ligand complex. The complex is introduced into a support matrix for which the ligand has high binding affinity, and the enzyme is immobilized through ligand-support interactions. |
Group axioms Special references Group_(algebra) > References > Special references (1994), An introduction to homological algebra, Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics, vol. 38, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55987-4, MR 1269324, OCLC 36131259 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-92567-5. Welsh, Dominic (1989), Codes and Cryptography, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853287-3. |
Intelligent Design Specified complexity Evolutionary_informatics > Concepts > Specified complexity He states that details of living things can be similarly characterized, especially the "patterns" of molecular sequences in functional biological molecules such as DNA. Dembski defines complex specified information (CSI) as anything with a less than 1 in 10150 chance of occurring by (natural) chance. Critics say that this renders the argument a tautology: complex specified information cannot occur naturally because Dembski has defined it thus, so the real question becomes whether or not CSI actually exists in nature.The conceptual soundness of Dembski's specified complexity/CSI argument has been discredited in the scientific and mathematical communities. |
Weak order of permutations Inversion related vectors Weak_order_of_permutations > Definitions > Inversion related vectors Three similar vectors are in use that condense the inversions of a permutation into a vector that uniquely determines it. They are often called inversion vector or Lehmer code. (A list of sources is found here.) This article uses the term inversion vector ( v {\displaystyle v} ) like Wolfram. |
Short Interframe Space Summary Short_Interframe_Space Short Interframe Space (SIFS), is the amount of time in microseconds required for a wireless interface to process a received frame and to respond with a response frame. It is the difference in time between the first symbol of the response frame in the air and the last symbol of the received frame in the air. A SIFS time consists of the delay in receiver RF, PLCP delay and the MAC processing delay, which depends on the physical layer used. In IEEE 802.11 networks, SIFS is the interframe spacing prior to transmission of an acknowledgment, a Clear To Send (CTS) frame, a block ack frame that is an immediate response to either a block ack request frame or an A-MPDU, the second or subsequent MPDU of a fragment burst, a station responding to any polling a by point coordination function and during contention free periods of point coordination function. |
Structured sparsity regularization Hierarchical Norms Structured_sparsity_regularization > Structures and norms > Norms based on the structure over Input variables > Hierarchical Norms See: Unsupervised learning Unsupervised learning methods are often used to learn the parameters of latent variable models. Latent variable models are statistical models where in addition to the observed variables, a set of latent variables also exists which is not observed. Often in such models, "hierarchies" are assumed between the variables of the system; this system of hierarchies can be represented using directed acyclic graphs. Hierarchies of latent variables have emerged as a natural structure in several applications, notably to model text documents. |
Steve Young (software engineer) Research and academic career Steve_Young_(software_engineer) > Research and academic career His most notable contribution to the field is the partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP) based dialogue management framework, which includes the Hidden Information State (HIS) dialogue model, the first practical dialogue management model based on the POMDP framework. His research focuses on developing spoken dialogue systems that are robust against noise introduced by noisy speech recognisers, as well as adapt and scale on-line in interaction with real users. One notable instance of this approach is the application of Gaussian process based reinforcement learning for rapid policy optimisation. In recent years, Young's research group has successfully applied deep learning techniques to various submodules of statistical dialogue systems, winning multiple best paper awards at prestigious speech and NLP conferences. |
Mechanical advantage Block and tackle Mechanical_advantage > Block and tackle This analysis generalizes to an ideal block and tackle with a moving block supported by n rope sections, M A = F B F A = V A V B = n . {\displaystyle {\mathit {MA}}={\frac {F_{B}}{F_{A}}}={\frac {V_{A}}{V_{B}}}=n.\!} This shows that the force exerted by an ideal block and tackle is n times the input force, where n is the number of sections of rope that support the moving block. |
Chloroplast ribosome Cyclic photophosphorylation Chloroplast_starch_granule > Function and chemistry > Photosynthesis > Light reactions > Cyclic photophosphorylation While photosystem II photolyzes water to obtain and energize new electrons, photosystem I simply reenergizes depleted electrons at the end of an electron transport chain. Normally, the reenergized electrons are taken by NADP+, though sometimes they can flow back down more H+-pumping electron transport chains to transport more hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space to generate more ATP. This is termed cyclic photophosphorylation because the electrons are recycled. Cyclic photophosphorylation is common in C4 plants, which need more ATP than NADPH. |
Food supplements Proteins and amino acids Health_supplements > Types > Proteins and amino acids Scientific reviews can conclude that a high protein diet, when combined with exercise, will increase muscle mass and strength, or conclude the opposite. The International Olympic Committee recommends protein intake targets for both strength and endurance athletes at about 1.2–1.8 g/kg body mass per day. One review proposed a maximum daily protein intake of approximately 25% of energy requirements, i.e., approximately 2.0 to 2.5 g/kg.The same protein ingredients marketed as dietary supplements can be incorporated into meal replacement and medical food products, but those are regulated and labeled differently from supplements. |
Complex measure Summary Complex_measure In mathematics, specifically measure theory, a complex measure generalizes the concept of measure by letting it have complex values. In other words, one allows for sets whose size (length, area, volume) is a complex number. |
Stratospheric ozone Ultraviolet light Ozone_layer > Ultraviolet light UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer (which absorbs from about 200 nm to 310 nm with a maximal absorption at about 250 nm) is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth's surface. Nevertheless, some UV-B, particularly at its longest wavelengths, reaches the surface, and is important for the skin's production of vitamin D in mammals. Ozone is transparent to most UV-A, so most of this longer-wavelength UV radiation reaches the surface, and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to DNA, although it may still potentially cause physical damage, premature aging of the skin, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer. |
Inelastic good Applications Elasticity_(economics) > Applications The concept of elasticity has an extensive range of applications in economics. In particular, an understanding of elasticity is fundamental in understanding the response of supply and demand in a market.Elasticity is also an important concept for enterprises and governments. For enterprises, elasticity is relevant in the calculation of the fluctuation of commodity prices, and its relation to income. For enterprise, the concept of elasticity also can be applied for pricing strategy. |
Peer pressure Social psychological explanation Peer_pressure > Social psychological explanation A explanation of how the peer pressure process works, called "the identity shift effect," was introduced by social psychologist Wendy Treynor, who weaves together Festinger's two seminal social-psychological theories (on dissonance, which addresses internal conflict, and social comparison, which addresses external conflict) into a unified whole. According to Treynor's original "identity shift effect" hypothesis, the peer pressure process works in the following way: One's state of harmony is disrupted when faced with the threat of external conflict (social rejection) for failing to conform to a group standard. Thus, one conforms to the group standard, but as soon as one does, eliminating this external conflict, internal conflict is introduced (because one has violated one's own standards). To rid oneself of this internal conflict (self-rejection), an "identity shift" is undertaken, where one adopts the group's standards as one's own, thereby eliminating internal conflict (in addition to the formerly eliminated external conflict), returning one to a state of harmony. Although the peer pressure process begins and ends with one in a (conflict-less) state of harmony, as a result of conflict and the conflict resolution process, one leaves with a new identity—a new set of internalized standards. |
Knock-out mouse Procedure Knock-out_mice > Procedure The new sequence from step 1 is introduced into the stem cells from step 2 by electroporation. By the natural process of homologous recombination some of the electroporated stem cells will incorporate the new sequence with the knocked-out gene into their chromosomes in place of the original gene. The chances of a successful recombination event are relatively low, so the majority of altered cells will have the new sequence in only one of the two relevant chromosomes – they are said to be heterozygous. |
Accelerated reference frame Summary Noninertial_reference_frames A non-inertial reference frame (also known as an accelerated reference frame) is a frame of reference that undergoes acceleration with respect to an inertial frame. An accelerometer at rest in a non-inertial frame will, in general, detect a non-zero acceleration. While the laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames, in non-inertial frames, they vary from frame to frame depending on the acceleration.In classical mechanics it is often possible to explain the motion of bodies in non-inertial reference frames by introducing additional fictitious forces (also called inertial forces, pseudo-forces and d'Alembert forces) to Newton's second law. Common examples of this include the Coriolis force and the centrifugal force. |
Momentum Space Summary Momentum_Space Momentum Space is an album by American jazz saxophonist Dewey Redman, pianist Cecil Taylor and drummer Elvin Jones featuring performances recorded in 1998 and released on the Verve label. |
Factorial Related sequences and functions Factorial > Related sequences and functions Bhargava factorial The Bhargava factorials are a family of integer sequences defined by Manjul Bhargava with similar number-theoretic properties to the factorials, including the factorials themselves as a special case. Double factorial The product of all the odd integers up to some odd positive integer n {\displaystyle n} is called the double factorial of n {\displaystyle n} , and denoted by n ! |
Natural Selection Selection, genetic variation, and drift Exploitation_competition > Genetic basis > Selection, genetic variation, and drift Selective sweeps occur when an allele becomes more common in a population as a result of positive selection. As the prevalence of one allele increases, closely linked alleles can also become more common by "genetic hitchhiking", whether they are neutral or even slightly deleterious. A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population. |
Refrigerant gas Phasing out of CFCs Refrigerant_gas > History > Phasing out of CFCs In the early 1980s, scientists discovered that CFCs were causing major damage to the ozone layer that protects the earth from ultraviolet radiation, and to the ozone holes over polar regions. This led to the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 which aimed to phase out CFCs and HCFC but did not address the contributions that HFCs made to climate change. The adoption of HCFCs such as R-22, and R-123 was accelerated and so were used in most U.S. homes in air conditioners and in chillers from the 1980s as they have a dramatically lower Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) than CFCs, but their ODP was still not zero which led to their eventual phase-out. |
Air-conditioning system Refrigeration cycle Air-conditioning_system > Air conditioning > Refrigeration cycle The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to cool, which are compressor, condenser, metering device, and evaporator. At the inlet of a compressor, the refrigerant inside the system is in a low pressure, low temperature, gaseous state. The compressor pumps the refrigerant gas up to high pressure and temperature. From there it enters a heat exchanger (sometimes called a condensing coil or condenser) where it loses heat to the outside, cools, and condenses into its liquid phase. |
Proton NMR Spectroscopy Chemical shifts 1H_NMR > Chemical shifts These cause a downfield shift of approximately 2–4 ppm for H atoms on Cα and of less than 1–2 ppm for H atoms on Cβ. Cα is an aliphatic C atom directly bonded to the substituent in question, and Cβ is an aliphatic C atom bonded to Cα. Carbonyl groups, olefinic fragments and aromatic rings contribute sp2 hybridized carbon atoms to an aliphatic chain. |
Naturalness (physics) Introduction Naturalness_(physics) > Introduction In particle physics, the assumption of naturalness means that, unless a more detailed explanation exists, all conceivable terms in the effective action that preserve the required symmetries should appear in this effective action with natural coefficients.In an effective field theory, Λ is the cutoff scale, an energy or length scale at which the theory breaks down. Due to dimensional analysis, natural coefficients have the form h = c Λ 4 − d , {\displaystyle h=c\Lambda ^{4-d},} where d is the dimension of the field operator; and c is a dimensionless number which should be "random" and smaller than 1 at the scale where the effective theory breaks down. Further renormalization group running can reduce the value of c at an energy scale E, but by a small factor proportional to ln(E/Λ). |
Robot motion planning Completeness and performance Motion_planning > Completeness and performance For realtime systems, this is typically achieved by using a watchdog timer, that will simply kill the process. The watchdog has to be independent of all processes (typically realized by low level interrupt routines). The asymptotic case described in the previous paragraph, however, will not be reached in this way. |
Detection theory Summary Signal_detection_theory Detection theory was used in 1966 by John A. Swets and David M. Green for psychophysics. Green and Swets criticized the traditional methods of psychophysics for their inability to discriminate between the real sensitivity of subjects and their (potential) response biases.Detection theory has applications in many fields such as diagnostics of any kind, quality control, telecommunications, and psychology. The concept is similar to the signal-to-noise ratio used in the sciences and confusion matrices used in artificial intelligence. It is also usable in alarm management, where it is important to separate important events from background noise. |
Invariant extended Kalman filter Inertial navigation Invariant_extended_Kalman_filter > Application examples > Inertial navigation A major application of the Invariant extended Kalman filter is inertial navigation, which fits the framework after embedding of the state (consisting of attitude matrix R {\displaystyle R} , velocity vector v {\displaystyle v} and position vector x {\displaystyle x} ) into the Lie group S E 2 ( 3 ) {\displaystyle SE_{2}(3)} defined by the group operation: ( R 1 , v 1 , x 1 ) ⋅ ( R 2 , v 2 , x 2 ) = ( R 1 R 2 , x 1 + R 1 x 2 , v 1 + R 1 v 2 ) {\displaystyle (R_{1},v_{1},x_{1})\cdot (R_{2},v_{2},x_{2})=(R_{1}R_{2},x_{1}+R_{1}x_{2},v_{1}+R_{1}v_{2})} |
Pythagorean mathematics History Pythagorean_mathematics > History Pythagorean philosophers continued to practice, albeit no organised communities were established.According to surviving sources by the Neopythagorean philosopher Nicomachus, Philolaus was the successor of Pythagoras. According to Cicero (de Orat. III 34.139), Philolaus was teacher of Archytas. According to the Neoplatonist philosopher Iamblichus, Archytas in turn became the head of the Pythagorean school about a century after the Pythagoras' death. Philolaus, Eurytus and Xenophilus are identified by Aristoxenus as the teachers of the last generation of Pythagoreans. |
Micro-g environment Absence of gravity Micro-g_environment > Absence of gravity At the speed of light it would take roughly three and a half hours to reach this micro-gravity environment (a region of space where the acceleration due to gravity is one-millionth of that experienced on the Earth's surface). To reduce the gravity to one-thousandth of that on Earth's surface, however, one needs only to be at a distance of 200,000 km. At a distance relatively close to Earth (less than 3000 km), gravity is only slightly reduced. |
Percolating filter Process description Trickling_filters > Process description As the biofilm layer thickens, it eventually sloughs off into the liquid flow and subsequently forms part of the secondary sludge. Typically, a trickling filter is followed by a clarifier or sedimentation tank for the separation and removal of the sloughed film. Filters utilizing higher-density media, such as sand, foam and peat moss do not produce a sludge that must be removed, but may require forced air blowers, backwashing, and/or an enclosed anaerobic environment. |
Discovery and development of beta-blockers Structure-activity relationship (SAR) Discovery_and_development_of_beta-blockers > Structure-activity relationship (SAR) Today, most of the β-blockers used clinically are aryloxypropanolamines. The length of the side chain is increased when an oxymethylene bridge is introduced. It has been shown that the side chains of aryloxypropanolamine can adopt a conformation that puts the hydroxyl and amine groups in more or less the same position as with beta blocker that do not have this group as a part of the side chain.After the release of propranolol, relative lipophilicity of β-blockers as a significant factor in their varied and complex pharmacology, became an important factor. |
Rydberg molecules Other types Rydberg_molecules > Other types A butterfly Rydberg molecule is a weak pairing of a Rydberg atom and a ground state atom that is enhanced by the presence of a shape resonance in the scattering between the Rydberg electron and the ground state atom. This new kind of atomic bond was theorized in 2002 and is characterized by an electron density distribution that resembles the shape of a butterfly. As a consequence of the unconventional binding mechanism, butterfly Rydberg molecules show peculiar properties such as multiple vibrational ground states at different bond lengths and giant dipole moments in excess of 500 debye. |
Rectangular function Fourier transform of the rectangular function Rectangular_function > Fourier transform of the rectangular function The unitary Fourier transforms of the rectangular function are using ordinary frequency f, where s i n c {\displaystyle \mathrm {sinc} } is the normalized form of the sinc function and using angular frequency ω {\displaystyle \omega } , where s i n c {\displaystyle \mathrm {sinc} } is the unnormalized form of the sinc function. For r e c t ( x / a ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {rect} (x/a)} , its Fourier transform isNote that as long as the definition of the pulse function is only motivated by its behavior in the time-domain experience, there is no reason to believe that the oscillatory interpretation (i.e. the Fourier transform function) should be intuitive, or directly understood by humans. However, some aspects of the theoretical result may be understood intuitively, as finiteness in time domain corresponds to an infinite frequency response. (Vice versa, a finite Fourier transform will correspond to infinite time domain response.) |
Box-and-whisker plot Example with outliers Box-and-whisker_plot > Examples > Example with outliers Above is an example without outliers. Here is a followup example for generating box-plot with outliers: The ordered set for the recorded temperatures is (°F): 52, 57, 57, 58, 63, 66, 66, 67, 67, 68, 69, 70, 70, 70, 70, 72, 73, 75, 75, 76, 76, 78, 79, 89. In this example, only the first and the last number are changed. The median, third quartile, and first quartile remain the same. |
Completing the square Irrational and complex roots Complete_the_square > Solving quadratic equations > Irrational and complex roots Unlike methods involving factoring the equation, which is reliable only if the roots are rational, completing the square will find the roots of a quadratic equation even when those roots are irrational or complex. For example, consider the equation Completing the square gives so Then either In terser language: so Equations with complex roots can be handled in the same way. For example: |
Polar moment of inertia Hollow Cylinder Second_polar_moment_of_area > Comparing polar second moments of area and moments of inertia (second moments of mass) > Hollow Cylinder Polar second moment of area: Moment of inertia: |
Virtual Storage Access Method History Virtual_Storage_Access_Method > History VSAM was introduced as a replacement for older access methods and was intended to add function, to be easier to use and to overcome problems of performance and device-dependence. VSAM was introduced in the 1970s when IBM announced virtual storage operating systems (DOS/VS, OS/VS1 and OS/VS2) for its new System/370 series, as successors of the DOS/360 and OS/360 operating systems running on its System/360 computer series. While backwards compatibility was maintained, the older access methods suffered from performance problems due to the address translation required for virtual storage. |
Three-piece suit United States Lounge_suit > Fashion > Western world > United States During the 1990s, driven in part by the meteoric rise of newly successful technology companies with different cultural attitudes, the prevailing management philosophy of the time moved in favour of more casual attire for employees; the aim was to encourage a sense of openness and egalitarianism. "Business casual" dress still tends to be the norm for most workers up to and sometimes including mid-level management. Traditional business dress as an everyday style has been prevalent in middle- and upper-level corporate management (now sometimes collectively referred to as "suits"), and the professions (particularly law). |
Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Dominant mode of transmission: airborne/aerosol Transmission_of_SARS-CoV-2 > Dominant mode of transmission: airborne/aerosol The trajectory of the turbulent jet is inclined due to the inclination angle of the nose. Smaller droplets travel a considerable distance as freely suspended tracers and may still get reflected and follow the turbulent cloud. Droplets with a diameter less than 50 μm remain suspended in the cloud for an extended period of time, which allows the cloud to reach heights of 4 to 6 meters, where ventilation systems can be contaminated.Because physical intimacy and sex involve close contact, in October 2021, New York City Department of Health discouraged unvaccinated persons, immunocompromised people, people over 65, persons with COVID-19, people with a health condition that increases the risk of severe COVID-19, and people who live with someone from one of these groups from engaging in kissing, casual sex, or other activities, and recommended wearing face mask during sex.The risk of transmission from all size droplets and aerosols is lower in indoor spaces with good ventilation. |
Integraph Mechanism Integraph > Mechanism The integraph plots (traces) the integral curve Y = F ( x ) = ∫ f ( x ) d x , {\displaystyle Y=F(x)=\int f(x)dx,} when we are given the differential curve, y = f ( x ) . {\displaystyle y=f(x).} The mathematical basis of the mechanism depends on the following considerations: For any point (x, y) of the differential curve, construct the auxiliary triangle with vertices (x, y), (x, 0) and (x − 1, 0). The hypotenuse of this right triangle intersects the X-axis making an angle the value of whose tangent is y. This hypotenuse is parallel to the tangent line of the integral curve at (X, Y) that corresponds to (x, y). The integraph may be used to obtain a quadrature of the circle. If the differential curve is the unit circle, the integral curve intersects the lines X = ± 1 at points that are equally spaced at a distance of π/2. |
Multi-agent learning Limitations Multi-agent_learning > Limitations There are some inherent difficulties about multi-agent deep reinforcement learning. The environment is not stationary anymore, thus the Markov property is violated: transitions and rewards do not only depend on the current state of an agent. |
Chromium(II) acetate Structure Chromium(II)_acetate > Structure The Cr2(OAc)4(H2O)2 molecule contains two atoms of chromium, two ligated molecules of water, and four acetate bridging ligands. The coordination environment around each chromium atom consists of four oxygen atoms (one from each acetate ligand) in a square, one water molecule (in an axial position), and the other chromium atom (opposite the water molecule), giving each chromium centre an octahedral geometry. The chromium atoms are joined by a quadruple bond, and the molecule has D4h symmetry (ignoring the position of the hydrogen atoms). |
Speech production Dell's model (1994) Speech_production > Model > Dell's model (1994) In 1994, Dell proposed a model of the lexical network that became fundamental in the understanding of the way speech is produced. This model of the lexical network attempts to symbolically represent the lexicon, and in turn, explain how people choose the words they wish to produce, and how those words are to be organized into speech. Dell's model was composed of three stages, semantics, words, and phonemes. The words in the highest stage of the model represent the semantic category. |
Linear complex structure Cn Linear_complex_structure > Examples > Cn The fundamental example of a linear complex structure is the structure on R2n coming from the complex structure on Cn. That is, the complex n-dimensional space Cn is also a real 2n-dimensional space – using the same vector addition and real scalar multiplication – while multiplication by the complex number i is not only a complex linear transform of the space, thought of as a complex vector space, but also a real linear transform of the space, thought of as a real vector space. Concretely, this is because scalar multiplication by i commutes with scalar multiplication by real numbers i ( λ v ) = ( i λ ) v = ( λ i ) v = λ ( i v ) {\displaystyle i(\lambda v)=(i\lambda )v=(\lambda i)v=\lambda (iv)} – and distributes across vector addition. As a complex n×n matrix, this is simply the scalar matrix with i on the diagonal. |
Inclusion (disability rights) Inclusion in the U.S. Inclusion_(disability_rights) > Inclusion in the U.S. In the United States, federal laws that pertain to individuals with disabilities aim to create an inclusive environment by promoting mainstreaming, nondiscrimination, reasonable accommodations, and universal design. There are three key federal laws that protect the rights of people with disabilities and attempt to ensure their inclusion in many aspects of society. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 protects individuals from discrimination based on disability. The nondiscrimination requirements of the law apply to employers and organizations that receive financial assistance from federal departments or agencies. |
Mainstreaming (education) Benefits to students with disabilities Mainstreaming_(education) > Advantages > Benefits to students with disabilities Mainstreaming is particularly beneficial for children with autism and ADHD. By interacting with same-aged non-disabled children, children with autism were observed to be six times more likely to engage in social relations outside of the classroom. Because children with autism spectrum disorders have severely restricted interests and abnormalities in communication and social interaction, the increased interaction with typical children may be beneficial to them. |
CAD/CAM dentistry History CAD/CAM_dentistry > History They used CADCAM to develop composite veneers. The Procera system later developed as a processing centre connected to satellite digitisers worldwide to produce all ceramic frameworks. This system is used around the world today. |
Histopathologic architecture Processing Histopathology > Preparation for histology > Processing This is usually done by hand and is a skilled job (histotechnologist) with the lab personnel making choices about which parts of the specimen microtome wax ribbon to place on slides. A number of slides will usually be prepared from different levels throughout the block. After this the thin section mounted slide is stained and a protective cover slip is mounted on it. For common stains, an automatic process is normally used; but rarely used stains are often done by hand. |
Artin conjecture (L-functions) The Dedekind conjecture Artin_L-function > The Dedekind conjecture A weaker conjecture (sometimes known as Dedekind conjecture) states that if M/K is an extension of number fields, then the quotient s ↦ ζ M ( s ) / ζ K ( s ) {\displaystyle s\mapsto \zeta _{M}(s)/\zeta _{K}(s)} of their Dedekind zeta functions is entire. The Aramata-Brauer theorem states that the conjecture holds if M/K is Galois. More generally, let N the Galois closure of M over K, and G the Galois group of N/K. The quotient s ↦ ζ M ( s ) / ζ K ( s ) {\displaystyle s\mapsto \zeta _{M}(s)/\zeta _{K}(s)} is equal to the Artin L-functions associated to the natural representation associated to the action of G on the K-invariants complex embedding of M. Thus the Artin conjecture implies the Dedekind conjecture. The conjecture was proven when G is a solvable group, independently by Koji Uchida and R. W. van der Waall in 1975. |
Programming language for Computable Functions Denotational semantics Programming_language_for_Computable_Functions > Semantics > Denotational semantics is interpreted as the domain of Scott-continuous functions from ] {\displaystyle \! ]\,} to ] {\displaystyle \! ]\,} , with the pointwise ordering. |
Romidepsin Mechanism of action Romidepsin > Mechanism of action Romidepsin acts as a prodrug with the disulfide bond undergoing reduction within the cell to release a zinc-binding thiol. The thiol binds to a zinc atom in the binding pocket of Zn-dependent histone deacetylase to block its activity. Thus it is an HDAC inhibitor. Many HDAC inhibitors are potential treatments for cancer through the ability to epigenetically restore normal expression of tumor suppressor genes, which may result in cell cycle arrest, differentiation, and apoptosis. |
Kernel density estimation Statistical implementation Kernel_density_estimate > Statistical implementation In C++, mlpack is a library that can compute KDE using many different kernels. It allows to set an error tolerance for faster computation. Python and R interfaces are available. |
List of number theory topics History List_of_number_theory_topics > History Disquisitiones Arithmeticae "On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude" Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie Prime Obsession |
Symbolic AI Machine learning Symbolic_AI > History > Adding in more rigorous foundations, 1993–2011 > Machine learning E.g., one rule might say that if X and Y are supplementary and you know X, then Y will be 180 - X. He called his approach "knowledge compilation". ACT-R has been used successfully to model aspects of human cognition, such as learning and retention. ACT-R is also used in intelligent tutoring systems, called cognitive tutors, to successfully teach geometry, computer programming, and algebra to school children.Inductive logic programming was another approach to learning that allowed logic programs to be synthesized from input-output examples. |
Sensory neuroscience Receptive field estimation Sensory_neuroscience > Receptive field estimation One major goal of sensory neuroscience is to try to estimate the neuron's receptive field; that is, to try to determine which stimuli cause the neuron to fire in what ways. One common way to find the receptive field is to use linear regression to find which stimulus characteristics typically caused neurons to become excited or depressed. Since the receptive field of a sensory neuron can vary in time (i.e. latency between the stimulus and the effect it has on the neuron) and in some spatial dimension (literally space for vision and somatosensory cells, but other "spatial" dimensions such as the frequency of a sound for auditory neurons), the term spatio temporal receptive field or STRF is often used to describe these receptive fields. |
Sentence structure Theories Syntactic_structure > Theories There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton, sees syntax as a branch of biology, since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind. Other linguists (e.g., Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system. Yet others (e.g., Joseph Greenberg) consider syntax a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages. |
Intron On the accuracy of splicing Non-gene_locus > On the accuracy of splicing When the mutant allele is in a heterozygous state this will result in production of two abundant splice variants; one functional and one non-functional. In the homozygous state the mutant alleles may cause a genetic disease such as the hemophilia found in descendants of Queen Victoria where a mutation in one of the introns in a blood clotting factor gene creates a cryptic 3' splice site resulting in aberrant splicing. A significant fraction of human deaths by disease may be caused by mutations that interfere with normal splicing; mostly by creating cryptic splice sites.Incorrectly spliced transcripts can easily be detected and their sequences entered into the online databases. |
Cyrus Derman Selected writings Cyrus_Derman > Selected writings Computing optimal sequential allocation rules in clinical trials, with Katehakis, M.N., "IMS Lecture Notes-Monograph Series", 1986. On the maintenance of systems composed of highly reliable components with Katehakis, M.N., in "Management Science", Vol. 9(4), 1989. |
Commercial augmented reality Sensors for CAR Commercial_augmented_reality > Technology > Sensors for CAR Tracking and networking hardware must work in a seamless combination to bring about the desired level of mobility in CAR systems. The latest smartphones and tablets like mobile devices consist of cameras to act as an optical sensor, accelerometer, and gyroscopes for position tracking, solid-state compass and Global Positioning System (GPS) circuits, as well as sensors, for location detection, Radio-frequency identification (RFID) for radio signal detection, Wi-Fi for networking, and several mobile-based third-party sensors for a myriad of purposes. |
CD1d-restricted T cell CD1d restricted natural killer T cells or group 2 CD1-restricted T cells CD1d-restricted_T_cell > CD1d restricted natural killer T cells or group 2 CD1-restricted T cells Natural killer T (NKT) cells represent unusual cells of the innate immune system because they express a surface receptor that is generated by somatic DNA rearrangement, a hallmark of cells of the adaptive immune system. A hallmark of NKT cells is their capacity to rapidly produce copious amounts of cytokines upon antigenic stimulation, including interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-4, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- α, and IL-2, which endows these cells with potent immunomodulatory activities. As a result, NKT cells are involved in the regulation of various immune responses, including infectious diseases, tumors, transplants, allergic reactions, autoimmune diseases, and inflammatory diseases. |
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