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Audio noise measurement Digital Audio_noise_measurement > Signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range > Digital noise floor in the presence of signal, expressed in dB2 FS" with the following note: This specification is sometimes referred to as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in the presence of a signal. The label SNR should not be used due to industry confusion over the exact definition. SNR is often used to indicate signal-to-noise ratio, with the noise level being measured with no signal. This can often give an optimistic result because of muting circuits, which mute the noise when no signal is present.
Non-random segregation of chromosomes Background and early history of research Non-random_segregation_of_chromosomes > Background and early history of research However, males only appear in one generation towards the end of the year, while otherwise there are only females, which reproduce by parthenogenesis. The question now was how it is achieved that all offspring in sexual reproduction are females. It turned out that meiosis I is inequal, i.e. results in two unequal-sized cells, and the X chromosome always ends up in the larger daughter cell.
Zero point energy Necessity of the vacuum field in QED Zero_point_energy > Quantum field theory > The quantum electrodynamic vacuum > Necessity of the vacuum field in QED . = e m E 0 ( t ) x ¨ ≈ − ω 0 2 x ( t ) x .
Biomolecular engineering Method Biomolecular_engineering > Of molecules > Recombinant DNA > Method It cuts the double stranded DNA leaving 3' overhangs. Beta is a protein that binds to single stranded DNA and assists homologous recombination by promoting annealing between the homology regions of the inserted DNA and the chromosomal DNA. Gam functions to protect the DNA insert from being destroyed by native nucleases within the cell.
TensorFlow AutoDifferentiation TensorFlow > Features > AutoDifferentiation AutoDifferentiation is the process of automatically calculating the gradient vector of a model with respect to each of its parameters. With this feature, TensorFlow can automatically compute the gradients for the parameters in a model, which is useful to algorithms such as backpropagation which require gradients to optimize performance. To do so, the framework must keep track of the order of operations done to the input Tensors in a model, and then compute the gradients with respect to the appropriate parameters.
Gastrointestinal symptom Hepatic Gastrointestinal_disorder > Accessory digestive gland disease > Hepatic Hepatic diseases refers to those affecting the liver. Hepatitis refers to inflammation of liver tissue, and may be acute or chronic. Infectious viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A, B and C, affect in excess of (X) million people worldwide. Liver disease may also be a result of lifestyle factors, such as fatty liver and NASH.
Ion notation Natural occurrences Positive_ions > Characteristics > Natural occurrences Ions are ubiquitous in nature and are responsible for diverse phenomena from the luminescence of the Sun to the existence of the Earth's ionosphere. Atoms in their ionic state may have a different color from neutral atoms, and thus light absorption by metal ions gives the color of gemstones. In both inorganic and organic chemistry (including biochemistry), the interaction of water and ions is extremely important; an example is energy that drives the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Neuropsychopharmacology Neural circuits Neuropsychopharmacology > Neural circuits One hypothesis suggests that in the frontal cortex, 5HT2A promotes late asynchronous excitatory postsynaptic potentials, a process antagonized by serotonin itself through 5HT1 receptors, which may explain why SSRIs and other serotonin-affecting drugs do not normally cause a patient to hallucinate. However, the fact that many classical psychedelics do in fact have significant affinity for 5HT1 receptors throws this claim into question. The head twitch response, a test used for assessing classical psychedelic activity in rodents, is produced by serotonin itself only in the presence of beta-Arrestins, but is triggered by classical psychedelics independent of beta-Arrestin recruitment.
Linear ordinary differential equation Non-homogeneous equation with constant coefficients Linear_ordinary_differential_equation > Non-homogeneous equation with constant coefficients Instead of considering u1, ..., un as constants, they can be considered as unknown functions that have to be determined for making y a solution of the non-homogeneous equation. For this purpose, one adds the constraints which imply (by product rule and induction) for i = 1, ..., n – 1, and Replacing in the original equation y and its derivatives by these expressions, and using the fact that y1, ..., yn are solutions of the original homogeneous equation, one gets This equation and the above ones with 0 as left-hand side form a system of n linear equations in u′1, ..., u′n whose coefficients are known functions (f, the yi, and their derivatives). This system can be solved by any method of linear algebra. The computation of antiderivatives gives u1, ..., un, and then y = u1y1 + ⋯ + unyn. As antiderivatives are defined up to the addition of a constant, one finds again that the general solution of the non-homogeneous equation is the sum of an arbitrary solution and the general solution of the associated homogeneous equation.
Weighted digraph Summary Simple_directed_graph In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a directed graph (or digraph) is a graph that is made up of a set of vertices connected by directed edges, often called arcs.
Air handler Heat recovery device Air_handler > Components > Heat recovery device Wheels are also available with a hydroscopic coating to provide latent heat transfer and also the drying or humidification of airstreams. Run around coil: Two air to liquid heat exchanger coils, in opposing airstreams, piped together with a circulating pump and using water or a brine as the heat transfer medium. This device, although not very efficient, allows heat recovery between remote and sometimes multiple supply and exhaust airstreams.
Hybrizyme Cause of maintenance Hybrizyme > Cause of maintenance Several hypotheses have been proposed to account the high frequency of hybrizymes in hybrid zones such as genetic drift, elevated rates of nucleotide substitutions. or positive selection on alleles which are mildly deleterious in parental taxa. Still, some faced a certain degree of unpredictability; specifically under the mutational hypothesis the overall substitution rates are elevated and many variants are expected versus having only one allele reaching high frequency and, at the same time, positive selection on deleterious alleles seems ambiguous. Selection does not need to be directed to the hybrizyme, but to other genes with which the hybrizyme is linked, placing genetic hitchhiking in perspective.
Hodge conjecture Reformulation in terms of algebraic cycles Hodge_conjecture > Statement of the Hodge conjecture > Reformulation in terms of algebraic cycles We define the cohomology class of an algebraic cycle to be the sum of the cohomology classes of its components. This is an example of the cycle class map of de Rham cohomology, see Weil cohomology. For example, the cohomology class of the above cycle would be ∑ i c i .
Transcranial Doppler Functional transcranial Doppler spectroscopy (fTCDS) Transcranial_Doppler > Functional transcranial Doppler (fTCD) > Functional transcranial Doppler spectroscopy (fTCDS) The most efficient standard Fourier algorithm requires that the length of the input series is equal to a power of 2. If this is not the case, additional computations have to be performed.
Dimensional regularization Summary Dimensional_regularization In theoretical physics, dimensional regularization is a method introduced by Giambiagi and Bollini as well as – independently and more comprehensively – by 't Hooft and Veltman for regularizing integrals in the evaluation of Feynman diagrams; in other words, assigning values to them that are meromorphic functions of a complex parameter d, the analytic continuation of the number of spacetime dimensions. Dimensional regularization writes a Feynman integral as an integral depending on the spacetime dimension d and the squared distances (xi−xj)2 of the spacetime points xi, ... appearing in it. In Euclidean space, the integral often converges for −Re(d) sufficiently large, and can be analytically continued from this region to a meromorphic function defined for all complex d. In general, there will be a pole at the physical value (usually 4) of d, which needs to be canceled by renormalization to obtain physical quantities.
Fission reactor By coolant Nuclear_pile > Reactor types > Classifications > By coolant During normal operation, a pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a steam bubble is maintained above it by heating the water with submerged heaters. During normal operation, the pressurizer is connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and the pressurizer "bubble" provides an expansion space for changes in water volume in the reactor. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters.
Oxygen Cycle Biological consumption Oxygen_Cycle > Sources and sinks > Biological consumption The main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
Polar bonds Summary Polarity_(chemistry) In chemistry, polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole moment, with a negatively charged end and a positively charged end. Polar molecules must contain one or more polar bonds due to a difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms. Molecules containing polar bonds have no molecular polarity if the bond dipoles cancel each other out by symmetry. Polar molecules interact through dipole-dipole intermolecular forces and hydrogen bonds. Polarity underlies a number of physical properties including surface tension, solubility, and melting and boiling points.
Niche picking Role Niche_picking > Scarr and McCartney's model > Role Scarr and McCartney defined niche picking as a mechanism used to select environments suitable for one's genotype. Therefore, an individual’s temperament often affects the type of niche selected, since environment reflects one’s general disposition.An individual's niche can change over time, as explained in Emilie Snell-Rood's theory of behavioral plasticity and evolution. Snell-Rood argues that one element of developmental behavioral plasticity is the change in a gene’s expressed phenotype as a result of a change in environment. Expressed behaviors reflect the environment one welcomes, and these behaviors change as a result of that environment. If an individual has encountered an environment before, their behavioral change can be attributed to learning, allowing the production of different responses. With respect to niche picking, this suggests that individuals' process of selecting environments evolves, as does their method of response and level of responsiveness.
Glossary of environmental science B Glossary_of_environmental_science > B bluewater - collectible water from rainfall; the water that falls on roofs and hard surfaces usually flowing into rivers and the sea and recharging the ground water. In nature the global average proportion of total rainfall that is blue water is about 40%. Blue water productivity in the garden can be increased by improving irrigation techniques, soil water storage, moderating the climate, using garden design and water-conserving plantings; also safe use of grey water.
Atypical depression Research Atypical_depression > Research Atypical depression was first thought of as a disorder separate from typical depression in 1959, when doctors E.D. West and P. J. Dally were studying the effects of iproniazid, an MAOI, on patients with depression. They found consistencies among the patients who responded well to the drug in comparison to those who didn't. These patients, who were displaying symptoms of "anxiety hysteria with secondary depression", responded notably well to the iproniazid.In general, atypical depression tends to cause greater functional impairment than other forms of depression.
Velocity potential Summary Velocity_potential A velocity potential is a scalar potential used in potential flow theory. It was introduced by Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788.It is used in continuum mechanics, when a continuum occupies a simply-connected region and is irrotational. In such a case, where u denotes the flow velocity.
Evolutionary baggage Origin Evolutionary_baggage > Origin Genes that may have been advantageous in the past may be critically unfit for individuals in today's environment. Natural selection is not a perfect process; if an organism is “fit enough” to survive a particular environment and reproduce, its genes are passed on to the next generation. Some of these genes may increase an organism's fitness while some may even be slightly disadvantageous. This seeming paradox is the origin of evolutionary baggage, which is the collectively inherited traits that evolved in a different environment from the present.
Post-harvest losses (vegetables) Causes of loss after harvest Post-harvest_losses_(vegetables) > Causes of loss after harvest Such injury often results from careless handling, causing internal bruising, splitting and skin breaks, thus rapidly increasing water loss. Respiration is a continuing process in a plant and cannot be stopped without damage to the growing plant or harvested produce. It uses stored starch or sugar and stops when reserves of these are exhausted, leading to ageing.
Corey–Itsuno reduction Variations Corey–Itsuno_reduction > Variations Although CBS catalyst 1 developed by Corey has become commonly employed in the CBS reduction reaction, other derivatives of the catalyst have been developed and utilized successfully. The R’ group of the CBS catalyst plays an important role in the enantioselectivity of the reduction, and as illustrated in above in the Scope section, several variations of the CBS R’ group have been employed to optimize selectivity.
Regular Language Complexity results Finite_language > Complexity results In computational complexity theory, the complexity class of all regular languages is sometimes referred to as REGULAR or REG and equals DSPACE(O(1)), the decision problems that can be solved in constant space (the space used is independent of the input size). REGULAR ≠ AC0, since it (trivially) contains the parity problem of determining whether the number of 1 bits in the input is even or odd and this problem is not in AC0. On the other hand, REGULAR does not contain AC0, because the nonregular language of palindromes, or the nonregular language { 0 n 1 n: n ∈ N } {\displaystyle \{0^{n}1^{n}:n\in \mathbb {N} \}} can both be recognized in AC0.If a language is not regular, it requires a machine with at least Ω(log log n) space to recognize (where n is the input size). In other words, DSPACE(o(log log n)) equals the class of regular languages. In practice, most nonregular problems are solved by machines taking at least logarithmic space.
Solvation Solvation energy and thermodynamic considerations Solvation > Solvation energy and thermodynamic considerations This is both entropically and enthalpically unfavorable, as solvent ordering increases and solvent-solvent interactions decrease. Stronger interactions among solvent molecules leads to a greater enthalpic penalty for cavity formation. Next, a particle of solute must separate from the bulk.
Order of magnitude Order-of-magnitude estimate Order_of_magnitude > Uses > Order-of-magnitude estimate For a number written in scientific notation, this logarithmic rounding scale requires rounding up to the next power of ten when the multiplier is greater than the square root of ten (about 3.162). For example, the nearest order of magnitude for 1.7×108 is 8, whereas the nearest order of magnitude for 3.7×108 is 9. An order-of-magnitude estimate is sometimes also called a zeroth order approximation.
TCP half-open Summary Half-open_connection The term half-open refers to TCP connections whose state is out of synchronization between the two communicating hosts, possibly due to a crash of one side. A connection which is in the process of being established is also known as embryonic connection. The lack of synchronization could be due to malicious intent.
Pink eye Bacterial Conjunctival_hyperemia > Management > Bacterial Antibiotics are also recommended for those who wear contact lenses, are immunocompromised, have disease which is thought to be due to chlamydia or gonorrhea, have a fair bit of pain, or have copious discharge. Gonorrheal or chlamydial infections require both oral and topical antibiotics.The choice of antibiotic varies based on the strain or suspected strain of bacteria causing the infection. Fluoroquinolones, sodium sulfacetamide, or trimethoprim/polymyxin may be used, typically for 7–10 days. Cases of meningococcal conjunctivitis can also be treated with systemic penicillin, as long as the strain is sensitive to penicillin.When investigated as a treatment, povidone-iodine ophthalmic solution has also been observed to have some effectiveness against bacterial and chlamydial conjunctivitis, with a possible role suggested in locations where topical antibiotics are unavailable or costly.
Epitranscriptome Messenger RNA (mRNA) Epitranscriptome > Modifications specific to different types of RNA > Messenger RNA (mRNA) However, as cell conditions change, the fraction of modified transcripts can change as well. As with other types of RNA, modifications impact the overall structure of the mRNA. Altering its structure may cause the mRNA to take different paths. For example, a normal transcript might be fated to be translated; however, the introduction of a modified base can disrupt its structure and send it down a different path, and that particular transcript may now be targeted for degradation.
Average case analysis Worst-case versus amortized versus average-case performance Average_case_analysis > Worst-case versus amortized versus average-case performance When analyzing algorithms which often take a small time to complete, but periodically require a much larger time, amortized analysis can be used to determine the worst-case running time over a (possibly infinite) series of operations. This amortized cost can be much closer to the average cost, while still providing a guaranteed upper limit on the running time. So e.g. online algorithms are frequently based on amortized analysis. The worst-case analysis is related to the worst-case complexity.
Optical force Summary Optical_force The optical force is a phenomenon whereby beams of light can attract and repel each other. The force acts along an axis which is perpendicular to the light beams. Because of this, parallel beams can be induced to converge or diverge. The optical force works on a microscopic scale, and cannot currently be detected at larger scales. It was discovered by a team of Yale researchers led by electrical engineer Hong Tang.
Corepressor Diseases Corepressor > Clinical significance > Diseases Since corepressors participate and regulate a vast range of gene expression, it is not surprising that aberrant corepressor activities can cause diseases.Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a highly lethal blood cancer characterized by uncontrolled myeloid cell growth. Two homologous corepressor genes, BCOR (BCL6 corepressor) and BCORL1, are recurrently mutated in AML patients. BCOR works with multiple transcription factors and is known to play vital regulatory roles in embryonic development. Clinical results detected BCOR somatic mutations in ~4% of an unselected group of AML patients, and ~17% in a subset of patients who lack known AML-causing mutations.
Pseudolinkage In translocation heterozygote Pseudolinkage > In translocation heterozygote In translocation heterozygote, however, certain patterns of chromosome segregation during meiosis produce genetically unbalanced gametes that at fertilization become deleterious to the zygote. In a translocation heterozygote, the two haploid sets of chromosomes do not carry the same arrangement of genetic information. As a result, during prophase of the first meiotic division, the translocated chromosomes and their normal homologs assume a crosslike configuration in which four chromosomes, rather than the normal two, pair to achieve a maximum of synapsis between similar regions. We denote the chromosomes carrying translocated material with a T and the chromosomes with a normal order of genes with an N. Chromosomes N1 and T1 have homologous centromeres found in wild type on chromosome 1; N2 and T2 have centromeres found in wild type on chromosome 2. During anaphase of meiosis I, the mechanisms that attach the spindle to the chromosomes in this crosslike configuration still usually ensure the disjunction of homologous centromeres, bringing homologous chromosomes to opposite spindle poles. Depending on the arrangement of the four chromosomes on the metaphase plate, this normal disjunction of homologous produces one of two equally likely patterns of segregation.
Motor coordination Complexity Fine_motor_coordination > Properties > Complexity (3) coordinating the muscles required for lifting and articulating the bottle so that the water can be poured into the glass. (4) terminating the action by placing the empty bottle back on the table. Hand-eye coordination is also required in the above task. There is simultaneous coordination between hand and eye movement as dictated by the multi-sensory integration of proprioceptive and visual information. Additional levels of coordination are required depending on if the person intends to drink from the glass, give it to someone else, or simply put it on a table.
Electron diffraction Polycrystalline pattern Electron_diffraction > Types and techniques > In a transmission electron microscope > Polycrystalline pattern Diffraction patterns depend on whether the beam is diffracted by one single crystal or by a number of differently oriented crystallites, for instance in a polycrystalline material. If there are many contributing crystallites, the diffraction image is a superposition of individual crystal patterns, see Figure 12. With a large number of grains this superposition yields diffraction spots of all possible reciprocal lattice vectors. This results in a pattern of concentric rings as shown in Figures 12 and 13.
Earle Buckingham Summary Earle_Buckingham Retrieved from . Development of gear Technology and Theroy of Gearing.
Random Variable Convergence Random_variables > Convergence A significant theme in mathematical statistics consists of obtaining convergence results for certain sequences of random variables; for instance the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. There are various senses in which a sequence X n {\displaystyle X_{n}} of random variables can converge to a random variable X {\displaystyle X} . These are explained in the article on convergence of random variables.
Universal characteristic More recent projects Universal_characteristic > More recent projects Specifically, the members of the universal set of a Boolean algebra or group need not be numbers. Moreover, a fair bit of philosophy and theoretical science can be formalized as axiomatic theories embodying first-order logic and set theory. Note also how model theory has been employed to formalize and reason about such emphatically nonnumerical subjects as semantics and pragmatics of natural languages.
Variable costs Summary Variable_costs Direct costs are costs that can easily be associated with a particular cost object. However, not all variable costs are direct costs. For example, variable manufacturing overhead costs are variable costs that are indirect costs, not direct costs.
Fugacity Gas Fugacity > Pure substance > Gas At low temperatures, molecules are more likely to stick together instead of rebounding elastically.The ideal gas law can still be used to describe the behavior of a real gas if the pressure is replaced by a fugacity f, defined so that and That is, at low pressures f is the same as the pressure, so it has the same units as pressure. The ratio is called the fugacity coefficient. : 248–249 If a reference state is denoted by a zero superscript, then integrating the equation for the chemical potential gives Note this can also be expressed with a = f / P 0 {\displaystyle a=f/P^{0}} , a dimensionless quantity, called the activity.
Energy Resources Aotearoa Climate change Energy_Resources_Aotearoa > Climate change Energy Resources Aotearoa says it supports the transition to lower emissions.As PEPANZ, the organisation was criticised for advocating increased use of fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas.
Exponential map (Lie theory) Definitions Exponential_map_(Lie_theory) > Definitions Let G {\displaystyle G} be a Lie group and g {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}} be its Lie algebra (thought of as the tangent space to the identity element of G {\displaystyle G} ). The exponential map is a map exp: g → G {\displaystyle \exp \colon {\mathfrak {g}}\to G} which can be defined in several different ways. The typical modern definition is this: Definition: The exponential of X ∈ g {\displaystyle X\in {\mathfrak {g}}} is given by exp ⁡ ( X ) = γ ( 1 ) {\displaystyle \exp(X)=\gamma (1)} where γ: R → G {\displaystyle \gamma \colon \mathbb {R} \to G} is the unique one-parameter subgroup of G {\displaystyle G} whose tangent vector at the identity is equal to X {\displaystyle X} .It follows easily from the chain rule that exp ⁡ ( t X ) = γ ( t ) {\displaystyle \exp(tX)=\gamma (t)} . The map γ {\displaystyle \gamma } may be constructed as the integral curve of either the right- or left-invariant vector field associated with X {\displaystyle X} .
Ozone destruction Rowland–Molina hypothesis Ozone_depleting > Research history > Rowland–Molina hypothesis In response the United States, Canada and Norway banned the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans in 1978. Early estimates were that, if CFC production continued at 1977 levels, the total atmospheric ozone would after a century or so reach a steady state, 15 to 18 percent below normal levels. By 1984, when better evidence on the speed of critical reactions was available, this estimate was changed to 5 to 9 percent steady-state depletion.Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on stratospheric ozone.
Categorical variable Number of possible values Categorical_data > Number of possible values Because of their importance, these variables are often considered a separate category, with a separate distribution (the Bernoulli distribution) and separate regression models (logistic regression, probit regression, etc.). As a result, the term "categorical variable" is often reserved for cases with 3 or more outcomes, sometimes termed a multi-way variable in opposition to a binary variable. It is also possible to consider categorical variables where the number of categories is not fixed in advance.
Sink (computing) In stream processing Sink_(computing) > In stream processing In several computer programs employing streams, such as GStreamer, PulseAudio, or PipeWire, a source is the starting point of a pipeline which produces a stream but does not consume any, while a sink is the end point which accepts a stream without producing any.An example is an audio pipeline in the PulseAudio sound system. An input device such as a microphone is a type of audio source, while an output device like a speaker is the audio sink.
Linear algebraic group Lie groups Linear_algebraic_group > Related notions > Lie groups For a linear algebraic group G over the real numbers R, the group of real points G(R) is a Lie group, essentially because real polynomials, which describe the multiplication on G, are smooth functions. Likewise, for a linear algebraic group G over C, G(C) is a complex Lie group. Much of the theory of algebraic groups was developed by analogy with Lie groups. There are several reasons why a Lie group may not have the structure of a linear algebraic group over R. A Lie group with an infinite group of components G/Go cannot be realized as a linear algebraic group.
APL programming language Pick 6 lottery numbers Dyalog_APL > Language characteristics > Examples > Pick 6 lottery numbers This following immediate-mode expression generates a typical set of Pick 6 lottery numbers: six pseudo-random integers ranging from 1 to 40, guaranteed non-repeating, and displays them sorted in ascending order: The above does a lot, concisely, although it may seem complex to a new APLer. It combines the following APL functions (also called primitives and glyphs): The first to be executed (APL executes from rightmost to leftmost) is dyadic function ? (named deal when dyadic) that returns a vector consisting of a select number (left argument: 6 in this case) of random integers ranging from 1 to a specified maximum (right argument: 40 in this case), which, if said maximum ≥ vector length, is guaranteed to be non-repeating; thus, generate/create 6 random integers ranging from 1 to 40. This vector is then assigned (←) to the variable x, because it is needed later.
Labor process theory Summary Labor_process_theory In Labor and Monopoly Capital: Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, Braverman seeks to retrieve and update Marx's critiques of the capitalist labour process through an attack upon bourgeois accounts of work in the industrial society. Although Braverman's primary focus is the degradation of work in the twentieth century, which he associates with the relentless tightening of management control, Labor and Monopoly Capital also contains at least two other loosely related elements: an outline of developments in the wider organization of monopoly capitalist societies, and an examination of changes in their occupational and class structures.The labour process theory looks at how people work, who controls their work, what skills they use in work and how they are paid for work. Braverman posits a very broad thesis, namely that under capitalism management steals workers skills, reduces the pleasurable nature of work and the power workers have through controlling skill while cutting their wages by reducing their wages to those of unskilled workers and increasing the amount of exertion required from workers.
Group dynamics Group structure Group_dynamics > Intragroup dynamics > Group structure Norms are said to be emergent, as they develop gradually throughout interactions between group members. While many norms are widespread throughout society, groups may develop their own norms that members must learn when they join the group. There are various types of norms, including: prescriptive, proscriptive, descriptive, and injunctive.
Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer Signaling pathways Electronic_energy_transfer > Applications > Signaling pathways Another use for FRET is in the study of metabolic or signaling pathways. For example, FRET and BRET have been used in various experiments to characterize G-protein coupled receptor activation and consequent signaling mechanisms. Other examples include the use of FRET to analyze such diverse processes as bacterial chemotaxis and caspase activity in apoptosis.
Inner model theory Examples Inner_model_theory > Examples The class of all sets is an inner model containing all other inner models. The first non-trivial example of an inner model was the constructible universe L developed by Kurt Gödel. Every model M of ZF has an inner model LM satisfying the axiom of constructibility, and this will be the smallest inner model of M containing all the ordinals of M. Regardless of the properties of the original model, LM will satisfy the generalized continuum hypothesis and combinatorial axioms such as the diamond principle ◊. HOD, the class of sets that are hereditarily ordinal definable, form an inner model, which satisfies ZFC.
OS kernel Monolithic kernels vs. microkernels Kernel_image > Kernel-wide design approaches > Monolithic kernels vs. microkernels By the early 1990s, due to the various shortcomings of monolithic kernels versus microkernels, monolithic kernels were considered obsolete by virtually all operating system researchers. As a result, the design of Linux as a monolithic kernel rather than a microkernel was the topic of a famous debate between Linus Torvalds and Andrew Tanenbaum. There is merit on both sides of the argument presented in the Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate.
Axolotl Threats Axolotl > Threats This lack of genetic diversity can be dangerous for the remaining population, causing an increase in inbreeding and a decrease in general fitness and adaptive potential. It ultimately raises the axolotl’s risk for extinction, something that they are already in danger of. Studies have found indicators of a low interpopulation gene flow and higher rates of genetic drift.
Condenser (heat transfer) Direct-contact Condenser_(heat_transfer) > Examples of condensers > Direct-contact In a direct-contact condenser, hot vapor and cool liquid are introduced into a vessel and allowed to mix directly, rather than being separated by a barrier such as the wall of a heat exchanger tube. The vapor gives up its latent heat and condenses to a liquid, while the liquid absorbs this heat and undergoes a temperature rise. The entering vapor and liquid typically contain a single condensable substance, such as a water spray being used to cool air and adjust its humidity.
Solid-state engine Applications Johnson_thermoelectric_energy_converter > Applications The scalability of the engine leads its developers to claim that its potential applications range from providing power for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to functioning as large-scale power plants. The converter can use many diverse forms of fuel without the need for fuel-specific customization as seen in internal combustion engines, and can generate power from fuel combustion, solar irradiance, low grade waste heat from industry, or such other power generation systems as fuel cells, internal combustion engines, or turbines, because it functions as an external combustion engine.
Physics of roller coasters Inertia and gravity Physics_of_roller_coasters > Inertia and gravity When going around a roller coaster's vertical loop, the inertia that produces a thrilling acceleration force also keeps passengers in their seats. As the car approaches a loop, the direction of a passenger's inertial velocity points straight ahead at the same angle as the track leading up to the loop. As the car enters the loop, the track guides the car up, moving the passenger up as well. This change in direction creates a feeling of extra gravity as the passenger is pushed down into the seat.
T test The two-sample t-test is a special case of simple linear regression Student's_t_test > Related statistical tests > The two-sample t-test is a special case of simple linear regression The difference in word.recall between drug doses is significant (p=0.00805).Perform a linear regression of the same data. Calculations may be performed using the R function lm() for a linear model. The linear regression provides a table of coefficients and p-values.
Concentrating solar thermal Current technology Concentrating_solar > Current technology CSP is used to produce electricity (sometimes called solar thermoelectricity, usually generated through steam). Concentrated-solar technology systems use mirrors or lenses with tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area. The concentrated light is then used as heat or as a heat source for a conventional power plant (solar thermoelectricity). The solar concentrators used in CSP systems can often also be used to provide industrial process heating or cooling, such as in solar air conditioning.
Duodenum Ulceration Duodenum > Clinical significance > Ulceration Ulcers of the duodenum commonly occur because of infection by the bacteria Helicobacter pylori. These bacteria, through a number of mechanisms, erode the protective mucosa of the duodenum, predisposing it to damage from gastric acids. The first part of the duodenum is the most common location of ulcers since it is where the acidic chyme meets the duodenal mucosa before mixing with the alkaline secretions of the duodenum. Duodenal ulcers may cause recurrent abdominal pain and dyspepsia, and are often investigated using a urea breath test to test for the bacteria, and endoscopy to confirm ulceration and take a biopsy. If managed, these are often managed through antibiotics that aim to eradicate the bacteria, and proton-pump inhibitors and antacids to reduce the gastric acidity.
Recursive type Recursive type synonyms Recursive_type > Recursive type synonyms (Type synonyms are not "real" types; they are just "aliases" for convenience of the programmer.) But if this is attempted with a recursive type, it will loop infinitely because no matter how many times the alias is substituted, it still refers to itself, e.g. "Bad" will grow indefinitely: Bad → (Int, Bad) → (Int, (Int, Bad)) → ... . Another way to see it is that a level of indirection (the algebraic data type) is required to allow the isorecursive type system to figure out when to roll and unroll.
Inverse element Examples One-sided_inverse > Generalizations > Examples All examples in this section involve associative operators.
Failure modes, effects and criticality analysis Maintainability analysis Failure_Mode,_Effects,_and_Criticality_Analysis > Methodology > Maintainability analysis FMECA usually feeds into both Maintainability Analysis and Logistics Support Analysis, which both require data from the FMECA. FMECA is the most popular tool for failure and criticality analysis of systems for performance enhancement. In the present era of Industry 4.0, the industries are implementing a predictive maintenance strategy for their mechanical systems. The FMECA is widely used for the failure mode identification and prioritization of mechanical systems and their subsystems for predictive maintenance.
Tactile sensor Uses Tactile_sensor > Uses Tactile sensors can be used to test the performance of all types of applications. For example, these sensors have been used in the manufacturing of automobiles (brakes, clutches, door seals, gasket), battery lamination, bolted joints, fuel cells etc. Tactile imaging, as a medical imaging modality, translating the sense of touch into a digital image is based on the tactile sensors. Tactile imaging closely mimics manual palpation, since the probe of the device with a pressure sensor array mounted on its face acts similar to human fingers during clinical examination, deforming soft tissue by the probe and detecting resulting changes in the pressure pattern.
Infrared window Summary Infrared_window . ." Nowadays, accurate line-by-line computations are possible, and careful studies of the spectroscopy of infrared atmospheric gases have been published.
BASIC interpreter Compilers vs. interpreters BASIC_interpreter > Compilers vs. interpreters Computers of the era had very small amounts of memory; in modern terms a typical mainframe might have on the order of 64 KB. On a timesharing system, the case for most 1960s BASICs, that memory was shared among many users. In order to make a compiler work, the systems had to have some form of high-performance secondary storage, typically a hard drive.
Quantum Computer Engineering Quantum_processor > Engineering As of 2023, classical computers outperform quantum computers for all real-world applications. While current quantum computers may speed up solutions to particular mathematical problems, they give no computational advantage for practical tasks. For many tasks there is no promise of useful quantum speedup, and some tasks provably prohibit any quantum speedup in the sense that any speedup is ruled out by proved theorems. Scientists and engineers are exploring multiple technologies for quantum computing hardware and hope to develop scalable quantum architectures, but serious obstacles remain.
Lipoprotein-X Literature Lipoprotein-X > Literature Sörös P, Böttcher J, Maschek H, Selberg O, Müller MJ (November 1998). "Lipoprotein-X in patients with cirrhosis: its relationship to cholestasis and hypercholesterolemia". Hepatology.
CRISPR-Display Recruitment of endogenous or engineered RNA binding proteins for gene regulation CRISPR-Display > Applications > Artificial ncRNA functionalization > Recruitment of endogenous or engineered RNA binding proteins for gene regulation Endogenous proteins known to bind a specific RNA motif can be recruited to ectopic genomic locations by incorporating the RNA motif into the sgRNA. CRISPR-Display can also recruit fusion proteins engineered to bind specific RNA sequences. Recruiting these proteins can allow studies of specific proteins’ and protein complexes’ effects on gene regulation and chromatin states, as well as specific regulation of certain genes for investigation of gene function.
Scoring functions for docking Prerequisites Scoring_functions_for_docking > Prerequisites Scoring functions are normally parameterized (or trained) against a data set consisting of experimentally determined binding affinities between molecular species similar to the species that one wishes to predict. For currently used methods aiming to predict affinities of ligands for proteins the following must first be known or predicted: Protein tertiary structure – arrangement of the protein atoms in three-dimensional space. Protein structures may be determined by experimental techniques such as X-ray crystallography or solution phase NMR methods or predicted by homology modelling. Ligand active conformation – three-dimensional shape of the ligand when bound to the protein Binding-mode – orientation of the two binding partners relative to each other in the complexThe above information yields the three-dimensional structure of the complex. Based on this structure, the scoring function can then estimate the strength of the association between the two molecules in the complex using one of the methods outlined below. Finally the scoring function itself may be used to help predict both the binding mode and the active conformation of the small molecule in the complex, or alternatively a simpler and computationally faster function may be utilized within the docking run.
Pioneer factor Histone modification Pioneer_factor > Epigenetic effects > Histone modification FoxD3 has been associated as a repressor of both B-cell and melanocytic cell differentiation pathways, maintaining repressive histone modifications where bound, that have to be overcome to start differentiation. Pioneer factors can also be associated with recruiting transcription-activating histone modifications. Enzymes that modify H3K4 with mono and di-methylation are associated with increasing transcription and have been shown to bind pioneer factors.
Pullback (cohomology) Summary Pullback_(cohomology) In algebraic topology, given a continuous map f: X → Y of topological spaces and a ring R, the pullback along f on cohomology theory is a grade-preserving R-algebra homomorphism: f ∗: H ∗ ( Y ; R ) → H ∗ ( X ; R ) {\displaystyle f^{}:H^{}(Y;R)\to H^{}(X;R)} from the cohomology ring of Y with coefficients in R to that of X. The use of the superscript is meant to indicate its contravariant nature: it reverses the direction of the map. For example, if X, Y are manifolds, R the field of real numbers, and the cohomology is de Rham cohomology, then the pullback is induced by the pullback of differential forms. The homotopy invariance of cohomology states that if two maps f, g: X → Y are homotopic to each other, then they determine the same pullback: f = g*. In contrast, a pushforward for de Rham cohomology for example is given by integration-along-fibers.
Usability requirements Corporate integration Usability > Benefits > Corporate integration There are numerous reasons why each of these factors correlates to overall improvement. For example, making software user interfaces easier to understand reduces the need for extensive training. The improved interface tends to lower the time needed to perform tasks, and so would both raise the productivity levels for employees and reduce development time (and thus costs).
Trucker hat Summary Trucker_hat A trucker hat, mesh cap or netback cap is a type of baseball cap. It is also sometimes known as a "gimme cap" or a "feed cap" because this style of hat originated during the 1970s as a promotional give-away from U.S. feed or farming supply companies to farmers, truck drivers, or other rural workers.
Protect IP Act Civil liberties issues Protect_IP_Act > Reception > Civil liberties issues Requiring search engines to remove links to an entire website altogether due to an infringing page would raise free speech concerns regarding lawful content hosted elsewhere on the site.Google chairman Eric Schmidt stated that the measures called for in PIPA are overly simple solutions to a complex problem, and that the precedent set by pruning DNS entries is bad from the viewpoint of free speech and would be a step toward less permissive Internet environments, such as China's. As the chairman of the company that owns the world's largest search engine, Schmidt said "If there is a law that requires DNSs to do X and it's passed by both Houses of Congress and signed by the President of the United States and we disagree with it then we would still fight it. "Constitutional law expert Floyd Abrams said, "The Protect IP Act neither compels nor prohibits free speech or communication... the bill sets a high bar in defining when a website or domain is eligible for potential actions by the Attorney General...".
Abraham Neyman Repeated games Abraham_Neyman > Research contributions > Repeated games His paper was followed by many others who started working on bounded memory games. Most notable was Neyman's M.Sc. student Elchanan Ben-Porath who was the first to shed light on the strategic value of bounded complexity.The two main models of bounded complexity, automaton size and recall capacity, continued to pose intriguing open problems in the following decades.
Inner moon Summary Inner_moon In astronomy, an inner moon or inner natural satellite is a natural satellite following a prograde, low-inclination orbit inwards of the large satellites of the parent planet. They are generally thought to have been formed in situ at the same time as the coalescence of the original planet. Neptune's moons are an exception, as they are likely reaggregates of the pieces of the original bodies, which were disrupted after the capture of the large moon Triton. Inner satellites are distinguished from other regular satellites by their proximity to the parent planet, their short orbital periods (usually under a day), their low mass, small size, and irregular shapes.
Automedian triangle Additional properties Automedian_triangle > Additional properties Because in a primitive automedian triangle side a {\displaystyle a} is the sum of two squares and equal to the hypotenuse of the generating primitive Pythagorean triple, it is divisible only by primes congruent to 1 (mod 4). Consequently, a {\displaystyle a} must be congruent to 1 (mod 4). Similarly, because the sides are related by 2 a 2 = b 2 + c 2 {\displaystyle 2a^{2}=b^{2}+c^{2}} , each of the sides b {\displaystyle b} and c {\displaystyle c} in the primitive automedian is the difference between twice a square and a square.
Ced-3 Mechanism Ced-3 > Mechanism Prior to this, apoptosis must be triggered by the increased gene expression of another protein known as the "death receptor", called EGL-1 protein. EGL-1 will then bind to and inhibit ced-9 which is an inhibitor caspase that recognizes and binds to ced-4 so that it can no longer activate ced-3. This causes a failure in apoptosis and the cell would continue live.
Convolution operator Relations with other transforms Convolution_operator > Definition > Relations with other transforms The existing ones are only modified (amplitude and/or phase). In other words, the output transform is the pointwise product of the input transform with a third transform (known as a transfer function). See Convolution theorem for a derivation of that property of convolution. Conversely, convolution can be derived as the inverse Fourier transform of the pointwise product of two Fourier transforms.
Categories (Aristotle) The praedicamenta Categories_(Aristotle) > The text > The praedicamenta It is of great importance in the development of mathematical ideas in the medieval and late Scholastic period. Examples: two cubits long, number, space, (length of) time. Qualification or quality (ποιόν, poion, of what kind or quality).
Hartree atomic units Defining constants Atomic_units_system > Defining constants By definition, each of the following four fundamental physical constants is expressed as the numeric value 1 multiplied by a coherent unit of this system:
Point groups in four dimensions Hexadecachoric symmetry Point_groups_in_four_dimensions > Notation for groups > Hexadecachoric symmetry A snub cubic pyramid can have this symmetry, with Schläfli symbol: ( ) ∨ sr{4,3}. Another high-index reflective subgroup is the prismatic tetrahedral symmetry, , (), order 48, subgroup index 8, (Du Val #40b" (O/C1;O/C1)*, Conway +1/24.23). The chiral subgroup is +, (), order 24, (Du Val #26b" (O/C1;O/C1), Conway +1/24).
Transition metal catalyst Coloured compounds Transition_element > Characteristic properties > Coloured compounds Colour in transition-series metal compounds is generally due to electronic transitions of two principal types. charge transfer transitions. An electron may jump from a predominantly ligand orbital to a predominantly metal orbital, giving rise to a ligand-to-metal charge-transfer (LMCT) transition. These can most easily occur when the metal is in a high oxidation state.
Term graph Summary Term_graph A term graph is a representation of an expression in a formal language as a generalized graph whose vertices are terms. Term graphs are a more powerful form of representation than expression trees because they can represent not only common subexpressions (i.e. they can take the structure of a directed acyclic graph) but also cyclic/recursive subexpressions (cyclic digraphs). Abstract syntax trees cannot represent shared subexpressions since each tree node can only have one parent; this simplicity comes at the cost of efficiency due to redundant duplicate computations of identical terms. For this reason term graphs are often used as an intermediate language at a subsequent compilation stage to abstract syntax tree construction via parsing.
Knudsen diffusion Mathematical description Knudsen_diffusion > Mathematical description The diffusive flux is driven by a concentration gradient, which in most cases is embodied as a pressure gradient (i.e. n = P / R T {\displaystyle n=P/RT} therefore ∇ n = Δ P R T l {\displaystyle \nabla n={\frac {\Delta P}{RTl}}} where Δ P {\displaystyle \Delta P} is the pressure difference between both sides of the pore and l {\displaystyle l} is the length of the pore). If we assume that Δ P {\displaystyle \Delta P} is much less than P a v e {\displaystyle P_{\rm {ave}}} , the average absolute pressure in the system (i.e. Δ P ≪ P a v e {\displaystyle \Delta P\ll P_{\rm {ave}}} ) then we can express the Knudsen flux as a volumetric flow rate as follows: Q K = Δ P d 3 6 l P a v e 2 π R T M A {\displaystyle Q_{K}={\frac {\Delta Pd^{3}}{6lP_{\rm {ave}}}}{\sqrt {\frac {2\pi RT}{M_{A}}}}} ,where Q K {\displaystyle Q_{K}} is the volumetric flow rate in m 3 / s {\displaystyle {\rm {m^{3}/s}}} . If the pore is relatively short, entrance effects can significantly reduce to net flux through the pore.
Catalysis Enzymes and biocatalysts Promoter_(catalysis) > Homogeneous catalysis > Enzymes and biocatalysts In biology, enzymes are protein-based catalysts in metabolism and catabolism. Most biocatalysts are enzymes, but other non-protein-based classes of biomolecules also exhibit catalytic properties including ribozymes, and synthetic deoxyribozymes.Biocatalysts can be thought of as an intermediate between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts, although strictly speaking soluble enzymes are homogeneous catalysts and membrane-bound enzymes are heterogeneous. Several factors affect the activity of enzymes (and other catalysts) including temperature, pH, the concentration of enzymes, substrate, and products. A particularly important reagent in enzymatic reactions is water, which is the product of many bond-forming reactions and a reactant in many bond-breaking processes.
Active load Circuit design Dynamic_load > Circuit design In circuit design, an active load is a circuit component made up of active devices, such as transistors, intended to present a high small-signal impedance yet not requiring a large DC voltage drop, as would occur if a large resistor were used instead. Such large AC load impedances may be desirable, for example, to increase the AC gain of some types of amplifier. Most commonly the active load is the output part of a current mirror and is represented in an idealized manner as a current source. Usually, it is only a constant-current resistor that is a part of the whole current source including a constant voltage source as well (the power supply VCC on the figures below).
Variable Valve Control About Variable_Valve_Control > About The system has the advantage that it is continuously variable rather than switching in at a set speed. Its disadvantage is the complexity of the system and corresponding price. Other systems will achieve similar results with less cost and simpler design (electronic control). For a more detailed description, see the sandsmuseum link below.
Telematic control unit Summary Telematic_control_unit In the automotive domain, a TCU can also be a transmission control unit. A TCU consists of: a satellite navigation (GNSS) unit, which keeps track of the latitude and longitude values of the vehicle; an external interface for mobile communication (GSM, GPRS, Wi-Fi, WiMax, LTE or 5G), which provides the tracked values to a centralized geographical information system (GIS) database server; an electronic processing unit; a microcontroller, microprocessor, or field programmable gate array (FPGA) which processes the information and acts as an interface to the GPS; a mobile communication unit; memory for saving GPS values in mobile-free zones or to intelligently store information about the vehicle's sensor data. battery module
Probabilistic cellular automata PCA as Markov stochastic processes Stochastic_cellular_automata > PCA as Markov stochastic processes As discrete-time Markov process, PCA are defined on a product space E = ∏ k ∈ G S k {\displaystyle E=\prod _{k\in G}S_{k}} (cartesian product) where G {\displaystyle G} is a finite or infinite graph, like Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } and where S k {\displaystyle S_{k}} is a finite space, like for instance S k = { − 1 , + 1 } {\displaystyle S_{k}=\{-1,+1\}} or S k = { 0 , 1 } {\displaystyle S_{k}=\{0,1\}} . The transition probability has a product form P ( d σ \| η ) = ⊗ k ∈ G p k ( d σ k \| η ) {\displaystyle P(d\sigma \|\eta )=\otimes _{k\in G}p_{k}(d\sigma _{k}\|\eta )} where η ∈ E {\displaystyle \eta \in E} and p k ( d σ k \| η ) {\displaystyle p_{k}(d\sigma _{k}\|\eta )} is a probability distribution on S k {\displaystyle S_{k}} . In general some locality is required p k ( d σ k \| η ) = p k ( d σ k \| η V k ) {\displaystyle p_{k}(d\sigma _{k}\|\eta )=p_{k}(d\sigma _{k}\|\eta _{V_{k}})} where η V k = ( η j ) j ∈ V k {\displaystyle \eta _{V_{k}}=(\eta _{j})_{j\in V_{k}}} with V k {\displaystyle {V_{k}}} a finite neighbourhood of k. See for a more detailed introduction following the probability theory's point of view.
Social communication Barriers to effective communication Social_communication > Communicative competence > Barriers to effective communication Barriers to effective communication can distort the message. This may result in failed communication and cause undesirable effects. Potential sources of distortion include filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions, communication apprehension, and gender differences.
Wood screw Tools Wood_screw > Tools The hand tool used to drive in most screws is called a screwdriver. A power tool that does the same job is a power screwdriver; power drills may also be used with screw-driving attachments. Where the holding power of the screwed joint is critical, torque-measuring and torque-limiting screwdrivers are used to ensure sufficient but not excessive force is developed by the screw. The hand tool for driving hex head threaded fasteners is a spanner (UK usage) or wrench (US usage), while a nut setter is used with a power screw driver.
Plasma renin activity Results and explanations Plasma_renin_activity > Measurement and Values > Results and explanations Please go through the physiology of renin and of the renin–angiotensin system to understand why the following occur. Higher-than-normal levels may indicate: Lower-than-normal levels may indicate:
Scalar wave Other kinds of fields Scalar_fields > Other kinds of fields Vector fields, which associate a vector to every point in space. Some examples of vector fields include the electromagnetic field and air flow (wind) in meteorology. Tensor fields, which associate a tensor to every point in space.
Giant multinucleated cell Risk of transmission Epidemiology_of_tuberculosis > Causes > Transmission > Risk of transmission People with prolonged, frequent, or close contact with people with TB are at particularly high risk of becoming infected, with an estimated 22% infection rate. A person with active but untreated tuberculosis may infect 10–15 (or more) other people per year. Transmission should occur from only people with active TB – those with latent infection are not thought to be contagious.
Table (furniture) Summary Table_(furniture) Common design elements include: Top surfaces of various shapes, including rectangular, square, rounded, semi-circular or oval Legs arranged in two or more similar pairs. It usually has four legs. However, some tables have three legs, use a single heavy pedestal, or are attached to a wall. Several geometries of folding table that can be collapsed into a smaller volume (e.g., a TV tray, which is a portable, folding table on a stand) Heights ranging up and down from the most common 18–30 inches (46–76 cm) range, often reflecting the height of chairs or bar stools used as seating for people making use of a table, as for eating or performing various manipulations of objects resting on a table A huge range of sizes, from small bedside tables to large dining room tables and huge conference room tables Presence or absence of drawers, shelves or other areas for storing items Expansion of the table surface by insertion of leaves or locking hinged drop leaf sections into a horizontal position (this is particularly common for dining tables)
Scientific modelling Summary Scientific_modelling Scientific modelling is an activity that produces models representing empirical objects, phenomena, and physical processes, to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to understand, define, quantify, visualize, or simulate. It requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then developing a model to replicate a system with those features. Different types of models may be used for different purposes, such as conceptual models to better understand, operational models to operationalize, mathematical models to quantify, computational models to simulate, and graphical models to visualize the subject.
Lorentz boosts History Lorentz_transform > History Many physicists—including Woldemar Voigt, George FitzGerald, Joseph Larmor, and Hendrik Lorentz himself—had been discussing the physics implied by these equations since 1887. Early in 1889, Oliver Heaviside had shown from Maxwell's equations that the electric field surrounding a spherical distribution of charge should cease to have spherical symmetry once the charge is in motion relative to the luminiferous aether. FitzGerald then conjectured that Heaviside's distortion result might be applied to a theory of intermolecular forces. Some months later, FitzGerald published the conjecture that bodies in motion are being contracted, in order to explain the baffling outcome of the 1887 aether-wind experiment of Michelson and Morley.

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