Split (1)

train · 253k rows

page_content stringlengths 51 3.15k
Laboratory instrument Summary Chemical_laboratory A laboratory (UK: ; US: ; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories are found in a variety of settings such as schools, universities, privately owned research institutions, corporate research and testing facilities, government regulatory and forensic investigation centers, physicians' offices, clinics, hospitals, regional and national referral centers, and even occasionally personal residences.
Matrix determinant Square matrices over commutative rings Matrix_determinant > Abstract algebraic aspects > Square matrices over commutative rings The above definition of the determinant using the Leibniz rule holds works more generally when the entries of the matrix are elements of a commutative ring R {\displaystyle R} , such as the integers Z {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} } , as opposed to the field of real or complex numbers. Moreover, the characterization of the determinant as the unique alternating multilinear map that satisfies det ( I ) = 1 {\displaystyle \det(I)=1} still holds, as do all the properties that result from that characterization.A matrix A ∈ Mat n × n ⁡ ( R ) {\displaystyle A\in \operatorname {Mat} _{n\times n}(R)} is invertible (in the sense that there is an inverse matrix whose entries are in R {\displaystyle R} ) if and only if its determinant is an invertible element in R {\displaystyle R} . For R = Z {\displaystyle R=\mathbf {Z} } , this means that the determinant is +1 or −1. Such a matrix is called unimodular.
Gravimetry Summary Satellite_gravimetry Gravimetry is the measurement of the strength of a gravitational field. Gravimetry may be used when either the magnitude of a gravitational field or the properties of matter responsible for its creation are of interest.
Classifier constructions in sign languages History Classifier_constructions_in_sign_languages > History Linguists started focusing on proving that sign languages were real languages. They started paying less attention to their iconic properties and more to the way they are organized.Frishberg was the first to use the term "classifier" in her 1975 paper on arbitrariness and iconicity in ASL to refer to the handshape unit used in classifier constructions.The start of the study of sign language classifier coincided with a renewed interest in spoken language classifiers. In 1977, Allan performed a survey of classifier systems in spoken languages.
HTTP compression Summary HTTP_compression HTTP compression is a capability that can be built into web servers and web clients to improve transfer speed and bandwidth utilization.HTTP data is compressed before it is sent from the server: compliant browsers will announce what methods are supported to the server before downloading the correct format; browsers that do not support compliant compression method will download uncompressed data. The most common compression schemes include gzip and Brotli; a full list of available schemes is maintained by the IANA.There are two different ways compression can be done in HTTP. At a lower level, a Transfer-Encoding header field may indicate the payload of an HTTP message is compressed. At a higher level, a Content-Encoding header field may indicate that a resource being transferred, cached, or otherwise referenced is compressed. Compression using Content-Encoding is more widely supported than Transfer-Encoding, and some browsers do not advertise support for Transfer-Encoding compression to avoid triggering bugs in servers.
Pneumatic tool Advantages and disadvantages Pneumatic_tool > Advantages and disadvantages Pneumatic tools have many benefits which have contributed to their rise in popularity. The benefits of using compressed air to power tools are: Inexpensive Safe to use Easy to operate Portable Low theft ratesThe primary disadvantage of pneumatic tools is the need for an air compressor, which can be expensive. Pneumatic tools also need to be properly maintained and oiled regularly. Failing to maintain tools can lead to deterioration, due to a build up residual oil and water.
Ecogenetics Summary Ecogenetics Ecogenetics is a branch of genetics that studies genetic traits related to the response to environmental substances. Or, a contraction of ecological genetics, the study of the relationship between a natural population and its genetic structure.Ecogenetics principally deals with effects of preexisting genetically-determined variability on the response to environmental agents. The word environmental is defined broadly to include the physical, chemical, biological, atmospheric, and climate agents. Ecogenetics, therefore, is an all-embracing term, and concepts such as pharmacogenetics are seen as subcomponents of ecogenetics.
Spectrophotometer UV-visible spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry > UV-visible spectrophotometry This method requires a spectrophotometer capable of measuring in the UV region with quartz cuvettes. : 135 Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy involves energy levels that excite electronic transitions. Absorption of UV-vis light excites molecules that are in ground-states to their excited-states.Visible region 400–700 nm spectrophotometry is used extensively in colorimetry science.
Crankshaft Piston stroke Flying_arm > Design > Piston stroke The distance between the axis of the crankpins and the axis of the crankshaft determines the stroke length of the engine.Most modern car engines are classified as "over square" or short-stroke, wherein the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. A common way to increase the low-RPM torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as "stroking" the engine. Historically, the trade-off for a long-stroke engine was a lower rev limit and increased vibration at high RPM, due to the increased piston velocity.
Floating ecopolis Design Floating_ecopolis > Design The floating structure has a capacity to shelter 50,000 individuals. It consists of three marinas and three "mountains", which are meant for entertainment purposes, surrounding a centrally located artificial lagoon that performs the task of collecting and purifying water. The shape of this floating structure was inspired from the highly ribbed leaf of the Amazonia Victoria Regia water lily. The double skin of this structure would be made of polyester fibers covered by a layer of titanium dioxide (TiO2). The titanium oxide reacts with ultraviolet rays and therefore, due to photocatalytic effect, it absorbs atmospheric pollution in the process.
Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate Mechanism of action Docusate_sodium > Medical use > Mechanism of action Docusate is an anionic surfactant, which works by reducing the surface tension of the stool, allowing more intestinal water and fat to combine with the stool. This decreases the strain and discomfort associated with constipation.It does not stay in the gastrointestinal tract, but is absorbed into the bloodstream and excreted via the gallbladder after undergoing extensive metabolism. The effect of docusate may not necessarily be all due to its surfactant properties. Perfusion studies suggest that docusate inhibits fluid absorption or stimulates secretion in the portion of the small intestine known as the jejunum.
Group development Summary Group_development Listed below are some of the most common models. In some cases, the type of group being considered influenced the model of group development proposed as in the case of therapy groups. In general, some of these models view group change as regular movement through a series of "stages", while others view them as "phases" that groups may or may not go through and which might occur at different points of a group's history. Attention to group development over time has been one of the differentiating factors between the study of ad hoc groups and the study of teams such as those commonly used in the workplace, the military, sports and many other contexts.
Lysogenic cycle Summary Lysogenic_cycle When the bacterium reproduces, the prophage is also copied and is present in each of the daughter cells. The daughter cells can continue to replicate with the prophage present or the prophage can exit the bacterial chromosome to initiate the lytic cycle. In the lysogenic cycle the host DNA is not hydrolyzed but in the lytic cycle the host DNA is hydrolyzed in the lytic phase.
Lactase persistence Genetics Digest_lactase > Genetics Multiple studies indicate that the presence of the two phenotypes "lactase persistent" (derived phenotype) and "lactase nonpersistent" (hypolactasia) is genetically programmed, and that lactase persistence is not necessarily conditioned by the consumption of lactose after the suckling period.The lactase persistent phenotype involves high mRNA expression, high lactase activity, and thus the ability to digest lactose, while the lactase nonpersistent phenotype involves low mRNA expression and low lactase activity. The enzyme lactase is encoded by the gene LCT.Hypolactasia is known to be recessively and autosomally inherited, which means that individuals with the nonpersistent phenotype are homozygous and received the two copies of a low lactase-activity allele (the ancestral allele) from their parents, who may be homozygous or at least heterozygous for the allele. Only one high-activity allele is required to be lactase persistent. Lactase persistence behaves as a dominant trait because half levels of lactase activity are sufficient to show significant digestion of lactose.
Polymer characterization Mechanical properties Polymer_characterization > Mechanical properties Both energy recovered and lost are considered during each deformation and described quantitatively by the elastic modulus (E’) and the loss modulus (E’’) respectively. The applied stress and the strain on the sample exhibit a phase difference, ẟ, which is measured over time. A new modulus is calculated each time stress is applied to the material, so DMA is used to study changes in modulus at various temperatures or stress frequencies.Other techniques include viscometry, rheometry, and pendulum hardness.
Open mapping theorem (functional analysis) Consequences Open_mapping_theorem_(functional_analysis) > Classical (Banach space) form > Consequences The open mapping theorem has several important consequences: If A: X → Y {\displaystyle A:X\to Y} is a bijective continuous linear operator between the Banach spaces X {\displaystyle X} and Y , {\displaystyle Y,} then the inverse operator A − 1: Y → X {\displaystyle A^{-1}:Y\to X} is continuous as well (this is called the bounded inverse theorem). If A: X → Y {\displaystyle A:X\to Y} is a linear operator between the Banach spaces X {\displaystyle X} and Y , {\displaystyle Y,} and if for every sequence ( x n ) {\displaystyle \left(x_{n}\right)} in X {\displaystyle X} with x n → 0 {\displaystyle x_{n}\to 0} and A x n → y {\displaystyle Ax_{n}\to y} it follows that y = 0 , {\displaystyle y=0,} then A {\displaystyle A} is continuous (the closed graph theorem).
Diffusion constant Generalizations Fick's_laws_of_diffusion > Example solutions and generalization > Generalizations It is needed to make the right hand side operator elliptic. For inhomogeneous anisotropic media these two forms of the diffusion equation should be combined in The approach based on Einstein's mobility and Teorell formula gives the following generalization of Fick's equation for the multicomponent diffusion of the perfect components: where φi are concentrations of the components and Dij is the matrix of coefficients.
Hutch table Summary Hutch_table A monks bench or hutch table is a piece of furniture where a tabletop is set onto a chest in such a way that when the table was not in use, the top pivots to a vertical position and becomes the back of a Settle, and this configuration allows easy access to the chest lid which forms the seat of the piece.
Mathematical crystallography Theory Mathematical_crystallography > Theory With conventional imaging techniques such as optical microscopy, obtaining an image of a small object requires collecting light with a magnifying lens. The resolution of any optical system is limited by the diffraction-limit of light, which depends on its wavelength. Thus, the overall clarity of resulting crystallographic electron density maps is highly dependent upon the resolution of the diffraction data, which can be categorized as: low, medium, high and atomic. For example, visible light has a wavelength of about 4000 to 7000 ångström, which is three orders of magnitude longer than the length of typical atomic bonds and atoms themselves (about 1 to 2 Å).
Visual Paradigm UML Modeling Visual_Paradigm > UML Modeling Visual Paradigm supports 13 types of diagrams: Class diagram Use case diagram Sequence diagram Communication diagram State machine diagram Activity diagram Component diagram Deployment diagram Package diagram Object diagram Composite structure diagram Timing diagram Interaction overview diagram
Infinite-dimensional-vector-valued function Functions with values in a Hilbert space Infinite-dimensional-vector-valued_function > Integral and derivative > Derivatives > Functions with values in a Hilbert space If f {\displaystyle f} is a function of real numbers with values in a Hilbert space X , {\displaystyle X,} then the derivative of f {\displaystyle f} at a point t {\displaystyle t} can be defined as in the finite-dimensional case: Most results of the finite-dimensional case also hold in the infinite-dimensional case too, with some modifications. Differentiation can also be defined to functions of several variables (for example, t ∈ R n {\displaystyle t\in R^{n}} or even t ∈ Y , {\displaystyle t\in Y,} where Y {\displaystyle Y} is an infinite-dimensional vector space). If X {\displaystyle X} is a Hilbert space then any derivative (and any other limit) can be computed componentwise: if (that is, f = f 1 e 1 + f 2 e 2 + f 3 e 3 + ⋯ , {\displaystyle f=f_{1}e_{1}+f_{2}e_{2}+f_{3}e_{3}+\cdots ,} where e 1 , e 2 , e 3 , … {\displaystyle e_{1},e_{2},e_{3},\ldots } is an orthonormal basis of the space X {\displaystyle X} ), and f ′ ( t ) {\displaystyle f'(t)} exists, then However, the existence of a componentwise derivative does not guarantee the existence of a derivative, as componentwise convergence in a Hilbert space does not guarantee convergence with respect to the actual topology of the Hilbert space.
Hybrid Access Networks Technology Hybrid_Access_Networks > Technology The second approach uses Multipath TCP, a recent TCP extension that has been designed to enable the transmission of the packets that belong to a single session across different links. This approach leverages the ability of MPTCP to efficiently handle congestion and cope with reordering on the heterogeneous access links. MPTCP needs support in both the host and the server.
Constraint learning Definition Constraint_learning > Definition Backtracking algorithms work by choosing an unassigned variable and recursively solve the problems obtained by assigning a value to this variable. Whenever the current partial solution is found inconsistent, the algorithm goes back to the previously assigned variable, as expected by recursion. A constraint learning algorithm differs because it tries to record some information, before backtracking, in form of a new constraint. This can reduce the further search because the subsequent search may encounter another partial solution that is inconsistent with this new constraint.
Attribute grammar Summary Attribute_grammar An attribute grammar is a formal way to supplement a formal grammar with semantic information processing. Semantic information is stored in attributes associated with terminal and nonterminal symbols of the grammar. The values of attributes are result of attribute evaluation rules associated with productions of the grammar. Attributes allow to transfer information from anywhere in the abstract syntax tree to anywhere else, in a controlled and formal way.Each semantic function deals with attributes of symbols occurring only in one production rule: both semantic function parameters and its result are attributes of symbols from one particular rule.
Fluid physics Summary Continuum_assumption Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. : 3 It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace, civil, chemical, and biomedical engineering, as well as geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology. It can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. : 3 It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms; that is, it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from microscopic.
Ugi reaction Reaction mechanism Ugi_reaction > Reaction mechanism One plausible reaction mechanism is depicted below: Amine 1 and ketone 2 form the imine 3 with loss of one equivalent of water. Proton exchange with carboxylic acid 4 activates the iminium ion 5 for nucleophilic addition of the isocyanide 6 with its terminal carbon atom to nitrilium ion 7. A second nucleophilic addition takes place at this intermediate with the carboxylic acid anion to 8. The final step is a Mumm rearrangement with transfer of the R4 acyl group from oxygen to nitrogen.
Indefinite integral Uses and properties Indefinite_integration > Uses and properties Antiderivatives can be used to compute definite integrals, using the fundamental theorem of calculus: if F is an antiderivative of the integrable function f over the interval {\displaystyle } , then: Because of this, each of the infinitely many antiderivatives of a given function f may be called the "indefinite integral" of f and written using the integral symbol with no bounds: If F is an antiderivative of f, and the function f is defined on some interval, then every other antiderivative G of f differs from F by a constant: there exists a number c such that G ( x ) = F ( x ) + c {\displaystyle G(x)=F(x)+c} for all x. c is called the constant of integration. If the domain of F is a disjoint union of two or more (open) intervals, then a different constant of integration may be chosen for each of the intervals. For instance is the most general antiderivative of f ( x ) = 1 / x 2 {\displaystyle f(x)=1/x^{2}} on its natural domain ( − ∞ , 0 ) ∪ ( 0 , ∞ ) . {\displaystyle (-\infty ,0)\cup (0,\infty ).}
Boundary-value analysis Application Boundary-value_analysis > Application The boundary value is the minimum (or maximum) value that is at the boundary. The number 0 is the maximum number in the first partition, the number 1 is the minimum value in the second partition, both are boundary values. Test cases should be created to generate inputs or outputs that will fall on and to either side of each boundary, which results in two cases per boundary.
Human population Summary Human_population The highest global population growth rates, with increases of over 1.8% per year, occurred between 1955 and 1975, peaking at 2.1% between 1965 and 1970. The growth rate declined to 1.1% between 2015 and 2020 and is projected to decline further in the 21st century. The global population is still increasing, but there is significant uncertainty about its long-term trajectory due to changing fertility and mortality rates.
Omnidirectional (360-degree) camera Cars 360-degree_camera > Applications > Cars Cars with omnidirectional camera include Nissan Qashqai, Volvo S90, Range Rover, Peugeot 3008 and Kia Stinger.
Code Project Languages Code_Project > Languages Code Project contains articles and code pertaining to the following programming languages: C/C++ (emphasis on Microsoft Foundation Classes, but many other domains are dealt with) C# VB.NET ASP JavaScript Common Lisp Ajax SQL Delphi Java Perl Python
Friendly number Summary Friendly_number The "abundancy" index of n is the rational number σ(n) / n, in which σ denotes the sum of divisors function. A number n is a "friendly number" if there exists m ≠ n such that σ(m) / m = σ(n) / n. "Abundancy" is not the same as abundance, which is defined as σ(n) − 2n.
Haber–Weiss reaction Hydroperoxyl and superoxide radicals Haber–Weiss_reaction > Hydroperoxyl and superoxide radicals With time, various chemical notations for the hydroperoxyl (perhydroxyl) radical coexist in the literature. Haber, Wilstätter and Weiss simply wrote HO2 or O2H, but sometimes HO2• or •O2H can also be found to stress the radical character of the species. The hydroperoxyl radical is a weak acid and gives rise to the superoxide radical (O2•–) when it loses a proton: HO2 → H+ + O2–sometimes also written as:HO2• → H+ + O2•–A first pKa value of 4.88 for the dissociation of the hydroperoxyl radical was determined in 1970. The presently accepted value is 4.7. This pKa value is close to that of acetic acid. Below a pH of 4.7, the protonated hydroperoxyl radical will dominate in solution while at pH above 4.7 the superoxide radical anion will be the main species.
Space travel using constant acceleration In fiction Space_travel_using_constant_acceleration > In fiction In The Sparrow, by Mary Doria Russell, interstellar travel is achieved by converting a small asteroid into a constant acceleration spacecraft. Force is applied by ion engines fed with material mined from the asteroid itself. In the Revelation Space series by Alastair Reynolds, interstellar commerce depends upon "lighthugger" starships which can accelerate indefinitely at 1 g, with superseded antimatter powered constant acceleration drives.
Lorentz transform Summary Lorentz_transforms Expressing the speed as β = v c , {\textstyle \beta ={\frac {v}{c}},} an equivalent form of the transformation is Frames of reference can be divided into two groups: inertial (relative motion with constant velocity) and non-inertial (accelerating, moving in curved paths, rotational motion with constant angular velocity, etc.). The term "Lorentz transformations" only refers to transformations between inertial frames, usually in the context of special relativity. In each reference frame, an observer can use a local coordinate system (usually Cartesian coordinates in this context) to measure lengths, and a clock to measure time intervals.
Serial analysis of gene expression miRNA cloning Serial_analysis_of_gene_expression > Variant protocols > miRNA cloning Following this, the linkers, containing internal restriction sites, are digested with the appropriate restriction enzyme and the sticky ends are ligated together into concatamers. Following concatenation, the fragments are ligated into plasmids and are used to transform bacteria to generate many copies of the plasmid containing the inserts. Those may then be sequenced to identify the miRNA present, as well as analysing expression levels of a given miRNA by counting the number of times it is present, similar to SAGE.
Machine learning Artificial neural networks Machine_learning > Approaches > Models > Artificial neural networks Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis. Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.
Pulse oximetry Mechanism Pulse_oximetry > Mechanism A blood-oxygen monitor displays the percentage of blood that is loaded with oxygen. More specifically, it measures what percentage of hemoglobin, the protein in blood that carries oxygen, is loaded. Acceptable normal SaO2 ranges for patients without pulmonary pathology are from 95 to 99 percent. For a person breathing room air at or near sea level, an estimate of arterial pO2 can be made from the blood-oxygen monitor "saturation of peripheral oxygen" (SpO2) reading.
Boundary layer theory Types of boundary layer Boundary-layer_effect > Types of boundary layer There are two different types of boundary layer flow: laminar and turbulent.Laminar boundary layer flow The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or "eddies." The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow.
Renewable Energy (journal) Summary Renewable_Energy_(journal) Renewable Energy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on renewable energy, sustainable energy and the energy transition. It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is Soteris Kalogirou (Cyprus University of Technology). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 8.634. It was originally established as Solar & Wind Technology in 1984, acquiring its current name in 1991.
BKM algorithm Logarithm function BKM_algorithm > Logarithm function Example program for natural logarithm in C++ (see A_e for table): Logarithms for bases other than e can be calculated with similar effort. Example program for binary logarithm in C++ (see A_2 for table): The allowed argument range is the same for both examples (1 ≤ Argument ≤ 4.768462058…). In the case of the base-2 logarithm the exponent can be split off in advance (to get the integer part) so that the algorithm can be applied to the remainder (between 1 and 2).
Sort algorithms Counting sort Sort_algorithm > Popular sorting algorithms > Distribution sorts > Counting sort Afterward, the counting array is looped through to arrange all of the inputs in order. This sorting algorithm often cannot be used because S needs to be reasonably small for the algorithm to be efficient, but it is extremely fast and demonstrates great asymptotic behavior as n increases. It also can be modified to provide stable behavior.
Antarctic circumpolar current Summary Antarctic_circumpolar_current Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence, where the cold Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic, creating a zone of upwelling nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and krill, and resultant food chains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins, albatrosses, and a wealth of other species. The ACC has been known to sailors for centuries; it greatly speeds up any travel from west to east, but makes sailing extremely difficult from east to west, although this is mostly due to the prevailing westerly winds.
Magnetic sense Summary Magnetic_sense Magnetoreception is a sense which allows an organism to detect the Earth's magnetic field. Animals with this sense include some arthropods, molluscs, and vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals). The sense is mainly used for orientation and navigation, but it may help some animals to form regional maps. Experiments on migratory birds provide evidence that they make use of a cryptochrome protein in the eye, relying on the quantum radical pair mechanism to perceive magnetic fields.
Science and Hypothesis Summary Science_and_Hypothesis Reading this book inspired Albert Einstein's subsequent Annus Mirabilis papers published in 1905. A new translation was published in November 2017. == References ==
Mosaic crystal Summary Rocking_curve In crystallography, mosaicity is a measure of the spread of crystal plane orientations. A mosaic crystal is an idealized model of an imperfect crystal, imagined to consist of numerous small perfect crystals (crystallites) that are to some extent randomly misoriented. Empirically, mosaicities can be determined by measuring rocking curves. Diffraction by mosaics is described by the Darwin–Hamilton equations.
Balance of angular momentum Kinetics of rotation Balance_of_angular_momentum > Kinetics of rotation Should the above law be formulated more generally for any axis of rotation then the inertia tensor must be used. With the two-dimensional special case, a torque only results in an acceleration or slowing down of a rotation. With the general three-dimensional case, however, it can also alter the direction of the axis (precession).
Elementary algebra Linear equations with one variable Elementary_algebra > Solving algebraic equations > Linear equations with one variable Linear equations are so-called, because when they are plotted, they describe a straight line. The simplest equations to solve are linear equations that have only one variable. They contain only constant numbers and a single variable without an exponent. As an example, consider: Problem in words: If you double the age of a child and add 4, the resulting answer is 12.
Prevalence effect Eye-tracking experiments Prevalence_effect > Past experience or future prospect > Eye-tracking experiments Eye tracking experiments demonstrate that a large prevalence effect can occur across a group of participants with targets of similar appearance. In the experiment, participants had to discriminate the letter T from several similar-looking Ls. With a low prevalence, participants missed about 40 percent of the rare targets and responded more rapidly to target-absent trails than they did in high-prevalence conditions. (Previous work generally used simple stimuli.)
Difference due to memory Theory Difference_due_to_memory > Theory Considering that the Dm is a comparison of neural activity during encoding, and that this activity is predictive of subsequent memory, it is likely the Dm indexes some difference between subsequently remembered vs. forgotten materials at encoding, presumably reflective of learning. The nature of this difference is not entirely clear though. Van Petten and Senkfor (1996) suggest there may be a "family of Dm effects" that occur dependent on a variety of factors, and this seems quite plausible given the wide range of differences observed in the Dm as a function of stimuli used, encoding instructions, orienting tasks and types of retrieval decisions. Future research using different manipulations of the subsequent memory paradigm, as well as combining methods such as ERPs and fMRI or transcranial magnetic stimulation and fMRI have great potential to lead to further understanding of the Dm effect and, more generally, of the neural and cognitive factors that promote later memory under different circumstances.
Mean-value theorem Implications Mean-value_theorem > Implications Theorem 1: Assume that f is a continuous, real-valued function, defined on an arbitrary interval I of the real line. If the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero, then f is constant in the interior. Proof: Assume the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero. Let (a, b) be an arbitrary open interval in I. By the mean value theorem, there exists a point c in (a, b) such that 0 = f ′ ( c ) = f ( b ) − f ( a ) b − a .
Internet Of Things Energy management Internet_Of_Things > Applications > Infrastructure > Energy management Significant numbers of energy-consuming devices (e.g. lamps, household appliances, motors, pumps, etc.) already integrate Internet connectivity, which can allow them to communicate with utilities not only to balance power generation but also helps optimize the energy consumption as a whole. These devices allow for remote control by users, or central management via a cloud-based interface, and enable functions like scheduling (e.g., remotely powering on or off heating systems, controlling ovens, changing lighting conditions etc.). The smart grid is a utility-side IoT application; systems gather and act on energy and power-related information to improve the efficiency of the production and distribution of electricity. Using advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) Internet-connected devices, electric utilities not only collect data from end-users, but also manage distribution automation devices like transformers.
Ring Learning with Errors Security Reduction Ring_Learning_with_Errors > Security Reduction It is widely believed that solving SVP (and all other lattice problems) in ideal lattices is as hard as in regular lattices." The difficulty of these problems on regular lattices is provably NP-hard. There are, however, a minority of researchers who do not believe that ideal lattices share the same security properties as regular lattices.Peikert believes that these security equivalences make the RLWE problem a good basis for future cryptography. He writes: "There is a mathematical proof that the only way to break the cryptosystem (within some formal attack model) on its random instances is by being able to solve the underlying lattice problem in the worst case" (emphasis in the original).
Determinant of a matrix History Determinant_of_a_matrix > History Laplace (1772) gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors: Vandermonde had already given a special case. Immediately following, Lagrange (1773) treated determinants of the second and third order and applied it to questions of elimination theory; he proved many special cases of general identities. Gauss (1801) made the next advance.
X-Ray Powder Diffraction Summary Powder_diffraction Powder diffraction is a scientific technique using X-ray, neutron, or electron diffraction on powder or microcrystalline samples for structural characterization of materials. An instrument dedicated to performing such powder measurements is called a powder diffractometer. Powder diffraction stands in contrast to single crystal diffraction techniques, which work best with a single, well-ordered crystal.
StatView Summary StatView StatView is a statistics application originally released for Apple Macintosh computers in 1985.StatView was one of the first statistics applications to have a graphical user interface, capitalizing on the Macintosh's. A user saw a spreadsheet of his or her data, comprising columns that could be integers, long integers, real numbers, strings, or categories, and rows that were usually cases (such as individual people for psychology data). Columns had informative headings; rows were numbered. Category data looked like strings (e.g., a column headed "sex" would have entries of "male" and "female", but these were coded by the application as integers).
Public transport accessibility level Lucknow, India Public_transport_accessibility_level > Application in other areas > Lucknow, India The third application is aimed at making public transport more inclusive. The study found that the proposed public affordable housing projects are in areas having poor PTAL, which could hamper the occupancy in these projects; the slums, on the contrary, were in high-PTAL areas. Recommendations included proposing affordable housing projects in areas having high-PTAL.
Elementary modes Summary Elementary_modes Given the fundamental nature of elementary modes in relation to uniqueness and non-decomposability, the term `pathway' can be defined as an elementary mode. Note that the set of elementary modes will change as the set of expressed enzymes change during transitions from one cell state to another. Mathematically, the set of elementary modes is defined as the set of flux vectors, v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } , that satisfy the steady state condition, N v ( x , p ) = 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {N} \ \mathbf {v} (\mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {p} )=0} where N {\displaystyle \mathbf {N} } is the stoichiometry matrix, v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } is the vector of rates, x {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } the vector of steady state floating (or internal) species and p {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} } , the vector of system parameters.
Progeny testing Progeny Testing Progeny_testing > Progeny Testing A progeny test is performed by mating the male with a number of females to produce many progenies in a different environment and over a long time period involving different seasons to nullify the impact of season, management and environment in breeding value estimation. The average performance of the offspring is then found, giving a measure of the male's respective value to the breeder. In animals, the progeny testing could be conducted in a large herd or involving associated herds or in the field in farmers place.
Nuclear hormone receptor Coactivators Ligand_binding_domain > Coregulatory proteins > Coactivators Binding of agonist ligands (see section below) to nuclear receptors induces a conformation of the receptor that preferentially binds coactivator proteins. These proteins often have an intrinsic histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity, which weakens the association of histones to DNA, and therefore promotes gene transcription.
Least squares fitting Problem statement Least-squares_fit > Problem statement For example, when fitting a plane to a set of height measurements, the plane is a function of two independent variables, x and z, say. In the most general case there may be one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables at each data point. To the right is a residual plot illustrating random fluctuations about r i = 0 {\displaystyle r_{i}=0} , indicating that a linear model ( Y i = α + β x i + U i ) {\displaystyle (Y_{i}=\alpha +\beta x_{i}+U_{i})} is appropriate.
Insulin receptor substrate 1 Summary Insulin_receptor_substrate_1 40 residues downstream of this, followed by a poorly conserved C-terminus tail. Together with IRS2, IRS3 (pseudogene) and IRS4, it is homologous to the Drosophila protein chico, whose disruption extends the median lifespan of flies up to 48%. Similarly, Irs1 mutant mice experience moderate life extension and delayed age-related pathologies.
Alport syndrome Chronic kidney disease Alport_syndrome > Signs and symptoms > Chronic kidney disease Blood in urine is a usual feature of Alport syndrome from early infancy, identifiable on urine dipsticks. In young children, episodes of visible (macroscopic) haematuria may occur. Protein begins to appear in urine as the disease progresses. This is now regarded as an indication for treatment with ACE inhibitors. Progressive loss of kidney function (reflected clinically by increases in serum creatinine or decreases in estimated glomerular filtration rate) can occur and may require treatment with renal replacement: dialysis or a kidney transplant.
Soil resistivity Summary Soil_resistivity Typical values are: Usual values: from 10 up to 1000 (Ω-m) Exceptional values: from 1000 up to 10000 (Ω-m)The SI unit of resistivity is the Ohm-meter (Ω-m); in the United States the Ohm-centimeter (Ω-cm) is often used instead. One Ω-m is 100 Ω-cm.
Standard enthalpy of atomization Definition Standard_enthalpy_of_atomization > Definition The enthalpy of atomization of an elemental solid is exactly the same as the enthalpy of sublimation for any elemental solid that becomes a monatomic gas upon evaporation. When a diatomic element is converted to gaseous atoms, only half a mole of molecules will be needed, as the standard enthalpy change is based purely on the production of one mole of gaseous atoms. When the atoms in the molecule are different isotopes of the same element the calculation becomes non-trivial.
Tissue hypoxia Tests Tissue_hypoxia > Diagnosis > Tests However, in states of ventilation perfusion mismatch, such as pulmonary embolism or right-to-left shunt, oxygen is not effectively transferred from the alveoli to the blood which results in an elevated A-a gradient. PaO2 can be obtained from the arterial blood gas analysis and PAO2 is calculated using the alveolar gas equation. An abnormally low hematocrit (volume percentage of red blood cells) may indicate anemia.X-rays or CT scans of the chest and airways can reveal abnormalities that may affect ventilation or perfusion.A ventilation/perfusion scan, also called a V/Q lung scan, is a type of medical imaging using scintigraphy and medical isotopes to evaluate the circulation of air and blood within a patient's lungs, in order to determine the ventilation/perfusion ratio.
Digital network Wireless Data_networks > Network links > Wireless Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices. Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical means, the Interplanetary Internet. IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool's Request for Comments, issued as RFC 1149. It was implemented in real life in 2001.The last two cases have a large round-trip delay time, which gives slow two-way communication but does not prevent sending large amounts of information (they can have high throughput).
DirectSound Features DirectSound > Features The DirectSound architecture features a concept of the "ring buffer" which would be continuously played in a cycle. The application programmer creates the sound buffer then continuously queries its state through the "read cursor" and updates it with the "write cursor". There are two types of buffers - a "streaming" buffer, which holds continuous sounds such as background music, and a "static" buffer which holds short sounds.
Bibliography of biology Genetics Bibliography_of_biology > Genetics Crick, Francis; Watson, James D. (1953). "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid".
Osmotic gradient Description Osmotic_gradient > Description Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane toward a higher concentration of solute. In biological systems, the solvent is typically water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids, and even gases. When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell.
Control theorist Nonlinear systems control Closed-_loop > System classifications > Nonlinear systems control Processes in industries like robotics and the aerospace industry typically have strong nonlinear dynamics. In control theory it is sometimes possible to linearize such classes of systems and apply linear techniques, but in many cases it can be necessary to devise from scratch theories permitting control of nonlinear systems. These, e.g., feedback linearization, backstepping, sliding mode control, trajectory linearization control normally take advantage of results based on Lyapunov's theory. Differential geometry has been widely used as a tool for generalizing well-known linear control concepts to the nonlinear case, as well as showing the subtleties that make it a more challenging problem. Control theory has also been used to decipher the neural mechanism that directs cognitive states.
Terahertz spectroscopy Terahertz-induced plasma and exciton transitions Terahertz_spectroscopy_and_technology > Terahertz-induced plasma and exciton transitions These insights are very important to understand how electronic plasma behaves in solids. The Coulomb interaction can also pair electrons and holes into excitons, as discussed above. Due to their analog to the hydrogen atom, excitons have bound states that can be uniquely identified by the usual quantum numbers 1s, 2s, 2p, and so on.
Round-off errors Summary Round-off_errors When using approximation equations or algorithms, especially when using finitely many digits to represent real numbers (which in theory have infinitely many digits), one of the goals of numerical analysis is to estimate computation errors. Computation errors, also called numerical errors, include both truncation errors and roundoff errors. When a sequence of calculations with an input involving any roundoff error are made, errors may accumulate, sometimes dominating the calculation.
Mitochondrial biogenesis Fusion and fission Mitochondrial_biogenesis > Fusion and fission For example, an increase in mitochondrial fission would create many fragmented mitochondria, which has been shown to be useful for eliminating damaged mitochondria and for creating smaller mitochondria for efficient transporting to energy-demanding areas. Therefore, achieving a balance between these mechanisms allows a cell to have the proper organization of its mitochondrial network during biogenesis and may have an important role in muscle adaptation to physiological stress. In mammals, mitochondrial fusion and fission are both controlled by GTPases of the dynamin family.
Line rate Information rate Data_transfer_rates > In data communications > Information rate A lower bit rate may be chosen during the connection establishment phase due to adaptive modulation – slower but more robust modulation schemes are chosen in case of poor signal-to-noise ratio. Due to data compression, the actual data transmission rate or throughput (see below) may be higher.
Expressed gene Definitions Gene > Definitions ""A gene is a DNA sequence that codes for a diffusible product. This product may be protein (as is the case in the majority of genes) or may be RNA (as is the case of genes that code for tRNA and rRNA). The crucial feature is that the product diffuses away from its site of synthesis to act elsewhere.
Absorbed radiation dose Summary Absorbed_dose Absorbed dose is a dose quantity which is the measure of the energy deposited in matter by ionizing radiation per unit mass. Absorbed dose is used in the calculation of dose uptake in living tissue in both radiation protection (reduction of harmful effects), and radiology (potential beneficial effects, for example in cancer treatment). It is also used to directly compare the effect of radiation on inanimate matter such as in radiation hardening. The SI unit of measure is the gray (Gy), which is defined as one Joule of energy absorbed per kilogram of matter. The older, non-SI CGS unit rad, is sometimes also used, predominantly in the USA.
Eukaryotic DNA replication Initiation Eukaryotic_DNA_replication > Initiation Initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication is the first stage of DNA synthesis where the DNA double helix is unwound and an initial priming event by DNA polymerase α occurs on the leading strand. The priming event on the lagging strand establishes a replication fork. Priming of the DNA helix consists of the synthesis of an RNA primer to allow DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase α. Priming occurs once at the origin on the leading strand and at the start of each Okazaki fragment on the lagging strand.
Preprophase Transition into prophase Preprophase > Transition into prophase During progression from preprophase into prophase, the randomly oriented microtubules align parallel along the nuclear surface according to the spindle axis. This structure is called the prophase spindle. Triggered by nuclear membrane breakdown at the beginning of prometaphase, the preprophase band disappears and the prophase spindle matures into the metaphase spindle occupying the space of the former nucleus. Experiments with drugs destroying microfilaments indicate that actin may play a role in keeping the cellular "memory" of the position of the division plane after the preprophase band breaks down to direct cytokinesis in telophase.
Formal group Lazard ring Formal_group_law > Lazard ring There is a universal commutative one-dimensional formal group law over a universal commutative ring defined as follows. We let F(x,y)be x + y + Σci,j xiyjfor indeterminates ci,j,and we define the universal ring R to be the commutative ring generated by the elements ci,j, with the relations that are forced by the associativity and commutativity laws for formal group laws. More or less by definition, the ring R has the following universal property: For any commutative ring S, one-dimensional formal group laws over S correspond to ring homomorphisms from R to S.The commutative ring R constructed above is known as Lazard's universal ring. At first sight it seems to be incredibly complicated: the relations between its generators are very messy. However Lazard proved that it has a very simple structure: it is just a polynomial ring (over the integers) on generators of degrees 2, 4, 6, ... (where ci,j has degree 2(i + j − 1)). Daniel Quillen proved that the coefficient ring of complex cobordism is naturally isomorphic as a graded ring to Lazard's universal ring, explaining the unusual grading.
Haven (graph theory) In infinite graphs Haven_(graph_theory) > In infinite graphs If a graph G contains a ray, a semi-infinite simple path with a starting vertex but no ending vertex, then it has a haven of order ℵ0: that is, a function β that maps each finite set X of vertices to an X-flap, satisfying the consistency condition for havens. Namely, define β(X) to be the unique X-flap that contains infinitely many vertices of the ray. Thus, in the case of infinite graphs the connection between treewidth and havens breaks down: a single ray, despite itself being a tree, has havens of all finite orders and even more strongly a haven of order ℵ0. Two rays of an infinite graph are considered to be equivalent if there is no finite set of vertices that separates infinitely many vertices of one ray from infinitely many vertices of the other ray; this is an equivalence relation, and its equivalence classes are called ends of the graph.
AI ethics Impact on technological development AI_ethics > Role and impact of fiction > Impact on technological development Hoffmann.) The theme of coexistence with artificial sentient beings is also the theme of two recent novels: Machines Like Me by Ian McEwan, published in 2019, involves, among many other things, a love-triangle involving an artificial person as well as a human couple. Klara and the Sun by Nobel Prize winner Kazuo Ishiguro, published in 2021, is the first-person account of Klara, an 'AF' (artificial friend), who is trying, in her own way, to help the girl she is living with, who, after having been 'lifted' (i.e. having been subjected to genetic enhancements), is suffering from a strange illness.
Urate nephropathy Diagnosis Urate_nephropathy > Diagnosis The picture of acute kidney failure is observed: decreased urine production and rapidly rising serum creatinine levels. Acute uric acid nephropathy is differentiated from other forms of acute kidney failure by the finding of a urine uric acid/creatinine ratio > 1 in a random urine sample.
Qualitative organic analysis Applications Analytical_Chemistry > Applications Microscale chemistry reduces the amounts of chemicals used. Many developments improve the analysis of biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are genomics, DNA sequencing and related research in genetic fingerprinting and DNA microarray; proteomics, the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body, metabolomics, which deals with metabolites; transcriptomics, including mRNA and associated fields; lipidomics - lipids and its associated fields; peptidomics - peptides and its associated fields; and metallomics, dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules.Analytical chemistry has played a critical role in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing, forensic science, and so on.The recent developments in computer automation and information technologies have extended analytical chemistry into a number of new biological fields.
Energy profile (chemistry) Applications Energy_profile_(chemistry) > Applications The purpose of a catalyst is to alter the activation energy. Figure 12 illustrates the purpose of a catalyst in that only the activation energy is changed and not the relative thermodynamic stabilities, shown in the figure as ΔH, of the products and reactants. This means that a catalyst will not alter the equilibrium concentrations of the products and reactants but will only allow the reaction to reach equilibrium faster.
Multidimensional filter design Fourier Analysis Multidimensional_filter_design > Fourier Analysis A multidimensional signal can be represented in terms of sinusoidal components. This is typically done with a type of Fourier transform. The m-D Fourier transform transforms a signal from a signal domain representation to a frequency domain representation of the signal. In the case of digital processing, a discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is utilized to transform a sampled signal domain representation into a frequency domain representation: X ( k 1 , k 2 , … , k m ) = ∑ n 1 = − ∞ ∞ ∑ n 2 = − ∞ ∞ ⋯ ∑ n m = − ∞ ∞ x ( n 1 , n 2 , … , n m ) e − j 2 π k 1 n 1 e − j 2 π k 2 n 2 ⋯ e − j 2 π k m n m {\displaystyle X(k_{1},k_{2},\dots ,k_{m})=\sum _{n_{1}=-\infty }^{\infty }\sum _{n_{2}=-\infty }^{\infty }\cdots \sum _{n_{m}=-\infty }^{\infty }x(n_{1},n_{2},\dots ,n_{m})e^{-j2\pi k_{1}n_{1}}e^{-j2\pi k_{2}n_{2}}\cdots e^{-j2\pi k_{m}n_{m}}} where X stands for the multidimensional discrete Fourier transform, x stands for the sampled time/space domain signal, m stands for the number of dimensions in the system, n are sample indices and k are frequency samples.
Modular square root Composite modulus Quadratic_residue > Complexity of finding square roots > Composite modulus just the smallest one? a random one?
Transient electromagnetic device Types of energy Electromagnetic_bomb > General characteristics > Types of energy EMP energy may be transferred in any of four forms: Electric field Magnetic field Electromagnetic radiation Electrical conductionAccording to Maxwell's equations, a pulse of electric energy will always be accompanied by a pulse of magnetic energy. In a typical pulse, either the electric or the magnetic form will dominate. In general, radiation only acts over long distances, with the magnetic and electric fields acting over short distances. There are a few exceptions, such as a solar magnetic flare.
Garbage (computer science) Classification Garbage_(computer_science) > Classification More precisely, syntactic garbage is data that is unreachable due to the reference graph (there is no path to it), which can be determined by many algorithms, as discussed in tracing garbage collection, and only requires analyzing the data, not the code. Semantic garbage is data that will not be accessed, either because it is unreachable (hence also syntactic garbage), or is reachable but will not be accessed; this latter requires analysis of the code, and is in general an undecidable problem. Syntactic garbage is a (usually strict) subset of semantic garbage, as it is entirely possible for an object to hold a reference to another object without ever using that object.
Race and genetics Research methods Race_and_genetics > Research methods Scientists investigating human variation have used a series of methods to characterize how different populations vary.
Calculus of moving surfaces Time differentiation of integrals Calculus_of_moving_surfaces > Time differentiation of integrals The CMS provides rules for time differentiation of volume and surface integrals. == References ==
Symmetry transformation Summary Symmetry Symmetry (from Ancient Greek συμμετρία (summetría) 'agreement in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement') in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, the term has a more precise definition and is usually used to refer to an object that is invariant under some transformations, such as translation, reflection, rotation, or scaling. Although these two meanings of the word can sometimes be told apart, they are intricately related, and hence are discussed together in this article. Mathematical symmetry may be observed with respect to the passage of time; as a spatial relationship; through geometric transformations; through other kinds of functional transformations; and as an aspect of abstract objects, including theoretic models, language, and music.This article describes symmetry from three perspectives: in mathematics, including geometry, the most familiar type of symmetry for many people; in science and nature; and in the arts, covering architecture, art, and music. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry, which refers to the absence or a violation of symmetry.
Introduction to entropy Summary Introduction_to_entropy If a movie that shows coffee being mixed or wood being burned is played in reverse, it would depict processes impossible in reality. Mixing coffee and burning wood are "irreversible".
Number system Complex numbers Number_systems > History > Complex numbers This was doubly unsettling since they did not even consider negative numbers to be on firm ground at the time. When René Descartes coined the term "imaginary" for these quantities in 1637, he intended it as derogatory. (See imaginary number for a discussion of the "reality" of complex numbers.)
Phase-space formulation Summary Phase-space_formulation The theory was fully developed by Hilbrand Groenewold in 1946 in his PhD thesis, and independently by Joe Moyal, each building on earlier ideas by Hermann Weyl and Eugene Wigner.The chief advantage of the phase-space formulation is that it makes quantum mechanics appear as similar to Hamiltonian mechanics as possible by avoiding the operator formalism, thereby "'freeing' the quantization of the 'burden' of the Hilbert space". This formulation is statistical in nature and offers logical connections between quantum mechanics and classical statistical mechanics, enabling a natural comparison between the two (see classical limit). Quantum mechanics in phase space is often favored in certain quantum optics applications (see optical phase space), or in the study of decoherence and a range of specialized technical problems, though otherwise the formalism is less commonly employed in practical situations.The conceptual ideas underlying the development of quantum mechanics in phase space have branched into mathematical offshoots such as Kontsevich's deformation-quantization (see Kontsevich quantization formula) and noncommutative geometry.
Java ConcurrentMap ConcurrentHashMap Java_ConcurrentMap > Implementations > ConcurrentHashMap For unordered access as defined in the java.util.Map interface, the java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentHashMap implements java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentMap. The mechanism is a hash access to a hash table with lists of entries, each entry holding a key, a value, the hash, and a next reference. Previous to Java 8, there were multiple locks each serializing access to a 'segment' of the table. In Java 8, native synchronization is used on the heads of the lists themselves, and the lists can mutate into small trees when they threaten to grow too large due to unfortunate hash collisions.
Off-target effects of genome editing Fok1-dCas9 and dimerization nucleases Off-target_genome_editing > Improvements > Methods to increase specificity > Fok1-dCas9 and dimerization nucleases As monomeric nucleases often involve high levels of off-target effects, dimerization is an attractive strategy. In a dimer system, both nucleases must bind to their individual targets or ‘half-sites’ and then interact and dimerize to initiate cleavage which greatly decreases the probability of off-target effects. A method that incorporates the reliability of dimerization-dependent FokI nuclease domains, used in ZFNs and TALENs, with the simplicity of CRISPR-cas9 has been developed. The FokI nuclease was originally found in Flavobacterium okeanokoites, and will only cleave DNA given dimerization activation.
Chemotherapy medication Alkylating agents Chemotherapy_agent > Treatment strategies > Types > Alkylating agents Nitrogen mustards include mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, melphalan, chlorambucil, ifosfamide and busulfan. Nitrosoureas include N-Nitroso-N-methylurea (MNU), carmustine (BCNU), lomustine (CCNU) and semustine (MeCCNU), fotemustine and streptozotocin. Tetrazines include dacarbazine, mitozolomide and temozolomide.
Solution polymerization Summary Solution_polymerization Solution polymerization is a method of industrial polymerization. In this procedure, a monomer is dissolved in a non-reactive solvent that contains a catalyst or initiator. The reaction results in a polymer which is also soluble in the chosen solvent. Heat released by the reaction is absorbed by the solvent, reducing the reaction rate.
Gastric fluid Neutralization Gastric_fluid > Neutralization In the duodenum, gastric acid is neutralized by bicarbonate. This also blocks gastric enzymes that have their optima in the acid range of pH. The secretion of bicarbonate from the pancreas is stimulated by secretin. This polypeptide hormone gets activated and secreted from so-called S cells in the mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum when the pH in the duodenum falls below 4.5 to 5.0. The neutralization is described by the equation: HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3The carbonic acid rapidly equilibrates with carbon dioxide and water through catalysis by carbonic anhydrase enzymes bound to the gut epithelial lining, leading to a net release of carbon dioxide gas within the lumen associated with neutralisation. In the absorptive upper intestine, such as the duodenum, both the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.