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Combined central and peripheral demyelination Prognosis Lewis-Sumner_syndrome > Prognosis Because of the rarity of the illness, many doctors will not have encountered it before. Each case of CIDP is different, and relapses, if they occur, may bring new symptoms and problems. Because of the variability in severity and progression of the disease, doctors will not be able to give a definite prognosis. A period of experimentation with different treatment regimens is likely to be necessary in order to discover the most appropriate treatment regimen for a given patient.
Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis Carbon isotope measurement Fractionation_of_carbon_isotopes_in_oxygenic_photosynthesis > Carbon isotope measurement Carbon on Earth naturally occurs in two stable isotopes, with 98.9% in the form of 12C and 1.1% in 13C. The ratio between these isotopes varies in biological organisms due to metabolic processes that selectively use one carbon isotope over the other, or "fractionate" carbon through kinetic or thermodynamic effects. Oxygenic photosynthesis takes place in plants and microorganisms through different chemical pathways, so various forms of organic material reflect different ratios of 13C isotopes.
Thyroid hormone replacement Related diseases Thyroid_hormones > Related diseases Both thyroid excess and deficiency can cause cardiovascular disorders or make preexisting conditions worse. The link between excess and deficiency of thyroid hormone on conditions like arrhythmias, heart failure, and atherosclerotic vascular diseases, have been established for nearly 200 years. Abnormal thyroid function—hypo- and hyperthyroidism—can manifest as myopathy with symptoms of exercise-induced muscle fatigue, cramping, muscle pain and may include proximal weakness or muscle hypertrophy (particularly of the calves).
Halogen bonding Crystal engineering Halogen_bonding > Applications > Crystal engineering The strength and directionality of halogen bonds are a key tool in the discipline of crystal engineering, which attempts to shape crystal structures through close control of intermolecular interactions. Halogen bonds can stabilize copolymers or induce mesomorphism in otherwise isotropic liquids. Indeed, halogen bond-induced liquid crystalline phases are known in both alkoxystilbazoles and silsesquioxanes (pictured). Alternatively, the steric sensitivity of halogen bonds can cause bulky molecules to crystallize into porous structures; in one notable case, halogen bonds between iodine and aromatic π-orbitals caused molecules to crystallize into a pattern that was nearly 40% void.
Pulmonary volutrauma Causes Barotrauma > Causes As an indicator of transalveolar pressure, which predicts alveolar distention, plateau pressure or peak airway pressure (PAP) may be the most effective predictor of risk, but there is no generally accepted safe pressure at which there is no risk. Risk also appears to be increased by aspiration of stomach contents and pre-existing disease such as necrotising pneumonia and chronic lung disease. Status asthmaticus is a particular problem as it requires relatively high pressures to overcome bronchial obstruction.When lung tissues are damaged by alveolar over-distension, the injury may be termed volutrauma, but volume and transpulmonary pressure are closely related. Ventilator induced lung injury is often associated with high tidal volumes (Vt).
Spindle fibre Cilia and flagella Spindle_fibre > Functions > Cilia and flagella Microtubules have a major structural role in eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella always extend directly from a MTOC, in this case termed the basal body. The action of the dynein motor proteins on the various microtubule strands that run along a cilium or flagellum allows the organelle to bend and generate force for swimming, moving extracellular material, and other roles. Prokaryotes possess tubulin-like proteins including FtsZ. However, prokaryotic flagella are entirely different in structure from eukaryotic flagella and do not contain microtubule-based structures.
Maclaurin series Second example Taylor_polynomials > Calculation of Taylor series > Second example }}+\cdots \!} and, as in the first example, cos ⁡ x = 1 − x 2 2 ! + x 4 4 !
Definable real number Real algebraic numbers Undefinable_number > Real algebraic numbers A real number r {\displaystyle r} is called a real algebraic number if there is a polynomial p ( x ) {\displaystyle p(x)} , with only integer coefficients, so that r {\displaystyle r} is a root of p {\displaystyle p} , that is, p ( r ) = 0 {\displaystyle p(r)=0} . Each real algebraic number can be defined individually using the order relation on the reals. For example, if a polynomial q ( x ) {\displaystyle q(x)} has 5 real roots, the third one can be defined as the unique r {\displaystyle r} such that q ( r ) = 0 {\displaystyle q(r)=0} and such that there are two distinct numbers less than r {\displaystyle r} at which q {\displaystyle q} is zero. All rational numbers are algebraic, and all constructible numbers are algebraic.
Fermi's pseudopotential Summary Pseudopotential In physics, a pseudopotential or effective potential is used as an approximation for the simplified description of complex systems. Applications include atomic physics and neutron scattering. The pseudopotential approximation was first introduced by Hans Hellmann in 1934.
NOP sled Summary NOP_sled It solves the problem of finding the exact address of the buffer by effectively increasing the size of the target area. To do this, much larger sections of the stack are corrupted with the no-op machine instruction. At the end of the attacker-supplied data, after the no-op instructions, the attacker places an instruction to perform a relative jump to the top of the buffer where the shellcode is located.
2MASS J10475385+2124234 Distance 2MASS_J10475385+2124234 > Distance 2MASS J1047+21 is about 34 light-years (10 pc) from Earth.
Beneficial AI Risks of unfriendly AI Friendly_artificial_intelligence > Risks of unfriendly AI He put it this way: Basically we should assume that a 'superintelligence' would be able to achieve whatever goals it has. Therefore, it is extremely important that the goals we endow it with, and its entire motivation system, is 'human friendly.' In 2008 Eliezer Yudkowsky called for the creation of "friendly AI" to mitigate existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence.
Lense-Thirring effect The Coriolis term Lense–Thirring_effect > The Coriolis term The frame-dragging effect can be demonstrated in several ways. One way is to solve for geodesics; these will then exhibit a Coriolis force-like term, except that, in this case (unlike the standard Coriolis force), the force is not fictional, but is due to frame dragging induced by the rotating body. So, for example, an (instantaneously) radially infalling geodesic at the equator will satisfy the equation 0 = r d 2 φ d t 2 + 2 G J c 2 r 3 d r d t , {\displaystyle 0=r{\frac {d^{2}\varphi }{dt^{2}}}+2{\frac {GJ}{c^{2}r^{3}}}{\frac {dr}{dt}},} where t {\displaystyle t} is the time, φ {\displaystyle \varphi } is the azimuthal angle (longitudinal angle), J = ‖ S ‖ {\displaystyle J=\Vert S\Vert } is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the spinning massive body.The above can be compared to the standard equation for motion subject to the Coriolis force: 0 = r d 2 φ d t 2 + 2 ω d r d t , {\displaystyle 0=r{\frac {d^{2}\varphi }{dt^{2}}}+2\omega {\frac {dr}{dt}},} where ω {\displaystyle \omega } is the angular velocity of the rotating coordinate system. Note that, in either case, if the observer is not in radial motion, i.e. if d r / d t = 0 {\displaystyle dr/dt=0} , there is no effect on the observer.
Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering R Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering > R rotary variable differential transformerA transformer-like transducer that measures rotation as an analog value. rotorThat part of an electrical machine that rotates. Not necessarily the armature. Routh–Hurwitz stability criterionA criterion for predicting the stability of a system with a given transfer function.
Compiler-compiler Variants Semantic_action_routine > Variants This approach is often called 'semantics-based compiling', and was pioneered by Peter Mosses' Semantic Implementation System (SIS) in 1978. However, both the generated compiler and the code it produced were inefficient in time and space. No production compilers are currently built in this way, but research continues. The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler (PQCC) project at Carnegie Mellon University does not formalize semantics, but does have a semi-formal framework for machine description. Compiler-compilers exist in many flavors, including bottom-up rewrite machine generators (see JBurg) used to tile syntax trees according to a rewrite grammar for code generation, and attribute grammar parser generators (e.g. ANTLR can be used for simultaneous type checking, constant propagation, and more during the parsing stage).
Autoantigen Sex Autoantigen > Sex There is some evidence that a person's sex may also have some role in the development of autoimmunity; that is, most autoimmune diseases are sex-related. A few autoimmune diseases that men are just as or more likely to develop as women include: ankylosing spondylitis, type 1 diabetes mellitus, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Crohn's disease, Primary sclerosing cholangitis and psoriasis. The reasons for the sex role in autoimmunity vary. Women appear to generally mount larger inflammatory responses than men when their immune systems are triggered, increasing the risk of autoimmunity.
Access Database Engine Data integrity Jet_Database_Engine > Architecture > Data integrity Jet enforces entity integrity and referential integrity. Jet will by default prevent any change to a record that breaks referential integrity, but Jet databases can instead use propagation constraints (cascading updates and cascading deletes) to maintain referential integrity. Jet also supports "business rules" (also known as "constraints"), or rules that apply to any column to enforce what data might be placed into the table or column. For example, a rule might be applied that does not allow a date to be entered into a date_logged column that is earlier than the current date and time, or a rule might be applied that forces people to enter a positive value into a numeric only field.
Adaptive noise cancelling Adaptive noise cancelling configuration and concept Adaptive_noise_cancelling > Adaptive noise cancelling configuration and concept The adaptive noise canceller configuration diagram above shows the target signal s(t) present at the primary sensor and the interference or noise source n(t) and its manifestations np(t) and nr(t) at the primary and reference sensors respectively.As np(t) and nr(t) are the manifestations of the same interference source in different locations, these will usually differ significantly in an unpredictable fashion due to different transmission paths through the environment to the two sensors. So the reference nr(t) cannot be used directly to cancel or reduce the interference corrupting the target signal np(t). It must first be appropriately processed before it can be used to minimise, by subtraction, the overall effect of the interference at the noise canceller output. An adaptive noise canceller is based on a self-optimising adaptive filter that has a variable transform function shaped by adjustable parameters called weights.
Analogue filter Early multiplexing Voice_frequency_telegraphy > Resonance > Early multiplexing The solution to these needs was founded in the theory of transmission lines and consequently the necessary filters did not become available until this theory was fully developed. At this early stage the idea of signal bandwidth, and hence the need for filters to match to it, was not fully understood; indeed, it was as late as 1920 before the concept of bandwidth was fully established. For early radio, the concepts of Q-factor, selectivity and tuning sufficed.
Weak Büchi automaton Summary Weak_Büchi_automaton In computer science and automata theory, a Weak Büchi automaton is a formalism which represents a set of infinite words. A Weak Büchi automaton is a modification of Büchi automaton such that for all pair of states q {\displaystyle q} and q ′ {\displaystyle q'} belonging to the same strongly connected component, q {\displaystyle q} is accepting if and only if q ′ {\displaystyle q'} is accepting. A Büchi automaton accepts a word w {\displaystyle w} if there exists a run, such that at least one state occurring infinitely often in the final state set F {\displaystyle F} . For Weak Büchi automata, this condition is equivalent to the existence of a run which ultimately stays in the set of accepting states. Weak Büchi automata are strictly less-expressive than Büchi automata and than Co-Büchi automata.
ColE1 Replication ColE1 > Replication ColE1 replication begins at the origin. 555bp upstream from this point, RNA polymerase initiates transcription of RNAII which acts as a pre-primer and begins the synthesis of the leader strand. The transcript folds into a secondary structure which stabilises the interaction between the nascent RNA and the origin's DNA. This hybrid is attacked by RNase H, which cleaves the RNA strand, exposing a 3' hydroxyl group.
Gricean maxim Criticism Gricean_maxim > Criticism Grice's theory is often disputed by arguing that cooperative conversation, like most social behaviour, is culturally determined, and therefore the Gricean maxims and the cooperative principle do not universally apply because of cultural differences. Keenan (1976) claims, for example, that the Malagasy people follow a completely opposite cooperative principle to achieve conversational cooperation. In their culture, speakers are reluctant to share information and flout the maxim of quantity by evading direct questions and replying on incomplete answers because of the risk of losing face by committing oneself to the truth of the information, as well as the fact that having information is a form of prestige. To push back on this point, Harnish (1976) points out that Grice only claims his maxims hold in conversations where the cooperative principle is in effect.
File transfer Protocols File_transfer > Protocols A file transfer protocol is a convention that describes how to transfer files between two computing endpoints. As well as the stream of bits from a file stored as a single unit in a file system, some may also send relevant metadata such as the filename, file size and timestamp – and even file-system permissions and file attributes. Some examples: FTP is an older cross-platform file transfer protocol SSH File Transfer Protocol a file transfer protocol secured by the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol Secure copy (scp) is based on the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol HTTP can support file transfer BitTorrent, Gnutella and other distributed file transfers systems use peer-to-peer In Systems Network Architecture, LU 6.2 Connect:Direct and XCOM Data Transport are traditionally used to transfer files Many instant messaging or LAN messenger systems support the ability to transfer files Computers may transfer files to peripheral devices such as USB flash drives Dial-up modems null modem links used XMODEM, YMODEM, ZMODEM and similar
Measuring device Large integrated computer-based systems Angle_measurement > History > Large integrated computer-based systems Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of the process. The next logical development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently-staffed central control room.
Non-gene locus Biological functions and evolution Intron > Biological functions and evolution While introns do not encode protein products, they are integral to gene expression regulation. Some introns themselves encode functional RNAs through further processing after splicing to generate noncoding RNA molecules. Alternative splicing is widely used to generate multiple proteins from a single gene. Furthermore, some introns play essential roles in a wide range of gene expression regulatory functions such as nonsense-mediated decay and mRNA export.After the initial discovery of introns in protein-coding genes of the eukaryotic nucleus, there was significant debate as to whether introns in modern-day organisms were inherited from a common ancient ancestor (termed the introns-early hypothesis), or whether they appeared in genes rather recently in the evolutionary process (termed the introns-late hypothesis).
Quantification (machine learning) Summary Quantification_(machine_learning) It has been shown in multiple research works that performing quantification by classifying all unlabelled instances and then counting the instances that have been attributed to each class (the 'classify and count' method) usually leads to suboptimal quantification accuracy. This suboptimality may be seen as a direct consequence of 'Vapnik's principle', which states: If you possess a restricted amount of information for solving some problem, try to solve the problem directly and never solve a more general problem as an intermediate step. It is possible that the available information is sufficient for a direct solution but is insufficient for solving a more general intermediate problem. In our case, the problem to be solved directly is quantification, while the more general intermediate problem is classification. As a result of the suboptimality of the 'classify and count' method, quantification has evolved as a task in its own right, different (in goals, methods, techniques, and evaluation measures) from classification.
General adaptation syndrome Coping Stress_(biology) > Psychological concepts > Coping Responses to stress include adaptation, psychological coping such as stress management, anxiety, and depression. Over the long term, distress can lead to diminished health and/or increased propensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must be managed. Stress management encompasses techniques intended to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing with psychological stress, with stress defined as a person's physiological response to an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-or-flight response. Stress management is effective when a person uses strategies to cope with or alter stressful situations.
K-D-B-tree Related work K-D-B-tree > Related work Like in a k-d tree, updates in a K-D-B-tree may result in the requirement for the splitting of several nodes recursively. This is incredibly inefficient and can result in sub-optimal memory utilization as it may result in many near-empty leaves. Lomet and Salzberg proposed a structure called the hB-tree (holey brick tree) to improve performance of K-D-B-trees by limiting the splits that occur after an insertion to only one root-to-leaf path. This was achieved by storing regions not only as rectangles, but as rectangles with a rectangle removed from the center.
Polar amplification Ocean circulation Arctic_amplification > Amplification > Ocean circulation It has been estimated that 70% of global wind energy is transferred to the ocean and takes place within the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). Eventually, upwelling due to wind-stress transports cold Antarctic waters through the Atlantic surface current, while warming them over the equator, and into the Arctic environment. This is especially noticed in high latitudes. Thus, warming in the Arctic depends on the efficiency of the global ocean transport and plays a role in the polar see-saw effect.Decreased oxygen and low-pH during La Niña are processes that correlate with decreased primary production and a more pronounced poleward flow of ocean currents. It has been proposed that the mechanism of increased Arctic surface air temperature anomalies during La Niña periods of ENSO may be attributed to the Tropically Excited Arctic Warming Mechanism (TEAM), when Rossby waves propagate more poleward, leading to wave dynamics and an increase in downward infrared radiation.
List of measuring instruments Electric resistance, electrical conductance, and electrical conductivity List_of_measuring_instruments > Electricity, electronics, and electrical engineering > Electric resistance, electrical conductance, and electrical conductivity Ohmmeter Time-domain reflectometer characterizes and locates faults in metallic cables by runtime measurements of electric signals. Wheatstone bridge
Groupthink Causes Groupthink > Causes Insulation of the group: This can promote the development of unique, inaccurate perspectives on issues the group is dealing with, which can then lead to faulty solutions to the problem. Lack of impartial leadership: Leaders control the group discussion, by planning what will be discussed, allowing only certain questions to be asked, and asking for opinions of only certain people in the group. Closed-style leadership is when leaders announce their opinions on the issue before the group discusses the issue together.
Quantum Field Theory Supersymmetry Quantum_field_theories > Principles > Other theories > Supersymmetry : 444 If supersymmetry is promoted to a local symmetry, then the resultant gauge theory is an extension of general relativity called supergravity.Supersymmetry is a potential solution to many current problems in physics. For example, the hierarchy problem of the Standard Model—why the mass of the Higgs boson is not radiatively corrected (under renormalization) to a very high scale such as the grand unified scale or the Planck scale—can be resolved by relating the Higgs field and its super-partner, the Higgsino. Radiative corrections due to Higgs boson loops in Feynman diagrams are cancelled by corresponding Higgsino loops.
Word-representable graph Literature Word-representable_graph > Literature On semi-transitive orientability of Kneser graphs and their complements, Discrete Math., to appear. S. Kitaev, P. Salimov, C. Severs, and H. Úlfarsson (2011) On the representability of line graphs. In: G. Mauri, A. Leporati (eds), Developments in Language Theory.
Iodine Hydrogen iodide Iodine_allergy > Chemistry and compounds > Hydrogen iodide It melts at −51.0 °C and boils at −35.1 °C. It is an endothermic compound that can exothermically dissociate at room temperature, although the process is very slow unless a catalyst is present: the reaction between hydrogen and iodine at room temperature to give hydrogen iodide does not proceed to completion.
Fair nondeterminism Fairness Unbounded_nondeterminism > Fairness Discussion of unbounded nondeterminism tends to get involved with discussions of fairness. The basic concept is that all computation paths must be "fair" in the sense that if the machine enters a state infinitely often, it must take every possible transition from that state. This amounts to requiring that the machine be guaranteed to service a request if it can, since an infinite sequence of states will only be allowed if there is no transition that leads to the request being serviced. Equivalently, every possible transition must occur eventually in an infinite computation, although it may take an unbounded amount of time for the transition to occur.
Fluidized bed Summary Fluidization_bed A fluidized bed is a physical phenomenon that occurs when a solid particulate substance (usually present in a holding vessel) is under the right conditions so that it behaves like a fluid. The usual way to achieve a fluidized bed is to pump pressurized fluid into the particles. The resulting medium then has many properties and characteristics of normal fluids, such as the ability to free-flow under gravity, or to be pumped using fluid technologies.
Nucleic acid NMR Summary Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy_of_nucleic_acids This comes at the cost of slightly less accurate and detailed structures than crystallography.Nucleic acid NMR uses techniques similar to those of protein NMR, but has several differences. Nucleic acids have a smaller percentage of hydrogen atoms, which are the atoms usually observed in NMR, and because nucleic acid double helices are stiff and roughly linear, they do not fold back on themselves to give "long-range" correlations. Nucleic acids also tend to have resonances distributed over a smaller range than proteins, making the spectra potentially more crowded and difficult to interpret.
History of electric power transmission Victory for AC History_of_electric_power_transmission > Victory for AC Ultimately, the versatility of the Thury system was hampered by the fragility of series distribution, and the lack of a reliable DC conversion technology that would not show up until the 1940s with improvements in mercury arc valves. The AC "universal system" won by force of numbers, proliferating systems with transformers both to couple generators to high-voltage transmission lines, and to connect transmission to local distribution circuits. By a suitable choice of utility frequency, both lighting and motor loads could be served.
American Crystallographic Association Summary American_Crystallographic_Association Structural Dynamics is a peer-reviewed, open access, online-only journal co-published by ACA and AIP Publishing. It highlights research articles on structural determination and dynamics of systems, enabled by the emerging new instruments (e.g. XFELs, high harmonic generation, ultra-short electron sources, etc.) and new experimental and theoretical methodologies. The journal is accepting short communications, topical reviews, and research papers in the following topics: Experimental Methodologies, Theory and Modeling, Surfaces and Interfaces, Materials, Liquids and Solutions, and Biological Systems. The association presents several awards
Quantum hypothesis Uncertainty principle Quantum_laws > Mathematical formulation > Uncertainty principle {\displaystyle \sigma _{P}={\sqrt {\langle {P}^{2}\rangle -\langle {P}\rangle ^{2}}}.} The uncertainty principle states that σ X σ P ≥ ℏ 2 .
Ubuntu operating system Conformity with European data privacy law Ubuntu_server > Adoption and reception > Conformity with European data privacy law Almost one year later the ICO ruled in favour of Canonical, considering the various improvements introduced to the feature in the meantime to render it conformable with the Data Protection Directive. According to European rules, this ruling is automatically effective in the entirety of the European Union. However, the ruling also made clear that at the time of introduction the feature was not legal, among other things, since it was missing a privacy policy statement.
Generalized Structure Tensor Physical and mathematical interpretation Generalized_Structure_Tensor > Physical and mathematical interpretation Zooming (comprising unzooming) operation is modeled similarly. If the image has iso-curves that look like a "star" or bicycle spokes, i.e. f ( ξ , η ) = g ( η ) {\displaystyle f(\xi ,\eta )=g(\eta )} for some differentiable 1D function g {\displaystyle g} then, the image f {\displaystyle f} is invariant to scaling (w.r.t.
Rotary potentiometer Construction Audio_taper > Construction Other materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet. Conductive track potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor pastes that contain hard-wearing resins and polymers, solvents, and lubricant, in addition to the carbon that provides the conductive properties.
Intelsat VI Via U.S. Space Shuttle Intelsat_VI > Launch > Via U.S. Space Shuttle The satellite was allowed to drift a safe distance from the space shuttle before the perigee motor was fired. The perigee motor provided energy (velocity) to the satellite to raise the apogee of the satellite's orbit; it is named for the location in the orbit at which it is used. The perigee motor was jettisoned after it was used. The liquid fuel apogee engines of the Intelsat VI satellites were then used to boost the perigee of the satellite and provide orbit circularization through apogee burns.
Autovivification Hashes Autovivification > Hashes It is important to remember that autovivification happens when an undefined value is dereferenced. An assignment is not necessary. The debugger session below illustrates autovivification of a hash just from examining it: The debugger session below illustrates autovivification of a hash from assigning to an inner hash: Hashes several layers deep were created automatically without any declarations. Autovivification can prevent excessive typing. If Perl did not support autovivification, the structure above would have to be created as follows:
Rng homomorphism Summary Ring_isomorphism In ring theory, a branch of abstract algebra, a ring homomorphism is a structure-preserving function between two rings. More explicitly, if R and S are rings, then a ring homomorphism is a function f: R → S such that f is: addition preserving: f ( a + b ) = f ( a ) + f ( b ) {\displaystyle f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b)} for all a and b in R,multiplication preserving: f ( a b ) = f ( a ) f ( b ) {\displaystyle f(ab)=f(a)f(b)} for all a and b in R,and unit (multiplicative identity) preserving: f ( 1 R ) = 1 S {\displaystyle f(1_{R})=1_{S}} .Additive inverses and the additive identity are part of the structure too, but it is not necessary to require explicitly that they too are respected, because these conditions are consequences of the three conditions above. If in addition f is a bijection, then its inverse f−1 is also a ring homomorphism. In this case, f is called a ring isomorphism, and the rings R and S are called isomorphic.
DYA framework The DYA infrastructure architecture process DYA_framework > DYA infrastructure > The DYA infrastructure architecture process This certainly applies to infrastructure architecture, which must make its role easily recognisable by clarifying the terms it uses within the infrastructure domain. The easiest way to do this is to describe infrastructure solutions in logical and functional terms. DYA\|Infrastructure defines the "capability" of a solution with a set of quality attributes.
Walter Kauzmann Summary Walter_Kauzmann His work was centered in the area of biophysical chemistry, particularly the studies of the structure and thermodynamics of proteins. His insight that hydrophobic interactions play a key role in stabilizing protein structure was made before X-ray crystallography provided the first three-dimensional structures of proteins. Kauzmann's model, that proteins fold to bury hydrophobic residues and to expose hydrophilic ones, has stood the test of time and is one of the key principles of de novo protein structure prediction.
Cell reproduction Cell division Cell_growth > Cell division The second part of the cell cycle is the S phase, where DNA replication produces two identical sets of chromosomes. The third part is the G2 phase in which a significant protein synthesis occurs, mainly involving the production of microtubules that are required during the process of division, called mitosis. The fourth phase, M phase, consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis), accompanied by the formation of a new cell membrane.
System integrator Summary Systems_integrator A systems integrator (or system integrator) is a person or company that specializes in bringing together component subsystems into a whole and ensuring that those subsystems function together, a practice known as system integration. They also solve problems of automation. Systems integrators may work in many fields but the term is generally used in the information technology (IT) field such as computer networking, the defense industry, the mass media, enterprise application integration, business process management or manual computer programming. Data quality issues are an important part of the work of systems integrators.
CUBIC TCP Summary CUBIC_TCP CUBIC is a network congestion avoidance algorithm for TCP which can achieve high bandwidth connections over networks more quickly and reliably in the face of high latency than earlier algorithms. It helps optimize long fat networks.In 2006, the first CUBIC implementation was released in Linux kernel 2.6.13. Since kernel version 2.6.19, CUBIC replaces BIC-TCP as the default TCP congestion control algorithm in the Linux kernel.MacOS adopted TCP CUBIC with the OS X Yosemite release in 2014, while the previous release OS X Mavericks still used TCP New Reno.Microsoft adopted it by default in Windows 10.1709 Fall Creators Update (2017), and Windows Server 2016 1709 update.
Span (linear algebra) Definition Linear_hull > Definition Given a vector space V over a field K, the span of a set S of vectors (not necessarily finite) is defined to be the intersection W of all subspaces of V that contain S. W is referred to as the subspace spanned by S, or by the vectors in S. Conversely, S is called a spanning set of W, and we say that S spans W. Alternatively, the span of S may be defined as the set of all finite linear combinations of elements (vectors) of S, which follows from the above definition. In the case of infinite S, infinite linear combinations (i.e. where a combination may involve an infinite sum, assuming that such sums are defined somehow as in, say, a Banach space) are excluded by the definition; a generalization that allows these is not equivalent.
Pulsatile secretion Thyrotropin and thyroid hormones (HPT axis) Pulsatile_secretion > Thyrotropin and thyroid hormones (HPT axis) A similar pattern is observed for triiodothyronine, however with a phase shift. Pulsatile release contributes to the ultradian rhythm of TSH concentration with about 10 pulses per 24 hours. The amplitude of the circadian and ultradian rhythms is reduced in severe non-thyroidal illness syndrome (TACITUS).Contemporary theories assume that autocrine and paracrine (ultrashort) feedback mechanisms controlling TSH secretion within the anterior pituitary gland are a major factor contributing to the evolution of its pulsatility.
Electromagnetic radiation and health Ultraviolet Electromagnetic_pollution > Effects by frequency > Ultraviolet The UV-B flux is 2–4 times greater during the middle 4–6 hours of the day, and is not significantly absorbed by cloud cover or up to a meter of water.Ultraviolet light, specifically UV-B, has been shown to cause cataracts and there is some evidence that sunglasses worn at an early age can slow its development in later life. Most UV light from the sun is filtered out by the atmosphere and consequently airline pilots often have high rates of cataracts because of the increased levels of UV radiation in the upper atmosphere. It is hypothesized that depletion of the ozone layer and a consequent increase in levels of UV light on the ground may increase future rates of cataracts.
Topological polyhedra Symmetries Orthogonal_polyhedron > Symmetries Many of the most studied polyhedra are highly symmetrical, that is, their appearance is unchanged by some reflection or rotation of space. Each such symmetry may change the location of a given vertex, face, or edge, but the set of all vertices (likewise faces, edges) is unchanged. The collection of symmetries of a polyhedron is called its symmetry group. All the elements that can be superimposed on each other by symmetries are said to form a symmetry orbit.
Galois field Quasi-algebraic closure Galois_field > Extensions > Algebraic closure > Quasi-algebraic closure Although finite fields are not algebraically closed, they are quasi-algebraically closed, which means that every homogeneous polynomial over a finite field has a non-trivial zero whose components are in the field if the number of its variables is more than its degree. This was a conjecture of Artin and Dickson proved by Chevalley (see Chevalley–Warning theorem).
International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations Resolutions and Declarations International_Union_of_Air_Pollution_Prevention_and_Environmental_Protection_Associations > Resolutions and Declarations Ever since it was founded in 1964 the Union has had a long-term interest in the relationship between air pollution and the earth's climate. Policy declarations in 1989 were one of the first to focus on climate change. The focus in 1995 was on the changing Arctic landscape and pollution. In 2001 it was worldwide action on long-range transport of air pollution. 2010's focus was One Atmosphere.
Stratification (water) Mixing Stratification_(water) > Mechanism > Mixing Mass movement of water between latitudes is affected by coriolis forces, which impart motion across the current direction, and movement towards or away from a land mass or other topographic obstruction may leave a deficit or excess which lowers or raises the sea level locally, driving upwelling and downwelling to compensate. The major upwellings in the ocean are associated with the divergence of currents that bring deeper waters to the surface. There are at least five types of upwelling: coastal upwelling, large-scale wind-driven upwelling in the ocean interior, upwelling associated with eddies, topographically-associated upwelling, and broad-diffusive upwelling in the ocean interior.
Describing function The method Describing_function > The method This is because such systems may possess intrinsic low-pass or bandpass characteristics such that harmonics are naturally attenuated, or because external filters are added for this purpose. An important application of the SIDF technique is to estimate the oscillation amplitude in sinusoidal electronic oscillators.
Logarithmic units Common uses Logarithmic_scale > Common uses The markings on slide rules are arranged in a log scale for multiplying or dividing numbers by adding or subtracting lengths on the scales. The following are examples of commonly used logarithmic scales, where a larger quantity results in a higher value: Richter magnitude scale and moment magnitude scale (MMS) for strength of earthquakes and movement in the Earth Sound level, with units decibel Neper for amplitude, field and power quantities Frequency level, with units cent, minor second, major second, and octave for the relative pitch of notes in music Logit for odds in statistics Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale Logarithmic timeline Counting f-stops for ratios of photographic exposure The rule of nines used for rating low probabilities Entropy in thermodynamics Information in information theory Particle size distribution curves of soilThe following are examples of commonly used logarithmic scales, where a larger quantity results in a lower (or negative) value: pH for acidity Stellar magnitude scale for brightness of stars Krumbein scale for particle size in geology Absorbance of light by transparent samplesSome of our senses operate in a logarithmic fashion (Weber–Fechner law), which makes logarithmic scales for these input quantities especially appropriate. In particular, our sense of hearing perceives equal ratios of frequencies as equal differences in pitch. In addition, studies of young children in an isolated tribe have shown logarithmic scales to be the most natural display of numbers in some cultures.
Ideal lattice Efficient collision resistant hash functions Ideal_lattice_cryptography > Use in cryptography > Efficient collision resistant hash functions The main usefulness of the ideal lattices in cryptography stems from the fact that very efficient and practical collision resistant hash functions can be built based on the hardness of finding an approximate shortest vector in such lattices. Independently constructed collision resistant hash functions by Peikert and Rosen, as well as Lyubashevsky and Micciancio, based on ideal lattices (a generalization of cyclic lattices), and provided a fast and practical implementation. These results paved the way for other efficient cryptographic constructions including identification schemes and signatures.
Radiocarbon dating samples Preparation Radiocarbon_dating_samples > Preparation Once contamination has been removed, samples must be converted to a form suitable for the measuring technology to be used. A common approach is to produce a gas, for gas counting devices: CO2 is widely used, but it is also possible to use other gases, including methane, ethane, ethylene and acetylene. For samples in liquid form, for use in liquid scintillation counters, the carbon in the sample is converted to benzene, though other liquids were tried during the early decades of the technique. Libby's first measurements were made with lamp black, but this technique is no longer in use; these methods were susceptible to problems caused by the 14C created by nuclear testing in the 1950s and 1960s.
Genetic Programming Program representation Genetic_Programming > Methods > Program representation Cartesian genetic programming is another form of GP, which uses a graph representation instead of the usual tree based representation to encode computer programs. Most representations have structurally noneffective code (introns). Such non-coding genes may seem to be useless because they have no effect on the performance of any one individual.
Poisson generating function Lambert series Generating_functions > Definitions > Lambert series The Lambert series of a sequence an is The Lambert series coefficients in the power series expansions for integers n ≥ 1 are related by the divisor sum The main article provides several more classical, or at least well-known examples related to special arithmetic functions in number theory. In a Lambert series the index n starts at 1, not at 0, as the first term would otherwise be undefined.
Stable Diffusion Architecture Stable_Diffusion > Technology > Architecture The encoded conditioning data is exposed to denoising U-Nets via a cross-attention mechanism. For conditioning on text, the fixed, pretrained CLIP ViT-L/14 text encoder is used to transform text prompts to an embedding space. Researchers point to increased computational efficiency for training and generation as an advantage of LDMs.With 860 millions of parameters in the U-Net and 123 millions in the text encoder, Stable Diffusion is considered relatively lightweight by 2022 standards, and unlike other diffusion models, it can run on consumer GPUs.
Thermoregulation Behavioral temperature regulation Thermoregulation > Behavioral temperature regulation Some animals are regionally heterothermic and are able to allow their less insulated extremities to cool to temperatures much lower than their core temperature—nearly to 0 °C (32 °F). This minimizes heat loss through less insulated body parts, like the legs, feet (or hooves), and nose. Different species of Sonoran Desert Drosophila will exploit different species of cacti based on the thermotolerance differences between species and hosts.
Autonomic networking Connection fabric Autonomic_networking > Components of autonomic networking > Connection fabric The connection fabric supports the interaction with all the elements and sub-systems of the autonomic system. It may be composed of a variety of means and mechanisms, or may be a single central framework. The biological equivalent is the central nervous system itself – although referred to as the autonomic system, it actually is only the communication conduit between the human body’s faculties.
Reductase Summary Reductase A reductase is an enzyme that catalyzes a reduction reaction.
Longitudinal stress Causes and effects Physical_stress > Causes and effects In a solid material, such strain will in turn generate an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a stretched spring, tending to restore the material to its original undeformed state. Fluid materials (liquids, gases and plasmas) by definition can only oppose deformations that would change their volume.
Language Summary Language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms, and may also be conveyed through sign languages. The vast majority of human languages have developed writing systems that allow for the recording and preservation of the sounds or signs of language. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time.
Aerobic digestion Advantages Aerobic_digestion > Advantages Aerobic digestion occurs much faster than anaerobic digestion. The process is usually run at ambient temperature and the process is much less complex and easier to manage than anaerobic digestion.
Loop Quantum Gravity Spin foam derived from the Hamiltonian constraint operator Loop_gravity > Spin foams > Spin foam derived from the Hamiltonian constraint operator Now just as a spin networks describe quantum space, each configuration contributing to these path integrals, or sums over history, describe 'quantum space-time'. Because of their resemblance to soap foams and the way they are labeled John Baez gave these 'quantum space-times' the name 'spin foams'. There are however severe difficulties with this particular approach, for example the Hamiltonian operator is not self-adjoint, in fact it is not even a normal operator (i.e. the operator does not commute with its adjoint) and so the spectral theorem cannot be used to define the exponential in general. The most serious problem is that the H ^ ( x ) {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}(x)} 's are not mutually commuting, it can then be shown the formal quantity ∫ e i ∫ d 3 x N ( x ) H ^ ( x ) {\textstyle \int e^{i\int d^{3}xN(x){\hat {H}}(x)}} cannot even define a (generalized) projector. The master constraint (see below) does not suffer from these problems and as such offers a way of connecting the canonical theory to the path integral formulation.
Antigenic mimicry Control Antigenic_mimicry > Control There are ways in which autoimmunity caused by molecular mimicry can be avoided. Control of the initiating factor (pathogen) via vaccination seems to be the most common method to avoid autoimmunity. Inducing tolerance to the host autoantigen in this way may also be the most stable factor. The development of a downregulating immune response to the shared epitope between pathogen and host may be the best way of treating an autoimmune disease caused by molecular mimicry. Alternatively, treatment with immunosuppressive drugs such as ciclosporin and azathioprine has also been used as a possible solution. However, in many cases this has been shown to be ineffective because cells and tissues have already been destroyed at the onset of the infection.
Low blood sugar Drugs Low_blood_sugar > Causes > Non-diabetics > Drugs A number of medications have been identified which may cause hypoglycemia, through a variety of ways. Moderate quality evidence implicates the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug indomethacin and the anti-malarial quinine. Low quality evidence implicates lithium, used for bipolar disorder. Finally, very low quality evidence implicates a number of hypertension medications including angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (also called ACE-inhibitors), angiotensin receptor blockers (also called ARBs), and β-adrenergic blockers (also called beta blockers).
Magnetopause Characteristics Magnetopause > Characteristics The physics of this process was first explained by Dungey (1961).If one assumed that magnetopause was just a boundary between a magnetic field in a vacuum and a plasma with a weak magnetic field embedded in it, then the magnetopause would be defined by electrons and ions penetrating one gyroradius into the magnetic field domain. Since the gyro-motion of electrons and ions is in opposite directions, an electric current flows along the boundary. The actual magnetopause is much more complex.
Metabolic equivalent of task Summary Metabolic_equivalent_of_task The metabolic equivalent of task (MET) is the objective measure of the ratio of the rate at which a person expends energy, relative to the mass of that person, while performing some specific physical activity compared to a reference, currently set by convention at an absolute 3.5 mL of oxygen per kg per minute, which is the energy expended when sitting quietly by a reference individual, chosen to be roughly representative of the general population, and thereby suited to epidemiological surveys. A Compendium of Physical Activities is available online, which provides MET values for hundreds of activities. A primary use of METs is to grade activity levels for common household activities (such as cleaning) and common exercise modalities (such as running). Vigorous household chores can add up to as much energy expenditure as dedicated exercise, so it is necessary to include both, suitably pro rata, in an assessment of general fitness.
Galois fields Properties Finite_Field > Properties Any finite field extension of a finite field is separable and simple. That is, if E is a finite field and F is a subfield of E, then E is obtained from F by adjoining a single element whose minimal polynomial is separable. To use a jargon, finite fields are perfect. A more general algebraic structure that satisfies all the other axioms of a field, but whose multiplication is not required to be commutative, is called a division ring (or sometimes skew field). By Wedderburn's little theorem, any finite division ring is commutative, and hence is a finite field.
Differential privacy Adoption of differential privacy in real-world applications Differential_privacy > Adoption of differential privacy in real-world applications 2016: Apple iOS 10, for use in Intelligent personal assistant technology. 2017: Microsoft, for telemetry in Windows. 2020: Social Science One and Facebook, a 55 trillion cell dataset for researchers to learn about elections and democracy. 2021: The US Census Bureau uses differential privacy to release redistricting data from the 2020 Census.
Euler's criterion Examples Euler's_criterion > Examples Example 1: Finding primes for which a is a residue Let a = 17. For which primes p is 17 a quadratic residue? We can test prime p's manually given the formula above. In one case, testing p = 3, we have 17(3 − 1)/2 = 171 ≡ 2 ≡ −1 (mod 3), therefore 17 is not a quadratic residue modulo 3.
Glossary of power electronics A Glossary_of_power_electronics > A AC capacitor A capacitor essentially designed for operation with alternating voltage.AC conversion factor For AC conversion, the ratio of the fundamental output power to the fundamental input power. AC converter A converter for AC conversion. AC filter A filter on the AC side of a converter, designed to reduce the circulation of harmonic currents in the associated system. AC voltage converter An AC converter for changing the voltage.
Parallel running Disadvantages Parallel_running > Disadvantages The cost of implementation is very expensive because of the need to operate the two systems at the same time. It is a great expense in terms of electricity and operation costs. This would be prohibitive with a large and complex system.
Abstract concept Prototype theory Abstract_concept > Notable theories on the structure of concepts > Prototype theory For example, a container holding mashed potatoes versus tea swayed people toward classifying them as a bowl and a cup, respectively. This experiment also illuminated the optimal dimensions of what the prototype for "cup" is.Prototypes also deal with the essence of things and to what extent they belong to a category. There have been a number of experiments dealing with questionnaires asking participants to rate something according to the extent to which it belongs to a category.
Vasopressin receptor Function Vasopressin_receptor > Function AVPR2 are expressed in the kidney tubule, predominantly in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts, in fetal lung tissue and lung cancer, the last two being associated with alternative splicing. AVPR2 is also expressed in the liver where stimulation releases a variety of clotting factors into the bloodstream. In the kidney, AVPR2's primary function is to respond to arginine vasopressin by stimulating mechanisms that concentrate the urine and maintain water homeostasis in the organism. When the function of AVPR2 is lost, the disease Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus (NDI) results.
Radio-controlled car Toy-grade RC cars Remote_control_car > Toy-grade RC cars Stock toy-grade cars are equipped with weaker motors and are powered by alkaline or NiCad batteries, which means their top speed is usually only 3–7 mph (4.8–11.3 km/h). Cheaper ones lack any form of a suspension and the ones that do feature a suspension that has very primitive or rudimentary designs. Steering typically lacks proportional control (with only three positions: straight, full left, and full right) and there is typically no proportional "throttle" either, with stopped and full power usually being the only options.
Loop-based music software Origins Drum_loop > Origins Because the loop was about 30 feet long, it was fed out to a 7” plastic reel for ballast which was hung over the arm of a microphone stand before the loop of tape returned to the take-up reel. This same loop was later used by the Bee Gees for the song “More than a Woman” also from the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack. That same loop was also use – though slowed down quite a bit, for the Streisand recording of “Woman in Love” produced by Albhy Galuten, Karl Richardson and Barry Gibb.
Pi-system π-Systems in probability Pi_system > π-Systems in probability π-systems are more commonly used in the study of probability theory than in the general field of measure theory. This is primarily due to probabilistic notions such as independence, though it may also be a consequence of the fact that the π-𝜆 theorem was proven by the probabilist Eugene Dynkin. Standard measure theory texts typically prove the same results via monotone classes, rather than π-systems.
Social graph Summary Social_graph The social graph is a graph that represents social relations between entities. In short, it is a model or representation of a social network, where the word graph has been taken from graph theory. The social graph has been referred to as "the global mapping of everybody and how they're related".The term was used as early as 1964, albeit in the context of isoglosses. Leo Apostel uses the term in the context here in 1978.
Climate change mitigation framework Montreal Protocol Climate_change_mitigation_framework > History of approach to solving climate change > Montreal Protocol Despite the issue of the free rider problem, there has been a precedent which suggests that action on climate change can be accomplished on the world scale, as this was seen with previous agreements such as the Montreal Protocol. This agreement effectively phased out various substances that were causing the depletion of the ozone layer (ODS), and addressed an international issue through a treaty with a multilateral fund, subsidization for technology transfer, and professional involvement of the scientific community.
Interprocedural optimization History Interprocedural_optimization > History For procedural languages like ALGOL, interprocedural analysis and optimization appear to have entered commercial practice in the early 1970s. IBM's PL/I Optimizing Compiler performed interprocedural analysis to understand the side effects of both procedure calls and exceptions (cast, in PL/I terms as "on conditions") and in papers by Fran Allen. Work on compilation of the APL programming language was necessarily interprocedural.The techniques of interprocedural analysis and optimization were the subject of academic research in the 1980s and 1990s. They re-emerged into the commercial compiler world in the early 1990s with compilers from both Convex Computer Corporation (the "Application Compiler" for the Convex C4) and from Ardent (the compiler for the Ardent Titan). These compilers demonstrated that the technologies could be made sufficiently fast to be acceptable in a commercial compiler; subsequently interprocedural techniques have appeared in a number of commercial and non-commercial systems.
List of file systems Disk file systems List_of_file_systems > Disk file systems Also known as Mac OS Standard format. Successor to Macintosh File System (MFS) & predecessor to HFS+; not to be confused with IBM's HFS provided with z/OS HFS+ – Updated version of Apple's HFS, Hierarchical File System, supported on Mac OS 8.1 & above, including macOS. Supports file system journaling, enabling recovery of data after a system crash.
Streeter-Phelps equation Temperature correction Streeter–Phelps_equation > Streeter–Phelps equation > Temperature correction Both the deoxygenation rate, k 1 {\displaystyle k_{1}} and reaeration rate, k 2 {\displaystyle k_{2}} can be temperature corrected, following the general formula. k = k 20 θ ( T − 20 ) {\displaystyle k=k_{20}\theta ^{(T-20)}} where k 20 {\displaystyle k_{20}} is the rate at 20 degrees Celsius. θ is a constant, which differs for the two rates.
HtmlUnit Summary HtmlUnit HtmlUnit emulates parts of browser behaviour including the lower-level aspects of TCP/IP and HTTP. A sequence such as getPage(url), getLinkWith("Click here"), click() allows a user to navigate through hypertext and obtain web pages that include HTML, JavaScript, Ajax and cookies. This headless browser can deal with HTTPS security, basic HTTP authentication, automatic page redirection and other HTTP headers. It allows Java test code to examine returned pages either as text, an XML DOM, or as collections of forms, tables, and links.The goal is to simulate real browsers; namely Chrome, Firefox and Edge. The most common use of HtmlUnit is test automation of web pages, but sometimes it can be used for web scraping, or downloading website content.
137 (number) In mathematics 137_(number) > In mathematics a strong prime in the sense that it is more than the arithmetic mean of its two neighboring primes. a strictly non-palindromic number and a primeval number. a factor of 10001 (the other being 73) and the repdigit 11111111 (= 10001 × 1111).
Behavioral endocrinology Thyroid Hormones Behavioral_endocrinology > Neuroendocrine regulation of behavior > Thyroid Hormones Thyroid hormones are responsible for controlling metabolism, nervous system, body temperature and development of several organ systems such as the reproductive system.
AI-complete Formalization AI-complete > Formalization Computational complexity theory deals with the relative computational difficulty of computable functions. By definition, it does not cover problems whose solution is unknown or has not been characterised formally. Since many AI problems have no formalisation yet, conventional complexity theory does not allow the definition of AI-completeness. To address this problem, a complexity theory for AI has been proposed.
Alexandre Chorin Journal publications Alexandre_Chorin > Journal publications Chorin, A. J. (1967). "A numerical method for solving incompressible viscous flow problems". Journal of Computational Physics.
Microbial symbiosis and immunity General principles Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity > General principles Microbial symbiosis relies on interspecies communication. between the host and microbial symbionts. Immunity has been historically characterized in multicellular organisms as being controlled by the host immune system, where a perceived foreign substance or cell stimulates an immune response. The end result of this response can vary from clearing of a harmful pathogen to tolerance of a beneficial microbe to an autoimmune response that harms the host itself. Symbiotic microorganisms have more recently been shown to also be involved in this immune response indicating that the immune response is not isolated to host cells alone. These beneficial microorganisms have been implicated in inhibiting growth of pathogens in the gut and anti-cancer immunity among other responses.
Microsoft Message Queuing Overview Microsoft_Message_Queuing > Overview Dead letter queues can be created for looking at messages which timed out or failed for other reasons. MSMQ supports both durable and non-durable messaging to make a trade off between performance or consistency by writing messages to disk or only in RAM. Non-durable messaging can only be achieved by sending express messages via non-transactional queues.
Bayesian inference in motor learning Statistical overview Bayesian_inference_in_motor_learning > Statistical overview Bayes' theorem states P ( A \| B ) = P ( B \| A ) P ( A ) P ( B ) . {\displaystyle P(A\|B)={\frac {P(B\|A)\,P(A)}{P(B)}}.\,} In the language of Bayesian statistics, P ( A \| B ) {\displaystyle P(A\|B)} , or probability of A given B, is called the posterior, while P ( B \| A ) {\displaystyle P(B\|A)} and P ( A ) {\displaystyle P(A)} are the likelihood and the prior probabilities, respectively. P ( B ) {\displaystyle P(B)} is a constant scaling factor which allows the posterior to be between zero and one. Translating this into the language of motor learning, the prior represents previous knowledge about the physical state of the thing being observed, the likelihood is sensory information used to update the prior, and the posterior is the nervous system's estimate of the physical state.
ADE classification Binary polyhedral groups ADE_classification > Binary polyhedral groups The same classification applies to discrete subgroups of S U ( 2 ) {\displaystyle SU(2)} , the binary polyhedral groups; properly, binary polyhedral groups correspond to the simply laced affine Dynkin diagrams A ~ n , D ~ n , E ~ k , {\displaystyle {\tilde {A}}_{n},{\tilde {D}}_{n},{\tilde {E}}_{k},} and the representations of these groups can be understood in terms of these diagrams. This connection is known as the McKay correspondence after John McKay. The connection to Platonic solids is described in (Dickson 1959). The correspondence uses the construction of McKay graph.

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