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N–p–n transistor Summary NPN_transistor The junctions can be made in several different ways, such as changing the doping of the semiconductor material as it is grown, by depositing metal pellets to form alloy junctions, or by such methods as diffusion of n-type and p-type doping substances into the crystal. The superior predictability and performance of junction transistors quickly displaced the original point-contact transistor. Diffused transistors, along with other components, are elements of integrated circuits for analog and digital functions.
Cardiac stress test Stress echocardiography Cardiopulmonary_exercise_test > Stress echocardiography The patient is subjected to stress in the form of exercise or chemically (usually dobutamine). After the target heart rate is achieved, 'stress' echocardiogram images are obtained. The two echocardiogram images are then compared to assess for any abnormalities in wall motion of the heart. This is used to detect obstructive coronary artery disease.
Classical control theory Closed-loop transfer function Classical_control_theory > Closed-loop transfer function The expression H ( s ) = P ( s ) C ( s ) 1 + F ( s ) P ( s ) C ( s ) {\displaystyle H(s)={\frac {P(s)C(s)}{1+F(s)P(s)C(s)}}} is referred to as the closed-loop transfer function of the system. The numerator is the forward (open-loop) gain from r {\displaystyle r} to y {\displaystyle y} , and the denominator is one plus the gain in going around the feedback loop, the so-called loop gain. If \| P ( s ) C ( s ) \| ≫ 1 {\displaystyle \|P(s)C(s)\|\gg 1} , i.e., it has a large norm with each value of s, and if \| F ( s ) \| ≈ 1 {\displaystyle \|F(s)\|\approx 1} , then Y ( s ) {\displaystyle Y(s)} is approximately equal to R ( s ) {\displaystyle R(s)} and the output closely tracks the reference input.
Cellular computing Swarm intelligence Natural_Computation > Nature-inspired models of computation > Swarm intelligence Swarm intelligence, sometimes referred to as collective intelligence, is defined as the problem solving behavior that emerges from the interaction of individual agents (e.g., bacteria, ants, termites, bees, spiders, fish, birds) which communicate with other agents by acting on their local environments. Particle swarm optimization applies this idea to the problem of finding an optimal solution to a given problem by a search through a (multi-dimensional) solution space. The initial set-up is a swarm of particles, each representing a possible solution to the problem. Each particle has its own velocity which depends on its previous velocity (the inertia component), the tendency towards the past personal best position (the nostalgia component), and its tendency towards a global neighborhood optimum or local neighborhood optimum (the social component).
Transparent Inter-process Communication Datagram messaging Transparent_Inter-process_Communication > Datagram messaging When a service address is used, there might be several matching destinations, and the transmission method becomes what is often called anycast, i.e., that any of the matching destinations may be selected. The internal function translating from service address to socket address uses a round-robin algorithm to decrease the risk of load bias among the destinations. Multicast.
Processivity Polymerase processivities Processivity > Polymerase processivities Multiple DNA polymerases have specialized roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, which replicates its entire genome from a single replication fork, the polymerase DNA Pol III is the enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication and forms a replication complex with extremely high processivity. The related DNA Pol I has exonuclease activity and serves to degrade the RNA primers used to initiate DNA synthesis. Pol I then synthesizes the short DNA fragments in place of the former RNA fragments.
Gans theory Summary Gans_theory It is currently being applied in the field of nanotechnology to characterize silver and gold nanorods. A popular alternative for this is the Discrete dipole approximation (DDA) method.
List of file systems File system interfaces List_of_file_systems > Special-purpose file systems > File system interfaces These are not really file systems; they allow access to file systems from an operating system standpoint. FUSE (file system in userspace, like LUFS but better maintained) LUFS (Linux userland file system – seems to be abandoned in favour of FUSE) PUFFS (Userspace filesystem for NetBSD, including a compatibility layer called librefuse for porting existing FUSE-based applications) Secure Shell File System (SSHFS) – locally mount a remote directory on a server using only a secure shell login. VFS Virtual Filesystem
Hospital acquired infections Handwashing Nosocomial_infection > Prevention > Handwashing Handwashing frequently is called the single most important measure to reduce the risks of transmitting skin microorganisms from one person to another or from one site to another on the same patient. Washing hands as promptly and thoroughly as possible between patient contacts and after contact with blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, and equipment or articles contaminated by them is an important component of infection control and isolation precautions. The spread of nosocomial infections, among immunocompromised patients is connected with health care workers' hand contamination in almost 40% of cases, and is a challenging problem in the modern hospitals. The best way for workers to overcome this problem is conducting correct hand-hygiene procedures; this is why the WHO launched in 2005 the GLOBAL Patient Safety Challenge.Two categories of micro-organisms can be present on health care workers' hands: transient flora and resident flora.
Image compression Other properties Image_compression > Other properties Compression algorithms require different amounts of processing power to encode and decode. Some high compression algorithms require high processing power. The quality of a compression method often is measured by the peak signal-to-noise ratio. It measures the amount of noise introduced through a lossy compression of the image, however, the subjective judgment of the viewer also is regarded as an important measure, perhaps, being the most important measure.
John Pople Semi-empirical theory John_Pople > Research > Semi-empirical theory He made major contributions to the theory of approximate molecular orbital (MO) calculations, starting with one identical to the one developed by Rudolph Pariser and Robert G. Parr on pi electron systems, and now called the Pariser-Parr-Pople method. Subsequently, he developed the methods of Complete Neglect of Differential Overlap (CNDO) (in 1965) and Intermediate Neglect of Differential Overlap (INDO) for approximate MO calculations on three-dimensional molecules, and other developments in computational chemistry. In 1970 he and David Beveridge coauthored the book Approximate Molecular Orbital Theory describing these methods.
Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate IP3/DAG pathway Phosphatidyl_inositol_4,5-bisphosphate > Functions > IP3/DAG pathway PIP2 functions as an intermediate in the IP3/DAG pathway, which is initiated by ligands binding to G protein-coupled receptors activating the Gq alpha subunit. PtdIns(4,5)P2 is a substrate for hydrolysis by phospholipase C (PLC), a membrane-bound enzyme activated through protein receptors such as α1 adrenergic receptors. PIP2 regulates the function of many membrane proteins and ion channels, such as the M-channel.
Bone marrow barrier Application of stem cells in therapeutics Bone_Marrow > Clinical significance > Application of stem cells in therapeutics Bone marrow derived stem cells have a wide array of application in regenerative medicine.
Kaluza–Klein theories Quantum interpretation of Klein Kaluza–Klein_reduction > Quantum interpretation of Klein Klein's Zeitschrift für Physik article of the same year, gave a more detailed treatment that explicitly invoked the techniques of Schroedinger and de Broglie. It recapitulated much of the classical theory of Kaluza described above, and then departed into Klein's quantum interpretation. Klein solved a Schroedinger-like wave equation using an expansion in terms of fifth-dimensional waves resonating in the closed, compact fifth dimension.
Multigrid methods Summary Multigrid_method For example, the finite element method may be recast as a multigrid method. In these cases, multigrid methods are among the fastest solution techniques known today.
Anticoagulation therapy Adverse effects Anticoagulation_therapy > Adverse effects The most serious and common adverse side effect associated with anticoagulant are increased risk of bleeding, both nonmajor and major bleeding events. Risk of bleeding is dependent on the class of anticoagulant agent used, patient's age, and pre-existing health conditions. Warfarin has an estimated incidence of bleeding of 15-20% per year and life-threatening bleeding rate of 1-3% per year.
Simulation of production systems Finance Simulation_of_production_systems > More examples of simulation > Finance Simulations are also often used to test a financial theory or the ability of a financial model.Simulations are frequently used in financial training to engage participants in experiencing various historical as well as fictional situations. There are stock market simulations, portfolio simulations, risk management simulations or models and forex simulations. Such simulations are typically based on stochastic asset models. Using these simulations in a training program allows for the application of theory into a something akin to real life. As with other industries, the use of simulations can be technology or case-study driven.
Program synthesis Origin Program_synthesis > Origin Notable works include the 1969 automata-theoretic approach by Büchi and Landweber, and the works by Manna and Waldinger (c. 1980). The development of modern high-level programming languages can also be understood as a form of program synthesis.
OGC GeoSPARQL Performance and Compliance Benchmarking OGC_GeoSPARQL > Performance and Compliance Benchmarking Benchmarking GeoSPARQL 1.0 and geospatial-enabled triplestores, in general, has been conducted using several approaches. One can distinguish between performance and compliance benchmarks. The former can reveal whether a triplestore gives a timely answer to a GeoSPARQL query and may or may not check the answer for correctness. The latter checks whether a triplestore gives compliant answers with respect to the definitions of the GeoSPARQL 1.0 standard irrespective of the time the query takes for execution.
Market analysis Market trends Market_analysis > Elements > Market trends Market trends are the upward or downward movement of a market, during a period of time. The market size is more difficult to estimate if one is starting with something completely new. In this case, you will have to derive the figures from the number of potential customers, or customer segments. Besides information about the target market, one also needs information about one's competitors, customers, products, etc. Lastly, you need to measure marketing effectiveness.
Age-standardized mortality rate Standard populations Age_adjustment > Standard populations World standard populations have also been developed to compare data from different countries, including the Segi World Standard and the World Health Organization (WHO) standard. These agencies must balance between setting weights which may be used over a long period of time, which maximizes comparability of published statistics, and revising weights to be close to the current age distribution. When comparing data from a specific country or region, using a standard population from that country or region means that the age-adjusted rates are similar to the true population rates. On the other hand, standardizing data using a widely used standard such as the WHO standard population allows for easier comparison with published statistics.
Quantum illumination Theory Quantum_illumination > History > Theory In 2015, an international collaboration coordinated by Stefano Pirandola extended the protocol of quantum illumination to the microwave frequencies, thus providing the first theoretical prototype of quantum radar. The original proposal from was analyzed in the Bayesian setting of hypothesis testing, in which prior probabilities are assigned to the hypotheses that the target is absent or present. In 2017, a research paper analyzed quantum illumination in the Neyman-Pearson or asymmetric setting of hypothesis testing, which is a setting of interest in quantum radar applications.
Signage Role and function of signage Commercial_signage > Role and function of signage In general, signs perform the following roles or functions: Information-provision: signs conveying information about services and facilities, such as maps, directories, instructional signs or interpretive signage used in museums, galleries, zoos, parks and gardens, exhibitions, tourist and cultural attractions that enhance the customer's experience. Retail signage state product names or simply the prices. Highway signs, Billboards, digital displays of stock market quotes, etc. Persuasion: promotional signage designed to persuade users of the relative merits of a company, product or brand. Direction/ Navigation: signs showing the location of services, facilities, functional spaces and key areas, such as sign posts or directional arrows.
Divalent metal Divalent metals Divalent_metal > Divalent metals Some metals are commonly found in the form of dications when in the form of salts, or dissolved in water. Examples include the alkaline earth metals (Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ra2+); later 3d transition metals (V2+, Cr2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+); group 12 elements (Zn2+, Cd2+, Hg2+); and the heavy members of the carbon group (Sn2+, Pb2+).
Species-area relationship Summary Species-area_curve If S {\displaystyle S} is the number of species, A {\displaystyle A} is the habitat area, and z {\displaystyle z} is the slope of the species area relationship in log-log space, then the power function species–area relationship goes as: Here c {\displaystyle c} is a constant which depends on the unit used for area measurement, and equals the number of species that would exist if the habitat area was confined to one square unit. The graph looks like a straight line on log–log axes, and can be linearized as: In contrast, Henry Gleason championed the semilog model: which looks like a straight line on semilog axes, where the area is logged and the number of species is arithmetic. In either case, the species–area relationship is almost always decelerating (has a negative second derivative) when plotted arithmetically.Species–area relationships are often graphed for islands (or habitats that are otherwise isolated from one another, such as woodlots in an agricultural landscape) of different sizes.
Longest palindromic substring Slow algorithm Longest_palindromic_substring > Slow algorithm // Remember that a palindrome centered in an '\|' in S' corresponds to an even palindrome in S. // if S' != '\|', PalindromeRaii is odd (same argument), and corresponds to an odd palindrome. // In this case, the length of the palindrome // centered at that character is also x=PalindromeRaii, as we have (x-1)/2 characters on each side, // plus the extra middle one ((x-1)/2*2+1=x) longest_palindrome_in_S = max(PalindromeRadii) return longest_palindrome_in_S } The runtime of this algorithm is O ( n 2 ) {\displaystyle O(n^{2})} . The outer loop runs n {\displaystyle n} times and the inner loop can run up to n / 2 {\displaystyle n/2} times.
Highly abundant number Relations with other sets of numbers Highly_abundant_number > Relations with other sets of numbers Although the first eight factorials are highly abundant, not all factorials are highly abundant. For example, σ(9!) = σ(362880) = 1481040,but there is a smaller number with larger sum of divisors, σ(360360) = 1572480,so 9!
Capacitor Lifespan Parallel_plate_capacitor > Non-ideal behavior > Lifespan For example, metal-film capacitors are more prone to damage from stress and humidity, but will self-heal when a breakdown in the dielectric occurs. The formation of a glow discharge at the point of failure prevents arcing by vaporizing the metallic film in that spot, neutralizing any short circuit with minimal loss in capacitance. When enough pinholes accumulate in the film, a total failure occurs in a metal-film capacitor, generally happening suddenly without warning.
Sun-free photovoltaics Development Sun-free_photovoltaics > Development It was previously known that sunlight is not absolutely necessary for photovoltaic cells to operate. Infrared radiation is not utilized efficiently in photovoltaic materials which are characterized by low band gap, though the performance is comparatively better than normal silicon photovoltaic cells. One example of photovoltaics utilizing heat is a photovoltaic diode which produces electricity from heat given off by a hydrocarbon fuelled thermal emitter.In Sun-free photovoltaics, the thermal emitter described above is finely tuned to emit specific wavelengths that the photovoltaic diode can utilize, while at the same time stopping the wavelengths that cannot be used by the diode. This is achieved by etching features of nanoscale like ridges and holes on a photonic crystal so that the light passing through the crystal can be modified.
P-Anisidine Summary Anisidine_value p-Anisidine (or para-anisidine) is an organic compound with the formula CH3OC6H4NH2. A white solid, commercial samples can appear grey-brown owing to air oxidation. It is one of three isomers of anisidine, methoxy-containing anilines. It is prepared by reduction of 4-nitroanisole.
Chappuis absorption History Chappuis_absorption > History As Hulburt knew about the absorption by ozone, and as the spectral range of Chappuis absorption had been more precisely measured only a few years before by the French couple Arlette and Étienne Vassy, he made an attempt to account for this effect in his calculations. This brought the measurements completely into agreement with the theoretical predictions. The results of Hulburt were repeatedly confirmed in the following years.
Natural immunity Hybrid immunity Natural_immunity > Active immunity > Hybrid immunity Hybrid immunity is the combination of natural immunity and artificial immunity. Studies of hybrid-immune people found that their blood was better able to neutralize the Beta and other variants of SARS-CoV-2 than never-infected, vaccinated people. Moreover, on 29 October 2021, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) concluded that "Multiple studies in different settings have consistently shown that infection with SARS-CoV-2 and vaccination each result in a low risk of subsequent infection with antigenically similar variants for at least 6 months. Numerous immunologic studies and a growing number of epidemiologic studies have shown that vaccinating previously infected individuals significantly enhances their immune response and effectively reduces the risk of subsequent infection, including in the setting of increased circulation of more infectious variants. ..."
Low-rank matrix approximations Theorem for kernel approximation Low-rank_matrix_approximations > Nyström approximation > Theorem for kernel approximation K ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {K}}} is a kernel matrix for some kernel method. Consider the first q < n {\displaystyle q
Ki-Hang Kim Publications and books Ki-Hang_Kim > Publications and books (eds) Recent Trends in Graph Theory. vol 186. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Structured Analysis Data dictionary Structured_Design > Structured analysis topics > Data dictionary A data dictionary or database dictionary is a file that defines the basic organization of a database. A database dictionary contains a list of all files in the database, the number of records in each file, and the names and types of each data field. Most database management systems keep the data dictionary hidden from users to prevent them from accidentally destroying its contents. Data dictionaries do not contain any actual data from the database, only bookkeeping information for managing it.
Industrial and production engineering Industrial engineering Industrial_and_production_engineering > Overview > Industrial engineering It includes the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods from point of origin to point of consumption. Ergonomics: the practice of designing products, systems or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them. Operations research, also known as management science: discipline that deals with the application of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisions Operations management: an area of management concerned with overseeing, designing, and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services.
Strömgren sphere The model Strömgren_sphere > The model In Strömgren's explanations, the shell absorbs only the resonant lines of hydrogen, so that the available energy is low. Assuming that the star is a supernova, the radiance of the light it emits corresponds (by Planck's law) to a temperature of several hundreds of kelvins, so that several frequencies may combine to produce the resonance frequencies of hydrogen atoms. Thus, almost all light emitted by the star is absorbed, and almost all energy radiated by the star amplifies the tangent, super-radiant rays.
Evolutionary approaches to depression Prevention of infection Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression > Prevention of infection Lastly, the lack of appetite associated with depression may also reduce exposure to food-borne parasites.However, it should also be noted that chronic illness itself may be involved in causing depression. In animal models, the prolonged overreaction of the immune system, in response to the strain of chronic disease, results in an increased production of cytokines (a diverse group of hormonal regulators and signaling molecules). Cytokines interact with neurotransmitter systems—mainly norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin, and induce depressive characteristics. The onset of depression may help an individual recover from their illness by allowing them a more reserved, safe and energetically efficient lifestyle. The overproduction of these cytokines, beyond optimal levels due to the repeated demands of dealing with a chronic disease, may result in clinical depression and its accompanying behavioral manifestations that promote extreme energy reservation.
Nyāya Sūtras Theory of causality Nyāya_Sūtras > Content > Theory of causality The Nyayasutras dedicate many sections on causality and causal relations (Karana, Sanskrit: कारण), particularly Book 4. Causes, in Nyaya view states Fowler, are "antecedents of their effects invariably and unconditionally". A specific effect is produced by a specific cause (plurality in causes is accepted). A specific cause produces a specific effect and no other (plurality in effect, or contradictory effect is not accepted).
Charge conjugation symmetry Combination of charge and parity reversal C-symmetry > Combination of charge and parity reversal It was believed for some time that C-symmetry could be combined with the parity-inversion transformation (see P-symmetry) to preserve a combined CP-symmetry. However, violations of this symmetry have been identified in the weak interactions (particularly in the kaons and B mesons). In the Standard Model, this CP violation is due to a single phase in the CKM matrix. If CP is combined with time reversal (T-symmetry), the resulting CPT-symmetry can be shown using only the Wightman axioms to be universally obeyed.
Villy Sundström Reviews Villy_Sundström > Bibliography > Reviews Sundstrom, Villy (2011). "Solar Energy Conversion – Natural to Artificial". In Bartolo, Baldassare Di; Collins, John (eds.).
Cheyne–Stokes respiration Related patterns Cheyne–Stokes_respiration > Related patterns Cheyne–Stokes respirations are not the same as Biot's respirations ("cluster breathing"), in which groups of breaths tend to be similar in size. They differ from Kussmaul respirations in that the Kussmaul pattern is one of consistent very deep breathing at a normal or increased rate.
Time–frequency analysis for music signals Continuous STFT Time–frequency_analysis_for_music_signals > Short-time Fourier transform > Continuous STFT Short-time Fourier transform is a basic type of time–frequency analysis. If there is a continuous signal x(t), we can compute the short-time Fourier transform by S T F T { x ( t ) } ≡ X ( t , f ) = ∫ − ∞ ∞ x ( τ ) w ( t − τ ) e − j 2 π f τ d τ {\displaystyle \mathbf {STFT} \left\{x(t)\right\}\equiv X(t,f)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }x(\tau )w(t-\tau )e^{-j2\pi f\tau }\,d\tau } where w(t) is a window function. When the w(t) is a rectangular function, the transform is called Rec-STFT. When the w(t) is a Gaussian function, the transform is called Gabor transform.
Semi-continuity Examples Semi-continuous_function > Examples Consider the function f , {\displaystyle f,} piecewise defined by: This function is upper semicontinuous at x 0 = 0 , {\displaystyle x_{0}=0,} but not lower semicontinuous. The floor function f ( x ) = ⌊ x ⌋ , {\displaystyle f(x)=\lfloor x\rfloor ,} which returns the greatest integer less than or equal to a given real number x , {\displaystyle x,} is everywhere upper semicontinuous. Similarly, the ceiling function f ( x ) = ⌈ x ⌉ {\displaystyle f(x)=\lceil x\rceil } is lower semicontinuous. Upper and lower semicontinuity bear no relation to continuity from the left or from the right for functions of a real variable.
Pathophysiology of hypertension Endothelial dysfunction Pathophysiology_of_hypertension > Endothelial dysfunction Alterations in endothelial function are a reliable indicator of target organ damage and atherosclerotic disease, as well as prognosis.Evidence suggests that oxidant stress alters many functions of the endothelium, including modulation of vasomotor tone. Inactivation of nitric oxide (NO) by superoxide and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) seems to occur in conditions such as hypertension.
Index of structural engineering articles T Index_of_structural_engineering_articles > T Tall building – Tensile architecture – Tensile strength – Tensile stress – Tensile structure – Tension – Timber – Timber framing – Thermal conductivity – Thermal shock – Thermodynamics – Thermoplastic – Truss – Truss bridge – Torsion – Torsion beam suspension – Torsion box – Tower – Tubular bridge – Tuned mass damper
Prostaglandin inhibitors Congestive Heart Failure and Hypertension Prostaglandin_inhibitors > Side Effects > NSAIDs > Congestive Heart Failure and Hypertension NSAIDs retain sodium and water in the circulation, which in turn increase the blood volume and blood pressure in the body. The production of natural vasodilator (prostaglandin) is also inhibited at the same time. Hence, the use of NSAIDs is associated with an increased risk of congestive heart failure and hypertension especially for elderly patients.
Cohesin Dissociation of sister chromatid cohesion Cohesin > Dissociation of sister chromatid cohesion The anaphase promoting complex associated to Cdc20 (APC/C-cdc20) marks Securin (anaphase inhibitor) for degradation by the proteasome. Securin is cleaved at anaphase, following APC/C-cdc20 mediated degradation, and it renders separase (a protease, inhibited by the association with securin) to cleave the kleisin subunit. An alpha-kleisin is associated with the cohesin complex, linking both SMC 3 and SMC 1 together, with the exact kleisin varying between mitosis and meiosis (Scc1 and Rec8 respectively), and its cleavage ultimately leads to the removal of cohesin from chromosomes.Dissociation of sister chromatids cohesion defines anaphase onset, which establishes two sets of identical chromosomes at each pole of the cell (telophase). Then the two daughter cells separate, and a new round of the cell cycle freshly starts in each one, at the stage of G0.
Facial recognition systems Healthcare Face_recognition > Application > Healthcare Facial recognition algorithms can help in diagnosing some diseases using specific features on the nose, cheeks and other part of the human face. Relying on developed data sets, machine learning has been used to identify genetic abnormalities just based on facial dimensions. FRT has also been used to verify patients before surgery procedures. In March, 2022 according to a publication by Forbes, FDNA, an AI development company claimed that in the space of 10 years, they have worked with geneticists to develop a database of about 5,000 diseases and 1500 of them can be detected with facial recognition algorithms.
Mouse tracking History Mouse_tracking > History While eye tracking has been around since the 1800s, it was not used in HCI until the 1980, primarily to help answer questions about how users search for commands in computer menus and to develop systems to help disabled users. More recently, eye tracking has been used in usability testing on web pages to understand a user's point of focus as well as test the usability of different features of a site, such as dropdown menus. This information can influence Web design so it meets the researcher's goals yet is user friendly.
Novobiocin susceptibility test Clinical use Novobiocin > Clinical use It is active against Staphylococcus epidermidis and may be used to differentiate it from the other coagulase-negative Staphylococcus saprophyticus, which is resistant to novobiocin, in culture.Novobiocin was licensed for clinical use under the tradename Albamycin (Upjohn) in the 1960s. Its efficacy has been demonstrated in preclinical and clinical trials. The oral form of the drug has since been withdrawn from the market due to lack of efficacy. A combination product of novobiocin and tetracycline, sold by Upjohn under brand names such as Panalba and Albamycin-T, was in particular the subject of intense FDA scrutiny before it was finally taken off the market. Novobiocin is an effective antistaphylococcal agent used in the treatment of MRSA.
Cheap talk Theorem Cheap_talk > Crawford and Sobel's definition > Theorem Crawford and Sobel characterize possible Nash equilibria. There are typically multiple equilibria, but in a finite number. Separating, which means full information revelation, is not a Nash equilibrium.
Standard deviations Finance Standard_deviation > Interpretation and application > Application examples > Finance In this example, Stock A is expected to earn about 10 percent, plus or minus 20 pp (a range of 30 percent to −10 percent), about two-thirds of the future year returns. When considering more extreme possible returns or outcomes in future, an investor should expect results of as much as 10 percent plus or minus 60 pp, or a range from 70 percent to −50 percent, which includes outcomes for three standard deviations from the average return (about 99.7 percent of probable returns). Calculating the average (or arithmetic mean) of the return of a security over a given period will generate the expected return of the asset.
Crossover experiment (chemistry) Inorganic chemistry Crossover_experiment_(chemistry) > Inorganic chemistry Mass spectrometry was used to distinguish between these isotopes in the products. In the same study, crossover experiments were also carried out using 13CO and 12CO.
Weyl's lemma (Laplace equation) Summary Weyl's_lemma_(Laplace_equation) In mathematics, Weyl's lemma, named after Hermann Weyl, states that every weak solution of Laplace's equation is a smooth solution. This contrasts with the wave equation, for example, which has weak solutions that are not smooth solutions. Weyl's lemma is a special case of elliptic or hypoelliptic regularity.
Safety instrumented function Design Safety_instrumented_function > Design An SIS is intended to perform specific control functions to prevent unsafe process operations when unacceptable or dangerous conditions occur. Because of its criticality, safety instrumented systems must be independent from all other control systems that control the same equipment, in order to ensure SIS functionality is not compromised. An SIS is composed of the same types of control elements (including sensors, logic solvers, actuators and other control equipment) as a Basic Process Control System (BPCS). However, all of the control elements in an SIS are dedicated solely to the proper functioning of the SIS.
Hemostasis Summary Hemostasis Intact blood vessels are central to moderating blood's tendency to form clots. The endothelial cells of intact vessels prevent blood clotting with a heparin-like molecule and thrombomodulin, and prevent platelet aggregation with nitric oxide and prostacyclin. When endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, the endothelial cells stop secretion of coagulation and aggregation inhibitors and instead secrete von Willebrand factor, which initiate the maintenance of hemostasis after injury. Hemostasis involves three major steps: vasoconstriction temporary blockage of a hole in a damaged blood vessel by a platelet plug blood coagulation (formation of fibrin clots)These processes seal the injury or hole until tissues are healed.
Heat transfer physics Photon Heat_transfer_physics > Photon For example, electric dipole which in turn are excited by optical phonons or fluid particle vibration, or transition dipole moments of electronic transitions. In heat transfer physics, the interaction kinetics of phonon is treated using the perturbation theory (the Fermi golden rule) and the interaction Hamiltonian. The photon-electron interaction is where pe is the dipole moment vector and a† and a are the creation and annihilation of internal motion of electron.
Gradient vector Differential or (exterior) derivative Gradient_Operator > Relationship with derivative > Relationship with total derivative > Differential or (exterior) derivative The best linear approximation to a differentiable function at a point x {\displaystyle x} in R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} is a linear map from R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} to R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } which is often denoted by d f x {\displaystyle df_{x}} or D f ( x ) {\displaystyle Df(x)} and called the differential or total derivative of f {\displaystyle f} at x {\displaystyle x} . The function d f {\displaystyle df} , which maps x {\displaystyle x} to d f x {\displaystyle df_{x}} , is called the total differential or exterior derivative of f {\displaystyle f} and is an example of a differential 1-form. Much as the derivative of a function of a single variable represents the slope of the tangent to the graph of the function, the directional derivative of a function in several variables represents the slope of the tangent hyperplane in the direction of the vector.
Ozone layer depletion Percentage of man-made chlorine Ozone_depleter > Misconceptions > Percentage of man-made chlorine Another misconception is that "it is generally accepted that natural sources of tropospheric chlorine are four to five times larger than man-made ones." While this statement is strictly true, tropospheric chlorine is irrelevant; it is stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone depletion. Chlorine from ocean spray is soluble and thus is washed by rainfall before it reaches the stratosphere. CFCs, in contrast, are insoluble and long-lived, allowing them to reach the stratosphere.
Potassium-sparing diuretic Mechanism of action Potassium_sparing_diuretics > Mechanism of action Aldosterone binds to aldosterone receptors (mineralocorticoid receptors) increasing sodium reabsorption in an effort to increase blood pressure and improve fluid status in the body. When excessive sodium reabsorption occurs, there is an increasing loss of K+ in the urine and can lead to clinically significant decreases, termed hypokalemia. Increased sodium reabsorption also increases water retention.Potassium-sparing diuretics act to prevent sodium reabsorption in the collecting tubule by either binding ENaCs (amiloride, triamterene) or by inhibiting aldosterone receptors (spironolactone, eplerenone).
Empirical probability Advantages Relative_frequency > Advantages and disadvantages > Advantages An advantage of estimating probabilities using empirical probabilities is that this procedure is relatively free of assumptions. For example, consider estimating the probability among a population of men that they satisfy two conditions: that they are over 6 feet in height. that they prefer strawberry jam to raspberry jam.A direct estimate could be found by counting the number of men who satisfy both conditions to give the empirical probability of the combined condition. An alternative estimate could be found by multiplying the proportion of men who are over 6 feet in height with the proportion of men who prefer strawberry jam to raspberry jam, but this estimate relies on the assumption that the two conditions are statistically independent.
Pediococcus acidilactici Potential benefits Pediococcus_acidilactici > Potential benefits P. acidilactici has a wide range of potential benefits which are still being studied. Though it is being used as probiotic supplements in treating constipation, diarrhea, relieving stress, and enhancing immune response among birds and small animals, human trials are still limited. P. acidilactici is also known to prevent colonization of the small intestine by pathogens such as Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., Clostridium difficile, and Escherichia coli among small animals.
Calcipotriol/betamethasone dipropionate Adverse effects Calcipotriol/betamethasone_dipropionate > Adverse effects A number of clinical studies have been conducted to investigate possible adverse events of this fixed combination corticosteroid and vitamin D analog. Safety and tolerability of calcipotriol/betamethasone dipropionate (Cal/BD) ointment has been assessed in a combined total of 2448 patients, exposed to treatment for 4 or 8 weeks (median weekly dose of 24.5 g). The most common adverse events for patients receiving Cal/BD were pruritus (3.1%), headache (2.8%), and nasopharyngitis (2.3%). Lesional/perilesional adverse events, defined as an adverse event located ≤2 cm from the lesional border, were reported by 8.7% of patients treated with Cal/BD ointment.
Norepinephrine transporter Schizophrenia Noradrenaline_transporter > Further research > Schizophrenia The role of NE in schizophrenia has not been fully understood, but has stimulated research into this topic. The only relationship that has been understood between researchers is that there is a positive correlation between increased NE levels in the brain and spinal fluid (CSF) and activity of schizophrenia. In one study, clonidine, a drug used to treat medical conditions such as ADHD and high blood pressure, was shown to produce a significant decrease in plasma level MHPG (3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol), a metabolite of NE, in the normal control group, but not in the group of schizophrenic patients.
Simple linear regression Unbiasedness Simple_linear_regression > Model-based properties > Unbiasedness The estimators α ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\alpha }}} and β ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\beta }}} are unbiased. To formalize this assertion we must define a framework in which these estimators are random variables. We consider the residuals εi as random variables drawn independently from some distribution with mean zero. In other words, for each value of x, the corresponding value of y is generated as a mean response α + βx plus an additional random variable ε called the error term, equal to zero on average. Under such interpretation, the least-squares estimators α ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\alpha }}} and β ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\beta }}} will themselves be random variables whose means will equal the "true values" α and β. This is the definition of an unbiased estimator.
Kepler-11g Name and discovery Kepler-11g > Name and discovery To do so, they used the Keck 1 telescope at the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii; the Shane and Hale telescopes in California; telescopes at the WIYN (including MMT) and Whipple observatories in Arizona; Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands; the Hobby-Eberly and Harlan J. Smith telescopes in Texas; and NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. Because Kepler-11g orbits its star at a far greater distance than the inner five planets, fewer transits were observed, and radial velocity (the observation of a Doppler effect) interactions could not be easily discerned.
Early exit State machines Structured_Programming > Common deviations > State machines Some programs, particularly parsers and communications protocols, have a number of states that follow each other in a way that is not easily reduced to the basic structures, and some programmers implement the state-changes with a jump to the new state. This type of state-switching is often used in the Linux kernel.However, it is possible to structure these systems by making each state-change a separate subprogram and using a variable to indicate the active state (see trampoline). Alternatively, these can be implemented via coroutines, which dispense with the trampoline.
Intrinsic checkpoint blockade B cells Adoptive_cell_transfer > Safety > B cells Molecules shared among tumors and nonessential normal organs represent potential ACT targets, despite the related toxicity. For example, the CD19 molecule is expressed on more than 90% of B cell malignancies and on non-plasma B cells at all differentiation stages and has been successfully used to treat patients with follicular lymphoma, large-cell lymphomas, chronic lymphocytic leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Toxicity against CD19 results in B cell loss in circulation and in bone marrow that can be overcome by periodic immunoglobulin infusions.Multiple other B cell antigens are being studied as targets, including CD22, CD23, ROR-1 and the immunoglobulin light-chain idiotype expressed by the individual cancer. CARs targeting either CD33 or CD123 have been studied as a therapy for patients with acute myeloid leukemia, though the expression of these molecules on normal precursors can lead to prolonged myeloablation. BCMA is a tumor necrosis factor receptor family protein expressed on mature B cells and plasma cells and can be targeted on multiple myeloma.
Gastric juice Summary Gastric_acid Gastric acid, gastric juice, or stomach acid is a digestive fluid formed within the stomach lining. With a pH between 1 and 3, gastric acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins by activating digestive enzymes, which together break down the long chains of amino acids of proteins. Gastric acid is regulated in feedback systems to increase production when needed, such as after a meal. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring a regulated pH.
Fracture Mechanics Griffith's criterion Plastic_zone > Linear elastic fracture mechanics > Griffith's criterion The artificial flaw was in the form of a surface crack which was much larger than other flaws in a specimen. The experiments showed that the product of the square root of the flaw length ( a {\displaystyle a} ) and the stress at fracture ( σ f {\displaystyle \sigma _{f}} ) was nearly constant, which is expressed by the equation: σ f a ≈ C {\displaystyle \sigma _{f}{\sqrt {a}}\approx C} An explanation of this relation in terms of linear elasticity theory is problematic. Linear elasticity theory predicts that stress (and hence the strain) at the tip of a sharp flaw in a linear elastic material is infinite.
Cieplak effect Background Cieplak_effect > Background The Cieplak effect relies on the stabilizing interaction of mixing full and empty orbitals to delocalize electrons, known as hyperconjugation. When the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of one system and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of another system have comparable energies and spatial overlap, the electrons can delocalize and sink into a lower energy level. Often, the HOMO of a system is a full σ (bonding) orbital and the LUMO is an empty σ* (antibonding) orbital. This mixing is a stabilizing interaction and has been widely used to explain such phenomena as the anomeric effect.
Transition-metal oxides Hydrolysis and dissolution Oxide > Reactions > Hydrolysis and dissolution Of course many compounds are known with both oxides and other groups. In organic chemistry, these include ketones and many related carbonyl compounds. For the transition metals, many oxo complexes are known as well as oxyhalides.
Probabilistic Turing Machine Complexity classes Probabilistic_Turing_Machine > Complexity classes As a result of the error introduced by utilizing probabilistic coin tosses, the notion of acceptance of a string by a probabilistic Turing machine can be defined in different ways. One such notion that includes several important complexity classes is allowing for an error probability of 1/3. For instance, the complexity class BPP is defined as the class of languages recognized by a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time with an error probability of 1/3. Another class defined using this notion of acceptance is BPL, which is the same as BPP but places the additional restriction that languages must be solvable in logarithmic space.
Acoustic wave Phase Acoustic_wave > Wave properties > Phase As a sound wave propagates through a volume, the horizontal displacement of a particle η {\displaystyle \eta } occurs along the wave propagation direction. where A {\displaystyle A} is cross-sectional area in m2From this equation it can be seen that when pressure is at its maximum, particle displacement from average position reaches zero. As mentioned before, the oscillating pressure for a rightward traveling wave can be given by Since displacement is maximum when pressure is zero there is a 90 degrees phase difference, so displacement is given by Particle velocity is the first derivative of particle displacement: u = ∂ η / ∂ t {\displaystyle u=\partial \eta /\partial t} . Differentiation of a sine gives a cosine again During adiabatic change, temperature changes with pressure as well following This fact is exploited within the field of thermoacoustics.
Continuum Mechanics Body forces Cauchy's_laws_of_motion > Forces in a continuum > Body forces Body moments, or body couples, are moments per unit volume or per unit mass applied to the volume of the body. Both are important in the analysis of stress for a polarized dielectric solid under the action of an electric field, materials where the molecular structure is taken into consideration (e.g. bones), solids under the action of an external magnetic field, and the dislocation theory of metals.Materials that exhibit body couples and couple stresses in addition to moments produced exclusively by forces are called polar materials. Non-polar materials are then those materials with only moments of forces. In the classical branches of continuum mechanics the development of the theory of stresses is based on non-polar materials. Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with respect to the origin of the coordinate system) in the body can be given by F = ∫ V a d m = ∫ S T d S + ∫ V ρ b d V {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}=\int _{V}\mathbf {a} \,dm=\int _{S}\mathbf {T} \,dS+\int _{V}\rho \mathbf {b} \,dV} M = ∫ S r × T d S + ∫ V r × ρ b d V {\displaystyle {\mathcal {M}}=\int _{S}\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {T} \,dS+\int _{V}\mathbf {r} \times \rho \mathbf {b} \,dV}
Pneumatic actuators Principle of operation Pneumatic_actuator > Principle of operation A pneumatic actuator mainly consists of a piston or a diaphragm which develops the motive power. It keeps the air in the upper portion of the cylinder, allowing air pressure to force the diaphragm or piston to move the valve stem or rotate the valve control element. Valves require little pressure to operate and usually double or triple the input force. The larger the size of the piston, the larger the output pressure can be.
M-matrix Applications M-matrix > Applications The primary contributions to M-matrix theory has mainly come from mathematicians and economists. M-matrices are used in mathematics to establish bounds on eigenvalues and on the establishment of convergence criteria for iterative methods for the solution of large sparse systems of linear equations. M-matrices arise naturally in some discretizations of differential operators, such as the Laplacian, and as such are well-studied in scientific computing. M-matrices also occur in the study of solutions to linear complementarity problem.
Periodic sequence Generalizations Periodic_sequence > Generalizations A sequence is eventually periodic if it can be made periodic by dropping some finite number of terms from the beginning. For example, the sequence of digits in the decimal expansion of 1/56 is eventually periodic: 1 / 56 = 0 . 0 1 7 8 5 7 1 4 2 8 5 7 1 4 2 8 5 7 1 4 2 ...A sequence is ultimately periodic if it satisfies the condition a k + r = a k {\displaystyle a_{k+r}=a_{k}} for some r and sufficiently large k.A sequence is asymptotically periodic if its terms approach those of a periodic sequence. That is, the sequence x1, x2, x3, ... is asymptotically periodic if there exists a periodic sequence a1, a2, a3, ... for which lim n → ∞ x n − a n = 0. {\displaystyle \lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }x_{n}-a_{n}=0.} For example, the sequence 1 / 3, 2 / 3, 1 / 4, 3 / 4, 1 / 5, 4 / 5, ...is asymptotically periodic, since its terms approach those of the periodic sequence 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, .... == References ==
Resistor Preferred values Metal_film > Resistor marking > Preferred values Manufacturers may sort resistors into tolerance-classes based on measurement. Accordingly, a selection of 100 ohms resistors with a tolerance of ±10%, might not lie just around 100 ohm (but no more than 10% off) as one would expect (a bell-curve), but rather be in two groups – either between 5 and 10% too high or 5 to 10% too low (but not closer to 100 ohm than that) because any resistors the factory had measured as being less than 5% off would have been marked and sold as resistors with only ±5% tolerance or better. When designing a circuit, this may become a consideration. This process of sorting parts based on post-production measurement is known as "binning", and can be applied to other components than resistors (such as speed grades for CPUs).
Privacy-enhancing technologies Example PETs Privacy-enhancing_technologies > Example PETs It has been in use since 2008. Homomorphic encryption is a form of encryption that allows computation on ciphertexts. Zero-knowledge proof is a method by which one party (the prover) can prove to another party (the verifier) that they know a value x, without conveying any information apart from the fact that they know the value x. Secure multi-party computation is a method for parties to jointly compute a function over their inputs while keeping those inputs private.
Abstract Graphical Data Types Summary Abstract_graphical_data_type To define a figure type, one must find the characteristics of the figure, which become the parameters; find the algorithm that allows the user to build the figure with the help of the parameters.To build the figures, typical graphical statements should be used like: moveabs, moverel, lineabs, and linerel to draw vectors, and include to define an existing figure as part of a new one. For example, a pyramid with four vertices can be defined as type PYRAMID = figure (A, B, C, D: VECTOR); begin moveabs A; lineabs B, C, A, D, C; moveabs B; lineabs D end; A tree can be defined by 3-D graphical types as type TREE = figure (var BRANCHES: TEXT; NBRANCHES: INTEGER; POSITION: VECTOR; HEIGHT, LENGTH:REAL); where BRANCHES is a file of kinds of branches, NBRANCHES is the number of branches, POSITION is the position of the trunk, HEIGHT is the height of the trunk, and LENGTH is the length of the branches. A forest of trees can be defined as var FOREST: array of TREE Abstract graphical types have been implemented as an extension of the PASCAL programming language called MIRA-3D. == References ==
Deep water culture Recirculating Deep Water Culture Deep_water_culture > Recirculating Deep Water Culture This return line generally has a spin filter on it that cleans particulate from the water before it reaches the pump. The individual bins, including the control are aerated. The primary disadvantage of RDWC is that disease can spread quickly in these systems which can facilitate the transfer of pathogens from one reservoir to another.
Thermotoga maritima Metabolism Thermotoga_maritima > Metabolism As an anaerobic fermentative chemoorganotrophic organism, T. maritima catabolizes sugars and polymers and produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H2) gas as by-products of fermentation. T. maritima is also capable of metabolizing cellulose as well as xylan, yielding H2 that could potentially be utilized as an alternative energy source to fossil fuels. Additionally, this species of bacteria is able to reduce Fe(III) to produce energy using anaerobic respiration. Various flavoproteins and iron-sulphur proteins have been identified as potential electron carriers for use during cellular respiration.
Kuroshio Current Intrusion Intrusion Paths Kuroshio_Current_Intrusion > Intrusion Paths From satellite data, Nan, et al. (2011) concluded there are three intrusion paths for the Kuroshio Current into the SCS. A northward flowing WBC (like the Kuroshio Current) can deform at a gap in a western boundary and form an anticyclonic current loop if the gap is wide enough. This results in a looping path, where water from the Kuroshio flows through the middle of the Luzon Strait into the SCS and out in the north of the strait. The current loop in the SCS forms due to Ekman transport resulting from northeasterly winds that push Kuroshio surface water westward.
Computer Graphics Generative machine-learning models Triangle_primitives > Image types > Two-dimensional > Generative machine-learning models Since the mid-2010s, as a result of advances in deep neural networks, models have been created which take as input a natural language description and produces as output an image matching that description. Text-to-image models generally combine a language model, which transforms the input text into a latent representation, and a generative image model, which produces an image conditioned on that representation. The most effective models have generally been trained on massive amounts of image and text data scraped from the web. By 2022, the best of these models, for example Dall-E 2 and Stable Diffusion, are able to create images in a range of styles, ranging from imitations of living artists to near-photorealistic, in a matter of seconds, given powerful enough hardware.
Steroid hormones Mechanisms of action and effects Steroid_hormones > Mechanisms of action and effects There are many different mechanisms through which steroid hormones affect their target cells. All of these different pathways can be classified as having either a genomic effect or a non-genomic effect. Genomic pathways are slow and result in altering transcription levels of certain proteins in the cell; non-genomic pathways are much faster.
Pulmonary embolism CT pulmonary angiography Pulmonary_embolus > Diagnosis > Imaging > CT pulmonary angiography Assessing the accuracy of CT pulmonary angiography is hindered by the rapid changes in the number of rows of detectors available in multidetector CT (MDCT) machines. According to a cohort study, single-slice spiral CT may help diagnose detection among people with suspected pulmonary embolism. In this study, the sensitivity was 69% and specificity was 84%.
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor Patent issues Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor > History > Patent issues The difference between “Plummer’s device” and “Becke’s device” is that “Plummer’s device” has the mode of thyristor action in its operation range and “Becke’s device” never has the mode of thyristor action in its entire operation range. This is a critical point, because the thyristor action is the same as so-called “latch-up.” “Latch-up” is the main cause of fatal device failure. Thus, theoretically, “Plummer’s device” never realizes a rugged or strong power device which has a large safe operating area.
Asymptotically free Discovery Asymptotically_free > Discovery Quantum triviality can be used to bound or predict parameters such as the Higgs boson mass. This leads to a predictable Higgs mass in asymptotic safety scenarios. In other scenarios, interactions are weak so that any inconsistency arises at distances shorter than the Planck length.
Pseudo-response regulator Interactions Within Arabidopsis Pseudo-response_regulator > Interactions Within Arabidopsis In A. thaliana, the main feedback loop is proposed to involve a transcriptional regulation between several proteins. The three main components of this loop are TOC1 (also known as PRR1), CCA1 and LHY. Each individual component peaks in transcriptions at different times of day. PRR 9, 7 and 5 each significantly reduce the transcription levels of CCA1 and LHY.
Non-linear effects Interpretation of the mathematical results of the ML2 Model Non-linear_effects > Modeling non-linear effects > ML2 model > Interpretation of the mathematical results of the ML2 Model If β=0 or g=1, the ML2 equation simplifies to the Equation 1. No meso catalyst complex is present or active. Therefore, the simple additive properties should apply to such a scenario to establish a linear relationship between product enantioselectivity and the enantiopurity of the chiral catalyst.If the correction factor is greater than one, the reaction displays an asymmetric amplification, also known as a positive non-linear effect. Under the ML2 model, a (+)-NLE infers a less reactive heterochiral catalyst.
Adiabatic logic Power supply Adiabatic_circuit > Power supply The power supplies of adiabatic logic circuits have also used circuit elements capable of storing energy. This is often done using inductors, which store the energy by converting it to magnetic flux. There are a number of synonyms that have been used by other authors to refer to adiabatic logic type systems, these include: "charge recovery logic", "charge recycling logic", "clock-powered logic", "energy recovery logic" and "energy recycling logic". Because of the reversibility requirements for a system to be fully adiabatic, most of these synonyms actually refer to, and can be used inter-changeably, to describe quasi-adiabatic systems.
Formal Operational Postulated physical mechanisms underlying schemes, schemas, and stages Theory_of_cognitive_development > Postulated physical mechanisms underlying schemes, schemas, and stages First note the distinction between 'schemes' (analogous to 1D lists of action-instructions, e.g. leading to separate pen-strokes), and figurative 'schemas' (aka 'schemata', akin to 2D drawings/sketches or virtual 3D models); see schema. This distinction (often overlooked by translators) is emphasized by Piaget & Inhelder, and others + (Appendix p. 21-22).
Inertial confinement Fusion basics Laser_inertial_confinement > Description > Fusion basics Conversely, the nuclear force increases with the number of nucleons, so isotopes of hydrogen that contain additional neutrons reduce the required energy. The easiest fuel is a mixture of 2H, and 3H, known as D-T.The odds of fusion occurring are a function of the fuel density and temperature and the length of time that the density and temperature are maintained. Even under ideal conditions, the chance that a D and T pair fuse is very small.
Space tower Electromagnetic acceleration Pneumatic_freestanding_tower > Projectile launchers > Electromagnetic acceleration Electrical launch systems include mass drivers, railguns, and coilguns. All of these systems use the concept of a stationary launch track which uses some form of linear electrical motor to accelerate a projectile.
Fréchet–Kolmogorov theorem Existence of solutions of a PDE Fréchet–Kolmogorov_theorem > Examples > Existence of solutions of a PDE Both terms can be estimated as before when noticing that the time equicontinuity follows again by the L 1 {\displaystyle L^{1}} -contraction. The continuity of the translation mapping in L 1 {\displaystyle L^{1}} then gives equicontinuity uniformly on B {\displaystyle B} . Equitightness holds by definition of ( w ϵ ) ϵ {\displaystyle (w_{\epsilon })_{\epsilon }} by taking r {\displaystyle r} big enough.
Bonding in solids Molecular to network covalent Bonding_in_solids > Solids of intermediate kinds > Molecular to network covalent The covalent bonds in this material form extended structures, but do not form a continuous network. With cross-linking, however, polymer networks can become continuous, and a series of materials spans the range from Cross-linked polyethylene, to rigid thermosetting resins, to hydrogen-rich amorphous solids, to vitreous carbon, diamond-like carbons, and ultimately to diamond itself. As this example shows, there can be no sharp boundary between molecular and network covalent solids.
Energy operator Schrödinger equation Energy_operator > Application > Schrödinger equation Using the energy operator to the Schrödinger equation: can be obtained: where i is the imaginary unit, ħ is the reduced Planck constant, and H ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}} is the Hamiltonian operator.
CP violation P-symmetry CP_Symmetry > History > P-symmetry The idea behind parity symmetry was that the equations of particle physics are invariant under mirror inversion. This led to the prediction that the mirror image of a reaction (such as a chemical reaction or radioactive decay) occurs at the same rate as the original reaction. However, in 1956 a careful critical review of the existing experimental data by theoretical physicists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang revealed that while parity conservation had been verified in decays by the strong or electromagnetic interactions, it was untested in the weak interaction.

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