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Greenhouse warming Measurement Greenhouse_Effect > Measurement Matter emits thermal radiation in an amount that is directly proportional to the fourth power of its temperature. Some of the radiation emitted by the Earth's surface is absorbed by greenhouse gases and clouds. Without this absorption, Earth's surface would have an average temperature of −18 °C (−0.4 °F). However, because some of the radiation is absorbed, Earth's average surface temperature is around 15 °C (59 °F).
Memory Management Unit Segmented translation Memory_Management_Unit > Overview > Older concepts > Segmented translation Each program was allocated an amount of memory that was pre-selected in the Finder and translation from virtual to physical was accomplished within the programs using handles.A more common example is the Intel 8088 used in the IBM PC. This implemented a very simple MMU inside the CPU, with four processor registers holding base values accessed directly by the program. These mapped only the upper 4 bits of the 20-bit address, and there was no equivalent of a limit, which was simply the lower 16-bits of the address and thus a fixed 64 kB. Later entries in the x86 architecture series used different approaches.
Breast cancer classification Histopathology HER2_negative_breast_cancer > Histopathology Histopathologic classification is based upon characteristics seen upon light microscopy of biopsy specimens. They can broadly be classified into: Carcinoma in situ . This group constitutes about 15-30% of breast biopsies, more so in countries with high coverage of breast screening programs. These have favorable prognosis, with 5-year survival rates of 97-99%.
Eugene Wigner Summary Eugene_Wigner He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles".A graduate of the Technical University of Berlin, Wigner worked as an assistant to Karl Weissenberg and Richard Becker at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, and David Hilbert at the University of Göttingen. Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into physics, particularly the theory of symmetry in physics. Along the way he performed ground-breaking work in pure mathematics, in which he authored a number of mathematical theorems.
Bucket sorting Postman's sort Bucket_sorting > Variants > Postman's sort The Postman's sort is a variant of bucket sort that takes advantage of a hierarchical structure of elements, typically described by a set of attributes. This is the algorithm used by letter-sorting machines in post offices: mail is sorted first between domestic and international; then by state, province or territory; then by destination post office; then by routes, etc. Since keys are not compared against each other, sorting time is O(cn), where c depends on the size of the key and number of buckets. This is similar to a radix sort that works "top down," or "most significant digit first."
Symmetries in quantum mechanics Gauge theory Symmetries_in_quantum_mechanics > Symmetries in quantum field theory and particle physics > Gauge theory The electromagnetic tensor has an electromagnetic four-potential field possessing gauge symmetry. The strong (color) interaction is mediated by gluons, which can have eight color charges. There are eight gluon field strength tensors with corresponding gluon four potentials field, each possessing gauge symmetry.
Lens cortex Internal forces Accommodation_of_the_eye > Focusing mechanisms > Land based animals and the shape changing lens > Internal forces Connexins which allow electrical coupling of cells are also prevalent. Electron microscopy and immunofluorescent microscopy show fiber cells to be highly variable in structure and composition. Magnetic resonance imaging confirms a layering in the lens that may allow for different refractive plans within it.
Java technology Principles Java_programming > History > Principles There were five primary goals in the creation of the Java language: It must be simple, object-oriented, and familiar. It must be robust and secure. It must be architecture-neutral and portable. It must execute with high performance. It must be interpreted, threaded, and dynamic.
Partial regression plot Properties Partial_regression_plot > Properties Velleman and Welsch list the following useful properties for this plot: The least squares linear fit to this plot has the slope β i {\displaystyle \beta _{i}} and intercept zero. The residuals from the least squares linear fit to this plot are identical to the residuals from the least squares fit of the original model (Y against all the independent variables including Xi). The influences of individual data values on the estimation of a coefficient are easy to see in this plot.
Chemical fossil Summary Chemical_fossil A biosignature (sometimes called chemical fossil or molecular fossil) is any substance – such as an element, isotope, or molecule – or phenomenon that provides scientific evidence of past or present life. Measurable attributes of life include its complex physical or chemical structures and its use of free energy and the production of biomass and wastes. A biosignature can provide evidence for living organisms outside the Earth and can be directly or indirectly detected by searching for their unique byproducts.
Flagellar motility Motor Flagellum > Types > Bacterial > Motor The bacterial flagellum is driven by a rotary engine (Mot complex) made up of protein, located at the flagellum's anchor point on the inner cell membrane. The engine is powered by proton-motive force, i.e., by the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a concentration gradient set up by the cell's metabolism (Vibrio species have two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium ion pump rather than a proton pump). The rotor transports protons across the membrane, and is turned in the process. The rotor alone can operate at 6,000 to 17,000 rpm, but with the flagellar filament attached usually only reaches 200 to 1000 rpm.
Finite sets Necessary and sufficient conditions for finiteness Finite_set > Necessary and sufficient conditions for finiteness (Equivalently, every non-empty family of subsets of S has a maximal element with respect to inclusion.) S can be well-ordered and any two well-orderings on it are order isomorphic. In other words, the well-orderings on S have exactly one order type.If the axiom of choice is also assumed (the axiom of countable choice is sufficient), then the following conditions are all equivalent: S is a finite set.
Watcom C/C++ compiler Summary Watcom_C/C++_compiler Watcom C/C++ (currently Open Watcom C/C++) is an integrated development environment (IDE) product from Watcom International Corporation for the C, C++, and Fortran programming languages. Watcom C/C++ was a commercial product until it was discontinued, then released under the Sybase Open Watcom Public License as Open Watcom C/C++. It features tools for developing and debugging code for DOS, OS/2, and Windows, Linux operating systems, which are based upon x86, IA-32, x86-64 compatible processors.
Power recovery Regenerative brakes Power_recovery > Thermodynamics > Regenerative brakes Regenerative braking has a similar energy equation to the equation for the mechanical flywheel. Regenerative braking is a two-step process involving the motor/generator and the battery. The initial kinetic energy is transformed into electrical energy by the generator and is then converted into chemical energy by the battery. This process is less efficient than the flywheel.
Maxon excitation Comparison with helium-3 Maxon_excitation > Properties > Comparison with helium-3 Although the phenomenologies of the superfluid states of helium-4 and helium-3 are very similar, the microscopic details of the transitions are very different. Helium-4 atoms are bosons, and their superfluidity can be understood in terms of the Bose–Einstein statistics that they obey. Specifically, the superfluidity of helium-4 can be regarded as a consequence of Bose–Einstein condensation in an interacting system. On the other hand, helium-3 atoms are fermions, and the superfluid transition in this system is described by a generalization of the BCS theory of superconductivity.
Number theorists Classical Greece and the early Hellenistic period Elementary_number_theory > History > Origins > Classical Greece and the early Hellenistic period Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans, and Cicero repeats this claim: Platonem ferunt didicisse Pythagorea omnia ("They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean").Plato had a keen interest in mathematics, and distinguished clearly between arithmetic and calculation. (By arithmetic he meant, in part, theorising on number, rather than what arithmetic or number theory have come to mean.) It is through one of Plato's dialogues—namely, Theaetetus—that we know that Theodorus had proven that 3 , 5 , … , 17 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {3}},{\sqrt {5}},\dots ,{\sqrt {17}}} are irrational.
Sum rule in integration Mechanical Integral_over_time > Computation > Mechanical The area of an arbitrary two-dimensional shape can be determined using a measuring instrument called planimeter. The volume of irregular objects can be measured with precision by the fluid displaced as the object is submerged.
Genetic rescue History Genetic_rescue > History The conceptual foundation of genetic rescue can be traced back to the work of geneticist Sewall Wright, who studied the effect of immigration among populations linked by gene flow. More recently, genetic rescue has been defined by scientific reviews as: "when population fitness, inferred from some demographic vital rate or phenotypic trait, increases by more than can be attributed to the demographic contribution of immigrants." Genetic mixing leading to fitness recovery could be described as "genetic rescue", but perpetuates the unclear differences between genetic rescue and pollution.
Learning-by-doing Main Contributors Learning-by-doing > Main Contributors Much of what is known about the learning by doing theory was thanks to the contributions of historic minds that changed education today. The theory has been expounded and popularized by famous American philosopher and educational crusader John Dewey and Brazilian pedagogy Paulo Freire. Dewey, considered as one of the founding fathers of modern-day functional psychology, implemented this idea by setting up the University of Chicago Laboratory School.
Thread management Processes Single_threading > Related concepts > Processes At the kernel level, a process contains one or more kernel threads, which share the process's resources, such as memory and file handles – a process is a unit of resources, while a thread is a unit of scheduling and execution. Kernel scheduling is typically uniformly done preemptively or, less commonly, cooperatively. At the user level a process such as a runtime system can itself schedule multiple threads of execution. If these do not share data, as in Erlang, they are usually analogously called processes, while if they share data they are usually called (user) threads, particularly if preemptively scheduled.
Adaptive clothes Factors of design Adaptive_clothes > Types of adaptions > Factors of design Clothing is designed with human, environment, and, obviously, clothing in mind. This is called the “Human-Clothing-Enviornment.” These 3 factors contribute to the design of each piece of clothing. The human category is further broken down into subcategories, which includes visible or invisible disabilities and how that affects the user of an article of clothing. Only when all of the “Human-Clothing-Environment” is in equilibrium will the clothing be comfortable, functional, and fashionable for the user.There is a process by which clothing creators may follow to design more functional clothing articles.
Deflection (engineering) Structural deflection Deflection_(engineering) > Structural deflection Building codes determine the maximum deflection, usually as a fraction of the span e.g. 1/400 or 1/600. Either the strength limit state (allowable stress) or the serviceability limit state (deflection considerations among others) may govern the minimum dimensions of the member required. The deflection must be considered for the purpose of the structure. When designing a steel frame to hold a glazed panel, one allows only minimal deflection to prevent fracture of the glass. The deflected shape of a beam can be represented by the moment diagram, integrated (twice, rotated and translated to enforce support conditions).
Brier score Brier Skill Score (BSS) Brier_score > Brier Skill Score (BSS) A skill score for a given underlying score is an offset and (negatively-) scaled variant of the underlying score such that a skill score value of zero means that the score for the predictions is merely as good as that of a set of baseline or reference or default predictions, while a skill score value of one (100%) represents the best possible score. A skill score value less than zero means that the performance is even worse than that of the baseline or reference predictions. When the underlying score is the Brier score (BS), the Brier skill score (BSS) is calculated as B S S = 1 − B S B S r e f {\displaystyle BSS=1-{\frac {BS}{BS_{ref}}}} where B S r e f {\displaystyle BS_{ref}} is the Brier score of reference or baseline predictions which we seek to improve on. While the reference predictions could in principle be given by any pre-existing model, by default one can use the naïve model that predicts the overall proportion or frequency of a given class in the data set being scored, as the constant predicted probability of that class occurring in each instance in the data set.
Laplace distribution History Laplace_distribution > History This distribution is often referred to as "Laplace's first law of errors". He published it in 1774, modeling the frequency of an error as an exponential function of its magnitude once its sign was disregarded. Laplace would later replace this model with his "second law of errors", based on the normal distribution, after the discovery of the central limit theorem,Keynes published a paper in 1911 based on his earlier thesis wherein he showed that the Laplace distribution minimised the absolute deviation from the median.
Centre for Gene Regulation and Expression Researchers Centre_for_Gene_Regulation_and_Expression > Researchers His work looks at specialised structures known as kinetochores and the mechanisms which monitor the correct attachment of microtubules to the chromosomes. Tomo Tanaka studies the processes by which eukaryotic cells maintain their genetic integrity. His group use budding yeast to study chromosome duplication and segregation. By understanding the processes that occur during cell division, it is hoped that a better knowledge will be gained of human diseases such as cancer which are often characterised by chromosome instability.
Mathematical Analysis Modernization Mathematical_Analysis > History > Modern > Modernization Around the same time, Riemann introduced his theory of integration, and made significant advances in complex analysis. Towards the end of the 19th century, mathematicians started worrying that they were assuming the existence of a continuum of real numbers without proof. Dedekind then constructed the real numbers by Dedekind cuts, in which irrational numbers are formally defined, which serve to fill the "gaps" between rational numbers, thereby creating a complete set: the continuum of real numbers, which had already been developed by Simon Stevin in terms of decimal expansions.
Adiabatic theorem Deriving conditions for diabatic vs adiabatic passage Adiabatic_theorem > Deriving conditions for diabatic vs adiabatic passage We will now pursue a more rigorous analysis. Making use of bra–ket notation, the state vector of the system at time t {\displaystyle t} can be written \| ψ ( t ) ⟩ = ∑ n c n A ( t ) e − i E n t / ℏ \| ϕ n ⟩ , {\displaystyle \|\psi (t)\rangle =\sum _{n}c_{n}^{A}(t)e^{-iE_{n}t/\hbar }\|\phi _{n}\rangle ,} where the spatial wavefunction alluded to earlier is the projection of the state vector onto the eigenstates of the position operator ψ ( x , t ) = ⟨ x \| ψ ( t ) ⟩ . {\displaystyle \psi (x,t)=\langle x\|\psi (t)\rangle .}
Introduction to general relativity Probing the gravitational field Introduction_to_general_relativity > Geometry and gravitation > Probing the gravitational field If, for example, two bodies are initially at rest relative to each other, but are then dropped in the Earth's gravitational field, they will move towards each other as they fall towards the Earth's center.Compared with planets and other astronomical bodies, the objects of everyday life (people, cars, houses, even mountains) have little mass. Where such objects are concerned, the laws governing the behavior of test particles are sufficient to describe what happens. Notably, in order to deflect a test particle from its geodesic path, an external force must be applied.
Motion simulator Proprioceptors Motion_platform > How human physiology processes and responds to motion > Proprioceptors These sensory signals are processed by the brain in response to signals that travel along motor nerves. Motor neurons, with their special fibres, carry these signals to muscles, which are instructed to either contract or relax. These are all sensors of acceleration, and do not respond when a constant speed or velocity is reached.
Transfection Endogenous vs. exogenous long RNA Transfection > RNA transfection > Endogenous vs. exogenous long RNA Several reports suggest that phosphorylation of the 5'-end of a long RNA molecule can influence its immunogenicity, and specifically that 5'-triphosphate RNA, which can be produced during viral infection, is more immunogenic than 5'-diphosphate RNA, 5'-monophosphate RNA or RNA containing no 5' phosphate. However, in vitro-transcribed (ivT) long RNA containing a 7-methylguanosine cap (present in eukaryotic mRNA) is also highly immunogenic despite having no 5' phosphate, suggesting that characteristics other than 5'-phosphorylation can influence the immunogenicity of an RNA molecule. Eukaryotic mRNA contains chemically modified nucleotides such as N6-methyladenosine, 5-methylcytidine, and 2'-O-methylated nucleotides. Although only a very small number of these modified nucleotides are present in a typical mRNA molecule, they may help prevent mRNA from activating the innate immune system by disrupting secondary structure that would resemble double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), a type of RNA thought to be present in cells only during viral infection. The immunogenicity of long RNA has been used to study both innate and adaptive immunity.
Fission-fragment rocket Design considerations Fission-fragment_rocket > Design considerations The atoms undergoing fission are at a temperature of millions of degrees, which is then spread out into the surrounding fuel, resulting in an overall temperature of a few thousand. By physically arranging the fuel into very thin layers or particles, the fragments of a nuclear reaction can escape from the surface. Since they will be ionized due to the high energy of the reaction, they can then be handled magnetically and channeled to produce thrust. Numerous technological challenges still remain, however.
Angular momentum quantization Conservation of angular momentum Angular_momentum_(quantum_mechanics) > Conservation of angular momentum This is the basis for saying conservation of angular momentum is a general principle of physics. For a particle without spin, J = L, so orbital angular momentum is conserved in the same circumstances. When the spin is nonzero, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer from L to S or back. Therefore, L is not, on its own, conserved.
Osteoclast Summary Osteoclast The osteoclasts secrete hydrogen ions, collagenase, cathepsin K and hydrolytic enzymes into this compartment. Resorption of bone matrix by the osteoclasts involves two steps: (1) dissolution of inorganic components (minerals), and (2) digestion of organic component of the bone matrix. The osteoclasts pump hydrogen ions into subosteoclastic compartment and thus create an acidic microenvironment, which increases solubility of bone mineral, resulting in the release and re-entry of bone minerals into the cytoplasm of osteoclasts to be delivered to nearby capillaries.
Watertable control Description and definitions Watertable_depth > Description and definitions Subsurface land drainage aims at controlling the water table of the groundwater in originally waterlogged land at a depth acceptable for the purpose for which the land is used. The depth of the water table with drainage is greater than without.
Optic neuritis Cause Retrobulbar_neuritis > Cause The presence of demyelinating white matter lesions on brain MRI at the time of presentation of optic neuritis is the strongest predictor for developing clinically definite MS. Almost half of the patients with optic neuritis have white matter lesions consistent with multiple sclerosis. Some other common causes of optic neuritis include infection (e.g. a tooth abscess in the upper jaw, syphilis, Lyme disease, herpes zoster), autoimmune disorders (e.g. lupus, neurosarcoidosis, neuromyelitis optica), methanol poisoning, vitamin B12 deficiency, beriberi, dysautonomia (i.e. autonomic nervous system dysfunction), and diabetes, or an injury to the eye. In neuromyelitis optica higher AQP4 autoantibody levels are associated with the occurrence of optic neuritis.Less common causes are: papilledema, brain tumor or abscess in the occipital region, cerebral trauma or hemorrhage, meningitis, arachnoidal adhesions, sinus thrombosis, liver dysfunction, or late stage kidney disease.
OptimJ Objectives OptimJ > OR-specific concepts > Objectives Optionally, when a model describes an optimization problem, an objective function to be minimized or maximized can be stated in the model.
Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime Electromagnetic field Maxwell's_equations_in_curved_spacetime > Electromagnetic field Using the antisymmetry of the electromagnetic field, one can either reduce to an identity (0 = 0) or render redundant all the equations except for those with {λ, μ, ν} being either {1, 2, 3}, {2, 3, 0}, {3, 0, 1}, or {0, 1, 2}. The Faraday–Gauss equation is sometimes written where a semicolon indicates a covariant derivative, a comma indicates a partial derivative, and square brackets indicate anti-symmetrization (see Ricci calculus for the notation). The covariant derivative of the electromagnetic field is where Γαβγ is the Christoffel symbol, which is symmetric in its lower indices.
Heat of combustion Relation between heating values Lower_Heating_Value > Relation between heating values In such applications, the lower heating value must be used to give a 'benchmark' for the process. However, for true energy calculations in some specific cases, the higher heating value is correct. This is particularly relevant for natural gas, whose high hydrogen content produces much water, when it is burned in condensing boilers and power plants with flue-gas condensation that condense the water vapor produced by combustion, recovering heat which would otherwise be wasted.
Ubiquitin-like protein Structure and classification Ubiquitin-like_protein > Structure and classification Members of the UBL family are small, non-enzymatic proteins that share a common structure exemplified by ubiquitin, which has 76 amino acid residues arranged into a "beta-grasp" protein fold consisting of a five-strand antiparallel beta sheet surrounding an alpha helix. The beta-grasp fold is widely distributed in other proteins of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic origin. Collectively, ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins are sometimes referred to as "ubiquitons".UBLs can be divided into two categories depending on their ability to be covalently conjugated to other molecules.
Rotary Cell Culture System Uses Rotary_Cell_Culture_System > Uses A closed tubular cylinder forms the system's cell culture chamber, which is filled with a liquid medium in which cells grow on micrometre-size beads. The chamber rotates around a horizontal axis, allowing the cells to develop in an environment similar to the free-fall of microgravity. Oxygen, required by cells for growth, is fed into the liquid medium through a porous wall in the chamber. The NASA researchers who led the development of the cell culture bioreactor were named co-recipients of the 1991 NASA Inventor of the Year Award because of their work on the project.
Generative adversarial network Variants Generative_adversarial_network > Variants There is a veritable zoo of GAN variants. Some of the most prominent are as follows:
Complex coordinate space Summary Complex_coordinate_space In mathematics, the n-dimensional complex coordinate space (or complex n-space) is the set of all ordered n-tuples of complex numbers. It is denoted C n {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{n}} , and is the n-fold Cartesian product of the complex plane C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } with itself. Symbolically, or The variables z i {\displaystyle z_{i}} are the (complex) coordinates on the complex n-space. Complex coordinate space is a vector space over the complex numbers, with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication.
Predictive coding General framework Predictive_coding > General framework Constrained by the statistical regularities of the outside world (and certain evolutionarily prepared predictions), the brain encodes top-down generative models at various temporal and spatial scales in order to predict and effectively suppress sensory inputs rising up from lower levels. A comparison between predictions (priors) and sensory input (likelihood) yields a difference measure (e.g. prediction error, free energy, or surprise) which, if it is sufficiently large beyond the levels of expected statistical noise, will cause the generative model to update so that it better predicts sensory input in the future. In general, it can be more easily stated that it minimizes the amount of surprise (the measure of difference).
Parallel-plate capacitor Summary Parallel-plate_capacitor Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, air, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Process analysis Summary Process_analysis Process analysis is a form of technical writing and expository writing "designed to convey to the reader how a change takes place through a series of stages".While the traditional process analysis and a set of instructions are both organized chronologically, the reader of a process analysis is typically interested in understanding the chronological components of a system that operates largely without the reader's direct actions (such as how the body digests an apple), while the reader of a set of instructions intends to use the instructions in order to accomplish a specific, limited task (such as how to bake an apple pie). By contrast, the reader of a mechanism description is more interested in an object in space (such as the form and nutritional value of a particular kind of apple).
History of loop quantum gravity Loop quantum gravity History_of_loop_quantum_gravity > History > Loop quantum gravity In this context, spin networks arose as a generalization of Wilson loops necessary to deal with mutually intersecting loops. Mathematically, spin networks are related to group representation theory and can be used to construct knot invariants such as the Jones polynomial. Loop quantum gravity (LQG) thus became related to topological quantum field theory and group representation theory.
Levofloxacin Contraindications and interactions Levofloxacin > Contraindications and interactions This can result in more action of drugs like warfarin, leading to more potential side effects, such as bleeding.The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in combination with high dose fluoroquinolone therapy may lead to seizures.When levofloxacin is taken with anti-acids containing magnesium hydroxide or aluminum hydroxide, the two combine to form insoluble salts that are difficult to absorb from the intestines. Peak serum concentrations of levofloxacin may be reduced by 90% or more, which can prevent the levofloxacin from working. Similar results have been reported when levofloxacin is taken with iron supplements and multi-vitamins containing zinc.A 2011 review examining musculoskeletal complications of fluoroquinolones proposed guidelines with respect to administration to athletes, that called for avoiding all use of fluoroquinolone antibiotics if possible, and if they are used: ensure there is informed consent about the musculoskeletal risks, and inform coaching staff; do not use any corticosteroids if fluoroquinolones are used; consider dietary supplements of magnesium and antioxidants during treatment; reduce training until the course of antibiotic is finished and then carefully increase back to normal; and monitor for six months after the course is finished, and stop all athletic activity if symptoms emerge.
Zero-point energy Casimir effect Zero_point_energy > Experimental observations > Casimir effect A phenomenon that is commonly presented as evidence for the existence of zero-point energy in vacuum is the Casimir effect, proposed in 1948 by Dutch physicist Hendrik Casimir, who considered the quantized electromagnetic field between a pair of grounded, neutral metal plates. The vacuum energy contains contributions from all wavelengths, except those excluded by the spacing between plates. As the plates draw together, more wavelengths are excluded and the vacuum energy decreases.
Statistical assumption Classes of assumptions Statistical_assumption > Classes of assumptions Design-based assumptions. These relate to the way observations have been gathered, and often involve an assumption of randomization during sampling.The model-based approach is the most commonly used in statistical inference; the design-based approach is used mainly with survey sampling. With the model-based approach, all the assumptions are effectively encoded in the model.
Smart farming The Internet of things Smart_farming > Emerging technologies > The Internet of things The irrigation systems can be programmed to switch which side of tree trunk they water based on the plant's need and rainfall.Innovations are not just limited to plants—they can be used for the welfare of animals. Cattle can be outfitted with internal sensors to keep track of stomach acidity and digestive problems. External sensors track movement patterns to determine the cow's health and fitness, sense physical injuries, and identify the optimal times for breeding.
Polio virus Immune system avoidance Polio_virus > Immune system avoidance Poliovirus uses two key mechanisms to evade the immune system. First, it can survive the highly acidic conditions of the stomach, allowing the virus to infect the host and spread throughout the body via the lymphatic system. Second, because it can replicate very quickly, the virus overwhelms the host organs before an immune response can be mounted. If detail is given at the attachment phase; poliovirus with canyons on the virion surface have virus attachment sites located in pockets at the canyon bases.
Invention of radio Maxwell and the theoretical prediction of electromagnetic waves Invention_of_radio > Development of electromagnetism > Maxwell and the theoretical prediction of electromagnetic waves Between 1861 and 1865, based on the earlier experimental work of Faraday and other scientists and on his own modification to Ampere's law, James Clerk Maxwell developed his theory of electromagnetism, which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves. In 1873 Maxwell described the theoretical basis of the propagation of electromagnetic waves in his paper to the Royal Society, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field." This theory united all previously unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism, and optics into a consistent theory. His set of equations—Maxwell's equations—demonstrated that electricity, magnetism, and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon, the electromagnetic field.
Progress in artificial intelligence Proposed tests of artificial intelligence Progress_in_artificial_intelligence > Proposed tests of artificial intelligence In his famous Turing test, Alan Turing picked language, the defining feature of human beings, for its basis. The Turing test is now considered too exploitable to be a meaningful benchmark.The Feigenbaum test, proposed by the inventor of expert systems, tests a machine's knowledge and expertise about a specific subject. A paper by Jim Gray of Microsoft in 2003 suggested extending the Turing test to speech understanding, speaking and recognizing objects and behavior.Proposed "universal intelligence" tests aim to compare how well machines, humans, and even non-human animals perform on problem sets that are generic as possible. At an extreme, the test suite can contain every possible problem, weighted by Kolmogorov complexity; however, these problem sets tend to be dominated by impoverished pattern-matching exercises where a tuned AI can easily exceed human performance levels.
Mohr circle Sign conventions Mohr's_circle > Mohr's circle for two-dimensional state of stress > Sign conventions A more detailed explanation of these sign conventions is presented below. The previous derivation for the equation of the Mohr Circle using Figure 4 follows the engineering mechanics sign convention. The engineering mechanics sign convention will be used for this article.
Communications technologies Intrapersonal Social_communication > Human > Intrapersonal New knowledge can also be internalized this way, like when repeating new vocabulary to oneself. Because of these functions, intrapersonal communication can be understood as "an exceptionally powerful and pervasive tool for thinking. "Based on its role in self-regulation, some theorists have suggested that intrapersonal communication is more basic than interpersonal communication.
J. Robert Oppenheimer Legacy J._Robert_Oppenheimer > Legacy ... I had never said that I had regretted participating in a responsible way in the making of the bomb. I said that perhaps he had forgotten Guernica, Coventry, Hamburg, Dresden, Dachau, Warsaw, and Tokyo; but I had not, and that if he found it so difficult to understand, he should write a play about something else. Oppenheimer is the subject of many biographies, including American Prometheus (2005) by Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, which won the 2006 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography.
Convolutional neural networks Convolutional layers Convolutional_neural_networks > Architecture > Convolutional layers Convolution reduces the number of free parameters, allowing the network to be deeper. For example, using a 5 × 5 tiling region, each with the same shared weights, requires only 25 neurons. Using regularized weights over fewer parameters avoids the vanishing gradients and exploding gradients problems seen during backpropagation in earlier neural networks.To speed processing, standard convolutional layers can be replaced by depthwise separable convolutional layers, which are based on a depthwise convolution followed by a pointwise convolution. The depthwise convolution is a spatial convolution applied independently over each channel of the input tensor, while the pointwise convolution is a standard convolution restricted to the use of 1 × 1 {\displaystyle 1\times 1} kernels.
Mineral resources Renewability/exhaustibility Extractive_industry > Classification > Renewability/exhaustibility They replenish easily compared to non-renewable resources.Non-renewable resources: These resources are formed over a long geological time period in the environment and cannot be renewed easily. Minerals are the most common resource included in this category. From the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable.
Glossary of experimental design Glossary Glossary_of_experimental_design > Glossary Control group: a set of experimental units to which incidental treatments are applied but not main treatments. For example, in applying a herbicide as one treatment, plots receiving that treatment might be driven over by a machine applying the herbicide but treatments not receiving the herbicide would not normally be driven over. The machine traffic is an incidental treatment.
Anyonic statistics Abelian anyons Anyonic_statistics > Abelian anyons Thus, elementary particles are either fermions, whose phase factor is − 1 {\displaystyle -1} , or bosons, whose phase factor is 1 {\displaystyle 1} . These two types have different statistical behaviour. Fermions obey Fermi–Dirac statistics, while bosons obey Bose–Einstein statistics.
Bollman Truss Railroad Bridge History Bollman_truss > History The design employs wrought iron tension members and cast iron compression members. It was an improvement over wooden structures, as the independent structural units lessened the possibility of structural failure.
Balloon pulmonary angioplasty Technique Balloon_pulmonary_angioplasty > Technique BPA is performed by specialists in a catheterization laboratory. Each procedure takes between two and four hours and most people undergo up to six treatments with the first two sessions being performed a fortnight apart and subsequent treatments being individually tailored upon follow-up assessment.A local anesthetic and moderate sedation are used but a general anaesthetic is not required, hence the person remains awake throughout the procedure. After inserting the catheter into the vein of the neck (right internal jugular vein) or groin (right femoral vein), a hollow tube is introduced through the catheter and passed to the affected blocked lung arteries.X-rays and pressures in the narrowed arteries are assessed by the specialist team before a thin wire with a deflated balloon is guided through the blood vessels to the site of blockage, where the balloon is then inflated. This mainly disrupts the organised thrombus and to a lesser degree presses it against the walls of the arteries.
Cellular life Prokaryotic cells Biological_cell > Cell types > Prokaryotic cells Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm.
Frobenius-Perron eigenvector Perron projection Primitive_matrix > Proof methods > Further proofs > Perron projection If v and w are the positive row and column vectors that it generates then the Perron projection is just wv/vw. The spectral projections aren't neatly blocked as in the Jordan form. Here they are overlaid and each generally has complex entries extending to all four corners of the square matrix. Nevertheless, they retain their mutual orthogonality which is what facilitates the decomposition.
Polynomial system of equations General solving algorithms Systems_of_polynomial_equations > Solving numerically > General solving algorithms Therefore, it is a basic tool for the homotopy continuation method described below. Optimization is rarely used for solving polynomial systems, but it succeeded, circa 1970, in showing that a system of 81 quadratic equations in 56 variables is not inconsistent. With the other known methods, this remains beyond the possibilities of modern technology, as of 2022.
Transport Dispatch Interface Summary Transport_Dispatch_Interface TDI clients are provided with the compiler. The user-mode binary uses the user-mode API of whatever network protocol is being used, which in turn causes the TDI client to emit TDI commands into the Transport Provider. Typical TDI commands are TDI_SEND, TDI_CONNECT, TDI_RECEIVE. The purpose of the Transport Driver Interface is to provide an abstraction layer, permitting simplification of the TDI clients.
Law of total variance Summary Law_of_total_variance In probability theory, the law of total variance or variance decomposition formula or conditional variance formulas or law of iterated variances also known as Eve's law, states that if X {\displaystyle X} and Y {\displaystyle Y} are random variables on the same probability space, and the variance of Y {\displaystyle Y} is finite, then In language perhaps better known to statisticians than to probability theorists, the two terms are the "unexplained" and the "explained" components of the variance respectively (cf. fraction of variance unexplained, explained variation). In actuarial science, specifically credibility theory, the first component is called the expected value of the process variance (EVPV) and the second is called the variance of the hypothetical means (VHM). These two components are also the source of the term "Eve's law", from the initials EV VE for "expectation of variance" and "variance of expectation".
Obesity hypoventilation syndrome Treatment Obesity_hypoventilation_syndrome > Treatment PAP exists in various forms, and the ideal strategy is uncertain. Some medications have been tried to stimulate breathing or correct underlying abnormalities; their benefit is again uncertain.While many people with obesity hypoventilation syndrome are cared for on an outpatient basis, some deteriorate suddenly and when admitted to the hospital may show severe abnormalities such as markedly deranged blood acidity (pH<7.25) or depressed level of consciousness due to very high carbon dioxide levels. On occasions, admission to an intensive care unit with intubation and mechanical ventilation is necessary. Otherwise, "bi-level" positive airway pressure (see the next section) is commonly used to stabilize the patient, followed by conventional treatment.
Fault Tolerance Terminology Fault-tolerant_design > Terminology A highly fault-tolerant system might continue at the same level of performance even though one or more components have failed. For example, a building with a backup electrical generator will provide the same voltage to wall outlets even if the grid power fails. A system that is designed to fail safe, or fail-secure, or fail gracefully, whether it functions at a reduced level or fails completely, does so in a way that protects people, property, or data from injury, damage, intrusion, or disclosure. In computers, a program might fail-safe by executing a graceful exit (as opposed to an uncontrolled crash) in order to prevent data corruption after experiencing an error.
SMILES arbitrary target specification Examples of SMARTS SMILES_arbitrary_target_specification > Examples of SMARTS When a carboxylic acid deprotonates the negative charge is delocalised over both oxygen atoms and it may be desirable to designate both as anionic. This can achieved using the following SMARTS. )C=O),$(O=C)]
Oscillating circuit Simple harmonic oscillation Oscillating_system > Simple harmonic oscillation The simplest mechanical oscillating system is a weight attached to a linear spring subject to only weight and tension. Such a system may be approximated on an air table or ice surface. The system is in an equilibrium state when the spring is static. If the system is displaced from the equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back to equilibrium.
Educational data mining Distillation of data for human judgment Educational_data_mining > Main approaches > Distillation of data for human judgment Humans can make inferences about data that may be beyond the scope in which an automated data mining method provides. For the use of education data mining, data is distilled for human judgment for two key purposes, identification and classification.For the purpose of identification, data is distilled to enable humans to identify well-known patterns, which may otherwise be difficult to interpret. For example, the learning curve, classic to educational studies, is a pattern that clearly reflects the relationship between learning and experience over time. Data is also distilled for the purposes of classifying features of data, which for educational data mining, is used to support the development of the prediction model.
Speed ratio Wide-ratio vs. close-ratio transmission Gear_ratio > Automotive applications > Wide-ratio vs. close-ratio transmission Progression is the reduction or decay in the percentage drop in engine speed in the next gear, for example after shifting from 1st to 2nd gear. Most transmissions have some degree of progression in that the RPM drop on the 1-2 shift is larger than the RPM drop on the 2-3 shift, which is in turn larger than the RPM drop on the 3-4 shift. The progression may not be linear (continuously reduced) or done in proportionate stages for various reasons, including a special need for a gear to reach a specific speed or RPM for passing, racing and so on, or simply economic necessity that the parts were available.
Memory leak An example of memory leak Memory_leak > Consequences > An example of memory leak The following example, written in pseudocode, is intended to show how a memory leak can come about, and its effects, without needing any programming knowledge. The program in this case is part of some very simple software designed to control an elevator. This part of the program is run whenever anyone inside the elevator presses the button for a floor. When a button is pressed: Get some memory, which will be used to remember the floor number Put the floor number into the memory Are we already on the target floor?
Financial signal processing Summary Financial_signal_processing Financial signal processing is a branch of signal processing technologies which applies to signals within financial markets. They are often used by quantitative analysts to make best estimation of the movement of financial markets, such as stock prices, options prices, or other types of derivatives.
Medial forebrain bundle Potential role in diagnosis/treatment Medial_forebrain_bundle > Potential role in diagnosis/treatment The medial forebrain bundle may serve as a target in treating treatment-resistant depression. Since the MFB connects areas of the brain which are involved with motivated behavior, mood regulation, and antidepressant response the stimulation of the MFB through deep brain stimulation could be an effective form of treatment. Subjects that receive the deep brain stimulation treatment in the medial forebrain bundle have been reported to have high remission rates with normative functioning and no adverse side effects.
Pointer arithmetic Formal description Dereference_operator > Formal description In computer science, a pointer is a kind of reference. A data primitive (or just primitive) is any datum that can be read from or written to computer memory using one memory access (for instance, both a byte and a word are primitives). A data aggregate (or just aggregate) is a group of primitives that are logically contiguous in memory and that are viewed collectively as one datum (for instance, an aggregate could be 3 logically contiguous bytes, the values of which represent the 3 coordinates of a point in space). When an aggregate is entirely composed of the same type of primitive, the aggregate may be called an array; in a sense, a multi-byte word primitive is an array of bytes, and some programs use words in this way.
Canonical angular momentum Case of a fixed center of mass Introduction_to_angular_momentum > Solid bodies > Collection of particles > Case of a fixed center of mass For the case of the center of mass fixed in space with respect to the origin, and equations (2) and (3) for total angular momentum reduce to,
Social affordance Summary Social_affordance Social affordance is a type of affordance. It refers to the properties of an object or environment that permit social actions. Social affordance is most often used in the context of a social technology such as Wiki, Chat and Facebook applications and refers to sociotechnical affordances. Social affordances emerge from the coupling between the behavioral and cognitive capacities of a given organism and the objective properties of its environment.Social affordances – or more accurately sociotechnical affordances – refer as reciprocal interactions between a technology application, its users, and its social context.
Measurement Representational theory Measurement > Definitions and theories > Representational theory Likewise, computing and assigning arbitrary values, like the "book value" of an asset in accounting, is not a measurement because it does not satisfy the necessary criteria. Three type of Representational theory 1) Empirical relation In science, an empirical relationship is a relationship or correlation based solely on observation rather than theory. An empirical relationship requires only confirmatory data irrespective of theoretical basis 2) The rule of mapping The real world is the Domain of mapping, and the mathematical world is the range. when we map the attribute to mathematical system, we have many choice for mapping and the range 3) The representation condition of measurement
Passive Optical Network Network elements Passive_Optical_Network > Network elements An OLT provides the interface between a PON and a service provider's core network. These typically include: IP traffic over Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, or 10 Gigabit Ethernet; Standard TDM interfaces such as SDH/SONET; ATM UNI at 155–622 Mbit/s.The ONT or ONU terminates the PON and presents the native service interfaces to the user. These services can include voice (plain old telephone service (POTS) or voice over IP (VoIP)), data (typically Ethernet or V.35), video, and/or telemetry (TTL, ECL, RS530, etc.) Often the ONU functions are separated into two parts: The ONU, which terminates the PON and presents a converged interface—such as DSL, coaxial cable, or multiservice Ethernet—toward the user; Network termination equipment (NTE), which receives the converged interface and outputs native service interfaces to the user, such as Ethernet and POTS.A PON is a shared network, in that the OLT sends a single stream of downstream traffic that is seen by all ONUs. Each ONU reads the content of only those packets that are addressed to it. Encryption is used to prevent eavesdropping on downstream traffic.
Dissonant counterpoint General principles Species_counterpoint > General principles In particular, Mazzola's model gives a structural (and not psychological) foundation of forbidden parallels of fifths and the dissonant fourth. Octavio Agustin has extended the model to microtonal contexts.In counterpoint, the functional independence of voices is the prime concern. The violation of this principle leads to special effects, which are avoided in counterpoint.
Transketolase Mechanism Transketolase > Mechanism The donor substrate is then released, and the acceptor substrate enters the active site where the fragment, which is bound to the intermediate α-β-dihydroxyethyl thiamin diphosphate, is then transferred to the acceptor. Experiments have also been conducted that test the effect replacing alanine for the amino acids at the entrance to the active site, Arg359, Arg528, and His469, which interact with the phosphate group of the substrate. This replacement creates a mutant enzyme with impaired catalytic activity.
Metropolis sampling Intuition Metropolis–Hastings_algorithm > Intuition This means that effective sample sizes can be significantly lower than the number of samples actually taken, leading to large errors. Although the Markov chain eventually converges to the desired distribution, the initial samples may follow a very different distribution, especially if the starting point is in a region of low density. As a result, a burn-in period is typically necessary, where an initial number of samples are thrown away.On the other hand, most simple rejection sampling methods suffer from the "curse of dimensionality", where the probability of rejection increases exponentially as a function of the number of dimensions.
Pulmonic stenosis Summary Pulmonary_stenosis Pulmonic stenosis, is a dynamic or fixed obstruction of flow from the right ventricle of the heart to the pulmonary artery. It is usually first diagnosed in childhood.
SECD machine Registers and memory SECD_machine > Registers and memory The SECD machine is stack-based. Functions take their arguments from the stack. The arguments to built-in instructions are encoded immediately after them in the instruction stream.
Slater determinant Two-particle case Slater_determinant > Definition > Two-particle case This wave function is now antisymmetric and no longer distinguishes between fermions (that is, one cannot indicate an ordinal number to a specific particle, and the indices given are interchangeable). Moreover, it also goes to zero if any two spin orbitals of two fermions are the same. This is equivalent to satisfying the Pauli exclusion principle.
Ecogeographical rule List of biological rules Biological_rules > List of biological rules He proposed the rule for lice, but later authors have shown that it works equally well for many other groups of parasite including barnacles, nematodes, fleas, flies, mites, and ticks, and for the analogous case of small herbivores on large plants. Hennig's progression rule states that when considering a group of species in cladistics, the species with the most primitive characters are found within the earliest part of the area, which will be the center of origin of that group. It is named for Willi Hennig, who devised the rule.
Validation (drug manufacture) Summary Validation_(drug_manufacture) The process of establishing documentary evidence demonstrating that a procedure, process, or activity carried out in testing and then production maintains the desired level of compliance at all stages. In the pharmaceutical industry, it is very important that in addition to final testing and compliance of products, it is also assured that the process will consistently produce the expected results. The desired results are established in terms of specifications for outcome of the process. Qualification of systems and equipment is therefore a part of the process of validation. Validation is a requirement of food, drug and pharmaceutical regulating agencies such as the US FDA and their good manufacturing practices guidelines. Since a wide variety of procedures, processes, and activities need to be validated, the field of validation is divided into a number of subsections including the following: Equipment validation Facilities validation HVAC system validation Cleaning validation Process Validation Analytical method validation Computer system validationSimilarly, the activity of qualifying systems and equipment is divided into a number of subsections including the following: Design qualification (DQ) Component qualification (CQ) Installation qualification (IQ) Operational qualification (OQ) Performance qualification (PQ)
Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor Monoamine hypothesis Triple_reuptake_inhibitor > Role of monoamine neurotransmitters > Monoamine hypothesis However, elation may be associated with an excess of such amines." Shortly after Schildkraut's catecholamine hypothesis was published, Coppen proposed that 5-HT, rather than NA, was the more important neurotransmitter in depression. This was based on similar evidence to that which produced the NA theory as reserpine, imipramine, and iproniazid affect the 5-HT system, in addition to the noradrenergic system.
Lens Non spherical types Curved_lens > Non spherical types A gradient index lens has flat optical surfaces, but has a radial or axial variation in index of refraction that causes light passing through the lens to be focused. An axicon has a conical optical surface. It images a point source into a line along the optic axis, or transforms a laser beam into a ring.Diffractive optical elements can function as lenses.
Scientific proof Utility of scientific evidence Scientific_proof > Utility of scientific evidence Philosophers, such as Karl R. Popper, have provided influential theories of the scientific method within which scientific evidence plays a central role. In summary, Popper provides that a scientist creatively develops a theory that may be falsified by testing the theory against evidence or known facts. Popper's theory presents an asymmetry in that evidence can prove a theory wrong, by establishing facts that are inconsistent with the theory. In contrast, evidence cannot prove a theory correct because other evidence, yet to be discovered, may exist that is inconsistent with the theory.
Multiple sclerosis signs and symptoms Pain Multiple_sclerosis_signs_and_symptoms > Pain Pain is a common symptom in MS. A recent study systematically pooling results from 28 studies (7101 patients) estimates that pain affects 63% of people with MS. These 28 studies described pain in a large range of different people with MS. The authors found no evidence that pain was more common in people with progressive types of MS, in females compared to males, in people with different levels of disability, or in people who had had MS for different periods of time.
Doppler imaging Summary Doppler_imaging Inhomogeneous structures on stellar surfaces, i.e. temperature differences, chemical composition or magnetic fields, create characteristic distortions in the spectral lines due to the Doppler effect. These distortions will move across spectral line profiles due to the stellar rotation. The technique to reconstruct these structures on the stellar surface is called Doppler-imaging, often based on the maximum entropy image reconstruction to find the stellar image.
Machine learning in bioinformatics Metagenomics Machine_learning_in_bioinformatics > Applications > Metagenomics The framework combines: identifying a few significant features by a massively parallel forward variable selection procedure mapping the selected species on a phylogenetic tree, and predicting functional profiles by functional gene enrichment analysis from metagenomic 16S rRNA data.They demonstrated performance by analyzing two published datasets from large-scale case-control studies: 16S rRNA gene amplicon data for C. difficile infection (CDI) and shotgun metagenomics data for human colorectal cancer (CRC).The proposed approach improved the accuracy from 81% to 99.01% for CDI and from 75.14% to 90.17% for CRC. The use of machine learning in environmental samples has been less explored, maybe because of data complexity, especially from WGS. Some works show that it is possible to apply these tools in environmental samples.
Molecular demon Energy and information Molecular_demon > Energy and information It is a quite elegant experiment that consists of a microscopic particle on a spiral-staircase-like potential. The step has a height corresponding to kBT, where kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. The particle jumps between steps due to random thermal motions.
Socio-analysis Group relations theory and Tavistock conferences Socio-analysis > Brief history > Group relations theory and Tavistock conferences Bion's exploration of group dynamics at the Tavistock Clinic in London after the war culminated in a seminal publication "Experiences in Groups", which describes and analyses three basic assumptions that can be observed in group behaviour at different times: basic assumption dependency, basic assumption fight / flight, and basic assumption pairing. Basic assumptions operate unconsciously within groups at the same time a group may be engaged in a conscious work task – that Bion called a W group.These insights of Bion together with theories of Kurt Lewin led to the first Group Relations Conference in 1957 that was sponsored by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations and Leicester University, and directed by Eric Trist. Group Relations Conferences typically explore the effects of group and organisational dynamics on how individuals take up authority and leadership in this temporary institution, and in their work. The "Leicester" Conference as it came to be known under the leadership of A.K. Rice and colleagues such as Pierre Turquet, Eric Miller, Robert Gosling, and Bruce Reed stimulated similar explorations and enterprises in numerous countries: United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, France, Éire, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Bulgaria, Finland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Israel, India, and Australia.
Distributed parameter systems Observability Distributed_parameter_system > Linear time-invariant distributed-parameter systems > Observability As in the finite-dimensional case, observability is the dual notion of controllability. In the infinite-dimensional case there are several different notions of observability which in the finite-dimensional case coincide. The three most important ones are: Exact observability (also known as continuous observability), Approximate observability, Final state observability.
Ambidirectional dominance Summary Ambidirectional_dominance Ambidirectional dominance occurs in a situation where multiple genes influence a phenotype and dominance is in different directions depending on the gene. For example, for gene A increased height is dominant, while for gene B decreased height is dominant. The opposite situation, where all genes show dominance in the same direction, is called directional dominance. In the same example, for both genes A and B increased height is dominant.
Regularized meshless method History and recent development Regularized_meshless_method > History and recent development These days the finite element method (FEM), finite difference method (FDM), finite volume method (FVM), and boundary element method (BEM) are dominant numerical techniques in numerical modelings of many fields of engineering and sciences. Mesh generation is tedious and even very challenging problems in their solution of high-dimensional moving or complex-shaped boundary problems and is computationally costly and often mathematically troublesome. The BEM has long been claimed to alleviate such drawbacks thanks to the boundary-only discretizations and its semi-analytical nature. Despite these merits, the BEM, however, involves quite sophisticated mathematics and some tricky singular integrals.

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