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Vulnerability and care theory of love No-self theory Vulnerability_and_care_theory_of_love > Notable ideas > No-self theory That is, it eliminates the idea of personal identity altogether. He allows that we are sometimes aware of psychological and emotional states that seem to give immediate awareness of self. He argues, however, that what we are aware of at these times is not an persisting self, but rather a "constructed or condensed self-image", namely "a composite of related images and meanings referring to how I see myself at that moment".
P versus NP problem Polynomial-time algorithms P_vs_NP > Polynomial-time algorithms It correctly accepts the NP-complete language SUBSET-SUM. It runs in polynomial time on inputs that are in SUBSET-SUM if and only if P = NP: // Algorithm that accepts the NP-complete language SUBSET-SUM. // // this is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if P = NP.
Memristor Memistor and memtransistor Memristor > Derivative devices > Memistor and memtransistor The memistor and memtransistor are transistor based devices which include memristor function.
Juan Pavón Agent-based social simulation Juan_Pavón > Work > Agent-based social simulation The level of maturity reached by the INGENIAS framework and related tools, mainly INGENME, in its application to Software Agents, allowed the GRASIA group to consider its application to other domains. Agent-based simulation has been one with an immediate application. As in Software Agents, agent-based simulation (ABS) relies on the concept of agent, in this case as the basic block to build computational simulations.
Congestion game Computing an equilibrium in unweighted CGs Congestion_game > Computing a pure Nash equilibrium > Computing an equilibrium in unweighted CGs It also implies that finding a Nash equilibrium reachable from a specified state is PSPACE-complete. Every problem in the class PLS can be presented as a game whose pure equilibria are guaraneed to exist by a potential-function argument.Even-Dar, Kesselman and Mansour analyze the number of steps required for convergence to equilibrium in a load-balancing setting. Caragiannis, Fanelli, Gravin and Skopalik present an algorithm that computes a constant-factor approximation PNE.
Applied Element Method Automatic element contact/collision Applied_Element_Method > Technical discussion > Automatic element contact/collision Contact or collision is detected without any user intervention. Elements are able to separate, contract and/or make contact with other elements. In AEM three contact methods include Corner-to-Face, Edge-to-Edge, and Corner-to-Ground.
Claude Berrou Key research activities Claude_Berrou > Key research activities His current research activities are now concentrated on the application and extension of the turbo technology in various domains, including his research on artificial thinking, because turbo decoding has been recognized as a new instance of the very general principle of belief propagation; one application of this principle has been invented for the decoding of low-density parity-check codes (LDPC codes also known as Gallager codes, in honor of Robert G. Gallager, who developed the LDPC concept in his doctoral dissertation at MIT in 1960 as a theoretical model whose practical implementation was not widely developed until recently). The turbo principle is generalized now by Claude Berrou and his lab team for the processing of various functions such as the demodulation, the detection or the equalization using a network of multiple convolution codes working in parallel with probabilistic feedback. Other subjects of interest include all their possible applications in the field of artificial intelligence, for example with a better understanding of natural biological thinking and memory for the implementation of such model using neural networks for the processing of pulsed signals with software and hardware methods with auto-selected and self-maintained combinations of activation cycles of adjacent neurons.
Discrete log problem Modular arithmetic Discrete_Logarithm > Examples > Modular arithmetic For example, consider the equation 3k ≡ 13 (mod 17) for k. From the example above, one solution is k = 4, but it is not the only solution. Since 316 ≡ 1 (mod 17)—as follows from Fermat's little theorem—it also follows that if n is an integer then 34+16n ≡ 34 × (316)n ≡ 13 × 1n ≡ 13 (mod 17). Hence the equation has infinitely many solutions of the form 4 + 16n. Moreover, because 16 is the smallest positive integer m satisfying 3m ≡ 1 (mod 17), these are the only solutions. Equivalently, the set of all possible solutions can be expressed by the constraint that k ≡ 4 (mod 16).
Mathematical ring Category-theoretic description Ring_(mathematics) > Category-theoretic description Consider those endomorphisms of A, that "factor through" right (or left) multiplication of R. In other words, let EndR(A) be the set of all morphisms m of A, having the property that m(r ⋅ x) = r ⋅ m(x). It was seen that every r in R gives rise to a morphism of A: right multiplication by r. It is in fact true that this association of any element of R, to a morphism of A, as a function from R to EndR(A), is an isomorphism of rings. In this sense, therefore, any ring can be viewed as the endomorphism ring of some abelian X-group (by X-group, it is meant a group with X being its set of operators).
LTI system theory Impulse response and convolution LTI_system > Continuous-time systems > Impulse response and convolution Then a continuous-time system transforms an input function, { x } , {\textstyle \{x\},} into an output function, { y } {\textstyle \{y\}} . And in general, every value of the output can depend on every value of the input. This concept is represented by: where O t {\textstyle O_{t}} is the transformation operator for time t {\textstyle t} .
Flow density Transport fluxes Photon_flux > Flux as flow rate per unit area > Transport fluxes (Fick's law of diffusion) Volumetric flux, the rate of volume flow across a unit area (m3·m−2·s−1). (Darcy's law of groundwater flow) Mass flux, the rate of mass flow across a unit area (kg·m−2·s−1). (Either an alternate form of Fick's law that includes the molecular mass, or an alternate form of Darcy's law that includes the density.)
Phosphotungstic acid Catalyst Phosphotungstic_acid > Uses > Catalyst In common with the other heteropolyacids phosphotungstic acid is a catalyst and its high acidity and thermal stability make it a catalyst of choice according to some researchers. It is in solution as a homogeneous catalyst, and as a heterogeneous catalyst "supported" on a substrate e.g. alumina, silica. Some acid catalysed reactions include: the homogeneous catalysis of the hydrolysis of propene to give 2-propanol the homogeneous catalysis of the Prins reaction the heterogeneous catalysis of the dehydration of 2-propanol to propene and methanol to hydrocarbons.
Cross-validation (statistics) Example: linear regression Cross-validation_(statistics) > Motivation > Example: linear regression Thus, a fitted model and computed MSE on the training set will result in an optimistically biased assessment of how well the model will fit an independent data set. This biased estimate is called the in-sample estimate of the fit, whereas the cross-validation estimate is an out-of-sample estimate. Since in linear regression it is possible to directly compute the factor (n − p − 1)/(n + p + 1) by which the training MSE underestimates the validation MSE under the assumption that the model specification is valid, cross-validation can be used for checking whether the model has been overfitted, in which case the MSE in the validation set will substantially exceed its anticipated value. (Cross-validation in the context of linear regression is also useful in that it can be used to select an optimally regularized cost function.)
Kinetic Inhibitor Uses Kinetic_Inhibitor > Uses These inhibitors chemically retard the formation of clathrate hydrates. Dosage of such inhibitors in the fluid is usually .3% to .5% by weight of the fluid, compared to 10% to 50% by weight for thermodynamic inhibitors for prevention of clathrate formation. Due to this and other factors, kinetic inhibitors are more cost effective than thermodynamic inhibitors.
Multielectron atom Formation Ancient_atom > Origin and current state > Formation Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma—a gas of positively charged ions (possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons.
Greedy heuristic Examples Greedy_search > Examples In decision tree learning, greedy algorithms are commonly used, however they are not guaranteed to find the optimal solution. One popular such algorithm is the ID3 algorithm for decision tree construction. Dijkstra's algorithm and the related A* search algorithm are verifiably optimal greedy algorithms for graph search and shortest path finding.
Processor core Instruction-level parallelism Central_Processing_Unit > Structure and implementation > Parallelism > Instruction-level parallelism Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and requires significant amounts of CPU cache.
Experimenter bias Summary Observer_bias Observer bias is especially probable when the investigator or researcher has vested interests in the outcome of the research or has strong preconceptions. Coupled with ambiguous underlying data and a subjective scoring method, these three factors contribute heavily to the incidence of observer bias.Examples of cognitive biases include: Anchoring – a cognitive bias that causes humans to place too much reliance on the initial pieces of information they are provided with for a topic. This causes a skew in judgement and prevents humans and observers from updating their plans and predictions as appropriate.
Nuclear fusion power Deuterium D-T_reaction > Fuels > Deuterium Assuming complete tritium burn-up, the reduction in the fraction of fusion energy carried by neutrons would be only about 18%, so that the primary advantage of the D-D fuel cycle is that tritium breeding is not required. Other advantages are independence from lithium resources and a somewhat softer neutron spectrum. The disadvantage of D-D compared to D-T is that the energy confinement time (at a given pressure) must be 30 times longer and the power produced (at a given pressure and volume) is 68 times less.Assuming complete removal of tritium and 3He recycling, only 6% of the fusion energy is carried by neutrons. The tritium-suppressed D-D fusion requires an energy confinement that is 10 times longer compared to D-T and double the plasma temperature.
Cache algorithm LFU with dynamic aging (LFUDA) Cache_replacement_policies > Policies > Simple frequency-based policies > LFU with dynamic aging (LFUDA) Suppose when an object was frequently accessed in the past and now it becomes unpopular, it will remain in the cache for a long time thereby preventing the newly or less popular objects from replacing it. So this Dynamic aging is introduced to bring down the count of such objects thereby making them eligible for replacement. The advantage of LFUDA is it reduces the cache pollution caused by LFU when cache sizes are very small. When Cache sizes are large few replacement decisions are sufficient and cache pollution will not be a problem.
Fat embolism syndrome Treatment Fat_embolism_syndrome > Treatment Once FES develops, the person should be admitted into intensive care unit (ICU), preferably with central venous pressure (CVP) monitoring. CVP monitoring would be helpful to guide the volume resuscitation. Supportive treatment is the only proven treatment method.
Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere Details Advanced_Inertial_Reference_Sphere > Details AIRS is a Fluid-suspended gyrostabilized platform system, as opposed to one using a Gimballed gyrostabilized platform. It consists of a beryllium sphere floating in fluid. Jet nozzles are used to stabilize the inertial platform as commanded from the sensors.
Tantalum capacitor Uses Tantalum_electrolytic_capacitor > Additional information > Uses The low leakage and high capacity of tantalum capacitors favor their use in sample and hold circuits to achieve long hold duration, and some long duration timing circuits where precise timing is not critical. They are also often used for power supply rail decoupling in parallel with film or ceramic capacitors which provide low ESR and low reactance at high frequency. Tantalum capacitors can replace aluminum electrolytic capacitors in situations where the external environment or dense component packing results in a sustained hot internal environment and where high reliability is important. Equipment such as medical electronics and space equipment that require high quality and reliability makes use of tantalum capacitors. An especially common application for low-voltage tantalum capacitors is power supply filtering on computer motherboards and in peripherals, due to their small size and long-term reliability.
Pearson's correlation coefficient Geometric interpretation Pearson_coefficient > Interpretation > Geometric interpretation As an example, suppose five countries are found to have gross national products of 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8 billion dollars, respectively. Suppose these same five countries (in the same order) are found to have 11%, 12%, 13%, 15%, and 18% poverty. Then let x and y be ordered 5-element vectors containing the above data: x = (1, 2, 3, 5, 8) and y = (0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.15, 0.18).
History of the Haber process A pressing need History_of_the_Haber_process > A pressing need After several tests, Bosch concluded the ammonia came from the device itself, not the atmosphere. Ostwald challenged this conclusion, but conceded when Bosch offered proof.In 1901, Henry Le Chatelier managed to synthesize ammonia from air. After obtaining a patent, he claimed it was possible to obtain better performance by increasing the pressure.
Localization-protected quantum order Localization-protected topological order Localization-protected_quantum_order > Localization-protected topological order The topological order is destroyed in equilibrium at any finite temperature due to fluctuating vortices--- however, these can get localized by disorder, enabling glassy localization-protected topological order at finite energy densities. On the other hand, symmetry protected topological (SPT) phases do have any bulk long-range order, and are distinguished from trivial paramagnets due to the presence of coherent gapless edge modes as long the protecting symmetry is present. In equilibrium, these edge modes are typically destroyed at finite temperatures as they decohere due to interactions with delocalized bulk excitations. Once again, localization protects the coherence of these modes even at finite energy densities! The presence of localization-protected topological order could potentially have far-reaching consequences for developing new quantum technologies by allowing for quantum coherent phenomena at high energies.
Diagrammatic algebra Algebra as a branch of mathematics Diagrammatic_algebra > Algebra as a branch of mathematics Even though some methods, which had been developed much earlier, may be considered nowadays as algebra, the emergence of algebra and, soon thereafter, of infinitesimal calculus as subfields of mathematics only dates from the 16th or 17th century. From the second half of the 19th century on, many new fields of mathematics appeared, most of which made use of both arithmetic and geometry, and almost all of which used algebra. Today, algebra has grown considerably and includes many branches of mathematics, as can be seen in the Mathematics Subject Classification where none of the first level areas (two digit entries) are called algebra. Today algebra includes section 08-General algebraic systems, 12-Field theory and polynomials, 13-Commutative algebra, 15-Linear and multilinear algebra; matrix theory, 16-Associative rings and algebras, 17-Nonassociative rings and algebras, 18-Category theory; homological algebra, 19-K-theory and 20-Group theory. Algebra is also used extensively in 11-Number theory and 14-Algebraic geometry.
Infographic Time-series Information_graphics > Data visualization > Time-series It is an interactive line chart that shows percentage changes for a collection of time-series data based on a selected index point. For example, stock investors could use this because they are less concerned with the specific price and more concerned with the rate of growth. Stacked graphs are area charts that are stacked on top of each other, and depict aggregate patterns.
Volumetric analysis Zeta potential titration Volumetric_analysis > Types of titrations > Zeta potential titration Zeta potential titrations are titrations in which the completion is monitored by the zeta potential, rather than by an indicator, in order to characterize heterogeneous systems, such as colloids. One of the uses is to determine the iso-electric point when surface charge becomes zero, achieved by changing the pH or adding surfactant. Another use is to determine the optimum dose for flocculation or stabilization.
Totivirus Life cycle Totivirus > Life cycle Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by virus remains intracellular. Replication follows the double-stranded RNA virus replication model. Double-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.
Heat shock protein 47 Summary Heat_shock_protein_47 Heat shock protein 47, also known as SERPINH1 is a serpin which serves as a human chaperone protein for collagen.
Feature-oriented programming AHEAD Feature-oriented_programming > AHEAD In a product line of parsers, for example, a base parser f is defined by its grammar gf, Java source sf, and documentation df. Parser f is modeled by the tuple f=. Each program representation may have subrepresentations, and they too may have subrepresentations, recursively.
Chiral fermions Mathematical definition Majorana–Weyl_fermion > Mathematical definition The space of spinors is formally defined as the fundamental representation of the Clifford algebra. (This may or may not decompose into irreducible representations.) The space of spinors may also be defined as a spin representation of the orthogonal Lie algebra. These spin representations are also characterized as the finite-dimensional projective representations of the special orthogonal group that do not factor through linear representations. Equivalently, a spinor is an element of a finite-dimensional group representation of the spin group on which the center acts non-trivially.
Holographic principle Black hole entropy Holographic_entropy_bound > Black hole entropy This means that black holes would not only absorb photons, but they would also have to emit them in the right amount to maintain detailed balance. Time-independent solutions to field equations do not emit radiation, because a time-independent background conserves energy. Based on this principle, Hawking set out to show that black holes do not radiate.
Aluminium electrolytic capacitor Charge/discharge stability Aluminium_electrolytic_capacitor > Electrical parameters > Charge/discharge stability Aluminum electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolytes always contain, in addition to the anode foil, a cathode foil that serves as electrical contact to the electrolyte. This cathode foil is provided with a very thin, natural, air-originated oxide layer, which act also as a dielectric. Thus, the capacitor construction forms a series circuit of two capacitors, the capacitance of the anode foil CA and the cathode foil CK. As described above, the capacitance of the capacitor Ce-cap is mainly determined by the anode capacitance CA when the cathode capacitance CK is approximately 10 times higher than the anode capacitance CA.
Accelerated life testing Acceleration Factors Accelerated_life_testing > Acceleration Factors Inference from the results of an accelerated life test requires being able to relate the test object's response (lifespan, corrosion, efficiency, etc...) to the levels of applied stress factors over time. How one factors in the effect of time depends largely on what one is measuring. For instance, a test that is measuring lifespan may look only at the mean time to failure of the test objects, or it may try to fit a statistical distribution to the data. This is usually referred to as a life distribution, the probability density function of which represents the proportion of products failing at a given time.
Hjulström curve Summary Hjulström_curve The graph takes sediment particle size and water velocity into account.The upper curve shows the critical erosion velocity in cm/s as a function of particle size in mm, while the lower curve shows the deposition velocity as a function of particle size. Note that the axes are logarithmic. The plot shows several key concepts about the relationships between erosion, transportation, and deposition.
Subsonic flight Branches of aerodynamics Subsonic_flight > Branches of aerodynamics Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5 to be hypersonic.The influence of viscosity on the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems may encounter only very small viscous effects, in which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows.
Medical ethics COVID-19 Medical_ethics > History > COVID-19 Drawbacks of these practices include resource-wasting and public confusion surrounding the use of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as treatment for COVID-19 — a combination which was later shown to have no impact on COVID-19 survivorship and carried notable cardiotoxic side-effects — as well as a type of vaccine hesitancy specifically due to the speed at which COVID-19 vaccines were created and made publicly available. However, Open Science also allowed for the rapid implementation of life-saving public interventions like wearing masks and social distancing, the rapid development of multiple vaccines and monoclonal antibodies that have significantly lowered transmission and death rates, and increased public awareness about the severity of the pandemic as well as explanation of daily protective actions against COVID-19 infection, like hand washing.Other notable areas of medicine impacted by COVID-19 ethics include: Resource rationing, especially in Intensive Care Units that did not have enough ventilators or beds to serve the influx of severely ill patients. Lack of PPE for providers, putting them at increased risk of infection during patient care.
Bluestein's FFT algorithm z-transforms Bluestein's_FFT_algorithm > z-transforms Bluestein's algorithm can also be used to compute a more general transform based on the (unilateral) z-transform (Rabiner et al., 1969). In particular, it can compute any transform of the form: X k = ∑ n = 0 N − 1 x n z n k k = 0 , … , M − 1 , {\displaystyle X_{k}=\sum _{n=0}^{N-1}x_{n}z^{nk}\qquad k=0,\dots ,M-1,} for an arbitrary complex number z and for differing numbers N and M of inputs and outputs. Given Bluestein's algorithm, such a transform can be used, for example, to obtain a more finely spaced interpolation of some portion of the spectrum (although the frequency resolution is still limited by the total sampling time, similar to a Zoom FFT), enhance arbitrary poles in transfer-function analyses, etc. The algorithm was dubbed the chirp z-transform algorithm because, for the Fourier-transform case (\|z\| = 1), the sequence bn from above is a complex sinusoid of linearly increasing frequency, which is called a (linear) chirp in radar systems.
Stirling engines Theory Stirling_Cryocooler > Theory The idealised Stirling cycle consists of four thermodynamic processes acting on the working fluid: Isothermal expansion. The expansion-space and associated heat exchanger are maintained at a constant high temperature, and the gas undergoes near-isothermal expansion absorbing heat from the hot source. Constant-volume (known as isovolumetric or isochoric) heat-removal. The gas is passed through the regenerator, where it cools, transferring heat to the regenerator for use in the next cycle.
Vendor bid analysis Summary Vendor_bid_analysis Vendor Bid Analysis (Vendor analysis) is a technique used to figure out the cost of a project by comparing the bids submitted by many suppliers. This can be accomplished by considering the costs (via quotes, bids, proposals, etc.) presented for project work. By using a selection criteria divided into categories, vendor proposals have to meet these criteria or may be eliminated.
AnoNet How it works AnoNet > How it works It is impossible on the Internet to communicate with another host without knowing its IP address. Thus, the anoNet realizes that you will be known to your peer, along with the subnet mask used for communicating with them. A routing protocol, BGP, allows any node to advertise any routes they like, and this seemingly chaotic method is what provides users with anonymity. Once a node advertises a new route, it is hard for anyone else to determine if it is a route to another machine in another country via VPN, or just a dummy interface on that users machine.
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus Treatment Kaposi’s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus > Treatment Comparing to other immunotherapies, therapies targeting the anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) has been a great success. Because of KSHV infection, the monocytes increase the expression of PD-1, which is an inhibitory molecule, and cause immune escape in many tumor types. There is high PD-1 expression in NK cells from KS-HIV patients and cause exhausted phenotype.
Complex-base system Summary Complex-base_system In arithmetic, a complex-base system is a positional numeral system whose radix is an imaginary (proposed by Donald Knuth in 1955) or complex number (proposed by S. Khmelnik in 1964 and Walter F. Penney in 1965).
Group insurance Summary Group_insurance Group insurance is an insurance that covers a group of people, for example the members of a society or professional association, or the employees of a particular employer for the purpose of taking insurance. Group coverage can help reduce the problem of adverse selection by creating a pool of people eligible to purchase insurance who belong to the group for reasons other than the wish to buy insurance. Grouping individuals together allows insurance companies to give lower rates to companies, "Providing large volume of business to insurance companies gives us greater bargaining power for clients, resulting in cheaper group rates. "Group insurance may offer life insurance, health insurance, and/or some other types of personal insurance.
Geometric drawing General references Geometric_drawing > General references Sociedade Brasileira de Matemática. ISBN 85-85818-07-7. Martin, George E (December 1997).
Polysulfone Structure-property relationship Polysulfone > Properties > Structure-property relationship Poly(aryl ether sulfone)s are composed of aromatic groups, ether groups and sulfonyl groups. For a comparison of the properties of individual constituents poly(phenylene sulfone) can serve as an example, which consists of sulfonyl and phenyl groups only. Since both groups are thermally very stable, poly(phenylene sulfone) has an extremely high melting temperature (520 °C). However, the polymer chains are also so rigid that poly(phenylene sulfone) (PAS) decomposes before melting and can thus not be thermoplastically processed.
Military simulation Political-military simulations Virtual_battlefield > Political-military simulations Navy (with the Royal Navy as the projected adversary).Political-military simulations take a different approach to their purely military counterparts. Since they are largely concerned with policy issues rather than battlefield performance, they tend to be less prescriptive in their operation. However, various mathematical techniques have arisen in an attempt to bring rigor to the modeling process.
Clinically isolated syndrome Summary Clinically_isolated_syndrome A clinically definitive diagnosis of MS is made once an MRI detects lesions in the brain, consistent with those typical of MS. Other diagnostics include cerebrospinal fluid analysis and evoked response testing.Currently it is considered that the best predictor of future development of clinical multiple sclerosis is the number of T2 lesions visualized by magnetic resonance imaging during the CIS and their size. It is normal to evaluate diagnostic criteria against the "time to conversion to definite".
Fourier sine series Fourier's motivation Fourier_coefficient > History > Fourier's motivation While our example function s ( x ) {\displaystyle s(x)} seems to have a needlessly complicated Fourier series, the heat distribution T ( x , y ) {\displaystyle T(x,y)} is nontrivial. The function T {\displaystyle T} cannot be written as a closed-form expression. This method of solving the heat problem was made possible by Fourier's work.
Cache hit Prefetch Cache_(computing) > Operation > Prefetch Caches with a prefetch input queue or more general anticipatory paging policy go further—they not only read the chunk requested, but guess that the next chunk or two will soon be required, and so prefetch that data into the cache ahead of time. Anticipatory paging is especially helpful when the backing store has a long latency to read the first chunk and much shorter times to sequentially read the next few chunks, such as disk storage and DRAM. A few operating systems go further with a loader that always pre-loads the entire executable into RAM. A few caches go even further, not only pre-loading an entire file, but also starting to load other related files that may soon be requested, such as the page cache associated with a prefetcher or the web cache associated with link prefetching.
Radial valve gear Purpose Radial_valve_gear > Purpose A further benefit may be obtained by admitting the steam to the cylinder slightly before front or back dead centre. This advanced admission (also known as lead steam) assists in cushioning the inertia of the motion at high speed.
Mathematical anti-realism Intuitionism Mathematical_anti-realism > Contemporary schools of thought > Intuitionism The axiom of choice is also rejected in most intuitionistic set theories, though in some versions it is accepted. In intuitionism, the term "explicit construction" is not cleanly defined, and that has led to criticisms. Attempts have been made to use the concepts of Turing machine or computable function to fill this gap, leading to the claim that only questions regarding the behavior of finite algorithms are meaningful and should be investigated in mathematics. This has led to the study of the computable numbers, first introduced by Alan Turing. Not surprisingly, then, this approach to mathematics is sometimes associated with theoretical computer science.
Admissible procedure Generalized Bayes rules Admissible_decision_rule > Bayes rules and generalized Bayes rules > Generalized Bayes rules ). Roughly speaking, δ {\displaystyle \delta \,\!} minimizes this expectation of expected loss (i.e., is a Bayes rule) if and only if it minimizes the expected loss for each x ∈ X {\displaystyle x\in {\mathcal {X}}} separately (i.e., is a generalized Bayes rule).
Charles Sanders Peirce Scientific method Logic_of_relatives > Philosophy > Pragmatism > Theory of inquiry > Scientific method Demonstration: Deductive Argumentation, Euclidean in procedure. Explicit deduction of consequences of the hypothesis as predictions about evidence to be found. Corollarial or, if needed, Theorematic.3.
Equation of motion Types Equations_of_motion > Types Sometimes, the equation will be linear and is more likely to be exactly solvable. In general, the equation will be non-linear, and cannot be solved exactly so a variety of approximations must be used. The solutions to nonlinear equations may show chaotic behavior depending on how sensitive the system is to the initial conditions.
Feature-oriented programming History Feature-oriented_programming > History FOSD has since evolved into the study of feature modularity, tools, analyses, and design techniques to support feature-based program generation. The second generation of FOSD research was on feature interactions, which originated in telecommunications. Later, the term feature-oriented programming was coined; this work exposed interactions between layers.
Molar enthalpy Summary Enthalpy_change In thermodynamics, enthalpy , is the sum of a thermodynamic system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant pressure, which is conveniently provided by the large ambient atmosphere. The pressure–volume term expresses the work required to establish the system's physical dimensions, i.e. to make room for it by displacing its surroundings. The pressure-volume term is very small for solids and liquids at common conditions, and fairly small for gases.
Reed–Frost model Description Reed–Frost_model > Description These conditions remain constant during the epidemic.The following parameters are set initially: Size of the population Number of individuals already immune Number of cases (usually set at 1) Probability of adequate contactWith this information, a simple formula allows the calculation of how many individuals will be infected, and how many immune, in the next time interval. This is repeated until the entire population is immune, or no infective individuals remain. The model can then be run repeatedly, adjusting the initial conditions, to see how these affect the progression of the epidemic. The probability of adequate contact corresponds roughly with R0, the basic reproduction number – in a large population when the initial number of infecteds is small, an infected individual is expected to cause R 0 = ln ⁡ ( 1 / ( 1 − p ) ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {R}}_{0}=\ln(1/(1-p))} new cases.
Geographical distance Flat-surface formulae Geographic_distance > Flat-surface formulae A planar approximation for the surface of the earth may be useful over small distances. The accuracy of distance calculations using this approximation become increasingly inaccurate as: The separation between the points becomes greater; A point becomes closer to a geographic pole.The shortest distance between two points in plane is a straight line. The Pythagorean theorem is used to calculate the distance between points in a plane.
Final anthropic principle Reception Omega_point_(Tipler) > The Omega Point cosmology > Reception Researcher Anders Sandberg pointed out that he believes that the Omega Point Theory has many flaws, including missing proofs of its claims.Tipler's Omega Point ideas have received vigorous criticism by physicists and skeptics. Some critics say its arguments violate the Copernican principle, that it incorrectly applies the laws of probability, and that it is really a theology or metaphysics principle made to sound plausible to laypeople by using the esoteric language of physics. Martin Gardner dubbed the final anthropic principle the "completely ridiculous anthropic principle" (CRAP).
Ecthyma gangrenosum Mechanism Ecthyma_gangrenosum > Mechanism The organism enters directly through the breakdown of mechanical defense barriers such as mucosa or skin. Conditions which lead to the development of an immunocompromised state make the patient more susceptible to ecthyma gangrenosum and sepsis. In case of sepsis, the bacteria reaches the skin via the bloodstream.
Mobile computer Limitations Portable_electronics > Limitations Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through the line. Power consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power.
Close coupled field technology Summary Close_coupled_field_technology Close coupled field technology (CCFT) is an air sterilization process that kills a high percentage of microbes, bacteria (including bacterial endospores), viruses, germs, mold spores, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), fungal air contaminants, and chemical agents and their associated odors.CCFT uses small high-voltage coils within a Faraday cage to generate a non-thermal plasma field to destabilize inorganic and organic compounds at the molecular level. As air is passed through this electrostatic field it is converted to ozone which oxidizes airborne contaminants. Enclosing the ozone retains its ability to remove contaminants quickly while making it safe for populated environments.
Genetic mutation theory of aging DNA damage and mutation Genetic_mutation_theory_of_aging > DNA damage and mutation To understand the DNA damage theory of aging it is important to distinguish between DNA damage and mutation, the two major types of errors that occur in DNA. Damage and mutation are fundamentally different. DNA damage is any physical abnormality in the DNA, such as single and double strand breaks, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine residues and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon adducts. DNA damage can be recognized by enzymes, and thus can be correctly repaired using the complementary undamaged strand in DNA as a template or an undamaged sequence in a homologous chromosome if it is available for copying.
Unit ring Hilbert Ring_object > History > Hilbert The term "Zahlring" (number ring) was coined by David Hilbert in 1892 and published in 1897. In 19th century German, the word "Ring" could mean "association", which is still used today in English in a limited sense (for example, spy ring), so if that were the etymology then it would be similar to the way "group" entered mathematics by being a non-technical word for "collection of related things". According to Harvey Cohn, Hilbert used the term for a ring that had the property of "circling directly back" to an element of itself (in the sense of an equivalence). Specifically, in a ring of algebraic integers, all high powers of an algebraic integer can be written as an integral combination of a fixed set of lower powers, and thus the powers "cycle back". For instance, if a 3 − 4 a + 1 = 0 {\displaystyle a^{3}-4a+1=0} then: a 3 = 4 a − 1 , a 4 = 4 a 2 − a , a 5 = − a 2 + 16 a − 4 , a 6 = 16 a 2 − 8 a + 1 , a 7 = − 8 a 2 + 65 a − 16 , ⋮ ⋮ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}a^{3}&=4a-1,\\a^{4}&=4a^{2}-a,\\a^{5}&=-a^{2}+16a-4,\\a^{6}&=16a^{2}-8a+1,\\a^{7}&=-8a^{2}+65a-16,\\\vdots \ &\qquad \vdots \end{aligned}}} and so on; in general, an is going to be an integral linear combination of 1, a, and a2.
General surgery Colorectal surgery General_surgery > Scope > Colorectal surgery General surgeons treat a wide variety of major and minor colon and rectal diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases (such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease), diverticulitis, colon and rectal cancer, gastrointestinal bleeding and hemorrhoids.
Supervised Machine Learning How supervised learning algorithms work Supervised_learning > How supervised learning algorithms work There are two basic approaches to choosing f {\displaystyle f} or g {\displaystyle g}: empirical risk minimization and structural risk minimization. Empirical risk minimization seeks the function that best fits the training data. Structural risk minimization includes a penalty function that controls the bias/variance tradeoff.
Quadratic reciprocity law Connection with cyclotomic fields Quadratic_Reciprocity > Connection with cyclotomic fields This proof served as a template for class field theory, which can be viewed as a vast generalization of quadratic reciprocity. Robert Langlands formulated the Langlands program, which gives a conjectural vast generalization of class field theory. He wrote: I confess that, as a student unaware of the history of the subject and unaware of the connection with cyclotomy, I did not find the law or its so-called elementary proofs appealing. I suppose, although I would not have (and could not have) expressed myself in this way that I saw it as little more than a mathematical curiosity, fit more for amateurs than for the attention of the serious mathematician that I then hoped to become. It was only in Hermann Weyl's book on the algebraic theory of numbers that I appreciated it as anything more.
Flexible wing Advanced concepts Flexible_wing > Advanced concepts Current challenges are centred around deforming the material to manipulate aerodynamic loads without exceeding the materials elastic limit.The key benefits of flexible aerofoils are the reductions in aerodynamic drag. Current flight control mechanisms operate using hinges, which significantly disrupt the airflow and even generate vortices between the control surface and wing boundary.
Constructive set theory Separation Constructive_set_theory > Subtheories of ZF > BCST > Separation In terms of this terminology, the collection of proof values can a priori be understood to be rich. Unsurprisingly, decidable propositions have one of a binary set of truth values. The axiom schema of Predicative Separation is also called Bounded Separation, as in Separation for set-bounded quantifiers only.
AdS/CFT correspondence Nuclear physics AdS/CFT_duality > Applications to quantum field theory > Nuclear physics In addition, the authors conjectured that this universal constant provides a lower bound for η / s {\displaystyle \eta /s} in a large class of systems. In 2008, the predicted value of this ratio for the quark–gluon plasma was confirmed at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory.Another important property of the quark–gluon plasma is that very high energy quarks moving through the plasma are stopped or "quenched" after traveling only a few femtometers. This phenomenon is characterized by a number q ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {q}}} called the jet quenching parameter, which relates the energy loss of such a quark to the squared distance traveled through the plasma. Calculations based on the AdS/CFT correspondence have allowed theorists to estimate q ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {q}}} , and the results agree roughly with the measured value of this parameter, suggesting that the AdS/CFT correspondence will be useful for developing a deeper understanding of this phenomenon.
Thyroid hormones Mechanism of action Thyroid_hormone_synthesis > Mechanism of action The thyroid hormones function via a well-studied set of nuclear receptors, termed the thyroid hormone receptors. These receptors, together with corepressor molecules, bind DNA regions called thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) near genes. This receptor-corepressor-DNA complex can block gene transcription. Triiodothyronine (T3), which is the active form of thyroxine (T4), goes on to bind to receptors.
Occupational lung disease Coal dust Occupational_lung_disease > Occupational environmental exposure > Coal dust Exposure to coal dust is the cause of coalworker's pneumoconiosis, also called "black lung disease", is an interstitial lung disease caused by long-term exposure (over 10 years) to coal dust. Symptoms include shortness of breath and lowered pulmonary function. It can be fatal when advanced. Between 1970 and 1974, prevalence of CWP among US coal miners who had worked over 25 years was 32%; the same group saw a prevalence of 9% in 2005–2006. It can also exacerbate or cause COPD.
Collimator Summary Collimating_lens A collimator is a device which narrows a beam of particles or waves. To narrow can mean either to cause the directions of motion to become more aligned in a specific direction (i.e., make collimated light or parallel rays), or to cause the spatial cross section of the beam to become smaller (beam limiting device).
History of scientific method Charles Sanders Peirce History_of_scientific_method > Integrating deductive and inductive method > Charles Sanders Peirce In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the further development of scientific method generally. Peirce's work quickly accelerated the progress on several fronts. Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational alternatives, focusing upon both Deduction and Induction. He thus placed induction and deduction in a complementary rather than competitive context (the latter of which had been the primary trend at least since David Hume a century before).
Indeterminacy in concurrent computation Summary Indeterminacy_in_concurrent_computation Indeterminacy in concurrent computation is concerned with the effects of indeterminacy in concurrent computation. Computation is an area in which indeterminacy is becoming increasingly important because of the massive increase in concurrency due to networking and the advent of many-core computer architectures. These computer systems make use of arbiters which gives rise to indeterminacy.
Inverted ligand field theory Experimental Inverted_ligand_field_theory > Probing inverted ligand fields > Experimental X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has been a powerful tool in deducing the oxidation states of transition metals. Energy shifts in XAS are higher due to the higher effective nuclear charge of atoms in higher oxidations, presumably due to the higher binding energy for deeper, more core-like electrons.Despite this being a very powerful technique, competing effects on the rising edge positions can make assignment difficult. It was initially thought that the weak, quadrupole-allowed pre-edge peak assigned as the Cu 1s to 3d transition could be used to distinguish between Cu(II) and Cu(III) with the features appearing at 8979 +/- 0.3 eV and 8981 +/- 0.5 eV, respectively. Ab initio calculations by Tomson, Wieghardt, and co-workers displayed that pre-peaks previously assigned as Cu(III) could be displayed by Cu(II) bearing complexes. Many groups have displayed that metal K-edge XAS transitions involving ligand-localised acceptor orbitals, as well as spectral shifts from change in coordination environment, can make metal K-edge analysis less predictable.The most sussessful use of K and L-edge XAS provide valuable information on the composition of molecular orbitals and display inverted ligand fields has been done in studies that made use of computational techniques in concert with experimental techniques. This was the case of the L22+ complexes of York, Brown, and Tolman, and the Cu(CF3)4- by various groups including Hoffman, Overgaard, and Lancaster.Another experimental tool used to probe ligand field inversion includes Electron paramagnetic resonance (ESR/EPR), which can provide information regarding the metal electronic configuration, the nature of the SOMO, and high resolution information on the ligands.
Syndemic Mathematical modelling Syndemic > Mathematical modelling A mathematical model is a simplified representation using mathematical language to describe natural, mechanical or social system dynamics. Epidemiological modelers unite several types of information and analytic capacity, including: 1) mathematical equations and computational algorithms; 2) computer technology; 3) epidemiological knowledge about infectious disease dynamics, including information about specific pathogens and disease vectors; and 4) research data on social conditions and human behavior. Mathematical modelling in epidemiology is now being applied to syndemics.For example, modelling to quantify the syndemic effects of malaria and HIV in sub-Saharan Africa based on research in Kisumu, Kenya researchers found that 5% of HIV infections (or 8,500 cases of HIV since 1980) in Kisumu are the result of the higher HIV infectiousness of malaria-infected HIV patients. Additionally, their model attributed 10% of adult malaria episodes (or almost one million excess malaria infections since 1980) to the greater susceptibility of HIV infected individuals to malaria.
Transition metal phosphine complex Complexes of other organophosphorus ligands Metal-phosphine_complex > Complexes of other organophosphorus ligands The popularity and usefulness of phosphine complexes has led to the popularization of complexes of many related organophosphorus ligands. Complexes of arsines have also been widely investigated, but are avoided in practical applications because of concerns about toxicity.
Autograph collecting Duplication, forging and authentication Autograph_collecting > Duplication, forging and authentication Autograph collectors enjoy assembling signed historical documents, letters, or objects as a way of capturing a piece of history. However, forgers seek to profit by selling forged items. Sometimes just the signature has been forged, in other instances the entire document has been fabricated.
Insect flight Hovering Insect_flight > Mechanisms > Hovering The wings of most insects are evolved so that, during the upward stroke, the force on the wing is small. Since the downbeat and return stroke force the insect up and down respectively, the insect oscillates and winds up staying in the same position.The distance the insect falls between wingbeats depends on how rapidly its wings are beating: the slower it flaps, the longer the interval in which it falls, and the farther it falls between each wingbeat. One can calculate the wingbeat frequency necessary for the insect to maintain a given stability in its amplitude.
Protein misfolding disease Summary Proteinopathy In medicine, proteinopathy (; -pathy ; proteinopathies pl. ; proteinopathic adj), or proteopathy, protein conformational disorder, or protein misfolding disease, is a class of diseases in which certain proteins become structurally abnormal, and thereby disrupt the function of cells, tissues and organs of the body. Often the proteins fail to fold into their normal configuration; in this misfolded state, the proteins can become toxic in some way (a toxic gain-of-function) or they can lose their normal function. The proteinopathies include such diseases as Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and other prion diseases, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyloidosis, multiple system atrophy, and a wide range of other disorders.
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations Summary Reynolds-averaged_Navier–Stokes_equations The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS equations) are time-averaged equations of motion for fluid flow. The idea behind the equations is Reynolds decomposition, whereby an instantaneous quantity is decomposed into its time-averaged and fluctuating quantities, an idea first proposed by Osborne Reynolds. The RANS equations are primarily used to describe turbulent flows. These equations can be used with approximations based on knowledge of the properties of flow turbulence to give approximate time-averaged solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations.
Slowly varying function Examples Slowly_varying_function > Examples If L is a measurable function and has a limit lim x → ∞ L ( x ) = b ∈ ( 0 , ∞ ) , {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to \infty }L(x)=b\in (0,\infty ),} then L is a slowly varying function.For any β ∈ R, the function L(x) = log β x is slowly varying. The function L(x) = x is not slowly varying, nor is L(x) = x β for any real β ≠ 0. However, these functions are regularly varying.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitor Impedance Aluminium_electrolytic_capacitor > Electrical parameters > Impedance In other words, impedance is a frequency-dependent AC resistance and possesses both magnitude and phase at a particular frequency. In capacitor data sheets, only the impedance magnitude \|Z\| is specified, and simply written as "Z". In this sense the impedance is a measure of the capacitor's ability to pass alternating currents.
Categorical distribution Formulating distributions Categorical_distribution > Formulating distributions A categorical distribution is a discrete probability distribution whose sample space is the set of k individually identified items. It is the generalization of the Bernoulli distribution for a categorical random variable. In one formulation of the distribution, the sample space is taken to be a finite sequence of integers. The exact integers used as labels are unimportant; they might be {0, 1, ..., k − 1} or {1, 2, ..., k} or any other arbitrary set of values.
Bacterial morphological plasticity Bimodal effect Bacterial_morphological_plasticity > Environmental cues > Bimodal effect The EPS-producing planktonic bacteria typically develop subpopulations of single cells and microcolonies that are embedded in an EPS matrix. The larger microcolonies are also protected from flagellate predation because of their size. The shift to the colonial type may be a passive consequence of selective feeding on single cells.
Mottle Summary Mottle Mottle is a pattern of irregular marks, spots, streaks, blotches or patches of different shades or colours. It is commonly used to describe the surface of plants or the skin of animals. In plants, mottling usually consists of yellowish spots on plants, and is usually a sign of disease or malnutrition. Many plant viruses cause mottling, some examples being: Tobacco vein mottling virus Bean pod mottle virusMottling is sometimes used to describe uneven, discolored patches on the skin of humans as a result of cutaneous ischemia (lowered blood flow to the surfaces of the skin) or Herpes zoster infections.
Cancer of unknown primary Diagnosis Cancer_of_unknown_primary > Diagnosis In patients in whom the primary cancer is eventually found, the lung and pancreas are the most common primary cancer sites. CUP also may be traced to the breast, prostate, colon, or rectum as the primary site.Sometimes, however, even when doctors use very sophisticated methods to try to identify the primary site, the part of the body the cancer cells came from cannot be determined. About 2 to 4 percent of all cancer patients have a cancer whose primary site is never found.
Chlorine dioxide Structure and bonding Chlorine_dioxide > Structure and bonding The three-electron bond represents a bond that is weaker than the double bond. In molecular orbital theory this idea is commonplace if the third electron is placed in an anti-bonding orbital. Later work has confirmed that the highest occupied molecular orbital is indeed an incompletely-filled antibonding orbital. The crystal structure of ClO2 is orthorhombic, and displays the symmetry of the Pbca space group.
Sine–Gordon equation Regimes of renormalizability Sine-Gordon_model > Quantum sine-Gordon model > Regimes of renormalizability For different values of the parameter β 2 {\displaystyle \beta ^{2}} , the renormalizability properties of the sine-Gordon theory change. The identification of these regimes is attributed to Jürg Fröhlich. The finite regime is β 2 < 4 π {\displaystyle \beta ^{2}<4\pi } , where no counterterms are needed to render the theory well-posed.
Stopping power (particle radiation) Electronic, nuclear and radiative stopping Stopping_power_(particle_radiation) > Electronic, nuclear and radiative stopping Electronic stopping refers to the slowing down of a projectile ion due to the inelastic collisions between bound electrons in the medium and the ion moving through it. The term inelastic is used to signify that energy is lost during the process (the collisions may result both in excitations of bound electrons of the medium, and in excitations of the electron cloud of the ion as well). Linear electronic stopping power is identical to unrestricted linear energy transfer. Instead of energy transfer, some models consider the electronic stopping power as momentum transfer between electron gas and energetic ion.
Wacker oxidation Historical mechanistic studies Wacker_oxidation > Reaction mechanism > Historical mechanistic studies Finally, an ab initio study by Comas-Vives, et al. involving no copper co-catalyst found anti-addition was the preferred pathway. This pathway was later confirmed by copper-free experiments by Anderson and Sigman. A different kinetic rate law with no proton dependence was found under copper-free conditions, indicating the possibility that even small amounts of copper co-catalysts may have non-innocent roles on this chemistry.
Swept wings Sweep theory Wing_sweep > Aerodynamic design > Sweep theory If we were to begin to slide the wing sideways (spanwise), the sideways motion of the wing relative to the air would be added to the previously perpendicular airflow, resulting in an airflow over the wing at an angle to the leading edge. This angle results in airflow traveling a greater distance from leading edge to trailing edge, and thus the air pressure is distributed over a greater distance (and consequently lessened at any particular point on the surface). This scenario is identical to the airflow experienced by a swept wing as it travels through the air.
Light-front computational methods Renormalization group Light-front_computational_methods > Renormalization group Suppose that T {\displaystyle T} has a fixed point. If one starts the procedure at this point, an infinitely long sequence of reductions of the cutoff by factors of two changes nothing in the structure of the theory, except the scale of its cutoff. This means that the initial cutoff can be arbitrarily large.
Heisenberg uncertainty relation Systematic and statistical errors Uncertainty_Principle > Additional uncertainty relations > Systematic and statistical errors It was not proposed by Heisenberg, but formulated in a mathematically consistent way only in recent years. Also, it must be stressed that the Heisenberg formulation is not taking into account the intrinsic statistical errors σ A {\displaystyle \sigma _{A}} and σ B {\displaystyle \sigma _{B}} . There is increasing experimental evidence that the total quantum uncertainty cannot be described by the Heisenberg term alone, but requires the presence of all the three terms of the Ozawa inequality.
Bäcklund transform Summary Bäcklund_transform In mathematics, Bäcklund transforms or Bäcklund transformations (named after the Swedish mathematician Albert Victor Bäcklund) relate partial differential equations and their solutions. They are an important tool in soliton theory and integrable systems. A Bäcklund transform is typically a system of first order partial differential equations relating two functions, and often depending on an additional parameter. It implies that the two functions separately satisfy partial differential equations, and each of the two functions is then said to be a Bäcklund transformation of the other.
HTTP Header Injection Summary HTTP_Header_Injection HTTP header injection is a general class of web application security vulnerability which occurs when Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) headers are dynamically generated based on user input. Header injection in HTTP responses can allow for HTTP response splitting, session fixation via the Set-Cookie header, cross-site scripting (XSS), and malicious redirect attacks via the location header. HTTP header injection is a relatively new area for web-based attacks, and has primarily been pioneered by Amit Klein in his work on request/response smuggling/splitting.

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